JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 112, F02S06, doi:10.

1029/2006JF000543, 2007
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Permafrost monitoring in the Hovsgol mountain region, Mongolia

Anarmaa Sharkhuu,1 N. Sharkhuu,1 Bernd Etzelmüller,2 Eva S. Flo Heggem,2
F. E. Nelson,3 N. I. Shiklomanov,3 Clyde E. Goulden,4 and Jerry Brown5
Received 2 May 2006; revised 21 March 2007; accepted 27 April 2007; published 28 June 2007.

[1] The Hovsgol mountain region (49°–52°N, 98°–102°E) of northern Mongolia

contains widespread mountain permafrost and comprises the southern fringe of the
Siberian continuous permafrost zone. In this paper, we report our initial monitoring of
permafrost by means of measuring ground temperatures and active layer thickness in
boreholes and some cryogenic processes under the influence of climate warming and
human activities in the region. The average rate of increase in mean annual permafrost
temperatures is from 0.2°C to 0.4°C per decade. Permafrost has been degrading more
intensively during the last 15 years (since 1990s) than during the previous 15–20 years
(1970s and 1980s). Recent degradation of permafrost under climate warming in the
Hovsgol mountain region is generally more intensive than in the Hentei and Hangai
Mountain regions. Moreover, livestock grazing in some local areas accelerates degradation
of permafrost due to loss of vegetation cover. Year-round temperature recordings by data
loggers placed beneath different vegetation covers showed marked differences in
active layer thickness and ground temperature.
Citation: Sharkhuu, A., N. Sharkhuu, B. Etzelmüller, E. S. F. Heggem, F. E. Nelson, N. I. Shiklomanov, C. E. Goulden, and J. Brown
(2007), Permafrost monitoring in the Hovsgol mountain region, Mongolia, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F02S06,
doi:10.1029/2006JF000543.

1. Introduction
[2] The Hovsgol mountain region (49°– 52N° and 98° –
102°E) is within the territory of Hovsgol Province, northern
Mongolia (Figure 1). In the northwest, the region encom-
passes the Darhad depression, which is surrounded by high
mountain ranges (>3000 m above sea level). The region also
incorporates the mountain forest steppe plateau in the south-
west, mountain taiga in the northeast, and the basin of the
Eg-Delger River in the southeast. This area contains wide-
spread mountain permafrost, and comprises the southern
fringe of the Siberian continuous permafrost zone [Goulden
et al., 2006; Sharkhuu, 2006].
[3] Global climate warming has induced degradation of
permafrost at many locations in recent years [e.g., Jorgenson
et al., 2001; Gavrilova, 2003]. According to Gavrilova’s
[2003] estimate the climate warming trend in central and
eastern Yakutia (Russia) is 1.5 times as high as in southern
Siberia and 3 times as much as in Mongolia. Particularly,
the climate warming during the last 40– 50 years in the
1
Geo-Ecology Institute, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia.
2
Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
3
Department of Geography, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware,
USA.
4
Institute of Mongolian Biodiversity and Ecological Studies, Academy
of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
5
International Permafrost Association, Woods Hole, Massachusetts,
USA.
Copyright 2007 by the American Geophysical Union.
0148-0227/07/2006JF000543$09.00
Hovsgol region has been more intense than in other regions
of Mongolia. According to data from the Hatgal weather
station, since 1963 the mean annual air temperature has
increased by 1.68°C. While the air temperature increase
amounted to 0.61°C in the period from 1963 to 1986, it was
0.68°C between 1990 and 2006. The air temperature in
winter has increased more than during the other seasons
[Nandintsetseg et al., 2006].
[4] The impacts of intensive human activities on perma-
frost conditions are, however, pronounced in local areas and
sites, and discriminating between the effects of climatic
change and human impacts is a major challenge facing
geocryologists [Nelson, 2003]. Most permafrost in the
Hovsgol region is at temperatures close to 0°C at depths
of 10 –15 m and is therefore vulnerable to climate change
and human activities in terms of vegetation disturbances.
Here, the effect of human activities on permafrost is caused
mainly by livestock grazing, forest cutting, forest fires,
mining exploitation and engineering works.
[5] In recent years the impacts of climate warming and
human activities on permafrost degradation in the region
have been monitored within the framework of several
international projects. Long-term (10 – 38 years) monitoring
of permafrost in the region is conducted within the
framework of the Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring
(CALM) and the Global Terrestrial Network for Permafrost
(GTN-P) projects [Brown et al., 1997, available at http://
www.geodata.soton.ac.uk/ipa; Brown et al., 2000; Burgess
et al., 2000; Nelson et al., 2004]. In addition, short-term
(3– 4 years) monitoring of permafrost is carried out by the
Hovsgol Global Environment Facility/World Bank (GEF/WB,

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F02S06 SHARKHUU ET AL.: PERMAFROST MONITORING IN THE HOVSGOL F02S06

Figure 1. Schematic map of permafrost and location of monitoring site in the Hovsgol mountain region.
Acc. continuous denotes an accumulative type of landform (valleys and depressions), which in underlain
by continuous permafrost, acc. discontinuous denotes the accumulative type of landform, underlain by
discontinuous permafrost, acc. sporadic and acc. isolated denote accumulative type of land, underlain by
sporadic and isolated permafrost, respectively. The denudation type of landform (watershed and slopes) is
shown darker than the corresponding accumulative type.

