207.6R-17 Report On The Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures

Report on the Erosion
of Concrete in Hydraulic
Structures
Reported by ACI Committee 207
'
u
<( �
� acI • �
American Concrete Institute
Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

Always advancing
Not for Resale, 2018/1/19 02:58:34

without license from IHS
First Printing
Always advancing
September 2017
ISBN: 978-1-945487-79-8
Report on the Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures
Copyright by the American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. All rights reserved. This material
may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other
distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ACI.
The technical committees responsible for ACI committee reports and standards strive to avoid
ambiguities, omissions, and errors in these documents. In spite of these efforts, the users of ACI
documents occasionally find information or requirements that may be subject to more than one
interpretation or may be incomplete or incorrect. Users who have suggestions for the improvement of
ACI documents are requested to contact ACI via the errata website at http://concrete.org/Publications/
DocumentErrata.aspx. Proper use of this document includes periodically checking for errata for the most
up-to-date revisions.
ACI committee documents are intended for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate the
significance and limitations of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for
the application of the material it contains. Individuals who use this publication in any way assume all
risk and accept total responsibility for the application and use of this information.
All information in this publication is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind, either express or
implied, including but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular
purpose or non-infringement.
ACI and its members disclaim liability for damages of any kind, including any special, indirect, incidental,
or consequential damages, including without limitation, lost revenues or lost profits, which may result
from the use of this publication.
It is the responsibility of the user of this document to establish health and safety practices appropriate
to the specific circumstances involved with its use. ACI does not make any representations with regard
to health and safety issues and the use of this document. The user must determine the applicability of
all regulatory limitations before applying the document and must comply with all applicable laws and
regulations, including but not limited to, United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) health and safety standards.
Participation by governmental representatives in the work of the American Concrete Institute and in
the development of Institute standards does not constitute governmental endorsement of ACI or the
standards that it develops.
Order information: ACI documents are available in print, by download, on CD-ROM, through electronic
subscription, or reprint and may be obtained by contacting ACI.
Most ACI standards and committee reports are gathered together in the annually revised ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice (MCP).

38800 Country Club Drive
Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Phone: +1.248.848.3700
Fax: +1.248.848.3701
www.concrete.org
American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI Not for Resale, 2018/1/19 02:58:34
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
ACI 207.6R-17
Report on the Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic

Structures
Reported by ACI Committee 207
John W. Gajda, Chair Christopher C. Ferraro, Secretary
Fares Y. Abdo Darrell Elliott Rodney E. Holderbaum Ernest K. Schrader

Oscar R. Antommattei Barry D. Fehl Ronald L. Kozikowski Kuntay K. Talay
Terrence E. Arnold Mario Garza Tibor J. Pataky Nathaniel F. Tarbox
Katie J. Bartojay' Melissa 0. Harrison Jonathan L. Poole Stephen B. Tatro
Teck L. Chua Michael G. Hernandez Henry B. Prenger Michael A. Whisonant
Timothy P. Dolen James K. Hicks Ernest A. Rogalla Fouad H. Yazbeck
Consulting Members
Jeffrey C. Allen Robert W. Cannon Allen J. Hulshizer David E. Kiefer

Randall P. Bass Eric J. Ditchey Richard A. Kaden
Anthony A. Bombich Brian A. Forbes William F. Kepler
'Primary author of this report.
!Deceased.
Committee 207 would like to thank the following individuals for their contribution to this report: J. Ballentine, J. F. Best, G .
Mass, W. McEwen, M. Petrovsky, and M. Stegallo.
This report outlines the causes, control, maintenance, and repair Keywords: abrasion; aeration; cavitation; chemical attack; concrete dams;
of erosion in hydraulic structures. Such erosion occurs from three corrosion; erosion; hydraulic structures; spillways.
major causes: cavitation, abrasion, and chemical attack. Design
parameters, materials selection and quality, environmental CO NTE NTS
factors, and other issues affecting the performance of concrete are
discussed. CHAPTER 1-I NTRO DUCTIO N AND SCOPE, p. 2
Evidence exists to suggest that, given the operating characteris
1 . 1 -Introduction, p. 2
tics and conditions to which a hydraulic structure will be subjected,
1 .2-Scope, p. 2
the concrete can be designed to mitigate future erosion. However,
when operational factors change or are not clearly known and
CHAPTER 2-NOTAT ION, p. 2
erosion of concrete surfaces occurs, repairs should follow. This
2 . 1 -Notation, p. 2
report addresses the subject of concrete erosion, inspection tech
niques, and repair strategies, providing references to a more
detailed treatment of the subject. CHAPTER 3-EROSIO N BY CAVITATION, p. 3
3 . 1 -Mechanism of cavitation, p. 3
3 .2-Cavitation index, p. 3
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are 3 .3-Cavitation damage, p. 4
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use
CHAPTER 4-EROSIO N BY ABRASIO N, p. 6
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who 4 . 1 -General, p. 6
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it 4.2-Stilling basin damage, p. 6
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom. ACI 207.6R-17 supersedes ACI 21OR-93(08) and was adopted and published
September 2017.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract
Copyright© 2017, American Concrete Institute.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by
the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents,
any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic
they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual
by the Architect/Engineer. reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless
permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.

Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI Not ftr Resale, 2018/1/19 02:58:34
2 REPORT ON THE EROSION OF CONCRETE IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTU RES (ACI 207.6R-17)
4.3-Power plant tailrace damage, p. 7 concrete deteriorates for a variety of reasons, this report is
4.4-Navigation lock damage, p. 8 concerned with specific factors that influence these three
4.5-Tunnel lining damage, p. 8 areas of erosion: 1) cavitation-erosion resulting from the
4.6-Hydraulic jacking, p. 8 collapse of vapor bubbles formed by pressure changes
within a high-velocity water flow; 2) abrasion-erosion of
CHAPTER 5-EROSION BY CHEMICAL ATTACK, concrete in hydraulic structures caused by water-transported
p. 9 silt, sand, gravel, ice, debris, or hydraulic jacking; and 3)
5.!-Sources of external chemical attack, p. 9 chemical action-disintegration of the concrete in hydraulic
5.2-Erosion by mineral-free water, p. 9 structures by chemical attack.
5.3-Erosion by miscellaneous causes, p. 9 Concrete in properly designed, constructed, used, and
maintained hydraulic structures can provide 30 to 50 years
CHAPTER 6-CONTROL O F CAVITATION of erosion-free service (Liu and Wang 2000). However,
EROSION, p. 1 0 for reasons including inadequate design or construction, or
6.1-Hydraulic design principles, p . 10 operational and environmental changes, erosion does occur
Example 1, p. 10 in hydraulic structures.
6.2-Cavitation indexes for damage and construction
tolerances, p. 11 1.2-Scope
Example 2, p. 11 Concrete erosion in hydraulic structures caused by cavi
6.3....:U :... sing aeration to control damage, p. 12 tation, abrasion, and chemical attack are included in this
6.4....::...Materials, p. 13 report. Options available to the designer and user to control
6.5-l.Materials testing, p. 14 concrete erosion in hydraulic structures are discussed, along
6.6 Construction practices, p. 14 with information on the inspection and evaluation of erosion
T
problems. This report includes repair techniques, as well as
CHAPTER 7-CONTROL O F ABR ASION EROSION, a brief guide to methods and materials for repair. Other types
p. 15 of concrete deterioration are outside the scope of this report.
7.!-Hydraulic considerations, p. 15
7.2-Materials evaluation, p. 16 CHAPTER 2- NOTATION
7.3-Materials, p. 16
2.1-Notation
CHAPTER 8-CONTROL O F EROSION BY F force
CHEMICAL ATTACK, p. 1 7 l length of air space between the jet and the spillway
8.1-Control of erosion by mineral-free water, p. 17 floor, l (l = length)
8.2-Control of erosion from acid attack due to bacterial p water pressure at a given point, Fll2
action, p. 18 p0 absolute pressure at a given Point 0, F!l2
8.3-Control of erosion by miscellaneous chemical Pc absolute pressure at a given Point c, F!l2
causes, p. 18 Pv vapor pressure of water, Fll2
qa volume rate of air entrainment per unit width of jet,
CHAPTER 9-PERIO DIC INSPECTIONS AND l31T
CORRECTIVE ACTION, p. 19 qd amount of air a turbulent jet will entrain along its
9.1-General, p. 19 lower surface, l3IT
9.2-Inspection program, p. 19 T time
9.3-Inspection procedures, p. 19 v average jet velocity at midpoint of trajectory, liT
9.4-Reporting and evaluation, p. 19 v0 average velocity at Section 0, liT
Y0 offset into the flow, l
CHAPTER 10-REPA IR METHO DS AN D Zo elevation at Centerline Of pipe, l
MATERIALS, p. 2 0 Zc elevation of the vapor bubble, l
10.1-Design considerations, p. 20 a width of jet coefficient based on turbulent intensity
10.2-Methods and materials, p. 20 of the jet
!J.p change in pressure between two points, F!l2
CHAPTER 11-RE FERENCES, p. 22 y specific weight of water, F!l3 (62.4 lb/ft3 [9.81 kN/
Authored documents, p. 23 m3], temperature-dependent
p mass density of water, FT2fe4 (1.94 lb·s2fft4 [1000
CHAPTER 1-INTRO DUCTION AN D SCOPE kg/m3], temperature-dependent)
(J cavitation index
1.1- lntroduction value of cavitation index at which cavitation
Erosion is the progressive disintegration of a solid by: initiates
1) cavitation; 2) abrasion; or 3) chemical action. Although

American Concrete Institute- Copyright� @>fMate'l'lafww�oncrete.org
REPORT ON THE EROSION OF CONCRETE IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTU RES (ACI 207.6R-17) 3
CHAPTER 3-EROSION BY CAVITATION

/Vapor CaVItieS
3.1- Mechanism of cavitation
4�/ . .
�
Cavitation is the formation of bubbles or cav1t1es in a
.. . ·.
liquid. In hydraulic structures, the liquid is water, and the

cavities are filled with water vapor and air. The cavities form A. OFFSET INTO FLOW B. OFFSET AWAY FROM FLOW
where the local pressure drops to a value that will cause

the water to vaporize at the prevailing fluid temperature.
Vapor cavities
Figure 3.1a shows examples of concrete surface irregulari
. ·.'• ',
ties that can trigger formation of these cavities. The pressure

drop caused by these irregularities is generally abrupt and
is caused by local high velocities and curved streamlines.
Cavities often begin to form near curves or offsets in a flow C. ABRUPT CURVATURE D. ABRUPT S L OPE
boundary or at the centers of vortexes. AWAY FROM FLOW AWAY FROM FLOW
When the geometry of flow boundaries causes streamlines

to curve or converge, the pressure may drop in the direc Vapor cavities
tion toward the center of curvature or in the direction along
the converging streamlines. For example, Fig. 3.1b shows a
tunnel contraction in which a cloud of cavities could start to
form at Point (c) and then collapse at Point (d). The velocity
�
E. VOID OR TR A NSVERSE F. ROUGHEN ED SURFACE
near Point (c) is much higher than the average velocity in GROOVE
the tunnel upstream, and the streamlines near Point (c) are
curved. Thus, for proper values of flow rate and tunnel pres t;es
sure at Point (0), the local pressure near Point (c) drops to the
vapor pressure of water and cavities will occur. Cavitation
damage is produced when the vapor cavities collapse. The
collapses that occur near Point (d) produce high instanta G. PROT RUDING JOINT
neous pressures that impact on the boundary surfaces and Fig. 3.1a-Cavitation situations at surface irregularities
cause pitting, noise, and vibration. Pitting by cavitation is (Falvey 1990).
readily distinguished from the worn appearance caused by
abrasion because cavitation pits cut around the harder coarse (c) (d)
aggregate particles and have irregular and rough edges.
3.2-Cavitation index � (O) --,---- --- (1}-t---

The cavitation index is a dimensionless measure used
to characterize the susceptibility of a system to cavitate.
Figure 3.2 illustrates the design principle of the cavitation
index in a tunnel contraction. In such a system, the critical
location (or point) for cavitation is at Point (c) (Fig. 3.1 b). Fig. 3.1b-Tunnel contraction.
The static fluid pressure, where the velocity is essentially
the same as the approach velocity, at Point (1) will be
(j
=
P o - [Pc + y( zc -Zo)J
(3.2c)
P1 =Pc + y(zc- zo) (3.2a) 1!2pvo 2
where Pc is the absolute static pressure at Point (c); y is the where p is the density of the fluid (mass per unit volume),
specific weight of the fluid (weight per unit volume); Zc is and v0 is the fluid velocity at Point (0).
the elevation at Point (c); and z0 is the elevation at Point (0). Readers familiar with the field of fluid mechanics may
The pressure drop in the fluid as it moves along a stream recognize the cavitation index as a special form of the Euler
line from the reference Point (0) to Point (1) will be number or pressure coefficient, a matter discussed in Rouse
(1978).
!J.p =Po- [pc + y(zc- zo)] (3.2b) If cavitation is just beginning and there is a bubble of vapor
at Point (c), the pressure in the fluid adjacent to the bubble is
where p0 is the static pressure at Point (0). approximately the pressure within the bubble, which is the
The cavitation index normalizes this pressure drop to vapor pressure Pv of the fluid at the fluid's temperature.
the dynamic pressure. Dynamic pressure is the difference Therefore, the pressure drop along the flow from Point (0)
between the total pressure (pressure at the point of stagna to (1) required to produce cavitation at the crown is
tion) and the static pressure, 1/2pv02 (Eq. (3.2b )).
!J.p = Pv- [pc + y(zc- zo)]
Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI American Concrete Institute- Copytri!!lflt�.@1Ma'Wl'iaf34 www.concrete.org
----
-
..._
...... ....
0 --- .....
IIAJOII OAIIAG[
I
... _
...... . ...
1'--r-
" .. �... r-.... Ttllowtoll
+�·]
� -.I V•43 01h"+ v•41ov'o
0
0 4 Ill- OAIIAG£
� ��)±g
......
�ls ) .... _ 1-
, >
Cl.Q... r•·· ·;ur.l ��
v• '
.... 1..--"' Hoowtr
b• 0.16 _ __
0 / �- v•35 •I• f.- �· ·"
0.20
� ,
lCtNII
V:34 •I>
-
7T,'-8;.�.ld.-;.; ·�::�g I
V=U ,.,,
��·
0
NO DAIIAGE
0.50
0.40
li
..
o.eo
1.71 o,
2 3 4 ::. 678910
�
2 3 4 5 • 189100 2
�1
�
3 4 5 I 7 II 9 1000 2 3 4
�l
5. 711910000
HOURS OF OPERATION
Fig. 3.2-Cavitation erosion experience in spillways (Falvey 1990). (Note: 1 m/s = 3.28ft/s.)
and the cavitation index at the condition of incipient cavita 3.3-Cavitation damage
tion is Cavitation bubbles will grow and travel with the flowing
water to an area where the pressure field will cause bubbles
cr =Po-Pv + y(zc -zo) to collapse. Cavitation damage can begin at that point. When
(3.2d) a cavitation bubble collapses or implodes close to or against
1/2pv�
c
a solid surface, a high pressure is generated, which acts

