SUBJECT FORENSIC SCIENCE

Paper No. and Title PAPER No.11: Forensic Anthropology

Module No. and Title MODULE No.4: Anatomy of Skull

Module Tag FSC_P11_M4

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.11: Forensic Anthropology

MODULE No.4: Anatomy of Skull
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1) Learning Outcomes
2) Introduction
3) Cranial Bone
4) Parietal Bone
5) Frontal Bone
6) Facial Bone
7) Cranial Sutures
8) Difference between Male and Female Skull
9) Pathology
10) Paleopathology cleft lip and cleft Palate
11) Summary

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MODULE No.4: Anatomy of Skull
 1. Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you shall be able to know about-

 The importance of skull

 The anatomy and morphology of a skull
 The different types of bones present in skull

2. Introduction

Skull is the bony structure enclosing and protecting the brain. In an adult, 8 cranial bones
are fused together by means of sutures. Anatomically, on the joint of vertebral column, an
oval shaped, skull is positioned which is broader behind than in anterior. It is separable
into two portions:

1) Cranium
 Occipital
 Two parietals
 Frontal
 Two temporal
 Sphenoidal
 Ethmoidal

2) Facial
 Two nasal
 Two maxilla
 Lacrimal
 Zygomatic
 Palatines
 Two lesser nasal conchae
 Vomer
 Mandible

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 Hyoid bone is also positioned at the core of the tongue and linked to the bottom of the
skull by ligament. The detailed description of the each cranium bone is disused below:

Fig.1: Features of Human Cranium (Front View)

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 Fig.2: Features of human Cranium (lateral view)

3. Cranial Bones

3.1 Occipital Bones

It is located at the posterior and inferior portion of the cranium, is trapezoid in shape and
bent on itself. It is perforated by a great oval aperture- the foramen magnum through
which the cranial cavity interconnects with the vertebral canal.

Surface:
1. The external is convex and present midway between the joint of the bone and the
foramen magnum a prominence-external occipital protuberance.
2. The inner superficial is intensely concave and separated into four fossa by cruciate
eminence.

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 3. The lateral part are positioned at the side of the foramen magnum, on their beneath
surface are the condyles for articulation by superior facets of the atlas.
4. The condyles are oval or uniform in shape and their anterior extremities, directed
forwarded and medially are closer together than their posterior and encroach on the
basilar part of the bone; the following margins extend back to the level of the central
of the foramen magnum.
5. Foramen magnum is a big oval orifice with its lengthy thickness. Anterior- posterior,
it is broader behind and in anterior, where it is impinged on by the condyles.

Articulations:
The occipital articulates with six bones i.e., the two parietals, the two temporals, the
sphenoid and the atlas.

4. The Parietal Bone

Parietal bone, forms by their combination, the side and top of the cranium. Every bone is
irregular four-sided in arrangement and has two planes, four boundaries and four angles.

Surfaces:
External surface is curved, even and noticeable nearby the midpoint by an eminence, the
parietal eminence which specifies the portion where ossification commenced. At the
posterior portion and near to the higher or sagittal boundary is sagittal foramen.
The interior superficial is curved; it has depressions consistent to the cerebral obscurities.
Besides the higher boundary is a narrow furrow which collectively with that on the
opposite parietal, forms a network known as the sagittal sulcus.

Articulations:
The parietal articulates with five bones:
1. Opposite Parietal,
2. Occipital
3. Frontal
4. Temporal
5. Sphenoid.

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 5. The Frontal Bone

The frontal bone looks like a cockle-shell in arrangement, and comprises of two portions-
a perpendicular part, the squama in relation with the area of the forehead; and an orbital or
straight part, which goes into the creation of the roof of the orbital and nasal cavities.

Surface:

External surface of this portion is convex and generally displays, in the inferior portion of
the central line, the residues of the frontal or metopic suture. On both sides of this suture
separate the bone into two, which lies overhead the supraorbital margin, the frontal
eminence. The superciliary arches; are projecting medially, and are combined to each
other by an even raise called the glabella.

The supraorbital margin finishes alongside in the zygomatic process, which is tough and
projecting, and articulates with the zygomatic bone. In succession rising and regressive
from this process is a specified line-the temporal line, which divides into the upper and
lower temporal lines, continuous, in the articulated skull, with the consistent lines on the
parietal bone.

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 The interior area is curved and displays in the higher portion of the central line a
perpendicular furrow, the sagittal sulcus, the boundaries of which tie below to form a
ridge.

6. Facial Bones

6.1 Nasal bone

The nasal bones have dual minor oblong bones, variable in magnitude and arrangement in
dissimilar persons. They are positioned along sides at the central and upper part of the
face, by their intersection at “the association” of the nose.

Articulations:
The nasal bone articulates with four bones: two of the cranium, the frontal and ethmoid,
and two of the face, the contrasting nasal and the maxilla.

6.2 Maxillae bone

The maxillae are the chief bones of the face, except the mandible, and arrangement, by
their combination constitute the entire of the higher jaw. All these help in creating the
borders of three cavities, viz., the rooftop of the mouth, the ground and side wall of the
nose and the ground of the orbit. It also arrives into the creation of two fossa, the
infratemporal and pterygopalatine, and two fissures, the lesser orbital and
pterygomaxillary. All bone contains a body and four processes—zygomatic, frontal,
alveolar, and palatine.