www.hovsgolecology.org) Project since 2002. The Hovsgol
Project study area includes six valleys (Borsog, Dalbay,
Sevsuul, Noyon, Shagnuul and Turag), which are aligned in
parallel from south to north, between Borsog and Dalbay
valleys in the south and Shagnuul and Turag valleys in the
north, along the northeastern shore of Lake Hovsgol at
50°N 100°E (see Figure 1). At present, the Hovsgol GEF/
WB Project area is designated as part of the International
Long-Term Ecological Research (ILTER) site at Lake
Hovsgol [Tsogtbaatar and Goulden, 2000; Goulden et al.,
2005a]. Cryogenic processes and phenomena are monitored
in the project area, and in the Darhad depression to the
west.
[6] The objectives of the permafrost monitoring projects
in the region are to estimate rates of degradation of
permafrost during the last 15– 20 years under the influence
of climate warming, and to document and interpret the
impacts of human activities on permafrost degradation. In
this paper, we present some initial results of permafrost
monitoring implemented in the entire Hovsgol region.
2. Permafrost Distribution
[7] Siberian thick continuous permafrost with low tem-
peratures embraces a considerable part of the Eurasian
territory. Since Mongolia is located in the southern fringe
of the Siberian permafrost zones, most of the permafrost in
Mongolia is at a temperature close to 0°C, and thus
thermally unstable. Permafrost occupies almost two thirds
of Mongolia, predominantly in the Hentei, Hovsgol,
Hangai, Altai Mountains and surrounding areas. The terri-
tory is characterized by mountain and arid land permafrost,
from isolated (<10%) and sporadic (10 –50%) to discontin-
uous (50 – 85%) and continuous (>85%) in its extent.
Hovsgol is the region with the most prevalent permafrost
in Mongolia.

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F02S06 SHARKHUU ET AL.: PERMAFROST MONITORING IN THE HOVSGOL
Figure 2. Methodology of permafrost monitoring: (a) parameters of permafrost monitoring and
(b) borehole instrumentation.
[8] In parts of the Hovsgol region in which permafrost is
widespread (‘‘continuous’’ or ‘‘discontinuous’’, Figure 1),
taliks are found on steep south facing slopes, under large
river channels and deep lake bottoms, and along tectonic
fractures with hydrothermal activity. In areas of sporadic
and isolated permafrost, frozen ground is found only on
north facing slopes and in fine-grained and moist deposits.
Average thickness and mean annual temperature in the areas
of widespread permafrost is 50– 100 m and
1° to
2°C in
valleys and depressions, and 100– 250 m and
1° to
3°C
on mountains, respectively [Sharkhuu, 2006]. Permafrost in
the region has low to moderate ice content in unconsolidated
sediments. Ice-rich (content is more than 20% by weight)
permafrost is characteristic of lacustrine and alluvial sedi-
ments in valleys and depressions. In addition, ice wedges
are found in the Darhad depression. The thickness of the
active layer is 1 – 3 m in fine-grained soils and 4 –6 m in
coarse material. Cryogenic features such as frost heaves,
cracks, icings, thermokarst terrain, solifluction lobes and
sorted polygons are abundant in the region [Gravis et al.,
1978; Sharkhuu, 2006].
[9] The project area is underlain by discontinuous per-
mafrost, the thickness of which reaches 5– 20 m in valley
bottoms and more than 20 m on forested north facing
slopes. Mean annual permafrost temperatures at depth of
10 m range from
0.3°C to
1.5°C. There is no permafrost
on south facing slopes without forest [Etzelmüller et al.,
2006; Heggem et al., 2006].
3. Methods
[10] Permafrost in the Hovsgol region has been monitored
since 1996. At many locations, long-term CALM and GTN-
P programs are based on ground temperature measurements
in shallow to deep boreholes. Monitoring of frost heaving,
thermokarst and icing is based on leveling measurement
with Russian leveling equipment of model type HB-1.
[11] Since 2002, permafrost conditions in the Hovsgol
GEF/WB Project area have been studied based on data from
permafrost temperature measurements in shallow boreholes,
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F02S06
DC resistivity tomography measurements [Etzelmüller et
al., 2006], ground surface temperature (GST) recordings by
more than 30 miniature temperature data loggers (MTDs)
[e.g., Heggem et al., 2006] and experimental observations
for the role of vegetation on GST.
3.1. Boreholes
[12] Altogether 17 boreholes at eight sites were drilled
during the last 2 – 5 years in the Hovsgol region. Borehole
depths are 5– 10 m for five boreholes, 10– 15 m for seven
boreholes, and 15– 80 m for five boreholes. In addition, in
2006 we have found 135 and 200 m deep geological
boreholes, which were drilled in the mid-1980s in Buren-
khan and Ardag mountain areas, and used them for perma-
frost monitoring. During the last 2 – 5 years, most of the
boreholes with a depth of 10 to 15 m were redrilled and
instrumented at points where previous deeper temperature
measurements in the old ones were made 17– 35 years ago
in Hovsgol region. Except for geological deep boreholes, all
the new monitoring boreholes are prepared by dry drilling.
All boreholes are situated in natural conditions without
thermal disturbance. Each borehole is designed to prevent
air convection and to protect against damage by passing
people. All the redrilled boreholes are cased by parallel steel
and plastic pipes of 3 – 5 cm diameter with the mouth of the
pipe at a depth of about 15– 20 cm and covered by soil
(Figure 2b). The empty space outside of casing pipes in all
the boreholes is filled by fine sands.
3.2. Ground Temperature Measurements
[13] The primary parameters being monitored are active
layer thickness and mean annual permafrost temperature at
the (10 –15 m deep) level of the zero annual amplitude, as
well as the temperature gradient of the permafrost (see Figure
2a). Temperature measurements in the all boreholes are made
using identical thermistors at corresponding depths, and are
carried out on approximately the same dates each year. We
use movable thermistors string, prepared at the Geothermal
laboratory of the Melnikov Permafrost Institute, Siberian
branch, Russian Academy of Science. The accuracy of
F02S06 SHARKHUU ET AL.: PERMAFROST MONITORING IN THE HOVSGOL F02S06