It can be deduced from fluid mechanics considerations on an infinitesimal area of the surface for a short time. A
(Knapp et a!. 1970), and confirmed experimentally, that in a succession of these high-energy impacts will damage almost
given system, cavitation will begin at a specific ac, no matter any solid material. Tests on soft metal show initial cavita
which combination of pressure and velocity yields that ac. tion damage in the form of tiny craters. Advanced stages of
If the system operates at a a above ac, the system does not damage show a rough honeycomb texture with some holes
cavitate. If a is below ac, the lower the value of a, the more that penetrate the thickness of the metal. This type of pitting
severe the cavitation action in a given system. Therefore, the often occurs in pump impellers and marine propellers.
designer should ensure that the operating a is safely above ac The progression of cavitation erosion in concrete is not as
for the system's critical location (refer to Chapter 6). well documented as it is in metals. Work by Falvey (1990),
Actual values of ac for different systems differ mark however, indicates that the rate at which damage progresses
edly, depending on the shape of flow passages, the shape of from minor to major is dependent on the cavitation index.
objects fixed in the flow, and the location where reference The time to major cavitation damage can be approximated
pressure and velocity are measured. by summing the rate of progression over time for all opera
For a smooth surface with slight changes of slope in the tions. The time of operation to major cavitation damage
direction of flow, the value of ac can be below 0.2. For depends on the cavitation index and can vary from hours
systems that produce strong vortexes, ac could exceed 10. to years. It may be possible to adjust flows to avoid condi
Values of ac for various geometries are given in Chapter 6. tions leading to rapid cavitation damage. For both concrete
Falvey (1982) provides additional information on predicting and metals, however, the erosion progresses rapidly after
cavitation in spillways. an initial period of cavitation exposure slightly roughens
A system having a given geometry will have a certain the surface with tiny craters or pits. Figure 3.3b shows a
ac; despite differences in scale, ac is a useful concept in tendency for the erosion to follow the mortar matrix and
model studies. Tullis (1981) describes modeling of cavita undermine the aggregate.
tion in closed circuit flow. Cavitation considerations (such Roughness does not necessarily have to be caused by cavi
as ,surface tension) in scaling from model to prototype are tation. The presence of increased roughness by whatever
discussed in Knapp et a!. (1970) and Arndt (1981). cause is enough to accelerate cavitation damage. At Glen
Canyon Dam, Arizona, the cavitation damage initiated at
�
American Co te Ins
Provided by I ftQ Jn r license with ACI
American Concrete Institute- Copyright� @>fMate'l'lafWW�oncrete · org
or mg permitted without license from IHS
·
.
No reproductiOn��
Fig. 3.3b-Concrete test slab featuring cavitation producing

devices.
Fig. 3.3a-Christmas tree configuration of cavitation

damage on a high-head tunnel surface, Glen Canyon Dam,
Arizona (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 2015).
locations where there was a buildup of calcite or other flaws

in the concrete surface. When significant roughness exists,
it may shorten the time to major damage as if the operation
time to minor damage had already passed. Severe cavita Fig. 3.3c-Cavitation erosion pattern after 47 hours of
tion damage will typically form a Christmas tree configura testing at a 240 ft (7 3 m) velocity head.
tion on spillway chute surfaces downstream from the point
of origin, as shown in the damage pattern of Glen Canyon Figure 3.3b shows the progress of erosion of concrete
Dam left spillway tunnel in 1983 (Fig. 3.3a) (U.S. Bureau of downstream from two protruding bolts used to generate
Reclamation 20 15). cavitation in a test slab. The tests were made at a test facility
Once erosion has begun, its rate may be expected to located at Detroit Dam in Oregon (Houghton et a!. 1978).
increase because protruding pieces of aggregate and other Figure 3.3c shows cavitation damage on test panels after 47
damage caused by the initial cavitation become new gener hours of exposure to high-velocity flows in excess of 100 ft/s
ators of vapor cavities. In fact, a cavitation cloud often is (30 m/s). A large amount of cavitation erosion caused by a
caused by the change in direction of the boundary at the small offset at the upstream edge of the test slab is evident.
downstream rim of an eroded depression. Collapse of this Figure 3.3d shows severe cavitation damage that occurred
cloud farther downstream starts a new depression, as indi to the flip bucket and training walls of an outlet structure at
cated in Fig. 3.3a. Lucky Peak Dam, Idaho. In this case, water velocities of 120
Microcracks in the interfacial transition zone (ITZ), ft/s (37 m/s) passed through a gate structure into an open
the region between the mortar and coarse aggregate, are outlet manifold (Jansen 1988). Figure 3.3e shows cavita
believed to contribute to cavitation damage. Compression tion damage to the side of a baffle block and the floor in
waves in the water that fills such interstices can produce the stilling basin at Yellowtail Afterbay Dam, Montana (U.S.
tensile stresses that cause microcracks to propagate. Subse Bureau of Reclamation 1981).
quent compression waves can then loosen pieces of the Once cavitation damage has substantially altered the
material. The simultaneous collapse of all cavities in a large flow regime, other forces then begin to act on the surface,
cloud, or the supposedly slower collapse of a large vortex, is causing fatigue due to vibrations of the element. High water
capable of exerting more than 100 atmospheres of pressure. velocities striking the irregular surface can lead to mechan
Loud noise and structural vibration attest to the violence of ical failure due to vibrating reinforcing steel. Significant
collapsing cavitation bubbles. The elastic rebounds from amounts of material could be removed by these added forces,
continuous collapsing over time could initiate and propagate thereby accelerating failure of the structure. This sequence
cracks, causing chunks of material to break loose. of ca�itati?n da111age f�llowed by high-impact damage from
American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617 �
Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from tHS
American Concrete Institute- Copytri!!lflt�.@1Ma'Wl'ial34 www.concrete.org � OCi J
Fig. 4.1a-Abrasion damage to concrete baffle blocks and

l
f oor area in Yellowtail Diversion Dam sluiceway, Montana
Fig. 3.3d-Cavitation erosion of discharge outlet training (U.S.Bureau of Reclamation 1981).
wall and flip bucket at Lucky Peak Dam, Idaho.
Fig. 3.3e-Cavitation erosion of baffle block and floor in

stilling basin (U.S.Bureau of Reclamation 1981).
the moving water was evident in the 1983 spillway tunnel

failure at Glen Canyon Dam, Arizona (Burgi et al. 1984).
CHAPTER 4-EROSION BY ABRASION
4.1-General
Abrasion erosion damage results from the abrasive
effects of waterborne silt, sand, gravel, rocks, ice, and other
debris impinging on a concrete surface during operation
of a hydraulic structure. These particles move around in a
cascading motion, then impact the concrete surface, similar to
the ball-milling action seen in mechanical grinders. Abrasion
erosion is readily recognized by the smooth, worn-appearing Fig.4.1b-Close-up of the abrasion damage to invert of the
concrete surface, which is distinguished from the small holes Hoover Dam, Nevada Spillway (Falvey 1990).
and pits formed by cavitation erosion, as can be compared
from a few inches (millimeters) to several feet (meters)
in Fig. 3.3e, 4.1a, and 4.1b. Spillway aprons, stilling basins,
could result, depending on flow conditions. An erosion and
sluiceways, drainage conduits or culverts, and tunnel linings
sedimentation manual by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
are particularly susceptible to abrasion erosion.
(2006) is a good reference for evaluating bed movement and
The rate of erosion is dependent on many factors, including
sediment transport in hydraulic structures.
size, shape, quantity, and hardness of particles being trans
ported; water velocity; and concrete quality. While high
4.2-Stilling basin damage
quality concrete can resist high water velocities for many
A typical stilling basin design includes a downstream sill
years with little or no damage, concrete cannot withstand the
from 3 to 20 ft (1 to 6 m) high intended to create a perma
abrasive action of debris grinding or repeatedly impacting on
nent pool to aid in energy dissipation of high-velocity flows.
its surface. In such cases, abrasion erosion ranging in depth
American Co ete Ins Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617
Provided by I ftQJn r license with ACI American Concrete Institute- Copyright� @>fMate'l'lafWW�oncrete.org
No reproduction��or mg permitted without license from IHS
Fig. 4.2b-Stilling basing abrasion damage from recircu

lating flows (Hanna 20 10).
Fig.4.2a-Typical debris resulting from abrasion erosion of

concrete.
Unfortunately, in many cases, these pools also trap rocks

and debris (Fig. 4.2a) (Hanna 2010). Material that becomes
trapped in the stilling basin is typically sand, gravel, cobbles,
or boulders. Figure 4.2b shows recirculating flow patterns
produced over the basin end sill create a turbulent flow
that continually moves the materials against the concrete
surfaces. This ball mill-type action causes severe damage
due to a repetitive grinding process. Flows during normal
operation of a hydraulic jump energy dissipation basin are
not capable of washing the particles out of the basin. Fig. 4.2c-Erosion of stilling basin floor slab, Dworshak
The stilling basins at Libby and Dworshak Dams-high Dam, Idaho (Schrader and Kaden 197 6b).
head hydroelectric structures-were eroded to maximum
e) Separation of flow and eddy action within the basin
depths of approximately 6 and 10 ft (2 and 3 m), respectively
sufficient to transport riprap from the exit channel into the
(Schrader and Tatro 1987). In the latter case, nearly 2000
basin
yd3 (1530 m3) of concrete and bedrock were eroded from the
f) Recirculating flow in hydraulic jump stilling basins
stilling basin (Fig. 4.2c). This was also a problem at Grand
(ball milling)
Coulee Dam, Washington, that resulted in a massive cleanup
g) Failure to clean basins after completion of construction
of the river channel to remove loose material. Impact forces
work
associated with turbulent flows carrying large rocks and
h) Topography of the outflow channel
boulders at high velocity contribute to the surface damage of
i) Rockfall from canyon walls above (McDonald 1980).
concrete (Price 1947).
Unlike cavitation damage, abrasion damage in stilling
There are many cases where the concrete in outlet works
basins is generally slow to develop. Damage generally
stilling basins of low-head structures also exhibited abra
requires several flood events or long sustained operations
sion erosion. Chute blocks and baffles within the basin are
with materials present such as rocks that can cause damage.
particularly susceptible to abrasion erosion by direct impact
Regular inspection and cleaning can help minimize damage.
of waterborne materials. There also have been several cases
where baffle blocks connected to the basin training walls
4.3-Power plant tailrace damage
have generated eddy currents behind these baffles, resulting
Abrasion erosion damage can also occur in the tailrace
in significant localized damage to the stilling basin walls and
of a power plant where water is discharged into the river
floor slab of Nolin Dam, as shown in Fig. 4.2d (McDonald
channel. At the Buffalo Bill Powerplant in Wyoming, the
and Liu 1987).
draft tubes exit the plant at a lower elevation than the river
In most cases, abrasion erosion damage in stilling basins
channel. At high flow rates through the powerplant, river
has been the result of one or more of the following:
water is pulled back into the tailrace, trapping bed material
a) Construction diversion flows through constricted
and riprap from the river and upstream dike. Erosion holes
portions of the stilling basin
were found occupied by large boulders that closely match
b) Eddy currents created by diversion flows or power
the size and shape of the hole. Beneath the boulder, smaller
house discharges adjacent to the basin
rounded rocks were supporting much of the weight of the
c) Construction activities in the vicinity of the basin,
boulder (Fig. 4.3), resulting in point loads that greatly accel
particularly those involving cofferdams
erate the erosion process (Bartojay 2011).
d) Nonsymmetrical discharges into the basin

Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI .
Amencan Concrete Institute- Copytri!!lflt�.@'Ma'Wl'ial34 www.concrete.org
Fig.4.2d-Abrasion erosion damage to stilling basin, Nolin Fig. 4.4-Abrasion erosion damage to discharge lateral,
Dam (McDonald and Liu 1987). Upper St.Anthony Falls Lock, Minnesota.
Reinforcing steel
Bulkheod seol with
rounded edges )
0 . . ..
Exposed onchor
..:·()" �
·
·_. ·_
.
·.o .
o .·
. . .. .. .
o
.
l·.o W
...
.. . ·. :o. : -·1 _.11·..
.· o
· .
· . - ·o I. Jl .
'?
• •
0
•
.
. · ·1o· l l
. J . 1J
0 - -
'?
Fig.4.3-Abrasion erosion damage in tailrace, Buffalo Bill

Powerplant, Wj;oming (Bartojay 2011). Fig 4.6a-Initial damage due to uplift generally occurs at
the construction joints (Frizell 2007).
4.4-Navigation lock damage
Hydraulic structures other than spillways are also subject during construction, after passing almost 3 million acre-ft
to abrasion erosion damage. When the Upper St. Anthony of water (3.7 billion cubic meters). The exposed aggregate,
Falls Lock, Minnesota, was unwatered to repair a damaged concrete matrix, and exposed reinforcing steel bars had a
miter gate, an examination of the filling and emptying smooth, worn appearance (Wagner 1967).
laterals and discharge laterals revealed considerable abrasion
erosion (Fig. 4.4) (McDonald and Liu 1987). This erosion of 4.6-Hydraulic jacking
the concrete to maximum depths of 23 in. (580 mm) was Typically, the stability of reinforced-concrete-lined
caused by rocks up to 18 in. (460 mm) in diameter that had chutes in spillways depends on the overall concrete design,
entered the laterals, apparently during discharge of the flood including joint and waterstop details; reinforcement;
of record through the lock chamber. Subsequent filling and anchorage; and a functioning, filtered underdrain system.
emptying of the lock during normal operation agitated those Damage resulting from hydrodynamic uplift on slabs can
rocks, causing them to erode the concrete by grinding. begin at a joint, where offsets or spalling has occurred (Fig.
4.6a). Spillway flows over these offsets can introduce water
4.5- Tunnel lining damage into the foundation, which can lead to structural damage due
Concrete tunnel linings are susceptible to abrasion erosion to uplift or erosion of the foundation material. If the leading
damage, particularly when the water carries large quan edge has a crack or begins to separate, this creates a stagna
titi�s of sand, gravel, rocks, and other debris. There have tion point where jacking pressures can be induced (Frizell
been many instances where the concrete in both temporary 2007). Hepler and Johnson (1988) described typical analysis
and permanent diversion tunnels has experienced abrasion of spillway failures due to uplift and discussed case studies.
erdsion damage. Generally, the tunnel floor or invert is the Frizell (2007) determined that a considerable flow is
mo,st heavily damaged. The diversion tunnels of the Glen possible to induce through the gap into the subsurface
Canyon Dam in Arizona experienced moderate abrasion drainage system. Most drainage designs are not meant to
damage (less than I ft [800 mm]) of the invert of the tunnels provide for this amount of inflow and could be undersized
5.2-Erosion by mineral-free water

Hydrated lime is one of the compounds formed when
cement and water combine. It is readily dissolved by water
and more aggressively dissolved by pure, mineral-free water,
found in some mountain streams and desalinization plants
and other facilities using demineralized (distilled) water.
Dissolved carbon dioxide is contained in some fresh waters
in sufficient quantity to make the water slightly acidic and
add to its aggressiveness. It has been reported that serious
attacks by fresh water on exposed concrete surfaces has
led to deterioration (Popovics and McDonald 1989). In the
United States, there are many instances where the surface
of the concrete has been etched by fresh water flowing over
it, although serious damage from this cause is uncommon
(Holland et a!. 1980). This etching is particularly evident
Fig 4.6b-Structural collapse when enough undermining at hydraulic structures carrying runoff from high mountain
has occurred to cause loss of support (Frizell 2007). streams in the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade Mountains
of the central and western United States. A survey (ICOLD
and pressurized by the incoming flow. This can result in 1951) of the chemical composition of raw water in many
elevated uplift pressure, undermining of the foundation, and reservoirs throughout the United States indicates a nearly
structural collapse (Fig. 4.6b). neutral acid-alkaline balance (pH) for most of these waters.
CHAPTER 5-EROSION BY CHEMICAL ATTACK 5.3-Erosion by miscellaneous causes

