Philosophy of Social Science :: A Cheat Sheet for Understanding the World

Ontology :: Is there a reality that I can know stuff about?

• Yes? There is stuff “out there” that I can know about = Materialist Ontology
• The stuff that exists is independent of me knowing about it
• No? The stuff “out there” is constituted by ideas = Ideationalist Ontology
• Stuff exists because of my perception of it

Epistemology :: How do we know about stuff?

• If I have a Materialist Ontology, then I can study the stuff out there objectively because I am
independent of it. I can be an impartial observer that studies something and acquires knowledge
from it.
• This is a Foundationalist Epistemology
• Those who have a Materialist Ontology, and a Foundationalist Epistemology tend to believe that
the way to study stuff is to do so scientifically by seeking to test and reproduce results (we call
them Positivists)
• If I have an Ideationalist Ontology, then my ideas and perceptions about what I am studying actually
constitute the thing that I am studying. I am not therefore independent of stuff I am studying but in
part determine its reality (and in doing so, blur the line between ontology and epistemology)
• This is an Anti-Foundationalist Epistemology
• Those who have an Ideationalist Ontology, and an Anti-Foundationalist Epistemology tend to
believe that the way to study stuff is to make knowledge claims that aren’t reality claims (we call
them Post-Positivists)

In short, if I am a positivist, then in International Relations, I will tend to believe that I can study the
world objectively, gaining real facts from what I observe.

However, if I am a post-positivist, then I will look to the ideas that construct the world, and hence give
meaning to it.

A positivist will observe the world around them (wars, power relations, etc), and make “objective”
claims about the way the world works.

A post-positivist will believe that the way that people think about, describe, discuss, highlight, etc
things around them actually determine the way the world works, and so seeks to reflect about the
perceptions of things.

Ontology
Is there a real world out there that I can know stuff about?

Materialism Ideationalism

There is a real world, which I can The “real world” is constituted by the ideas
test and know stuff about that I have about what is “real”

Epistemology
How can I know stuff?

Positivism Critical Realism Post-Positivism

(Critical Theories)

Since there is a real world, I can
test and interact with the world in
order to know stuff about it.
While there is a real world, which I
can know stuff about, I am limited,
since I have my own lens which I
view the world through.
I do not have access to the real world,
because I have a lens through which I view
the world. To me, this lens “constitutes” the
“real” world, and so studying the lens is
important.
Theory :: A Bundle of Mixed Metaphors

Theories:
a) Are like lenses through which we see the world;
Theories are like lenses. We look through our lens and we see certain things.

b) Are like maps, which reduce the complexity of the world to a simpler picture;
Theories are like maps. Maps are not reality, since reality is significantly more complex. Maps
reduce complexity by excluding things from the map, and only highlighting the “most important”.
Theories are therefore partial.

c) Are like a skin (and not a jacket), and thus are really difficult to remove.
Theories are like a skin. We can’t simply change theories like we change our clothes. Because
theory is “everyday practice”, because it is the way that we view the world, consciously or
unconsciously, it is more like a skin that I have, than a jacket that I can put on or put off as I feel.

Theories are therefore political: by looking through them to the world, seeing certain things and
ignoring other things, I am making a decision on what is important (which is inherently an exercise
in power). We want to recognise theories by analysing what each theory sees as important, but at
the same time, recognising that we already view the world a particular way.

MORE POSITIVIST ! Types of Theories " LESS POSITIVIST

Realism English School Post-Modernism

Liberalism Social Constructivism Feminism
Neo-Realism Some Critical Theory Some Critical Theory
Neo-Liberalism Some Marxism Post-colonialism
Some Marxism Green Theory
 THEORY

Theories in International Relations :: Philosophy meets the ‘real world’

THEORY ANALYTICAL FOCUS CORE COMMITMENT(S)

Positivism

Realism The State is (usually) the most The state acts in its own interest i.e. its own survival.
important actor. It does so by increasing its material power, and its
willingness to do whatever means necessary (amoral).

Liberalism The State is (usually) the most The state can act in the interest of humanity, and thus is
important actor. able to cooperate. Thus, states have the capacity to act
morally.

Neo-Realism The Structure of the international The state’s actions are determined by the system within
system is (usually) the most which it works.
important.

Neo-Liberalism The Structure of the international The state’s actions are constrained (or in another sense
system is (usually) the most enabled) by sub-state and supra-state actors, such as
important. institutions.

Marxism/Structuralism* The Structure of the international Anarchy is actually hierarchy, and this structure is (a)
system is the most important. unequal, and so (b) unjust.

In-between (some are more positivist, some less so)

Social Constructivism States exist in an international The international society is a social construction agreed
society. upon by states (‘anarchy is what states make of it’, Wendt
1992).

English School States exist in an international States learn to behave in this society (learn norms of
society. behaviour), and history is an important factor in
determining this behaviour.

Post-Positivism

Some The material and ideational The structure, unequal as it is, is perpetuated through
Marxism/Structuralism Structures of the international knowledge claims, and enforces power structures.
and Critical Theory* system are important. Liberation (aka ‘emancipation’) is what’s needed.

Feminism Gender is a/the primary Gender matters in global politics.

structure in the international
system.

Post-structuralism (aka Knowledge is the most important Concepts we think are stable are actually just very
postmodernism) structure and always produced powerful ideas. How we (think we) know what we (think
by/productive of power. we) know needs our attention.

Post-colonialism Colonialism and relations of The Eurocentrism of the discipline must be exposed and
dominion have inescapably challenged if we are to theorise a truly global politics.
shaped the international system
and continue to do so.

Green Theory Environment is the most Challenges the anthropocentrism of existing IR theories.
important focus.

*NB Some Marxism/Structuralism edges towards Critical Theory while some is firmly positivist