Figure 3. Topography map of Dalbay valley. Dots indicate locations of data loggers which are used for
GST measurements in Dalbay valley. Some of them are overlaid on each other due to short distance
between them, particularly a1 and a2: a1, grass-mowed plot; a2, plot with dense grass; b1, plot under
1.8 m high shrub; b2, plot under 0.5 m high shrub; c1, plot in sparse forest; c2, plot in dense forest;
d1, plot without moss cover; and d2, plot with 10 cm thick moss cover.

temperature measurements by Russian calibrated thermistor
(MMT-4 model) is ±0.02°C. Thermistor resistance is
measured by a multimeter (MB-400 model). In all bore-
holes the active layer thickness is determined by interpo-
lation of ground temperature profiles, obtained by
boreholes temperature measurements in late September
and early October. In addition, temperature data loggers
and thaw tubes are installed in the Hovsgol project (Borsog
M12A, Borsog M12B, Dalbay M12, Noyon M12E, Shag-
nuul M12C), Hatgal (M11) and Sharga (M8), boreholes since
2002. In addition, we have installed HOBO H8 in the
Tsagaan-nuur (M13) and Darhad (M13A) boreholes since
2005. Accuracies of measurement of ground temperatures by
using UTL-1 miniature and four-channel HOBO H8 data
loggers were ±0.25°C and ±0.5°C, respectively. The interval
time of temperature recordings by data loggers is 90 min.
3.3. Ground Surface Temperatures (GST) in
Experimental Plots
[14] In order to study the thermal insulation effect of
vegetation cover, year-round (October 2004 to October
2005) recordings from eight miniature temperature data
loggers UTL-1 are used. The data loggers were set under
the ground surface (at a depth of 2 – 5 cm) at eight plots
which differed in vegetation cover; five of them (c1, c2, d1,
d2 and b2) are on the north facing slope of Dalbay valley
near the forest edge, but the remaining three (a1, a2 and b1)
are in Dalbay valley bottom (see Figure 3). Temperature
data loggers were placed in plots of which vegetation cover
was kept in natural condition but in the a1 plot grass cover
was mowed. Plots are set in pairs and can be compared with
each other. The plots are grass-mowed bare plot (a1) and
plot with dense grass (a2), plot (b1) under 1.8 m high dense
shrub (Salix sp.) and plot (b2) under 0.5 m high dense shrub
(Salix glauca), plots in sparse larch forest (c1) and in dense
young larch forest (c2), and adjacent two plots, a plot (d1)
without moss cover and another plot (d2) with 10 cm thick
moss cover (Rhytidium rugosum and Aulacomnium. sp). All
the paired plots are close to each other (distance is 150 m
between c1 and c2, 2 m between d1 and d2, and 4 m
between a1 and a2), and there is no significant difference in
the terrain characteristics between pairs but the plot under
1.8 m high shrub (b1) and plot under 0.5 m high shrub (b2)
are set 1200 m away and located in Dalbay riparian zone
and Dalbay north facing slope, respectively. Therefore we
cannot compare these two plots directly. In addition, we
measured active layer thickness, ground temperature (at 1 m
depth) and soil moisture (at 0.5 and 1 m depths) in the
grass-mowed plot (a1) and the one under dense grass (a2).
These are two experimental plots, 4  4 meter square, at the
Dalbay study site. The plot a2 was allowed to remain under
the natural vegetation cover while in a second plot, a1,
vegetation cover was removed periodically by cutting the
plants. Ground temperature was measured by the same
movable thermistor described above. Percent of soil water
content is determined on a dry mass or gravimetric basis.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Permafrost Temperature Changes Under
Climate Warming
[15] All observational data of the selected Sharga, Hatgal,
Tsagaan-nuur, and Burenkhan long-term monitoring sites
(Figure 1) show a clear trend of increase in mean annual

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Figure 5. Trend of increase in mean annual permafrost

Figure 4. Long-term change in permafrost temperatures
under the influence of climatic warming, measured in
(1) Sharga, (2) Hatgal, (3) Tsagaan-nuur, and (4) Burenkhan
monitoring boreholes.
permafrost temperatures at a depth of 10– 15 m during the
measurement period (Figure 4 and Table 1), varying be-
tween 0.026 and 0.045°C yr
1. All borehole profiles show a
deviation of the ground temperature from steady state, and
toward warmer temperatures (see Figure 4). The rate of
increase in mean annual permafrost temperatures in the
study area varies from 0.02°C to 0.04°C yr
1, depending
on local landscape and ground conditions such as thermal
conductivity [Sharkhuu and Sharkhuu, 2005]. Estimated
thermal conductivities of frozen ground are determined by
mean of using tabulated nomogram for thermal conductivi-
ties which are calculated based on the relationship between
ice content and partial density of ground [Melinikov and
Tolstihin, 1974]. The highest rate, 0.042°C yr
1 with an
increasing trend (r2 = 0.91, P < 0.0001) in permafrost
temperatures during the last 11 years, is observed in the
Burenkhan 1 borehole on a mountain slope composed of
high thermal conductivity bedrock (Figure 5). Compared
to Tsagaan-nuur borehole (measured since 1989), the
temperatures in Burenkhan monitoring borehole.
relatively low rate of increase of temperature in the Sharga
borehole (measured since 1968) shows that permafrost is
degrading more intensively during the last 15 years than
during the previous 15– 20 years (1970 – 1980s). More-
over, mean annual ground temperatures in the Burenkhan
mountain area have increased by 0.27°C per decade on
south facing slope, 0.19°C on north facing slope, 0.23°C
in the upper watershed and 0.11°C in the valley bottom
[Sharkhuu, 1998]. Thus a rate of increase in mean annual
temperatures in a bedrock with higher thermal conductivity
is more than in an unsolidated sediments with lower
thermal conductivity, as well as the rate on south facing
slope is more than on north facing slope.
[16] The increasing permafrost temperature gradient with
depth can be addressed as an indicator of recent and
former degradation of permafrost [Harris and Haeberli,
2003]. Increasing temperature gradients are demonstrated
in the Darhad and Burenkhan 2 deep boreholes (Figure 6
and Table 2). The ground of the Burenkhan 2 borehole is
in general homogenous bedrock, composed of dolomite
and limestone. The ground of the Darhad borehole is
lacustrine deposit, composed of silt and clay, interlaying