5.3.1 Acidic environments-Decaying vegetation is the
5.1-Sources of external chemical attack most frequent source of acidity in natural waters. Decompo
The compounds present in hardened portland cement are sition of certain minerals may be a source of acidity in some
attacked by water and many salt and acid solutions. Fortu localities. Running water that has a pH as low as 6.5 will
nately, in most hydraulic structures, the deleterious action leach lime from concrete, reducing its strength and making
on a mass of hardened portland-cement concrete with a it more porous and less resistant to freezing and thawing
low permeability is so slow that it is not a concern. There and other chemical attack. The amount of lime leached from
are, however, situations where chemical attack can become concrete is a function of the area exposed and the volume of
serious, accelerating deterioration and concrete erosion. concrete.
Acidic environments can cause the deterioration of Waters flowing from peat beds may have a pH as low as
exposed concrete surfaces. The acidic environments can 5. The presence of acid of this strength will result in severe
range from low acid concentrations found in mineral attack of concrete (Neville 2009). For this reason, when
free water to high acid concentrations found in many conveyances for groundwater are being designed, the corro
processing plants. One example is the Spring Creek Debris siveness of water should be determined using standard water
Dam in California that was designed to control the flow quality tests (pH, acidity, and ion composition) to determine
of acid mine drainage into the Sacramento River. Before its aggressiveness on the concrete.
treatment of water flowing into the reservoir began, the 5.3.2 Bacterial action Most of the literature addressing
-
reservoir water had a pH typically between 2 and 3 (acid), the problem of deterioration of concrete resulting from
which attacked the cement paste in the exposed concrete. bacterial action has evolved because of the great impact of
However, after 30 years of this exposure, the reinforced this corrosive mechanism on concrete sewer systems. This
concrete in the outlet works intake structure was mostly is a serious problem that, as Rigdon and Beardsley (1958)
intact with only approximately 112 to 1 in. (10 to 25 mm) observed, occurs more readily in warm climates such as
concrete loss (Smoak 1997). California, Australia, and South Africa. This problem also
Soil or groundwater conditions can also cause concrete occurs at the terminus of long-pumped sewage force mains
deterioration. In the presence of moisture, alkali soils or in the northern climates (Pomeroy 1974).
water-containing sulfates of magnesium, sodium, calcium, Sulfur-reducing bacteria belong to the genus of bacteria
potassium, or ammonium can attack concrete, forming that derives the energy for its life processes from the reduc
chemical compounds that imbibe water and swell, causing tion of some element other than carbon, such as nitrogen,
concrete damage (Mehta and Monteiro 2006). sulfur, or iron (Rigdon and Beardsley 1958). Some of these
Hydrogen sulfide corrosion, a form of acid attack, is bacteria reduce the sulfates that are present in natural waters
common in septic sanitary systems. Under certain condi and produce hydrogen sulfide as a waste product. These
tions, this corrosion can be severe and cause early failure of bacteria are anaerobic.
a sanitary system. Another group of bacteria takes the reduced sulfur and
oxidizes it back so that sulfuric acid is formed. The genus
. Thiobacillus is the sulfur-oxidizing bacteria that is most
Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI American Concrete Institute- Copytri!!lflt�.@1Ma'Wl'ial34 www.concrete.org
10 REPORT O N THE EROSION O F CONCRETE IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTU RES (ACI 207.6R-17)
CHAPTER 6-CO NTROL OF CAVITAT IO N

EROSIO N
6.1-Hydraulic design principles

In 3.2, the cavitation index a was defined by Eq. (3.2b).
When the value of a at which cavitation begins (a ) is known,
c
a designer can calculate velocity and pressure combinations

that will minimize potential damage. The object of a safe
design is to assure that the actual operating pressures and
velocities will produce a value of a greater than the value at
which cavitation begins (Falvey 1990). Note this is where
cavitation begins; there is little, if any, information on when
actual damage begins. However, it is possible that damage
occurs at the inception of cavitation, but it is so minor as to
not be detected at first.
One good way to minimize cavitation erosion is to make a
Fig. 5.3.2-Acid attack in crown of waste-water conduit large by keeping the pressure p0 high and the velocity v0 low.
showing exposed reinforcement, Denver Metro Waste Water For example, deeply submerged baffle blocks in a stilling
Treatment Plant (photo courtesy of URS). basin downstream from a spillway chute are unlikely to be
damaged by cavitation during normal operations if both
destructive to concrete. It has a remarkable tolerance to these conditions are satisfied. This situation is illustrated in
acid. Concentrations of sulfuric acid as great as 5 percent by Fig. 6.1a. The following example illustrates how a is calcu
volume do not completely inhibit its activity. lated for this case.
Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria are likely to be found wherever
wannth, moisture, and reduced compounds of sulfur are Example 1
present. Generally, a free water surface is required in combi From model studies, the following information is given:
nat\on with low dissolved oxygen in sewage and low veloci a) The mean prototype velocity at Point (0), immediately
ties that permit the buildup of scum on the walls of a pipe upstream from the baffle block, is 30 ft/s (9.1 m/s).
in which the anaerobic sulfur-reducing bacteria can thrive. b) The minimum prototype gauge pressure, exceeded 90
Certain conditions should prevail before the bacteria can percent of the time, is 7.1 psi (49 kPa).
produce hydrogen sulfide from sulfate-rich water. Sufficient c) The barometric pressure for the prototype location is
moisture should be present to prevent the desiccation of the estimated to be 13.9 psi (95.8 kPa).
bacteria. There should be adequate supplies of hydrogen d) The vapor pressure of water (pv) is 0.3 psi (2.1 kPa) and
sulfide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen compounds, and oxygen. In the density of water (p) = specific weight divided by gravity
addition, soluble compounds of phosphorus, iron, and other (y/g) = 1.94 lb·s2fft4 (103 kg/m3), from standard tables at a
trace elements should be present in the moisture film. given temperature (Haynes 2016).
Newly made concrete is strongly alkaline with a pH of Therefore, the absolute pressure at Point (0), 6.6 ft (2.0 m)
approximately 12. No species of sulfur bacteria can live in above Point (1), becomes
such a strong alkaline environment. Therefore, the concrete
is temporarily free from bacterially-induced corrosion. Po = gauge pressure + barometric pressure + y(zc - z1), from
Natural carbonation of the free lime by the carbon dioxide Eq. (3. 2a)
in the air slowly reduces the pH of the concrete surface to 9
or less. At this level of alkalinity, the sulfur bacteria Thio Po = 7.1 lb/in.2 + 13.9 lb/in.2
bacillus thioparus, using hydrogen sulfide as the substrate, 62.4 lb/fe co - 6.6 ft)
+ 18.1 lb/in.2
generate thiosulfuric and polythionic acid. The pH of the (12 in./ft)2
surface moisture steadily declines, and at a pH of approxi
mately 5, Thiobacillus concretivorus begins to proliferate
and produce high concentrations of sulfuric acid, dropping and because Points (c) and (0) are on the sample plane, zc =
the pH to a level of 2 or less. The destructive mechanism in z0 , it follows that
the corrosion of the concrete is the aggressive effect of the
sulfate ions on the calcium aluminates in the cement paste.
The main concrete corrosion problem in a sewer, there
fore, is chemical attack by this sulfuric acid, which accu
mulates in the crown of the sewer (Fig. 5.3.2). Information
18.1 lb/in.2 - 0.3 lb/in.2
� ( 1�:2 )
is available that enables the designer to design, construct, cr = = 2.9
and operate a sewer that could reduce the development of 1.94 (30 ft/s)
sulfuric acid (Pomeroy 1974; ASCE-WPCF Joint Task Force
1982; American Concrete Pipe Association 1980).
Structure or irregularity cr Reference
Tunne l inlet 1.5 Tullis ( 19 8 1 1
Sudden expansion in tunne l 1 . 0* Russell and Ball ( 1967 1

0 . 19 Rouse and Jezdinsky ( 19 6 6 1
(01
(I)
�6.6 ft {2 m)
Baffle blocks
Gate and gate s l o t s

1.4
2 .3
0.2
&
to
Galperin e t al .
Galperin et a l .
( 1977 1
( 1977 1
777777 3.0 ( 1959 1
7/7/ 77///
�: // Ball
/'lJ(Pressure
transducer
ck
Wagner 1 1 967 1
Abraded concrete 0.6 Ball 1 1976 1

3/4 in . max . depth
Fig.6. 1a-Baffle block downstream from a low spillway. of roughness
_i..".o 0.2 Ball ( 19 7 6 1

OJ;;;;;;7_22](?))//?777 Arndt ( 19 7 7 )
Falvey ( 1 9 8 2 )
In SI units 0.2
Po = 49 kPa + 95 . 8 kPa 1.6
+ 9.8 1 kN/m2 (0 - 2.0 m) = 1 25 kN/m2 , or 1 25 kPa

1.0
and because Points (c) and (0) are on the sample plane, Zc = �unusual definition of a.
z0, it follows that

Fig. 6.1b-Values o f a a t beginning of cavitation.
(125 kPa - 2. 1 kPa)( l OOO Pa/kPa)
0= = 2.9 should not use these numbers without studying the refer
1 /2(1 000 kg/m2)(9. 1 m/s)2
ences. Some reasons for this are:
because 1 Pa 1 kg/(m · s2),
=
a) The exact geometry and test circumstances should be
This value of a is well above the a of 1 .4 and 2 . 3 for understood.
beginning of cavitation for this baffle block with sharp edges b) Authors use different locations for determining the
(Fig. 6. l b) (Galperin et a!. 1 977). Hence, cavitation damage reference parameters of Eq. (3.2b), although the general
is unlikely in the prototype. form of Eq. (3 .2b) is accepted by practitioners in the field.
A second, equally effective procedure to minimize poten c) Uniformity in the model is difficult to achieve.
tial cavitation damage is to use boundary shapes and toler d) Smooth, uniform concrete surfaces may be difficult to
ances characterized by low values of a for incipient damage. achieve, maintain, or both, in the field.
For example, a carefully designed gate slot, with an offset Many of the essential details involved in the original refer
and rounded downstream comer, may have damage at a ences are explained in Hamilton ( 1 983a,b; 1 984). The values
calculated a value of 0.2. Unfortunately, the lowest value of of <Jc listed in Fig. 6. 1 b show the importance of good form
a a designer can use may be fixed by unintentional surface
work and concrete finishing.
imperfections in concrete, the need for small abrupt expan
Example 2
sions in flow passages, or the likelihood that vortexes will be
The following information is given:
generated by obstructions such as partially open sluice gates.
a) A 1 /4 in. (6 mm) offset ( Yo) into the flow caused by
Boundary geometry and construction techniques influence
mismatched forms has a ac of 1 .6.
the potential for cavitation damage.
b) A 1 :40 chamfer has a <Jc of 0.2 (only one-eighth as large)
A third choice, often inevitable, is to expect cavities to
form at predetermined locations. In this case, the designer
crchamfer -
--g a offsel
can: a) supply air to the flow; or b) use damage-resistant
materials such as stainless steel or polymer concrete systems.
Using damage-resistant materials will not eliminate From Eq. (3.2d),
damage, but could extend the useful life of a surface.
This alternative is particularly attractive, for example, for
constructing or repairing outlet works that will be used infre
quently or abandoned after their purpose has been served.
In any case, values of a at which cavitation erosion begins By the definition of <Jc, the allowable velocity past the
are needed for all sorts of boundary geometries. Sometimes chamfer, if (p0 - Pv)ll l2p is constant, becomes
critical values of a can be estimated by theory, but they
usually come from model or prototype tests. 1
vchamfer =
J8 . voflset = 2.83 . voflset [
_1___
- · v2 et
6.2-Cavitation indexes for damage and 8 offs
construction tolerances
Figure 6 . 1 b lists values of a at which cavitation begins Thus, on a spillway or chute where p 0 - Pv might be 1 7.4
and the references from which these values came. A designer psi ( 1 20 kPa), cavitation would begin behind the offset when
American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617 �·
Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI
American Concrete Institute- Copytri!!lflt�,@1Ma'Wl'lal34 www.concrete.org � OCi )
the local velocity reached 40 ft/s ( 1 2 m/s), but the flow Table 6.2-Examples of surface roughness
past the chamfer would cause no trouble until the velocity tolerances
reached approximately 2.83 times 40 ft/s ( 1 2 m/s), which Cavitation index <J Abrupt offsets limits Gradual offset limits
equals 1 1 3 ft/s (35 m/s).
0 2 0. 5 < 1 /4 i n . (6 mm) 1 : 1 6 or flatter
When forms are required, as on walls, ceilings, and steep
:S 1 /4 in. (6 mm)
slopes, skilled workers may produce a nearly smooth and 0.5 > 0 > 0.2 1 1 6 to 1 :32 or flatter
to :S 1 18 in. (3 mm)
only slightly wavy surface for which a may be as low as 0.4.
Whereas on plane, nearly horizontal surfaces using a stiff Construct an aeration ramp or slot for existing
0 ::: 0.2 spillways
screed controlled by steel wheels running on rails and hand
Redesign (realign) for new spillways.
floating and troweling, a a value of 0.2 may be achieved.
Construction tolerances should be included in all contract
documents. These establish permissible variation in dimen Finished Surface
sion and location giving both the designer and the contractor
parameters within which the work is to be performed.
ACI 1 1 7 provides guidance in establishing practical toler
ances. It is sometimes necessary that the specifications
for concrete surfaces in high-velocity flow areas, or more
specifically, areas characterized by low values of a, be even Roughness Slope Ratio= Roughness Height
more demanding. However, achieving and maintaining more Roughness Length
restrictive tolerances for hydraulic surfaces than those recom

CASE I - Offset on the Surface
mended by ACI 1 1 7 can become costly or even impractical.
The final specification requirements require judgment on the
part of the designer (Schrader 1 9 8 1 ). Roughness Length
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (20 1 4) specifies surface
roughness tolerances (Table 6.2) that define the limits of Finished Surface �J Roughness Depth
allowable surface irregularity such as bulges, depressions, ---- --"-