Table 1. Rate of Permafrost Degradation in Sharga, Hatgal, Tsagaan-nuur, and Burenkhan Monitoring Boreholesa
Borehole
Sharga Hatgal Tsagaan-nuur Burenkhan 1
Latitude, N 49°290 50°380 51°210 49°470
Longitude, E 98°090 100°090 99°220 100°020
Elevation, m asl 1864 1662 1547 1705
Terrain wide valley bottom lake-river terrace lake terrace north facing slope
Predominant ground gravelly sand and loam sandy gravel lacustrine silt and clay bed rock
Ice content by weight medium (14%) low (9%) high (40%) low (4%)
Thermal conductivity, W (m K)
1 2.33 2.19 1.97 3.06
Particular density, kg m
3 1750 1900 1400 2800
Depths that data loggers H8: at 0, 3, H8: at 1, 3, H8: at 0, 2, 10, and no data logger
are installed 6, and 10 m 6, and 10 m 15 m since 2005
Measured dates 21 Sep 1968/4 Oct 2004 15 Oct 1983/20 Sep 2004 9 Aug 1989/5 Oct 2005 10 Aug 1987/5 Oct 2004
Active layer thickness h, cm 270/280 400/470 no data/150 260/420
Temperature t at depth
10 m
2.35/
1.40
1.10/
0.49 NA/NA NA/NA
15 m NA/NA NA/NA
3.57/
2.99
1.00/
0.35
Increase in temperature t 0.26 0.29 0.36 0.46
per decade, °C
a
Abbreviations: asl, above sea level; NA, not available.

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1.5  10
6 m2 s
1 and 0.5  10
6 m2 s
1 for Burenkhan

and Darhad, respectively, a similar pattern of temperature
change with time are reached at 80– 100 m depth for
Burenkhan and 30– 40 m depth for the Darhad depres-
sion, respectively. The maximum of temperature change is
reached between 15 and 30 years after the start of the
warming pulse in both boreholes in the Darhad depression.
At Burenkhan, the same happens between 20 to 40 years
(see Figure 7). This supports our hypothesis that the
observed change in thermal gradient with depth in addition
to lithologocal factors might be associated with a warming
temperature pulse. The Darhad site would then represent a
warming trend during the early 1980s, while the Buren-
khan site would respond to warming trends during the
early 1960s. Both warming episodes are recorded accord-
ing to climate data from the weather stations at the Murun,
Hatgal, and Rinchinlhumbe weather stations.
[17] Comparison of increases in permafrost temperatures
Figure 6. Change in permafrost temperature gradients in Alaska and Siberian regions shows almost the same
with depth, measured in Darhad depression and Burekhan trend. The trends over the interval of late 1970s to middle
mountain boreholes. 1990s are 0.05 – 0.08°C yr
1 in Siberia [Pavlov and
Perlshtein, 2006]. Trends of increase in permafrost table
very thin layer of fine sand. We calculated the difference temperatures between 1987 and 2001 are 0.14°C yr
1 at the
between two mean annual surface temperatures, extrapo- West Dock and Franklin Bluffs sites and 0.21°C yr
1 at the
lated from the upper thermal gradient (20 – 50 m in Darhad Deadhorse site, in northern Alaska [Romanovsky et al., 2003].
and 30 –100 m in Burenkhan 2 boreholes) and deeper Estimated trends of the increase in mean annual permafrost
thermal gradient (50 – 80 m in Darhad and 100– 150 m in temperatures over 20–30 years in Mongolia [Sharkhuu and
Burenkhan 2 boreholes). The Darhad borehole drilled in Sharkhuu, 2005] are 0.01–0.02°C yr
1 in the Hangai and
lacustrine sediments showed a MAGST increase of Hentei region, and 0.02 – 0.04°C yr
1 in the Hovsgol
0.67°C, while this value was 0.81°C at the Burenkhan 2 region. Thus the comparison shows that permafrost in high
mountain borehole, which is drilled in bedrock (Table 2). latitudinal continuous permafrost zones (in Siberia and
Deep penetration of warming temperatures in the Burenkhan Alaska) is degrading more rapidly than at the southern
2 borehole is caused by dry, dense and high thermal conduc- fringe of continuous permafrost zone (in Mongolia). Mean-
tivity (3 W mK
1) of bedrock (mainly dolomite) in the while, the permafrost in the Hovsgol region is degrading
borehole. The shallow penetration of warming temperature is more intensively than in the Hangai and Hentei regions.
characteristic for thick, fine lacustrine sediments with rela- 4.2. Changes in Active Layer Thickness
tively lower thermal conductivity (<2 W mK
1), lower
density, higher ice water content and thus considerable [ 18 ] Estimating the rates of active layer thickness
lower thermal diffusivity. The borehole temperature profile increases in the boreholes is difficult and obviously depends
showed a major thermal gradient shift at 40 m and 90– on soil properties and moisture content at the sites. Nor-
100 m depth at Darhad and Burenkhan, respectively. The
thermal gradient change could be caused by a major Table 2. Permafrost Temperature Gradients in Darhad and
change of thermal conductivity in the bedrock or subsur- Burenkhan Deep Boreholes
face material, which is supported by the rather abrupt
Borehole
changes of the thermal gradient in the borehole. The bore-
Darhad Burenkhan 2
hole log from the Burenkhan site showed a shift from
dolomite to dolomite containing phosphate at 90 m depth; Latitude, N 51°110 49°450
Longitude, E 99°300 100°000
however, there are no independent measurements of pos- Elevation, m asl 1558 1885
sible conductivity changes. We have therefore calculated Terrain dry plain of lake north facing
how fast a warming temperature pulse would penetrate depression 15° slope
into the ground within a given depth, applying the Predominant ground lacustrine silt dolomites covered
and clay by 2 m thick
equation [from Williams and Smith, 1989] debris
" ! !# Ice content by weight high (30%) low (2%)
z z Depths that data loggers H8: 2, 5, 10 and no data logger
DT ð z; tÞ ¼ DTs erf
erf are installed 15 m since 2005
½4k ðt
lÞ 1=2 ð4ktÞ1=2 Thermal conductivity, W/m K 1.86 3.33
Particular density, kg/m3 1450 2800
Depth interval, m 20 – 50/50 – 80 30 – 100/100 – 150
where z is depth, t is time, DTs is the difference of a Temperature gradient °C/m 0.023/0.037 0.014/0.021
temperature pulse from a steady state at the surface, k is Mean surface temperature,
3.21/
3.88
0.93/
1.75
the thermal diffusivity, l is the period of the temperature extrapolated from each
warming pulse, and erf is the Gaussian error function. depth interval
When assuming realistic values for thermal diffusivity of Warming temperature °C 0.67 0.81

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F02S06 SHARKHUU ET AL.: PERMAFROST MONITORING IN THE HOVSGOL F02S06

Figure 7. Temperature change with time, estimated at 30– 40 m in Darhad depression and at 80– 100 m
in Burenkhan mountain boreholes.

mally, active layer thickness varies about 10% between cant positive trends of increase in active layer thickness
consecutive year measurements [e.g., Williams and Smith, have not been observed, too [Brown et al., 2000; Romanovsky
1989]. The active layer thickness measured in the Sharga et al., 2003].
and Tsagaan-nuur boreholes were very similar (Table 1), 4.3. Some Cryogenic Processes as a Result of
thus no major changes have happened. In contrast, the Permafrost Warming
active layer depth in the Hatgal and Burenkhan 1 profiles [20] The effect of increased ground ice melt often asso-
changed with rates corresponding to 25– 40 cm per decade ciated with climate warming is visible in the terrain. The
and appeared to be characteristic of areas with deep active widespread thermokarst lakes, depressions, hollows, and
layer. The low rate of change in active layer thickness in the intensive thermoerosional riverbanks in the Darhad depres-
Sharga and Tsagaan-nuur boreholes is probably due to ice- sion are direct indicators of ancient and recent degradation
rich and fine grained sediments. However, it should be of permafrost due to climate change; there are no local or
noted that we have no long-term monitoring data to estimate human disturbances here. The vertical extent of some
a real trend of increase in active layer thickness for this thermokarst depressions and thermoerosional riverbanks at
region. Sharga ganga reaches 15– 25 m, although the average is 3 –
[19] In particular, by the ground temperature interpola- 7 m. Small subsurface cavities on the permafrost table are
tion, the active layer thickness at the Hatgal monitoring site, formed as a result of melting ice wedges. We have observed
composed of sandy gravel with relatively low ice content, ice wedge polygons on the land surface and ice wedge
was 3.6 m in 1969, 4.0 m in 1983, and 4.7 m 2004. This bodies in steep exposures (outcrops) of thermoerosional
shows also relatively intensive degradation of permafrost river banks. Large animals (yaks and horses) have fallen
during the last 15– 20 years (Table 1). The rate of increase into deep (3 m) surface cavities and died of exposure. This
in active layer thickness, determined by a thaw tube in the
Burenkhan 3 borehole is estimated to be 3.5 cm yr
1 during
the last six years (Table 3). The estimated average increase
Table 3. Active Layer Thickness in the Burenkhan Borehole 3a
in active layer thicknesses are varies in the range of 0.2–
1.5 cm yr
1 in the Hangai and Hentei regions, and 0.3– Parameter Value
2.4 cm yr
1 in Hovsgol region [Sharkhuu and Sharkhuu, Latitude, N 49°420
2005]. Compared with Alaska and Siberia, active layer Longitude, E 100°100
Elevation, m asl 1457
thickness in the Hovsgol region varies greatly from year Terrain north facing gentle slope near
to year due to deep seasonal freezing and thawing of the valley bottom with poor grass
ground. A difference between active layer thicknesses of Predominant ground 0 – 10 m, gravelly loam and sand
two years in bedrock and gravely sands with high thermal Thermal conductivity, W/m K 1.56
conductivity reaches 5 –15 cm. Even a trend of increasing Measured year 1987, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002,
2003, 2004, 2005
of active layer thickness is observed, due to variation of Active layer thickness, cm 310, 330, 325, 340, 345, 348,
active layer thickness year to year and place to place, we 352, 342
cannot conclude that active layer thickness is increasing a
There is no data logger in the borehole; the active layer thickness is
significantly in recent years. In Alaska and Siberia, signifi- measured by thaw tube.