- ----:...
and offsets as measured by the roughness slope ratio shown
in Fig. 6.2.
Joints can cause problems in meeting tolerances, even
with the best workmanship. Some designers prefer to saw Roughness Slope Ratio= Roughness Depth
and break out areas where small offsets occur rather than to Roughness Length
grind the offsets that are greater than specified. The trough or CASE 2 - Offset into the Surface
hole is then patched and hand-finished to produce a surface
more resistant to erosion than a ground surface would be. Fig. 6.2-Measuring surface roughness of an offset.
In some cases, grinding to achieve alignment and smooth
ness is adequate. However, to help prevent the occurrence the water should be distributed rather uniformly in small
of aggregate popouts, a general rule of thumb is to limit the bubbles.
depth of grinding to one-half the maximum diameter of the When calculations show that flow without aeration is
coarse aggregate. Ground surfaces can also be protected by likely to cause damage, or when damage to a structure has
applying a low-viscosity, penetrating phenol epoxy-resin occurred and aeration appears to be a remedy, the problem is
sealer (Borden et a!. 1 97 1). However, the smooth, polished dual: 1 ) the air should be introduced into the flowing water;
texture of the ground surface or the smoothness of a resin and 2) a portion of that air should remain near the flow/
sealer creates a different boundary condition that could affect concrete boundary where it will be useful.
the flow characteristics. Cavitation damage has been observed The migration of air bubbles involves two principles: I )
downstream of such conditions in high-velocity flow areas bubbles in water move in a direction of decreasing water
(in excess of 80 ft/s [24 m/s]) where there was no change in pressure; and 2) turbulence disperses bubbles from regions of
geometry or shape (Popovics and McDonald 1 989). high air concentration toward regions of low concentration.
The difficulty of achieving a near-perfect surface and the Attention should be paid to the motion of bubbles due to
doubt that such a surface would remain smooth during years pressure gradients. A flow of water surrounded by atmo
of use have led to designs that permit the introduction of air spheric pressure is called a free jet. In a free jet, there are
into the water to cushion the collapse of cavities when low no gradients except possibly weak local ones generated by
pressures and high velocities prevail. residual turbulence, and the bubbles move with the water.
There is no buoyant force. On a vertical curve that is convex,
6.3-Using aeration to control damage the bubble motion may have a component toward the bottom.
Laboratory and field tests have shown that surface irregu In a flip bucket, which is concave, the bottom pressure is
larities will not cause cavitation damage if the air-water ratio large and the bubbles move rapidly toward the free surface.
in the layers of water near the solid boundary is approxi When aeration is required, air usually should be introduced at
mately 8 percent by volume (Peterka 1 953). The air. in H
the bottom of the flow. These bubbles gradually move away
t 1 Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617
AAJn
·
A nC
p��c:d by� r license with ACI American Concrete Institute- Copyright� @>fMate'l'lafWW�oncrete.org
No reproduction��or mg .
perm1tted Without license from IHS
F l o w net
Q; 76,270 ft 3/s
12160 m 3/ol
13ft
(4 m l . o
Fig. 6.3a-Aeration ramps at King Tala! Spillway, Jordan (Wei and DeFazio 1982).
Table 6.3-Examples of use of air to prevent (6.3)

cavitation damage
Structure or description References Model and prototype measurements indicate that the value
Palisades Dam, Idaho outlet sluices Beichley and King ( 1 975) of the coefficient a lies between 0 . 0 1 and 0.04, depending on
Yellowtail Dam, Montana spillway Borden et al. ( 1 97 1 ); Colgate velocity and upstream roughness.
tunnel ( 1 97 1 )
The length of cavity, l (Fig. 6.3a), is difficult to measure
Glen Canyon Dam, Arizona
Burgi et al. ( 1 984) in prototypes and large models. Instead, the upper and lower
spillway tunnel
Ust-IIimsk Dam, Russia spillway Galperin et al. ( 1 977)
profiles of the nappe can be estimated from two-dimensional
Bratsk Dam, Russia spillway Semenkov and Lentyaev ( 1 973)
irrotational flow theory. One method is to use a finite element
Foz do Areia, Brazil spillway Pinto ( 1 982) technique for calculating nappe traj ectories.
General Galperin et al. ( 1 977) As indicated previously, ramps and down-steps are used
Hamilton ( 1 983a,b, 1 9 84); to induce the flow in a spillway or tunnel to spring free from
Comprehensive
Quintela ( 1 980) the floor. A ramp is a wedge anchored to, or integral with,
the floor and usually spans the tunnel or spillway bay. Wall
and corner wedges and wall offsets away from the flow also
from the floor despite the tendency for turbulent dispersion
are used to cause the water to leave the sides of a conduit.
to hold them down. At the point where insufficient air is in
The objective is to provide a sudden expansion of the solid
the flow to protect the concrete from damage, a subsequent
boundaries. Such devices, often referred to as aerators, are
source of bottom air should be provided.
schematically depicted in Fig. 6.3b and 6.3c. (Ball 1 959;
Aeration data, shown in Table 6.3 and measured on
DeFazio and Wei 1 983 ; Vischer et a!. 1 982; Russell and Ball
Bratsk Dam in Russia, which has a spillway approximately
1 967). Air is allowed to flow into a cavity beside or under
295 ft (90 m) high and an aeration device, are discussed by
a jet by providing passages as simple as the layout of the
Semenkov and Lentyaev ( 1 973). Downstream from the aera
project will permit.
tion ramp, measurements showed that the air-water ratio in
Although offsets, slots, and ramps in conduits can intro
a 6 in. ( 1 50 mm) layer next to the concrete declined from
duce air into high-velocity flow to effectively control cavita
85 to 3 5 percent as the mixture flowed down the spillway
tion, if improperly designed, they can accentuate the cavi
a distance of 1 74 ft (53 m). If an exponential type of decay
tation problem. For this reason, it is advisable to conduct
is assumed, the loss per 1 ft ( 1 /3 m) was a little less than 2
physical hydraulic model studies to ensure the adequacy of a
percent of the local air-water ratio.
proposed aeration device.
It is usually not feasible to supply air to flowing water
by pumping or compressing the air because the volumes
6.4-Materials
involved are too large. Instead, the flow is proj ected from
Proper material selection can increase the cavitation
a ramp or step as a free jet, and air is introduced at the air
resistance of concrete. However, the only effective solution
water interfaces. Then the turbulence within the jet disperses
is to reduce or eliminate the factors that trigger cavitation,
the air entrained at the interfaces into the main body of the
because even the strongest materials cannot withstand the
jet. Figure 6.3a shows typical aeration ramps for introducing
forces of cavitation indefinitely. The difficulty is that in the
air into the flow (Wei and DeFazio 1 982).
repair of damaged structures, the reduction or elimination
To judge whether sufficient air will remain adjacent to
of cavitation may be difficult and costly. The next best solu
the floor of a spillway, the amount of air that a turbulent jet
tion is to replace the damaged concrete with more erosion
will entrain should be estimated. Equation (6.3) for entrain
resistant materials.
ment by the lower surface has been proposed (Hamilton
In areas of new design where cavitation is expected to
1 983a,b, 1 984)
occur, designers may include the higher-quality materials
American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617 �
Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI � OCi J
.
Amertcan Concrete Institute- Copytri!!lflt�.@'Ma'Wl'iaf34 www.concrete.org
'
,--
DUCT THROUGH SIDEWALL
1
I
I
I
I "" '" " " ' " " ' �
I
"''"' ""'""' ~ DUCT UNDER OFFSET
.
'
'
I
I RAMP ON SIDEWALL
I
L_ Fig. 6.3c-Air supply to aerators (Falvey 1990).
testing can identify many potential problem areas, but deter

Fig. 6.3b-Types of aerators ( Vischer et al. 1982). mining the ultimate effect of hydraulic forces on the struc
ture requires some judgment. In some cases, it is desirable to
during the initial construction or include provisions for evaluate a material after it has been subjected for a reason
subsequent repairs in service. For example, in many instal able time to flows of a magnitude approaching that expected
lations, stainless steel liners are installed on the concrete during operation of the facility.
perimeter downstream of slide gates to resist the damaging The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers evaluated erosion resis
effects of cavitation. These liners, although quite durable, tance of materials at the Detroit Dam in Oregon (Houghton
could pit and eventually need to be replaced. et al. 1 978). Erosion testing at the facility consisted of
The cavitation resistance of concrete where abrasion is not preparing test slabs 2 1 in. (530 mm) wide by 1 0 ft (3 m) long
a factor can be increased by using a properly designed low using the desired material, coating, or overlay. High-velocity
water-cementitious material ratio (w/c m ), higher-strength water exceeding velocities of 80 ft/s (24 m/s) was passed
concrete, placed and cured properly to reduce cracking. over the slabs for various durations, and the performance
Careful selection of aggregate size and gradation and the of the material evaluated. Cavitation erosion resistance was
use of water-reducing admixtures has proven benefic ial, as studied by embedding small obstacles in the test slabs that
has lowering the placement temperature to reduce thermal protrude into the flow (Fig. 3 .3b).
cracking potential (ACI 207 . 1 R). Hard, dense aggregate and Materials and coating systems evaluated for repairs to
good bond between aggregate and mortar are essential to the Tarbela Dam in Pakistan were tested at the Detroit Dam
achieving increased cavitation resistance (May 1 987). facility. They included various concrete mixtures, fiber
The use of polymer impregnation, steel fiber reinforce reinforced concrete (FRC), roller-compacted concrete,
ment, and polymers as a matrix binder or a surface binder polymer-impregnated concrete, polymer-impregnated FRC,
has been found to substantially improve the cavitation resis and several concrete coatings (Houghton et al. 1 978). Figure
tance of conventional concrete, but could be costly (Schrader 6.5 shows the performance of several of these materials
1 978, 1983 ; DePuy and Dikeou 1 973). subjected to flows with velocities of 1 20 ft/s (37 m/s).
Some coatings, such as neoprene or polyurethane, have
effectively reduced cavitation damage to concrete, but 6.6-Construction practices
because near-perfect adhesion to the concrete is mandatory, Construction practices are of paramount importance
their use is not common. Once there is a tear or a chip in the when hydraulic surfaces may be exposed to high-velocity
coating, the entire coating is soon peeled off. flow, particularly if aeration devices are not incorporated in
design. Such surfaces should be as smooth as can be practi
6.5- Materials testing cally obtained (Schrader 1 983). Surface imperfections and
Because of the massive size of most hydraulic structures, deficiencies have been known to cause cavitation damage at
full-scale prototype testing is usually not possible. Model
0 TEST SLAB NO. 1 -- CONVENTI ONAL CONCRETE -- Cement 600 1b/yd 3 (356 kg(m3 J ; MSA 1 - 1 /2 in. (3B mm)
0 TEST SLAB NO. 2 - - STEEL FRC -- Cement 690 lb/yd 3 (409 kg/m 3 ) ; MSA 3/4 in. ( 1 9 mm)
e TEST SLAB NO. 3 - - POLYMERIZED CONVENTIONAL -- Cement 600 lb/yd 3 (356 kg/m 3 ) ; MSA 1 - 1 /2 in. (38 mm)
• TEST SLAB NO. 4 -- POLYMERIZED FRC -- Cement 690 lb/yd 3 (409 kg/m 3 ) ; MSA 3/4 in. ( 1 9 mm)
MSA-- Maximum size aggregate
100
75
E
.£ E
� .r:
0. 0.
0 50 0
., .,
c c
0 0
·;;; ·;;;
e e
w w
25
o L------L ------� ------L-----� ------� -------L ______L_ __L_�o

0 20 40 60 80 I00 I 20 I 40 20 0
Test Time . h
Fig. 6. 5--Erosion depth versus time, Tarbela Dam, Pakistan concrete mixtures (Houghton
et al. 1978).
flow velocities as low as 26 ft/s (8 m/s). Offsets no greater parallel to the direction of flow to offer the least resistance
than 1/8 in. (3 mm) in height have been known to cause cavi to flow if erosion reaches the depth of the reinforcement,
tation damage at flow velocities as low as 82 ft/s (25 m/s). as well as to provide transverse crack control. Extensive
Patching repairs improperly made at the time of construc damage has been experienced where the reinforcement near
tion have been known to fail under the stress of water flow, the surface is perpendicular to the direction of flow. Addi
thereby providing the surface imperfections that triggered tionally, increasing the concrete cover should be evaluated
cavitation damage to the concrete farther downstream. This by design experts when erosion due to high flows or abrasive
phenomenon occurred in the high head spillway tunnel at material is a concern. Consideration should be made to the
Yellowtail Dam in Montana, ultimately resulting in major potential for larger drying shrinkage cracks in the surface
cavitation and structural damage to the concrete lining of the concrete as a result of having the reinforcement at a
(Borden et a!. 1 97 1 ; Colgate 1 97 1 ). Accordingly, good greater depth (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 20 1 5).
construction practices, as recommended in ACI 1 1 7, 3 02. 1 R, Where possible, transverse joints in concrete conduits
304R, 3 08 . 1 , 309R, and 347R should be maintained both for or chutes should be minimized. Preplanned, more closely
new construction and repair. Formed and unformed surfaces spaced joints are generally preferable to uncontrolled
should be checked during each construction operation to cracking. One construction technique that has proven
confirm that they are within specified tolerances. satisfactory in placement of reasonably smooth hydraulic
Thinner placements bonded to underlying substrate surfaces is the traveling slipform screed. This technique can
concrete should be avoided. Thin concrete placements could be applied to tunnel inverts and to spillway chute slabs but
have different thermal and mechanical properties from the requires a specialized or experienced contractor. Informa
substrate material if different aggregates or mixture propor tion on the slipform screed is found in Hurd (2005). Proper
tions are used, possibly causing them to debond during mixture design (Neville 1 999), construction techniques, and
normal temperature cycles. In addition, the bond surface curing of these surfaces is essential because the development
will typically be weaker than other regions, making the of surface hardness improves cavitation resistance.
interface more susceptible to damage, and stresses closer to
the surfaces may be larger. Any debonding or delamination CHAPTER 7--CONTROL O F ABRASION EROSIO N
at the leading edge can be a source of further damage by
induced jacking pressures from high-velocity flow or damage 7. 1 --Hydraulic considerations
from standing water that freezes. Thicker repairs should be Under appropriate flow conditions and transport of
constructed with similar aggregates and mixture proportions debris, all the construction materials currently being used in
with similar strengths for similar properties as the substrate hydraulic structures are, to some degree, susceptible to abra
material. They should also be mechanically fastened to the sion. While improvements in materials should reduce the
substrate material with reinforcement and anchors. rate of damage, these alone will not solve the problem. Until
If the potential for cavitation damage exists, care should the adverse hydraulic conditions, which can cause abrasion
be taken in placing the reinforcement. The bars closest to the erosion damage, are minimized or eliminated, it is difficult
surface, if practical for structural purposes, should be placed for any current construction materials to perform without

Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI American Concrete Institute- Copytri!!lflt�.@1Ma'Wl'iaf34 www.concrete.org
16 REPORT O N T H E EROSION O F CONCRETE I N HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (ACI 207.6R-17)
damage. Before construction or repair of major structures,

conduct hydraulic model studies of the structure to identify
potential causes of erosion damage and evaluate the effec
tiveness of various modifications in eliminating those unde
sirable hydraulic conditions. If the model test results indi
cate it is impractical to eliminate the undesirable hydraulic
conditions, provisions should be made in design to minimize
future damage. For example, good design practices should Fig. 7. 1a-Flow deflector and desired flow pattern produced
consider the following measures in the construction or repair (Hanna 20 10).
of stilling basins:
a) Include provisions, such as debris traps or low division
walls, to minimize circulation of debris; design end sills and
chute blocks so that they do not create a back roller below
the flow, trapping debris in the area.
b) Design downstream materials for stability at the design
flows.
c) Use model tests for design and detailing of the terminus
of the stilling basin and the exit channel to maximize flushing
of the stilling basin and to minimize chances of debris from
the exit channel entering the basin.
d) For stilling basins less than 25 ft (7.6 m) wide, flow
deflectors should be installed over a stilling basin end sill,
as shown in Fig. 7. l a, to redirect the current responsible for
carrying abrasive materials into the still basin (Hanna 2 0 1 0).
Flow defectors were installed at Choke Canyon (Fig. 7. 1b)
and Mason Dams to improve flow conditions to minimize
the potential for carrying downstream materials back into
the basin. Hanna (20 1 0) shows that a single mobile deflector Fig. 7.1b-Choke Canyon stilling basin deflectors (Hanna
or two stationary staggered deflectors, staggered in position 20 10).
both vertically and horizontally, are effective at sites where
large ranges of operations need be considered. This does concrete surfaces, once there, other flows could continue the
not, however, prevent materials from entering from above or ball-milling damage. By periodically removing debris accu
increase the effectiveness of flushing material from the basin. mulations, the events that could cause ball-milling but that do
Balanced flows into the basins of existing structures should not move abrasive materials onto the concrete surfaces will
be maintained using all gates to avoid discharge condi not cause damage with the debris removed. Periodic clearing
tions where flow separation and eddy action are prevalent. could also provide opportunity for periodic measurements of
Substantial discharges that can provide a good hydraulic surface damage. For example, if a stilling basin is pumped
jump \vithout creating eddy action should be released peri dry to remove rocks, the surface damage should be surveyed
odically in an attempt to flush debris from the stilling basin. at the same time. Periodic surveys can help predict the rate
Guidance as to discharge and tailwater relations required of damage, which is useful for approximating when damage
for fl�shing should be developed through model or proto might reach a critical point that requires repair.
type tests, or both. Periodic inspections should be required
to det¢rmine the presence of debris in the stilling basin and 7.2-Materials evaluation
the extent of erosion. If the debris cannot be removed by Materials, mixtures, and construction practices should be
flushing operations, water releases should be shut down and evaluated prior to use in hydraulic structures subjected to
the basin cleaned by other means. abrasion-erosion damage. ASTM C 1 1 3 8M covers a proce
In locations where abrasion damage cannot be avoided, dure for determining the relative resistance of concrete to
consider measures to avoid major damage leading to abrasion under water. This procedure simulates the abrasive
failure of the structure. Some materials, as discussed in the action of waterborne particles (silt, sand, gravel, and other
following, can slow the progress of abrasion. However, for solid objects). Development of the test procedure and data
existing structures subject to abrasion damage, the cost of from tests on a wide variety of materials and techniques have
repairs may be considerable. Expensive repairs could be been described by Liu ( 1 980) and Causey ( 1 985).
delayed or avoided if a program to regularly clean debris
from the surface is implemented along with one to periodi 7.3-Materials
cally measure damage. Typically, ball-milling abrasion does Many materials and techniques have been used in the
not lead to failure during a single event. Surface damage construction and repair of structures subjected to abra
increases over time with each subsequent event. While sion erosion damage, with varying degrees of success. The
there may be a range of flows that can move debris onto the degree of success is inversely proportional to the degree of
-
American Co te Ins
Prov;ded by I tn r t;cense w;th ACt
American Concrete Institute - Copyright� ®FM!'itel'i!fi'WWWW'eoncrete.org
No reproduction�
� � or mg permitted without license from 1HS
10
exposure to those conditions conducive t o erosion damage
(McDonald 1 980). No single material has shown consis
tently superior performance when compared to others. /]/
v
Improvements in materials are expected to reduce the rate of
concrete damage due to abrasion erosion.
Abrasion-resistant concrete should include the maximum
v
L_ /
,......
i-
amount of the hardest available coarse aggregate and ...._
.. .�
� r:-· - - 1-
�- - - f.- -:'� --
the lowest practical w!cm . Concrete mixtures should be
/
designed for workability and the capability of consolidation
.... ....
and finish to meet the required tolerances. Good placement /� LEGEND
practices and curing are also key. In laboratory studies, a V·_:....- --- LIMESTONE
-- QUARTZITE -
small increase in abrasion-erosion resistance has been shown --- TRAP ROCK
--- - CHERT
when using larger aggregates ( 1 - 1/2 in. [38 mm] versus 3/4
in. [ 1 9 mm]) (White 20 1 1 ). The abrasion-erosion resistance 0 I I
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 I.C
of concrete containing chert aggregate has been shown to be Water- Cement Ratio
approximately twice that of concrete containing limestone
(Fig. 7.3). Given a good, hard aggregate, any practice that Fig. 7.3-Relationships between water-cement ratio (w/c)
produces a stronger paste structure will increase abrasion and abrasion-erosion loss.
erosion resistance. Loss due to abrasion is directly propor
Substrate and surface preparation are important in ensuring
tional to w/cm (White 20 1 1 ). In some cases where hard
a long trouble-free coatings project. Concrete surfaces
aggregate was not available, high-range water-reducing
should be clean and dry before coating to establish strongest
admixtures and silica fume were used to develop a strong
bond. Dirt, dust, oil, and all other contaminates should be
concrete with high compressive strength-approximately
removed and concrete surfaces prepared in accordance with
1 5 ,000 psi ( 1 00 MPa)-to overcome proble�s with unsa is � ASTM D4258. Surface preparation should include abrasive
factory aggregate (Holland 1 983). At these h1gh compress1ve
blast or the equivalent to remove laitance and other loose
strengths, the hardened cement paste assumes a greater role in
concrete in accordance with ICRI 3 1 0.2.
resisting abrasion-erosion damage, and the aggregate quality
becomes correspondingly less important. However, thermal
CHAPTER 8-CO NTROL O F EROSIO N BY
and shrinkage stresses also will likely be higher, increasing
CHEMICAL ATTACK
the risk of cracking from early temperatures and shrinkage.
Concrete, when produced with a shrinkage-reducing admix
8. 1-Control of erosion by mineral-free water
ture or concrete designed to have low shrinkage potential,
Pure water from glacial runoff or from condensation, as
can be beneficial when properly proportioned and cured.
in a desalination plant, can dissolve the calcium hydroxide
In laboratory tests, the abrasion loss of a range of steel fiber
in the cement matrix (Neville 2009). The mild acid attack
reinforced concrete (FRC) mixtures was consistently higher
possible with pure water rarely develops into deterioration
than that of conventional concrete mixtures with the same w/
that can cause severe structural damage. Generally, mineral
em and aggregate type (Liu and McDonald 1 98 1 ). However,
free water will leach mortar on surfaces exposed to this
the improved impact strength of FRC (Schrader 1 9 8 1) can
water. This can be seen on exposed surfaces and at j oints
be expected to reduce concrete spalling where large debris is
and cracks in concrete sections. As the surface calcium is
being transported by high-velocity flow (ACI 544. 1 R).
leached from the concrete, coarse aggregate is exposed,
The abrasion-erosion resistance of vacuum-treated
which naturally decreases the amount of mortar exposed.
concrete, polymer concrete, polymer-impregnated concrete,
With less mortar exposed, less leaching occurs, resulting in
and polymer-portland-cement concrete can be significantly
less chance for maj or structural problems to occur. Rough
superior to that of comparable conventional concrete. This
ened surfaces, however, could lead up to problems associ
is attributed to a stronger cement matrix. The increased costs
ated with cavitation if they are at a critical location. The
associated with materials, production, and placing ofthese and
gradual erosion of leached mortar is minimized by use 0f
any other special concretes in comparison with conventional
aluminous cements; partial substitution of cement with slag
concrete should be considered during the evaluation process.
cement, fly ash, or both; or use of low-lime portland cements
Several types of coatings have exhibited good abrasion
with less tricalcium silicate than dicalcium silicate (Tuthill
erosion resistance in laboratory tests. These include polyure
1 966). Protective coatings can also be effective when applied
thanes, polyurea, ceramic-filled epoxy, epoxy-resin mortar,
to concrete surfaces.
furan-resin mortar, acrylic mortar, and iron-aggregate
toppings. Problems in field application of coatings have been
8.2-Control of erosion from acid attack due to
reported (McDonald 1 980). These have been due primarily
bacterial action
to improper surface preparation or thermal incompatibility
The process of sulfide generation in a sanitary sewer when
between coatings and concrete. More recently, formula
insufficient dissolved oxygen is present in the wastewater
tions have been developed that have coefficients of thermal
has been discussed and illustrated by an ASCE-WPCF
expansion more similar to that of the concrete substrate.
Joint Task Force ( 1 982). This original work was performed iii. Use of resistant concrete
by Pomeroy ( 1 974). Continuing work by Pomeroy and iv. Ammoniation
Parkhurst ( 1 977) produced a quantitative method for sulfide v. Use of protective coatings
prediction. Engineers involved with projects of this nature The designer faced with reducing bacterial action should
would be wise to also review the recommendations set forth be aware that: 1 ) chlorination may, under certain circum
in the American Concrete Pipe Association ( 1 980). stances, be in violation of local codes because it can produce
Concrete conduits have served in sewer systems for many trihalomethane, a known carcinogen; and 2) it could also
years without serious damage in systems that were properly be a violation of local codes to add heavy metal salts to
designed and operated. The minimum adequate velocity of wastewater.
flow in the sewer for the strength and temperature of the Lining concrete pipe, walls, and conduit with PVC sheets,
sewage is usually 2 ft/s (0.6 m/s). Providing this velocity a plastic liner, or a chemical-resistant liquid-applied coating is
without excessive turbulence and proper ventilation of the an effective method of protecting the concrete and reducing
sewer will generally prevent erosion by bacterial action. surface roughness. This technique has been used commer
Avoid turbulence because it is an H2S-releasing mechanism. cially for many years. The designer should carefully deter
Where conditions are such that generation of H2S cannot mine which system is appropriate for the exposure conditions
be eliminated by the system design, apply other means, and structural requirements for each application. Further
including: information on remedial measures for sanitary sewer systems
a) Using hydrogen peroxide or chlorine compounds that will is available (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1 985).
convert the H2S (Water Pollution Control Federation 1 979):
i. H202 + H2S ---> ---> 2H20 + S 8.3-Control of erosion by miscellaneous
ii. chemical causes
( 1 ) Clz + H20 --->---> HOC! + W + CI- 8.3.1 Acid environments-No portland-cement concrete,
(2) HOC! + H2S ---> ---> S + HCI + H20 (low pH) regardless of its other ingredients, will withstand attack from
2
(3) S - + 4Ciz + 80H- --->---> SOi- + 8Cl + 4H20 (high pH) water of high acid concentration. Where strong acid corro
b) Introducing compressed air into the water to keep sion is indicated, other construction materials or an appro
sewage fresh and thereby preventing development of an priate surface covering or treatment should be used. This
anaerobic environment includes applications of sulfur-concrete toppings, epoxy
c) Using an acid-resistant pipe such as vitrified clay or coatings, polymer impregnation, linseed-oil treatments, or
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes other processes, each of which affects acid resistance differ
d) Using acid-resisting liners on the crown of sewers ently. Replacement of a portion of the portland cement by a
e) Increasing the concrete section to allow a sacrificial suitable amount of slag cement or fly ash selected for that
thickness based on predicted erosion rates, at the risk of property can improve the resistance of concrete to weak
increased cracking acid attack. Also, limestone or dolomite aggregates have
f) Using concrete with limestone aggregate in place of sili been found to be beneficial in extending the life of structures
ceous aggregates to give the acid more material to dissolve, exposed to acid attack (Bicz6k 1 967).
slowing down the overall rate Performance-based cements having reduced calcium, and
Graphical methods have been published to determine when meeting ASTM C 1 1 5 7/C 1 1 57M or ASTM C 1 600/
sulfide buildup in sanitary sewers using the Pomeroy C 1 600M, have proven to slow deterioration and be more
Parkhurst equations (Kienow et a!. 1 982). resistant to acid attack. Some cements made primarily from
Parker ( 1 95 1 ) lists the following remedial measures for fly ash particles and additives have no significant calcium
the control of H2S attack in concrete sewers: and have been found to be denser and allow less acid past
a) Reduction-potential-generation the surface. Laboratory studies have shown that only a small
i. Inflow reduction amount of material is lost initially when exposed to strong
ii. Partial purification sulfuric acid solutions, with little or no deterioration at later
iii. Chemical dosage to raise oxidation (but addition of ages (VanderWerf 20 1 1 ) .
nitrates is impracticable) In 1 994, laboratory and field evaluation o f acid-resistant
iv. Aeration materials at Spring Creek Debris Dam, California, were
v. Chlorination evaluated in a pH 1 .7 test tank just outside the Richmond
vi. Removal of slimes and silts Mine portal. Ordinary portland-cement concrete, silica fume
vii. Velocity increase concrete, a polymer concrete overlay, a flexible epoxy coating,
b) Emissions and a flexible polyurethane coating were tested (Smoak
i. Turbulence reduction 1 997) . Findings showed that silica fume concrete offered no
ii. Treatment with heavy metal salts (Cu, Fe, Zn) improvement, and the concrete with the polyurethane coating
iii. Treatment with alkalis showed superior performance. However, it was noted that the
iv. Full flow in sewer concrete coated with the epoxy and polymer overlay failed
c) H2S fixation on concrete due to holidays or defects in the coating system, leaving
i. Ventilation access for acid attack to the underlying concrete. Additional
ii. Periodic wetting
information on chemicals that attack concrete can be found in rope inspection, or the use of remotely operated vehicles
Portland Cement Association (2007). may be necessary.
8.3.2 Alkali-aggregate reaction and chloride admix
tures-Deterioration of concrete caused by alkali-aggregate 9.3-lnspection procedures
reaction and by chloride admixtures in the concrete mixture Before the on-site inspection, the team should thoroughly
is not included in this discussion. Extensive information on evaluate all available records, reports, and other documenta
these topics can be found in ACI 22 1 . 1 R and ACI 2 1 2.3R. tion on the condition of the structure and maintenance and
8.3.3 Soils and groundwaters-Sulfates of sodium, magne repair, and become familiar with previous recommendations.
sium, and calcium frequently encountered in the alkali soils Observations to make during an examination of hydraulic
and groundwaters ofthe western United States attack concrete facilities include:
aggressively. ACI 2 0 1 .2R discusses this in detail. Use ofType a) Identifying structural cracking, spalling, and
V sulfate-resisting cement, which is low in tricalcium alumi displacements
nate (C3A), is recommended whenever the sulfate in the water b) Identifying surface irregularities where cavitation
is within the ranges shown in ACI 3 1 8- 1 4 Table 19.3 . 1 . 1 . The potential is a concern
subject of designing a sulfate-resistant concrete mixture is i. Offset into or away from flow (including at joints or
complex. It is generally agreed that limiting the C3A content of cracks)
the cement to the 3 to 5 percent range, as in a Type V cement, ii. Abrupt curvature away from flow
is beneficial. Limits of C3A content also are established for iii. Abrupt slope away from flow
Types I and II cements (ASTM C 1 50/C 1 50M). Additional iv. Local slope changes along flow surface
issues are also important, including restricting the tetracal v. Void or transverse groove
cium aluminoferrite content (C4AF) to 1 0 percent; providing vi. Roughened or damaged surfaces that give evidence
air entrainment (an air-entrained mixture using Type II of cavitation or abrasion erosion
cement can be more sulfate resistant than a non-air-entrained vii. Structural imperfections and calcite deposits
mixture using Type V cement); replacing 20 to 30 percent of viii. Cracking, spalling, and rust stains from reinforcement
the cement content with a pozzolan or fly ash; and using a rich c) Inspecting gate slots, sills, and seals, including identifi
mixture, with the w/cm restricted to a maximum of 0.45 . The cation of offsets into the flow
use of shrinkage-compensating cements, made with Type II d) Locating concrete erosion adj acent to embedded steel
or Type V portland-cement clinker and adequately sulfated, frames and steel liners and in downstream water passages
produces concrete having sulfate resistance equal to or greater e) Finding vibration of gates and valves during operation '.
than portland cement made of the same type of clinker (Mehta f) Observing defective welded connections and the pitting,
and Polivka 1 975). cavitation, or both, of steel items
g) Observing equipment operation and maintenance :
CHAPTER 9-PERIO DIC INSPECTIONS AND h) Making surveys and taking cross sections to determine :
CORRECTIVE ACTION the extent of damage .
i) Investigating the condition of concrete by nondestruc- '
9.1-General tive methods or by core drilling and sampling, if distressed
The regular, periodic inspection of completed and oper conditions warrant
ating hydraulic structures is important. Observance of j) Noting the nature and extent of debris in water passages
concrete erosion should be included in these inspections. Observed conditions, the extent of the distress, and recom
The frequency of inspections is usually a function of use mendations for action, should be recorded by the inspec
and evidence of distress. Inspections provide a means of tion team for future reference. High-quality photographs or
routinely examining structural features, as well as observing videos of deficiencies are beneficial and provide a permanent
and discussing problems requiring remedial action. ACI record that will assist in identifying slow progressive fail
20 1 . 1 R, ACI 207.3R, and EM- 1 1 1 0-2-2002 (U.S. Army ures. A report should be written for each inspection to record
Corps of Engineers 1 995) provide detailed instructions for the condition of the project and justify funding for repairs.
conducting extensive investigations. To-scale drawings should be created to show damaged areas.
9.2-lnspection program 9.4-Reporting and evaluation