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F02S06 SHARKHUU ET AL.: PERMAFROST MONITORING IN THE HOVSGOL
is evidence of subsurface cavities formed as a result of
melting ice wedges or degradation of permafrost under
climate warming. In the 1970s, Tsoidon Lake, a water body
about 2 km in diameter, disappeared due to thermoerosional
changes in the Hodon river channel leading to the lake. The
swampy bottom of the lake hollow has dried progressively
during the last 15 –20 years. At present, there is dry steppe
bottom in the hollow, similar to that in Yakutian alases. We
consider that intensive thermoerosion processes lead some-
times to large changes in local topography.
[21] At present-day, active thermokarst processes are
observed everywhere in the depression. Landforms or
phenomena of the active thermokarst processes are charac-
terized by thermokarst lake and hollow with steep shore of
1 – 5 m in height. Sometimes, we observe fresh cracks along
the shore. The cracks are formed as a result of thaw
settlement of ice-rich sediments. However, due to lack of
data on thermokarst age, we are unable to document when
the permafrost started to degrade. Thus we have started a
monitoring campaign to estimate the rate of thaw settlement
at some monitoring sites.
[22] On the basis of visual observations, we revealed that
in recent years there are many changes in dynamics of
cryogenic processes within the valleys along the northeast-
ern shore of Lake Hovsgol. The changes in dynamics of
cryogenic processes in the eastern shore of the Lake
Hovsgol are might caused by human activities in the context
of climate change. At present, there are almost no active
cryogenic processes in the Turag and Shagnuul valleys due
to intensive degradation of permafrost under influence of
livestock grazing, which appears to have reduced soil
moisture and caused permafrost thaw with an increased
active layer thickness. Livestock grazing is a major factor
influencing the disappearance of some cryogenic processes
and phenomena. We have observed some inactive solifluc-
tion terraces and lobes, which are traces of ancient solifluc-
tion processes.
[23] In contrast, widespread permafrost and supraperma-
frost waters, shallow active layer and wet land with dense
vegetation cover in Borsog, Dalbay and Sevsuul valley
bottoms create favorable conditions for developing active
cryogenic processes and phenomena. These conditions are
preserved owing to low impacts of humans on permafrost
degradation. Active seasonal frost mounds (hydrolocalists)
are characteristic of the valley bottoms. Results from
monitoring of frost heave and thaw settlement indicate that
the location and height of seasonal frost mounds are
variable from year to year. Their height has reached 1.5–
2.5 m during the winter. The depth of summer subsidence
and thawing on mounds varies from 0.3 to 1.0 m. Active
thermokarst, thermoerosion, icing, and solifluction lead to
considerable changes in terrain, landform, and hydrologic
conditions. The formation of a 3 – 4 m deep thermoerosion
ravine on a gentle north facing slope on Borsog Mountain
may be caused by human activities related to disturbance of
vegetation cover during road construction.
4.4. Possible Permafrost Degradation Under the
Influence of Human Activities
[24] Even in the Hovsgol region climate change is a major
factor influencing permafrost; but some changes are caused
by localized human activities such as forest fire, road
8 of 11
F02S06
construction and livestock grazing. We carried out some
observational studies in the Hovsgol Project area, including
six valleys (Figure 1). In this area, human activities are
limited primarily to pasture grazing. Dalbay and Borsog
valleys in the south experience little or no pastoral use.
Grazing is more intensive in Turag and Shagnuul valleys in
the north [Goulden et al., 2005a, 2005b; Sharkhuu, 2006]
(see Table 4). Such gradual grazing allows us to carry out
studies of permafrost change induced by the effect of
climate change, superimposed on impacts of grazing.
[25] Initial data collected during short-term monitoring of
permafrost in six valleys along the northeastern shore of
Lake Hovsgol, illustrated in Table 4, indicates that active
layer thickness varies from 1.4 m in Dalbay valley in the
south to 4.8 m in Turag valley in the north. Permafrost
temperatures at 10 m depth varies from
1.25°C in Dalbay
valley to
0.42°C in Turag valley. Borehole measurements
indicated that there was no permafrost on the Turag river
floodplain in areas with sparse grass cover. Compared to
Turag valley, the present shallow active layer and low
permafrost temperatures in Dalbay valley are apparently
insulated from thaw by the vegetation plant cover. This
suggests that the loss of plant cover due to livestock grazing
leads to an increase in active layer thickness and ground
temperature and a decrease in water content. Consequently,
we conducted preliminary experimental observations on the
insulation effect of vegetation cover, based on differences in
ground surface temperatures (GST).
[26] In Dalbay valley, we developed eight plots with
different treatments: grass-mowed bare plot (a1) and plot
with dense grass (a2), plot (b1) under 1.8 m high dense
shrub (Salix sp.) and plot (b2) under 0.5 m high dense shrub
(Salix glauca), plots in sparse larch forest (c1) and in dense
young larch forest (c2), and plot (d1) without moss cover
and plot (d2) with 10 cm thick moss cover (Rhytidium
rugosum and Aulacomnium. sp) (see Figures 3 and 8).
[27] The experimental results from the grass-mowed plot
(a1) and plot with dense grass (a2) demonstrates that at one
plot under the natural vegetation cover (a2), conditions of a
shallow active layer (56 cm in mid-July, 122 cm in early
October), low soil temperature (0.15°C at 1 m depth in early
October) are maintained and vegetation cover protects soil
moisture from evaporative losses. Soil moistures were
markedly different in the two plots at depths of 0.5 and
1 m. In contrast, the plot (a1) subjected to simulated grazing
has a thicker thawing depth (73 cm in mid-July, and 155 cm
in early October), higher soil temperature (0.5°C in early
October), and lower soil moisture. Soil moisture content in
the plot with dense grass (a2) was 45% and 176% by weight
at depths of 0.5 m and 1 m, respectively, while in the grass-
mowed plot (a1) it was 37% and 31% at depths of 0.5 m and
1 m, respectively.
[28] The thermal insulation values for different vegetation
cover (Table 5) show the mean winter GST (December,
January, and February) was coldest in plots in sparse forest (c1)
and grass-mowed (a1). Snow cover is a very important
factor in reducing the amplitude of changes and increasing
the mean winter surface temperatures [Sharkhuu et al.,
2006]. The plot with 1.8 m high shrub (b1) is the warmest
plot in winter time, owing to thicker snow cover (11.33 cm).
As compared to the grass-mowed plot (a1), which is the
warmest plot in summer time, mean summer surface tem-
F02S06 SHARKHUU ET AL.: PERMAFROST MONITORING IN THE HOVSGOL F02S06

Table 4. Active Layer Thickness and Permafrost Temperaturesa

Site
Borsog Dalbay Turag Shagnuul
Latitude, N 50°580 51°010 51°170 51°150
Longitude, E 100°440 100°460 100°500 100°510
Elevation, m, asl 1692 1658 1677 1695
Land surface dense grass dense grass poor grass poor grass
Total biomass, g/0.25 m2 178.9 ± 9.7 178.3 ± 7.6 51.5 ± 4.5 55.5 ± 3.4
Livestock number by sheep 51 530 3330.1 3001.7
Land from swampy flood swampy flood north facing foot north facing foot
plain plain slope in valley slope in valley
Predominant ground gravel and sand gravel and sand gravelly sand gravelly sand
Water-ice content, wet % no data 17.2 13.3 14.7
Date of measurements 6 Oct 2005 3 Oct 2005 9 Oct 2005 8 Oct 2005
Depth that data loggers are H8 at 0.03, 1, 3 H8 at 0.05, 1.5, 5 UTL-1 at 0.03 and H8 at 0.03, 2, 5 and
installed and 5 m and 10 m 10 m 10 m
Temperature at depth of 10 m no data
1.51
0.42
0.56
Depth of active layers, m 2.1 1.4 4.8 4.3
Estimated depth of permafrost no data 75 30 40
bottom, m
a
In the Hovsgol GEF study site boreholes at Borsog and Dalbay valley sites with dense grass cover and at Shagnuul and Turag valley sites sparse grass
cover due to intense livestock grazing pressure. Data of total biomass, including necromass, and livestock number are provided by Ariuntsetseg (Impacts of
nomadic livestock on a semi-arid boreal steppe plant community of northern Mongolia, in The Dynamics of Biodiversity Loss and Permafrost Melt in Lake
Hovsgol National Park, Mongolia, unpublished report, Geo-Ecology Institute, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 2005). Water-ice
content is determined by gravimetric basis, and the value is an average value for soil column.

perature (June, July, and August) differences are estimated
to be 2.2°C under dense grass (a2), 3.6°C under 50 cm high
dense shrubs (b2), 3.8°C under sparse forest (c1), 4.9°C under
dense forest (c2) and 5.0°C under 180 cm high bushes (b1)
at the Dalbay observation site. Besides, differences
between mean summer surface temperatures under 10 cm
thick moss cover (d2) and in the plot without moss cover
(d1) is 6.4°C (see Table 5). The linear regression estimation
of daily temperatures under different vegetation cover and
air temperature at Dalbay shows that the presence of thick
moss is a major factor in insulating the ground from the
heat; the slopes of the regression of temperature under moss
cover against air temperature, in summer and winter, are the
lowest. The difference of slope of winter temperature
regression (from November 1 to March 31) under different
vegetation cover does not only reflect vegetation cover dif-
ference but is also affected by snow cover. Daily tempera-
ture data beginning May 1 until September 31, which is

Figure 8. (top) Graphs demonstrating year-round temperature curves under different vegetation cover.
(bottom) Illustration of ratio of daily TDD (thawing degree days) of surface and air.

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F02S06 SHARKHUU ET AL.: PERMAFROST MONITORING IN THE HOVSGOL F02S06

Table 5. Mean Surface Temperatures in Single Plots With Different Vegetation Cover Located in Dalbay Valley Observation Sitesa
Mean Temperatures, °C Summer Temperature
Plots Data Loggers Under Winter Summer Annual Amplitude Difference, °C FDD TDD TDDs/TDDa
d2 10 cm thick moss
8.6 3.4
2.5 6.8 9.0
1260.1 372.7 0.295
b1 1.8 m high dense shrub
7.4 7.4
0.5 7.8 5.0
995.7 806.6 0.638
c2 Dense forest
11.7 7.5
2.3 10.5 4.9
1619.6 816.3 0.645
c1 Sparse forest
14.8 8.6
3.3 13 3.8
2078.7 918.7 0.726
b2 50 cm high dense shrub
11.4 8.8
2 11.3 3.6
1627.9 924.7 0.731
d1 On moss surface
11.5 9.8
1.5 11.9 2.6
1632.9 1096.8 0.867
a2 Dense grass
11.1 10.2
0.9 11.9 2.2
1470.8 1180.2 0.933
a1 Grass mowed
13.7 12.4
0.8 14.7 0.0
1780.2 1437.4 1.136
Air temperature at Dalbay
23.9 10.8
5.3 18.8
3120.8 1265.0
a
Measured by data UTL-1 loggers. The summer temperature differences are calculated on basis of difference between mean summer temperature beneath
vegetation cover in each plot and temperature in grass-mowed plot. Here FDD is freezing degree day, and TDD is thawing degree days. TDDs and TDDa
are surface and air thawing degree days.