The inspection program should be tailored to the specific The inspection report can vary from a formal publication
type of structure. Designers should provide input to the to a trip report or letter report. The report should include
program and identify items of primary and secondary impor the standard items: who, why, what, where, and when. A
tance. The inspection team should be composed of qualified pre-established outline is usually of value. An inspection
technical personnel who are experienced and can relate in checklist of deficiencies and subsequent corrective actions
common terminology. Team size is usually dependent on should be established from prior inspections. Any special
the number of technical disciplines required. The program items of interest can be shown in sketches or photos. The
should be established and monitored by an engineer who report should address existing and potential problems and
is experienced in design, construction, and operation of the categorize deficiencies relative to the urgency of corrective
proj ect. The use of underwater dive inspections, climb team action, as well as identify the extent of damage, probable
Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI American Concrete Institute- Copytri!!lflt�.@1Ma'Wl'lal34 www.concrete.org � OCi )
cause of damage, and probable extent of damage if imme stainless steel to be approximately four times more resistant
diate repairs are not made. It is important that the owner or to cavitation damage than ordinary concrete. The currently
agency distribute the report in accordance with applicable preferred stainless material is ASTM A240/A240M S30403,
U.S. federal or state safety regulations. from the standpoint of excellent corrosion and cavita
When the inspection report indicates that remedial action tion resistance, and weldability. The steel plates should be
is required, the next step is either a supplemental investiga securely anchored in place and sufficiently stiff to minimize
tion or the actual corrective action. Deficiencies noted in the the effects of vibration. Vibration of the liner plate can lead
inspection should be evaluated and categorized as to minor, to fracturing and eventual failure of the underlying concrete
major, or potentially catastrophic. The scope of work should or failure of the anchors. Grouting behind the plates to
be defined to establish reliable budget estimates. Design of prevent vibration is recommended. Unfortunately, the steel
proper repair schemes sometimes requires model tests, rede plating could hide early signs of concrete distress. The tran
sign of portions of the structure, and materials investiga sition from steel plating to concrete should also be designed
tions. Each of these items requires funding by the owner. carefully so that the concrete surface does not cavitate due
The more details identified in the scope of work, the more to an offset.
accurate the cost estimate. Wherever possible, it is important This repair method, like many others, treats only the
to correct the probable cause so that the repairs will not have symptom of erosion and eventually, if the cavitation is not
to be repeated in the near future. reduced or eliminated, the steel itself can become damaged
by pitting.
CHAPTER 10-REPA IR METHO DS AN D 10.2.3 Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC)- Laboratory
MATERIALS abrasion-erosion tests under conditions of low velocity
carrying small-size particles have concluded that FRC should
1 0.1- Design considerations not be used for new construction or repair where abrasion
1 0.L1 General-Although it is always desirable to elimi erosion is of major concern (Liu and McDonald 1 98 1 ).
nate the cause of erosion, it is not always possible; therefore, 10.2.4 Epoxy resins Resins are natural or synthetic, solid
-
ty
a varie of materials and material combinations are used for or semisolid organic materials of high molecular weight.
concrete repair. Some materials are better-suited for certain Epoxies are one type of resin. These materials are typically
repairs and the designer should use judgment in their proper used in preparation of special coatings or adhesives or as
selecti<?n. Also, consider the time available to make repairs, binders in epoxy-resin mortars and concretes. Several vari
access points, logistics in material supply, ventilation, nature eties of resin systems are routinely used for the repair of
of the work, available equipment, and skill and experience concrete structures . ACI Committee 503 ( 1 973) describes
of the local labor force. Underwater repair options can be the properties, uses, preparations, mixtures, application, and
evaluated using ACI 546.2R. Detailed descriptions of repair handling requirements for epoxy resin systems.
considerations and procedures are found in the Concrete The most common use of epoxy compounds is in bonding
Repair Manual (American Concrete Institute 20 1 3). adhesives. Epoxies will bond to most building materials, with
1 0.1.2 Consideration of materials-A major factor that is the possible exception of some plastics. Typical applications
critical to the success of a repair is how well the repair mate include the bonding of fresh concrete to existing concrete.
rial matches the strength and thermal expansion properties of Epoxies can also be used for bonding dry-pack material,
the substrate concrete, as previously discussed. Adhesion of FRC, polymer concretes, and some latex-modified concretes
the repair material to the substrate concrete is also critical for to hardened concrete. Epoxy formulations have been devel
a long-lasting repair. ICRI 2 1 0.3R discusses adequate bond oped that will bond to damp concrete and even concrete
strength at the interface between concrete repairs. Some under water. There are case histories of successful uses of
specifiers allow acceptance of bond strengths for cementi these materials in hydraulic structures. To help assure proper
tious materials as low as 100 psi (0.69 MPa) when tested in selection and use of materials, consultation with product
accordance with ASTM C 1 583M. representatives is advised before an epoxy is specified or
Normal portland-cement concrete will generally match the procured. When using a bonding agent, the bonding agent
characteristics of in-place concrete with regard to tempera should not set before the concrete or mortar is applied; other
ture change. Thermal stresses that could result in a thicker wise, bond can be poor. ASTM C88 1 /C8 8 1 M is a specifica
repair should be minimized. This can often be managed tion for epoxy bonding systems useful in concrete repairs,
by control of temperatures, replacement of cement with and ACI 503.2 covers epoxy bonding in repair work.
supplementary cementitious materials, and precooling the Experience shows that the localized application of epoxies
repair materials. Care should be taken to minimize drying can create serious problems in areas of high-velocity flow.
shrinkage. If the finished surface has a smooth or glassy texture, flow
at the boundary can be disrupted and may have the effect
10.2-Methods and materials of a geometric irregularity, which could trigger cavitation.
1 0.2.1 Steel plating Installing stainless steel liner plates
- This texture problem is minimized by using special finishing
on concrete surfaces subj ect to cavitation erosion has been techniques, improving the surface texture of the patch with
a generally successful method of protecting the concrete sand, or both. Sometimes the patch can be too resistant to
against cavitation erosion. Colgate's ( 1 9 77) studies show damage, with the result that the abutting original material
erodes away, leaving an abrupt change in surface geometry PPCC is made by the addition of water-submersible poly
and developing a condition worse than the original damage. mers directly into the wet concrete mixture. PPCC, compared
Epoxy mortars and epoxy concretes use epoxy resins for with conventional concrete, has higher strength, increased
binder material instead of portland cement. These materials flexibility, improved adhesion, superior abrasion and impact
are ideal for repair of normally submerged concrete, where resistance, and usually better freezing-and-thawing resis
ambient temperatures are relatively constant. Beware that tance and improved durability. These properties can vary
they are different from traditional concrete. Epoxies can considerably, depending on the type of polymer being used.
generate more heat while hardening, are likely to have a The most commonly used PPCC is latex-modified concrete.
different coefficient of thermal expansion than the substrate Latex is a dispersion of organic polymer particles in water.
concrete, and hardened epoxies may soften when exposed Typically, the fine aggregate and cement contents are higher
to elevated temperatures. Mixed results have been observed for PPCC than for normal concrete.
in the epoxy-mortar repair of erosion of outlet surfaces, PC is a mixture offine and coarse aggregate with a polymer
dentates, and baffle blocks (McDonald 1 980). Depending on used as the binder. This results in rapid-setting material with
the epoxy formulation, the presence of moisture, either on good chemical resistance and exceptional bonding charac
the surface or absorbed in the concrete, can be an important teristics. Polymer concrete has had limited use in large-scale
factor that affects the success of the repair. ACI 503.4 is a repair of hydraulic structures because of the expense of large
specification for epoxy mortar in repair work. volumes of polymer for binder. Thermal compatibility with
The concept of improving concrete by incorporating the parent concrete should be considered before using these
the epoxy directly into the mixture was encouraged by materials.
the successful latex modification of concrete (Murray and Polymer concretes are finding application as concrete
Schrader 1 979). Several commercial products have been repair materials for patches and overlays, and as precast
developed and research is continuing. The epoxies generally elements for repair of damaged surfaces (Fontana and
enhance the concrete's resistance to freezing and thawing B artholomew 1 98 1 ; Scanlon 1 9 8 1 ; Kuhlmann 1 98 1 ; Bhar
spalling, chemical attack, and mechanical wear. Epoxy gava 1 98 1 ). Field test installations with precast PC have
modified concrete (Christie et a!. 1 98 1 ) has a curing agent been made on parapet walls at Deadwood Dam in Idaho, and
that is retarded by the water in the mixture. As the water is as a repair of cavitation and abrasion damage in the stilling
used up by cement hydration and drying, the epoxy resin basin of American Falls Dam, also in Idaho.
begins to gel. Accordingly, the mixture will not become ACI 548 . 1 R provides an overview of the properties and
sticky until the portland cement begins to set, and this greatly use of polymers in concrete. Smoak ( 1 985) has described
extends the pot life ofthe wet concrete. These materials have polymer impregnation and polymer concrete repairs at
had limited use in hydraulic structures. Grand Coulee Dam.
1 0.2.5 Acrylics and other polymer systems- There are 1 0.2.6 Silica fume concrete L aboratory tests have shown
-
three main ways in which polymers have been incorporated that the addition of an appropriate amount of silica fume and
into concrete to produce a material with improved properties a high-range water-reducing admixture to a concrete mixture
as compared to conventional portland cement concrete: will greatly increase compressive strength. This, in turn,
1 ) Polymer-impregnated concrete (PIC) increases abrasion-erosion resistance (Holland 1 983 , 1 986b;
2) Polymer-portland-cement concrete (PPCC) Holland et a!. 1 986). As a result of these tests, concretes
3) Polymer concrete (PC) containing silica fume were used by the U.S. Army Corps of
PIC is a hydrated portland-cement concrete that has been Engineers to repair abrasion-erosion damage in the stilling
impregnated with a monomer that is subsequently polym basin at Kinzua Dam in Pennsylvania (Holland 1 986a)
erized in place. By effectively case hardening the concrete and in the concrete lining of the low-flow channel for the
surface, impregnation protects structures against the forces Los Angeles River (Holland and Gutschow 1 98 7). Despite
of cavitation (Schrader 1 978) and abrasion erosion (Liu adverse exposure conditions, particularly at Kinzua Dam,
1980). The depth of monomer penetration depends on the the silica fume concrete continues to exhibit excellent resis
porosity of the concrete and the process and pressure under tance to abrasion erosion.
which the monomer is applied. In addition to noting that Silica fume offers potential for improving many proper
these materials are costly, the engineer is cautioned that ties of concrete. However, the high compressive strength and
some monomer systems can be hazardous and that monomer resulting increase in abrasion-erosion resistance are particu
systems require care in handling and should be applied only larly beneficial in repair of hydraulic structures. Silica fume
by skilled workers experienced in their use (DePuy 1 975). concrete should be considered in repair of abrasion-erosion
Surface impregnation was used at Dworshak Dam in Idaho susceptible locations, particularly in those areas where avail
in the repair of cavitation and abrasion erosion damage to able aggregate might not otherwise be acceptable. However,
the regulating outlet tunnels (Schrader and Kaden 1 976a) silica fume may not be the best option for thick placements
and stilling basin (McDonald 1 980; Schrader and Kaden where the surface is too dense to let bleed water escape
1 976b ). High-head erosion testing of PIC at Detroit Dam test (increasing the risk of plastic drying shrinkage), or cost
facility has shown excellent performance (U.S. Army Corps prohibitive when the volume of materials is large. Silica
of Engineers 1 977). fume concrete also usually has a higher risk of cracking from
early hydration temperatures and drying shrinkage (NCHRP
Provided by IHS Markit under license with ACI American Concrete Institute- Copytri!!lflt�.@1Ma'Wl'lal34 www.concrete.org � OCi )
2008 ; ACI 224R). Guidance on the use of silica fume in 10.2.10 Pipe inserts-For repair of small-diameter pipes,
concrete is given in ACI 234R. many of the methods discussed in the previous sections of
A successful underwater repair of the stilling basing at this report are not applicable. A common construction prac
Canyon Ferry Dam in Montana was done with 1 2,000 psi tice today is to obtain a jointless, structurally sound pipe
(82 MPa) silica fume concrete (U. S . Bureau of Reclamation inside-a-pipe without excavating the existing unsound pipe.
2005). A remotely operated hydro-demolition tool was used One such method that has been used successfully is to insert
to remove concrete and exposed reinforcing steel bars at a steel or plastic pipe inside the deteriorated concrete pipe and
water depth of 50 ft ( 1 5 m). From barges, divers assisted then fill the annular space between the concrete and plastic
the installation of custom formwork and placement of self liner with grout. With the proper selection of material, a pipe
consolidating high-strength concrete having a 24 in. (600 insert can provide a sound, chemically-resistant lining (U.S.
mm) spread, which was pumped through a slickline. Department of Housing and Urban Development 1 985 ; U.S.
Underwater abrasion testing has also shown that concrete Army Corps of Engineers 1 995 ).
with ultra-fine Class F fly ash as a partial replacement for Another popular method is the installation of a resin-satu
cement performs as well as concrete with silica fume at the rated fiberglass hose into the pipeline. The hose is inserted
same replacement rates (White 20 1 1 ). into the pipeline using water pressure. After installation, the
1 0.2.7 Shotcretes-Shotcrete has been used extensively hose is filled with hot water to initiate the chemical reaction
in the repair of hydraulic structures. This method permits of the resin. The hardened resin forms a rigid pipe lining.
replacing concrete without the use of formwork, and the 1 0.2.11 Linings-Tunnels, conduits, and pipes that have
repair can be made in restricted areas. Shotcrete, also known surface damage due to abrasion erosion, bacterial action, or
as pneumatically applied mortar, can be an economical alter chemical/acid attack can be protected from further damage
native to other, more conventional systems of repair. ACI with a nonbonded, mechanically attached PVC lining.
506R provides guidance in the manufacture and application Depending on the extent of the damage, some patching of
of shotcrete. In addition to conventional shotcrete, modi the concrete surface may be required before installation.
fied concretes such as fiber-reinforced shotcrete, polymer Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) has also been
shotcrete, and silica fume shotcrete have been applied by an effective method for lining tunnels, conduits, and pipes.
the air-blown or shotcrete method. In areas where cavita CFRP systems were initially implemented for structural
tion is possible, additional trowel finishing may be neces repair of pipelines in 1 997 (Sleeper 2 0 1 0). Various struc
sary to achieve acceptable tolerances and smoothness of the tural loading conditions can be designed for based on the
concrete. direction and number of layers of CFRP applied. Labora
1 0.2.8 Coatings-High-head erosion tests have been tory studies have shown that some systems have excellent
conducted using both polyurethane and neoprene coatings cavitation resistant (Fyfe Company 2008) . Inspection during
(Houghton et al. 1 97 8). Both coatings exhibited good resis installation is recommended to ensure that substrate prepa
tance to abrasion and cavitation. The problem with flexible ration is adequate to obtain a good bond between the CFRP
coatings like these is their bond to the concrete surfaces. and the concrete.
Once an edge or a portion of the coating is tom from the 1 0.2.12 A eration slots-The installation of an aeration
surface, the entire coating can be peeled off rather quickly slot is not only a consideration in the design of a new facility
by hydraulic force. but often an appropriate remedial addition to a structure
1 0.2.9 Prep/aced-aggregate concrete-Preplaced-aggre experiencing cavitation erosion damage. Structural restora
gate concrete, also referred to as prepacked concrete, is used tion and the addition of aeration slots have been used in the
in the repair of large cavities and inaccessible areas. Clean, repair of several structures . Refer to 6.3 for a more detailed
well-graded coarse aggregate, generally of 0.5 to 1 . 5 in. ( 1 2 discussion of this method. The addition of aeration slots will
to 3 8 mm) maximum size, i s placed in the form. Neat cement likely reduce the flow capacity of the structure significantly
grout or a sanded grout, with or without admixtures, is then because of the added volume of entrained air.
pumped into the aggregate matrix through openings in the
bottom of the forms or through grout pipes embedded in CHAPTER 11-RE FERENCES
the aggregate. The grout is placed under pressure, and pres Committee documents are listed first by document number
sure is maintained until initial set. Concrete placed by this and year of publication followed by authored documents
method has a low volume change because of the point-to listed alphabetically.
point contact of the aggregate; there is high bond strength
to top bars for the same reason. The use of pozzolans, A merican Concrete Institute
water-reducing admixtures, and low water content is recom ACI 1 1 7- 1 0( 1 5)-Specification for Tolerances for
mended to further reduce shrinkage and thermal volume Concrete Construction and Materials and Commentary
changes while maintaining the fluidity required for the grout ACI 20 1 . 1 R-08-Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspec-
to completely fill the voids in the aggregate. Successful tion of Concrete in Service
installation is often difficult, and a mockup is recommended ACI 2 0 1 .2R- 1 6-Guide to Durable Concrete
before using. ACI Committee 706 (2005) provides details ACI 207 . 1 R-05( 1 2)-Guide to Mass Concrete
and guidance for the use of prep laced-aggregate concrete. ACI 207.3R-94(08)-Practices for Evaluation of Concrete
·· in Existing·Massive Structures for Service Conditions

ACI 2 1 2.3R-1 6-Report on Chemical Admixtures for A uthored documents

Concrete ACI Committee 503, 1 973, "Use of Epoxy Compounds
ACI 22 1 . 1 R-98(0 8)-Report on Alkali-Aggregate with Concrete," ACI Journal Proceedings , V. 70, No. 9,
Reactivity Sept., pp. 6 1 4-648.
ACI 224R-0 1 (08)-Control of Cracking in Concrete ACI Committee 706, 2005, "RAP-9 : Spall Repair by the
Structures Prep laced Aggregate Method," American Concrete Institute,
ACI 234R-06( 1 2)-Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in F armington Hills, MI.
Concrete American Concrete Institute, 20 13, Concrete Repair
ACI 302. 1 R- 1 5-Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Manual, fourth edition, American Concrete Institute, Farm
Construction ington Hills, Ml, 2 3 63 pp.
ACI 304R-00(09)-Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Trans- American Concrete Pipe Association, 1 980, Concrete
porting, and Placing Pipe Handbook, ACPA, Irving, TX.
ACI 3 0 8 . 1 - 1 1 -Specification for Curing Concrete Arndt, R. E. A., 1 9 8 1 , "Recent Advances in Cavitation
ACI 3 09R-05-Guide for Consolidation of Concrete Research," Advances in Hydroscience 12, Academic Press,
ACI 3 1 8- 1 4-Building Code Requirements for Structural New York, pp. 1 -78.
Concrete and Commentary ASCE-WPCF Joint Task Force, 1 982, "Gravity Sani
ACI 347R- 1 4-Guide to Formwork for Concrete tary Sewer Design and Construction," ASCE Manuals and
ACI 503 .2-92(03)-Standard Specification for Bonding Reports on Engineering Practice No. 60, American Society
Plastic Concrete to Hardened Concrete with a Multi-Compo of Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 47-66.
nent Epoxy Adhesive Ball, J., 1 959, "Hydraulic Characteristics of Gate Slots,"
ACI 503 .4-92(03)-Standard Specification for Repairing Journal of the Hy draulics Division, V. 85, No. 1 0, Oct., pp.
Concrete with Epoxy Mortars 8 1 - 1 14.
ACI 506R- 1 6-Guide to Shotcrete Bartoj ay, K., 20 1 1 , "Buffalo Bill Powerplant Tailrace
ACI 544. 1 R-96(09)-Report on Fiber Reinforced Concrete and Draft Tube Repair - Feasibility Level Design Tech
ACI 546.2R-1 0-Guide to Underwater Repair of Concrete nical Memorandum," Technical Memorandum BBPP-
ACI 548 . 1 R-09-Guide for Use of Polymers in Concrete 8 180-FEA-2001- 1 (MERL- 11-47), U . S . Bureau of Reclama
tion, Denver, CO.
ASTM International Beichley, G. L., and King, D . L., 1 975, "Cavitation
ASTM A240/A240M- 1 6-Standard Specification for Control of Aeration of High-Velocity Jets," Journal of the
Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Hy draulics Division, V. 1 0 1 , No. 7, July, pp. 829-846.
Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Bhargava, J. K., 1 98 1 , "Polymer-Modified Concrete for
Applications Overlays: Strength and Deformation Characteristics," Appli
ASTM C 1 50/C 1 5 0M- 1 7-Standard Specification for cations of Polymer Concrete, SP-69, American Concrete
Portland Cement Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml, pp. 205-2 1 8 .
ASTM C88 1 /C88 1 M- 1 5-Standard Specification for Bicz6k, 1 967, Concrete Corrosion and Concrete Protec
Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding Systems for Concrete tion, Chemical Publishing Co., New York, 543 pp.
ASTM C 1 1 3 8M-1 2-Standard Test Method for Abrasion Borden, R. C.; Colgate, D . ; Legas, J.; and Selander, C. E.,
Resistance of Concrete (Underwater Method) 1 97 1 , "Documentation of Operation, Damage, Repair and
ASTM C 1 1 57/C 1 1 57M- 1 1 -Standard Performance Spec Testing ofYellowtail Dam Spillway," Report No.REC-ERC-
ification for Hydraulic Cement 71-2 3, U . S . Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, May, 809 pp.
ASTM C 1 5 83 M - 1 3-Standard Test Method for Tensile Burgi, P. H.; Moyes, B. M.; and Gamble, T. W. , 1 984,
Strength of Concrete Surfaces and the Bond Strength or "Operation of Glen Canyon Dam Spillways-Summer
Tensile Strength of Concrete Repair and Overlay Materials 1 983," Water for Resource Development, American Society
by Direct Tension (Pulloff Method) of Civil Engineers, New York.
ASTM C 1 600/C 1 600M- l l -Standard Specification for Causey, F. E., 1 9 8 5 , "Preliminary Evaluation of a Test
Rapid Hardening Hydraulic Cement Method for Determining the Underwater Abrasion-Erosion
ASTM D4258-05(20 12)-Standard Practice for Surface Resistance of Concrete," GR-84- 1 , U . S . Bureau of Reclama
Cleaning Concrete for Coating tion, Denver, CO.
Christie III, S . H.; McClain, R. R.; and Melloan, J. H . ,
International Concrete Repair Institute 1 98 1 , "Epoxy-Modified Portland Cement Concrete," Appli
ICRI 2 1 0.3R- 1 3-Guide for Using In-Situ Tensile Pulloff cations of Polymer Concrete, SP-69, American Concrete
Tests to Evaluate Bond of Concrete Surface Materials Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml, pp. 1 5 5 - 1 67 .
ICRI 3 1 0.2-97-Selecting and Specifying Concrete Colgate, D . , 1 9 7 1 , "Hydraulic Model Studies of Aeration
Surface Preparation for Sealers, Coatings, and Polymer Devices for Yellowtail Dam Spillway Tunnel," Report No.
Overlays REC-ERC- 7 1 -4 7, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO,
Dec.

Colgate, D . , 1 977, "Cavitation Damage in Hydraulic Struc Pennsylvania," Miscellaneous Paper No. SL-83 - 1 6, U.S.
tures," Wear of Materials, American Society of Mechanical Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Engineers, New York. MS, 68 pp.
DeFazio, F. G., and Wei, C. Y., 1 983, "Design of Aeration Holland, T. C., 1 986a, "Abrasion-Erosion Evaluation
Devices on Hydraulic Structures," Frontiers in Hydraulic of Concrete Mixtures for Repair of Low-Flow Channel ,
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, New L o s Angeles River," Miscellaneous Paper SL-86- 1 2 , U . S .
York, pp. 426-43 1 . Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
DePuy, G . W., 1 975, "Process Technology Developments MS, 96 pp.
with Concrete Polymer Materials-A Summary Report," Holland, T. C . , 1 9 86b, "Abrasion-Erosion Evaluation of
Report No. GR-4-75, U . S . Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Concrete Mixtures for Stilling Basin Repairs, Kinzua Dam,
CO. Pennsylvania," Miscellaneous Paper SL-86- 1 4 , U . S . Army
DePuy, G. W. , and Dikeou, J. T., 1 973, "Development of Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS,
Polymer-Impregnated Concrete as a Construction Material 68 pp .
for Engineering Projects," Polymers in Concrete, SP-40. Holland, T. C . ; Krysa, A . ; Luther, M . D . ; and Liu, T. C . ,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. 1 9 86, "Use o f Silica-Fume Concrete t o Repair Erosion
Falvey, H. T., 1 982, "Predicting Cavitation in Tunnel Damage in the Kinzua Dam Stilling Basin," Fly Ash,
Spillways," International Water Power and Dam Construc Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete ,
tion, V. 34, No. 8, pp. 1 3 - 1 5 . SP-9 1 , V. 2 , American Concrete Institute, F armington
Falvey, H . T., 1 990, "Cavitation in Chutes and Spillways," Hills, MI, pp. 8 4 1 -864.
Engineering Monograph No. 42, U . S . Bureau of Reclama Holland, T. C., and Gutschow, R. A., 1 987, "Erosion
tion, Denver, CO, 1 45 pp. Resistance with Silica-Fume Concrete," Concrete Interna
Fontana, J. J., and Bartholomew, J., 1 98 1 , "Use of Concrete tional, V. 9, No. 3, Mar., pp. 32-40.
Polymer Materials in the Transportation Industry," Applica Holland, T. C.; Husbands, T. B.; Buck, A. D.; and Wong,
tions ofPolymer Concrete, SP-69, American Concrete Insti G. S., 1 980, "Concrete Deterioration in Spillway Warm
tute, Farmington Hills, MI, pp. 2 1 -43 . Water Chute, Raystown Dam, Pennsylvania," Miscella
Frizell, W., 2007, "Uplift and Crack Flow Resulting from neous Paper No. SL-80- 1 9, U . S . Army Engineer Waterways
High Velocity Discharges over Open Offset Joints-Labora Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Dec., 49 pp.
tory Studies," Report DS0-07-07, U . S . Bureau of Reclama Houghton, D . L.; Borge, 0. E.; and Paxton, J. H., 1 97 8 ,
tion, Denver, CO, 54 pp. "Cavitation Resistance o f Some Special Concretes," ACI
Fyfe Company, 2008, "Cavitation Resistance of PWC Journal Proceedings, V. 75, N o . 1 2 , Dec., p p . 664-667.
Coating, Testing Performed at Metropolitan Water District Hurd, M . K., 2005, Formworkfor Concrete, SP-4, seventh
of Southern California," Test Report F T C -005, Fyfe Tech edition, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
nology Center, San Diego, CA. ICOLD, 1 95 1 , Transactions, 4th International Congress
Galperin, R.; Oskolkov, A.; Seminkov, V.; and Tsedrov, on Large Dams, International Commission on Large Dams,
G., 1 977, Cavitation in Hydraulic Structures, Energiya Paris.
Publishing House, Moscow. (in Russian) Jansen, R. B . , 1 9 8 8 , Advanced Dam Engineering for
Hamilton, W. S., 1 983a, "Preventing Cavitation Damage Design, Construction, and Rehabilitation, Van Nostrand
to Hydraulic Structures," International Water Power and Reinhold, New York.
Dam Construction, V. 3 5 , Nov. , pp. 40-43. Kienow, K. E.; Pomeroy, R. E . ; and Kienow, K. K., 1 982,
Hamilton, W. S., 1 983b, "Preventing Cavitation Damage "Prediction of Sulfide Buildup in Sanitary Sewers," Journal
to Hydraulic Structures," International Water Power and of the Environmental Engineering Division, V. 1 08, No. 5 ,
Dam Construction, V. 3 5 , Dec., pp. 48-53. Oct., pp. 941 -956.
Hamilton, W. S . , 1 984, "Preventing Cavitation Damage to Knapp, R. T.; Daily, J. W.; and Hammitt, F. G., 1 970,
Hydraulic Structures," International Water Power and Dam Cavitation, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, pp. 4 1 -45
Construction, V. 36, Jan., pp. 42-45. and 2 3 9-240.
Hanna, L., 20 1 0, "Flow Deflectors for Mitigation of Kuhlmann, L. A., 1 98 1 , "Performance History of Latex
Stilling Basin Abrasion Damage." Hy draulic Laboratory Modified Concrete Overlays," Applications of Polymer
Report HL-2 0 1 0-03 , U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Concrete, SP-69, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
CO. Hills, MI, pp. 1 23- 1 44.
Haynes, W. M., ed., 2 0 1 6, CRC Handbook of Chemistry Liu, C. X., and Wang, Z . Q., 2000, "Present Situation of
and Physics, 97th edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, Dam Concrete's Lifetime in World and Existing Problems
2670 pp. in China," Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute, V. 1 ,
Hepler, T. E., and Johnson, P. L., 1 9 88, "Analysis of pp. 1 7 -20.
Proceedings of the
Spillway F ailures by Uplift Pressure," Liu, T. C., 1 980, "Maintenance and Preservation of
I 988National Conference on Hydraulic Engineering, Amer Concrete Structures: Report 3 , Abrasion-Erosion Resistance
ican Society of Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 857-866. of Concrete," Technical Report No. C-78-4, U . S . Army
Holland, T. C., 1 983, "Abrasion-Erosion Evaluation of Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Concrete Mixtures for Stilling Basin Repairs, Kinzua Dam,