above 0°C, are used for summer temperature slope analysis
(Table 6).
[29] To compare plots with each other, we computed ratio
of thawing degree days of surface (TDDs) and air (TDDa).
The ratio of TDD of surface to air is consistent with the
summer temperature reduction. The ratio of TDD of surface
and air increases rapidly in the beginning of summer season
and toward the end its rate does not change greatly (Figure 8).
In the plot where vegetation cover was removed, the ratio
was 1.14 because this site received direct solar radiation (see
Table 5). The plots under 1.8 m high shrub (b1), 0.5 m high
shrub (b2), in sparse forest (c1) and dense forest (c2) do not
differ greatly from each other; their difference have resulted
from the seasonal change (see Figure 8). In general, high
soil surface temperature is also observed in heavily grazed
places. These observations, though based on preliminary
experiments, clearly demonstrate the importance of vegeta-
tion cover on ground thermal regime.
5. Conclusions
[30 ] Permafrost in the Hovsgol mountain region is
degrading, probably both due to climate warming and
anthropogenic disturbances. Steepening of the near surface
the temperature gradient in permafrost, and widespread
occurrences of thermokarst and thermoerosion features,
are direct indicators of recent and ancient degradation of
permafrost in the region.
[31] In general, permafrost in the Hovsgol mountain
region is degrading twice as rapidly as in the Hentei and
Hangai Mountain region [Sharkhuu and Sharkhuu, 2005],
but less intensively than in eastern Siberia and the Trans-
Baikal region [Gavrilova, 2003]. The rate of permafrost
degradation in bedrock is greater than in unconsolidated
sediments, in ice-poor sediments more than in ice-rich ones,
and on south facing more than on north facing slopes.
[32] Recent degradation of permafrost under the influence
of climate warming leads to some changes in the ecological
conditions. In particular, desertification and deforestation
processes have been observed in the region’s steppe and
taiga zones, respectively. In general, our preliminary exper-
imental results demonstrate that vegetation cover acts as an
insulator in the summertime and reduces summer mean
surface temperatures. Moss cover, dense grass, and forest
are natural insulators, protecting soil moisture from evapo-
ration and maintaining low soil temperatures. Thus the key
to preserving permafrost and ecosystems, especially in the
Hovsgol taiga zone, must be based on protection of the
vegetation cover.
[33] The program of monitoring and experimentation
described in this paper represents an initial attempt to
document permafrost evolution in the Hovsgol region.
The extent and intensity of changes, their potential to affect
agricultural and other economic activities in the region, and the
interrelated nature of changes induced by climatic and

Table 6. Coefficient of Determination and Parameter of the Linear Regression for the Relation of Air and GTSa
Annual Summer Winter
Slope of the Slope of the Slope of
Plots Data Loggers Under r2 Value Regression Plots r2 Value Regression Plots r2 Value Regression
d2 10 cm thick moss 0.77 0.35 d2 0.56 0.362 d2 0.36 0.305
b1 1.8 m high bushes 0.89 0.443 c2 0.83 0.594 b1 0.65 0.313
c2 dense forest 0.93 0.527 b1 0.73 0.629 d1 0.64 0.361
b2 50 cm high shrubs 0.88 0.558 d1 0.8 0.72 c2 0.77 0.362
a2 dense grass 0.89 0.586 a2 0.81 0.735 a2 0.57 0.397
d1 on moss surface 0.91 0.587 c1 0.83 0.753 b2 0.56 0.398
c1 sparse forest 0.93 0.64 b2 0.78 0.787 c1 0.8 0.423
a1 grass mowed 0.93 0.704 a1 0.83 0.846 a1 0.76 0.439
a
Data from October 2004 to October 2005 is used for calculation for the slopes (annual), from May 2005 to September 2005 is for slope of summer
temperature, and November 2004 to March 2005 is for slope of winter temperature. Probability for r2 and slopes of all regression analyses were significant
(<0.0001).

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F02S06 SHARKHUU ET AL.: PERMAFROST MONITORING IN THE HOVSGOL
human activities, indicate an urgent need to continue and
expand permafrost observation programs in the region.
[34] Acknowledgments. The first two authors of the paper thank the
International and U.S. Permafrost Associations for their assistance in
implementing CALM and GTN-P programs in Mongolia, including in
the Hovsgol region. Permafrost studies in the Hovsgol GEF/WB Project
area are supported financially by a grant from the Global Environmental
Facility, implemented by the World Bank. The contribution and support of
Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, has been valuable. The first
author is grateful for her visits to the universities of Oslo and Delaware and
the 2005 AGU Fall Meeting in San Francisco, provided by a grant from the
Netherlands Governmental funds and sponsored by the Hovsgol GEF/WB
Project. The comments from reviewers were crucial for the improvement of
the manuscript. The authors also thank to Robert Anderson, who undertook
substantial editing of the manuscript.
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J. Brown, International Permafrost Association, P.O. Box 7, Woods Hole
MA 02543, USA. (jerrybrown@igc.org)
B. Etzelmüller and E. S. F. Heggem, Department of Geosciences,
Physical Geography, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1047, Blindern, N-0316
Oslo, Norway. (bernde@geo.uio.no)
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Research, Academy of Natural Sciences, 1900 Benjamin Franklin Parkway,
Philadelphia, PA 19103, USA. (cgoulden@acnatsci.org)
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University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19711, USA. (fnelson@udel.edu;
shiklom@udel.edu)
A. Sharkhuu and N. Sharkhuu, Geo-Ecology Institute-301, Mongolian
Academy of Sciences, Baruun Selbe-13, Ulaanbaatar, 211238 Mongolia.
(anarmaash@yahoo.com)