Liu, T. C., and McDonald, J. E., 1 9 8 1 , "Abrasion Quintela, A. C . , 1 980, "Flow Aeration to Prevent Cavi
Erosion Resistance of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete," Cement, tation Erosion," International Water Power and Dam
Concrete and Aggregates, V. 3 , No. 2, pp. 93- 1 00 . doi: Construction, V. 32, No. 1 , Jan., pp. 1 7-22.
1 0 . 1 520/CCA 1 02 1 1 J Rigdon, J. H., and Beardsley, C . W., 1 9 5 8 , "Corrosion of
May, R. W. P. , 1 987, "Cavitation in Hydraulic Structures: Concrete by Autotrophes," Corrosion, V. 1 4, No. 4, Apr., pp.
Occurrence and Prevention," Technical Report No. SR 79, 60-62. doi: 1 0. 5 006/00 1 0-93 1 2- 1 4.4.60
Hydraulics Research Wallingford, Oxforshire, 236 pp. Rouse, H., 1 978, Elementary Mechanics of Fluids, Dover
McDonald, J. E., 1 9 80, "Maintenance and Preservation of Publications, Inc., New York, pp. 62, 84-85, and 235-238.
Concrete Structures : Report 2, Repair of Erosion Damaged Russell, S . 0., and Ball, J. W., 1 967, "Sudden-Enlargement
Structures," Technical Report No. C-78-4, U.S. Army Engi Energy Dissipator for Mica Dam," Journal of the Hydraulics
neer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. Division, V. 93, No. 4, July, pp. 4 1 -5 6 .
McDonald, J. E., and Liu, T. C., 1 987, "Repair of Abra Scanlon Jr., J. M., 1 98 1 , "Applications of Concrete
sion-Erosion Damage to Stilling Basins," Concrete Interna Polymer Materials in Hydrotechnical Construction," Appli
tional, V. 9, No. 3 , Mar. , pp. 5 5 -6 1 . cations of Polymer Concrete, SP-69, American Concrete
Mehta, P. K., and Monteiro, P. J. M., 2006, Concrete, Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, pp. 45-62.
Microstructure, Properties, and Materials, third edition, Schrader, E . , 1 98 1 , "Impact Resistance and Test Proce
McGraw Hill, New York, 1 5 9 pp. dure for Concrete," ACI Journal Proceedings, V. 79, No. 2 ,
Mehta, P. K., and Polivka, M., 1 975, "Sulfate Resistance of Mar.-Apr., p p . 1 4 1 - 1 46.
Expansive Cement Concretes," Durability of Concrete, SP-47, Schrader, E., 1 9 8 3 , "Cavitation Resistance of Concrete
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, pp. 367-379. Structures," Frontiers in Hy draulic Engineering, American
Murray, M. A., and Schrader, E . K., 1 979, "Epoxy Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
Concrete Overlays," T he Military Engineer, V. 7 1 , No. 462, Schrader, E. K . , 1 97 8 , "The Use ofPolymers in Concrete
pp. 242-244. to Resist Cavitation/Erosion Damage," Proceedings, 2nd
NCHRP, 2008, "Applications of Illuminated, Active, International Congress on Polymers in Concrete, College
In-Pavement Marker Systems, A Synthesis of Highway of Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX,
Practice," NCHRP Synthesis 3 80, National Cooperative pp. 283-309.
Highway Research Program, Washington, DC. Schrader, E . K., and Kaden, R. A., 1 9 76a, "Outlet Repairs
Neville, A., 1 999, "Specifying Concrete for Slipforming," at Dworshak Dam," T he Military Engineer, V. 68, No. 443 ,
Concrete International, V. 2 1 , No. 1 1 , Nov, pp. 6 1 -63 . pp. 254-259.
Neville, A., 2009, Properties of Concrete, fourth edition, Schrader, E . K., and Kaden, R. A., 1 976b, "Stilling Basin
Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, England. Repairs at Dworshak Dam," The Military Engineer, V. 68,
Parker, C. D., 1 95 1 , "Mechanics of Corrosion of Concrete No. 444, July-Aug. , pp. 282-286.
Sewers by Hydrogen Sulfide," Sewage and Industrial Schrader, K., and Tatro, S., 1 987, "Cavitation and Erosion
Wastes, V. 2 3 , No. 1 2, Dec., pp. 1 477- 1 4 8 5 . Damage to Concrete in Dams," Concrete International, V. 8,
Peterka, A. J., 1 95 3 , "The Effect o n Entrained Air o n Cavi No. 3 , Mar., p p . 1 6-23 .
tation Pitting," Proceedings of the Joint Meeting of the IAHR S emenkov, V. , and Lentyaev, L . , 1 97 3 , "Spillway Dam
and ASCE, Minneapolis, MN, Aug. with Aeration of Overflow," Gidrotekhs Stroitel, No. 5 ,
Pinto, N. L . , 1 982, "Aeration at High Velocity Flows," p p . 1 6-20.
International Water Power and Dam Construction, V. 34, Sleeper, B . , 2 0 1 0, "Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer
No. 2 , Feb., pp. 34-3 8; and No. 3 , Mar. 1 982, pp. 42-44. (CFRP) As a Long Term Repair Solution," Pipelines 20 10:
Process Design Manual for Sulfide
Pomeroy, R. D., 1 974, Climbing New Peaks to Infrastructure Reliability: Renew,
Control in Sanitary Sewerage Systems, EPA 625 - 1 -7-005 Rehab, and Reinvest, pp. 1 1 3 3 - 1 1 42 .
and NTIS PB/260/479, Oct. Smoak, W. G., 1 985, "Polymer Impregnation and Polymer
Pomeroy, R. D . , and Parkhurst, J. D . , 1 977, "The Fore Concrete Repairs at Grand Coulee Dam," Polymer Concrete:
casting of Sulfide Build-Up Rates in Sewers," Progress in Uses, Materials, and Properties, SP-89, American Concrete
Water Technology, V. 9, pp. 62 1 -628. Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, pp 43-50.
Popovics, S., and McDonald, W. E., 1 9 89, "Repair, Evalu Smoak, W. G., 1 997, "Tests of Acid Resistant Materials
ation, Maintenance, and Rehabilitation Research Program for Spring Creek Debris Dam,"Memorandum to Principal
Inspection of the Engineering Condition of Underwater Designer, Spring Creek Debris Dam Modification, U . S .
Concrete Structures," No. WES/TR/SL-REMR-CS-9, Army Bureau o f Reclamation, Denver, C O .
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. Tullis, J . P., 1 98 1 , "Modeling Cavitation for Closed
Portland Cement Association, 2007, "Effects of Substances Conduit Flow," Journal of the Hydraulics Division, V. 1 07,
on Concrete and Guide to Protective Treatment," PCA, No. 1 1 , Nov., pp. 1 3 35- 1 349.
Skokie, IL. Tuthill, L . H., 1 966, "Resistance to Chemical Attack,"
Price, W. H . , 1 947, "Erosion of Concrete by Cavitation Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and
and Solids in Flowing Water," ACI Journal Proceedings, V. Concrete- Making Material, STP- 1 69A, ASTM Interna
43, No. 5 , May, pp. 1 009- 1 023 . tional, West Conshohocken, PA, pp. 275-289.

U . S . Army Corps of Engineers, 1 977, "Investigation of Systems and Treatment Plants," EPA/62511 -85/0 1 8, Oct.,
Cavitation-Erosion Resistance of Conventional Steel Fiber Washington, DC.
and Polymer Impregnated Concrete for Tarbela Dam," North VanderWerf, P., 20 1 1 , "Concrete Corrosion Problems and
Pacific Division Materials Laboratory, Troutdale, 29 pp. Cures," Inspectioneering Journal, Sept.-Oct., Inspection
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1 995, "Evaluation and eering, LLC.
Repair of Concrete Structures," EM- 1 1 1 0-2-2002, Wash Vischer, D . ; Volkart, P. ; and Siegenthaler, A., 1 982,
ington, DC. "Hydraulic Modelling ofAir Slots in Open Chute Spillways,"
U . S . Bureau of Reclamation, 1 9 8 1 , Concrete Manual, Proceedings, International Conference on the Hydraulic
eighth edition, U.S. Department of lnterior, Denver, CO. Model ling of Civil Engineering Structures, British Hydro
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 2005, Report of Construc mechanics Research Association, Bedford.
tion - Canyon Ferry Dam Spillway Stilling Basin Repair, Wagner, W. E . , 1 967, "Glen Canyon Dam Diversion
Contract No.04C C 602490, Great Plains Region. Tunnel Outlets," Journal of the Hy draulics Division, V. 9 3 ,
U . S . Bureau of Reclamation, 2006, Erosion and Sedimen No. 6, Nov., pp. 1 1 3 - 1 34.
tation Manual, U.S. Department of Interior, Denver, CO. Water Pollution Control Federation, 1 979, "Odor Control
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 20 14, "Design Standard No. for Waste Water Facilities," Manual of Practice No. 22,
1 4 - Appurtenant Structures (Spillways and Outlet Work)," Washington, DC.
U . S . Department of lnterior, Denver, CO. Wei, C., and DeFazio, F., 1 982, "Simulation of Free Jet
U . S . Bureau of Reclamation, 2 0 1 5 , Guide to Concrete Trajectories for the Design ofAeration Devices on Hydraulic
Repair, second edition, U.S. Department of lnterior, Denver, Structures," Proceedings, 4th International Conference on
co. Finite Elements in Water Resources, Hampshire Computa
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, tional Mechanics Centre, Ashurst-Southampton.
1 985, "Utility Infrastructure Rehabilitation Methods," White, J., 20 1 1 , "High Strength Mixture Proportioning
HUD-PDR-952(1), July, Washington, DC. Study and Underwater Abrasion Testing of Concrete Speci
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1 985, "Design mens," Technical Memorandum MERL- 1 1 -0 1 , U.S. Bureau
Manual - Odor and Corrosion Control in Sanitary Sewerage of Reclamation, Denver, CO.

Always advancing
As ACI begins its second century of advancing concrete knowledge, its original chartered purpose
remains "to provide a comradeship in finding the best ways to do concrete work of all kinds and in
spreading knowledge." In keeping with this purpose, ACI supports the following activities:
Technical committees that produce consensus reports, guides, specifications, and codes.
Spring and fall conventions to facilitate the work of its committees.
Educational seminars that disseminate reliable information on concrete.
Certification programs for personnel employed within the concrete industry.
Student programs such as scholarships, internships, and competitions.
Sponsoring and co-sponsoring international conferences and symposia.
Formal coordination with several international concrete related societies.
Periodicals: the ACI Structural Journal, Materials Journal, and Concrete International.
Benefits of membership include a subscription to Concrete International and to an ACI Journal. ACI
members receive discounts of up to 40% on all ACI products and services, including documents, seminars
and convention registration fees.
As a member of ACI, you join thousands of practitioners and professionals worldwide who share
a commitment to maintain the highest industry standards for concrete technology, construction,
and practices. In addition, ACI chapters provide opportunities for interaction of professionals and
practitioners at a local level to discuss and share concrete knowledge and fellowship.

38800 Country Club Drive
Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Phone: +1.248.848.3700
Fax: +1.248.848.3701
www.concrete.org

Always advancing
38800 Country C l u b Drive

Farmington H i l l s , Ml 48331 USA
+1 . 248.848.3700
www.con crete.org
The A m e r i c a n C o n c rete I n stitute (AC I ) is a l e a d i n g a utho rity a n d resou rce
worldwide for the deve l o p m e nt a n d d i stri bution of c o n s e n s u s-based
sta n d a rd s a n d tec h n i c a l reso u rces, ed ucati o n a l pro g r a m s , and certifi cati o n s
for i n d ivid u a l s a n d o rga n i zati o n s i nvo lved i n c o n c rete d es i g n , c o n st r u ct i o n ,
a n d materia l s , w h o s h a re a co m m itment to p u rs u i n g the best u s e o f c o n crete.
I n d ivi d u a l s i nterested in the a ctivities of ACI a re e n c o u ra g e d to explore the
ACI website fo r m e m b e rs h i p o p p o rtu n ities, c o m m ittee activities, and a wide
va ri ety of c o n crete reso u rces. As a vo l u nteer m e m be r-d riven o rg a n izati o n ,
A C I i nvites p a rt n e rs h i p s a n d w e l c o m e s a l l con crete p rofess i o n a l s w h o w i s h to
be p a rt of a res pecte d , c o n n ecte d , soc i a l g ro u p t h at p rovides a n op portu n ity
for p rofessi o n a l g rowth, n etwo r k i n g a n d e nj oy m e nt.

9 lij�m11 11 �1l�J�I

207.6R-17 Report On The Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

207.6R-17 Report On The Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Report on the Erosion

Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

Not for Resale, 2018/1/19 02:58:34

Report on the Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures

American Concrete Institute

American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

Report on the Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic

John W. Gajda, Chair Christopher C. Ferraro, Secretary

Fares Y. Abdo Darrell Elliott Rodney E. Holderbaum Ernest K. Schrader

Jeffrey C. Allen Robert W. Cannon Allen J. Hulshizer David E. Kiefer

American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

CHAPTER 3-EROSION BY CAVITATION

liquid. In hydraulic structures, the liquid is water, and the

where the local pressure drops to a value that will cause

ties that can trigger formation of these cavities. The pressure

When the geometry of flow boundaries causes streamlines

3.2-Cavitation index � (O) --,---- --- (1}-t---

a solid surface, a high pressure is generated, which acts

Fig. 3.3b-Concrete test slab featuring cavitation producing

Fig. 3.3a-Christmas tree configuration of cavitation

locations where there was a buildup of calcite or other flaws

Fig. 4.1a-Abrasion damage to concrete baffle blocks and

Fig. 3.3e-Cavitation erosion of baffle block and floor in

the moving water was evident in the 1983 spillway tunnel

CHAPTER 4-EROSION BY ABRASION

Fig. 4.2b-Stilling basing abrasion damage from recircu­

Fig.4.2a-Typical debris resulting from abrasion erosion of

Unfortunately, in many cases, these pools also trap rocks

American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

Fig.4.3-Abrasion erosion damage in tailrace, Buffalo Bill

5.2-Erosion by mineral-free water

CHAPTER 5-EROSION BY CHEMICAL ATTACK 5.3-Erosion by miscellaneous causes

CHAPTER 6-CO NTROL OF CAVITAT IO N

6.1-Hydraulic design principles

a designer can calculate velocity and pressure combinations

Structure or irregularity cr Reference

Tunne l inlet 1.5 Tullis ( 19 8 1 1

Sudden expansion in tunne l 1 . 0* Russell and Ball ( 1967 1

Gate and gate s l o t s

Abraded concrete 0.6 Ball 1 1976 1

Fig.6. 1a-Baffle block downstream from a low spillway. of roughness

_i..".o 0.2 Ball ( 19 7 6 1

Po = 49 kPa + 95 . 8 kPa 1.6

+ 9.8 1 kN/m2 (0 - 2.0 m) = 1 25 kN/m2 , or 1 25 kPa

z0, it follows that

restrictive tolerances for hydraulic surfaces than those recom­

allowable surface irregularity such as bulges, depressions, ---- --"-

Table 6.3-Examples of use of air to prevent (6.3)

testing can identify many potential problem areas, but deter­

o L------L ------� ------L-----� ------� -------L ______L_ __L_�o

American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

damage. Before construction or repair of major structures,

9.2-lnspection program 9.4-Reporting and evaluation

Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

ACI 2 1 2.3R-1 6-Report on Chemical Admixtures for A uthored documents

American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

American Co ete Ins Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

American Concrete Institute Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

Licensee=ZHEJIANG INST OF STANDARDIZATION 5956617

Spring and fall conventions to facilitate the work of its committees.

Educational seminars that disseminate reliable information on concrete.

Certification programs for personnel employed within the concrete industry.

Fig. 4.2b-Stilling basing abrasion damage from recircu

restrictive tolerances for hydraulic surfaces than those recom

testing can identify many potential problem areas, but deter