Articulations:
The maxilla articulates with nine bones: two of the cranium, the frontal and ethmoid, and
seven of the face, viz., the nasal, zygomatic, lacrimal, inferior nasal concha, palatine, and
vomer of both side. From time to time it articulates with the orbital surface, and
occasionally with the adjacent pterygoid plate of the sphenoid.

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 6.3 Lacrimal bone

The lacrimal bone, the minutest and most fragile bone of the face, is located at the
obverse portion of the medial wall of the orbit. It has two sides and four boundaries.

Articulations:
The lacrimal articulates with four bones: two of the cranium, the frontal and ethmoid, and
two of the face, the maxilla and the inferior nasal concha.

6.4 Zygomatic bone

The zygomatic bone is small and quadrangular, and is situated at the upper and lateral part
of the face: it forms the prominence of the cheek, part of the lateral wall and floor of the
orbit, and parts of the temporal and infratemporal fossae. It presents a malar and a
temporal surface; four processes, the fronto-sphenoidal, orbital, maxillary, and temporal;
and four borders.

Articulations:
The zygomatic articulates with four bones: the frontal, sphenoidal, temporal, and maxilla.

6.5 Vomer

The vomer is situated in the median plane, but its anterior portion is frequently bent to one
or other side. It is thin, somewhat quadrilateral in shape, and forms the hinder and lower
part of the nasal septum.

Articulations:
The vomer articulates with six bones: two of the cranium, the sphenoid and ethmoid; and
four of the face, the two maxillae and the two palatine bones. It also articulates with the
septal cartilage of the nose.

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 7. Cranial Sutures

Sutures are defined as junctions or lines of articulation between adjacent bones of skull. A
suture is a type of fibrous joint which only occur in the skull or cranium. They are bound
together by Sharpey’s fibres. A tiny amount of movement is permitted at sutures, which
contributes to the elasticity of the skull.

Types of sutures present in the skull:

1) Coronal suture- Junction between frontal and parietal bones.

2) Lambdoid suture- Junction between parietal and occipital bones.
3) Sagittal suture- Junction between left and right parietal bones.
4) Frontal/ Metopic suture- Junction between the two frontal bones.
5) Occipito-mastoid sutures- Junction between sphenoid and temporal bones.
6) Parieto-mastoid suture- Junction between parietal and temporal bones.
7) Spheno-frontal suture- Junction between sphenoid and frontal bones.
8) Spheno-parietal suture- Junction between sphenoid and parietal bones.
9) Spheno-squamosal suture- Junction between sphenoid and temporal bones.
10) Spheno-zygomatic suture- Junction between sphenoid and zygomatic bones.
11) Squamosal suture- Junction between parietal and temporal bones.
12) Zygomatico-temporal suture- Junction between zygomatic and temporal bones.
13) Zygomatico-frontal suture- Junction between zygomatic and frontal bone.

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 8. Difference between Male and Female Skull

 General size: The Size of the masculine skull is larger whereas female skull is
comparatively smaller than male skull.

 Architecture: The male skull is rugged or rough and female skull is smooth and
gracile.

 Supraorbital ridges: It is the region which is directly above the orbit and nose of the
brow ridges.

 Orbits- The male orbits are squarish with rounded margins and in females it is
distinguished by roundish shape and sharp margins.

 Frontal bone- forehead is known as frontal bone. In males skull forehead is more
steeper or sloping whereas in females it is more vertical and rounded.

 Glabella- It is the point between eyebrows where females use to put

kumkum/tika/bindi in Indian culture. In males glabella is well developed and ill
developed in females.

 Zygomatic arches- It is the bony arch below the eye socket, formed by fusion of the
cheekbone and the zygomatic process of the temporal bone. It is the special
characteristic which is more pronounced or robust and tends to extend in males and
whereas in females it is less pronounced and tends not to extend beyond the external
auditory meatus.

 Mastoid process- it is located on the inferior portion of the temporal bone, just
posterior to the external auditory meatus. In males it is larger and massive but in
females it is smaller and more pointed.

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  External occipital protuberance- It is the prominent feature of the masculine skull
it shows well development whereas in females it is less developed.

 Maxillary bone (cheek bone) – In males it shows more massive, heavier appearance
and placed more laterally and in females it is slender, lighter and more compressed.

9. Pathology

The most frequent fatal malformation of the skull is anencephaly, a condition in which the
cranial vault is never developed and the rudimentary brain is directly exposed. This
condition is not infrequently combined with incomplete or whole failure of closure of the
neural canal (craniorachis). The skull bottoms shows marked deformities of its constituent
bones. The skull vault is absent and the orbits may be rudimentary. A common
malformation compatible with life is the uni- or bilateral absence of combination of the
globular and maxillary processes resulting in various degrees of hare-lip and cleft palate.
The defect is situated between the lateral incisor and the canine tooth.

Congenital herniation of meninges and brain will present on the skull bones as round,
midline defect above the association of the nose or in the occipital area, premature
synostoses of one or numerous cranial sutures results in many specific skull irregularities
noticeably dissimilar from social, artificial deformations. The increasing pressure of the
growing brain leads to separation of open sutures and deep cerebral impressions on the
inner table.

10.Paleopathology Cleft lip and Cleft Palate

These abnormalities are uncommon in archaeological skeletons. However, this does not
mean that cleft lip and palate were rare in antiquity. Tretsven found the occurrence of cleft
abnormalities among living American Indians in Montana to be higher than non-Indian
people. He further notes that many American Indian groups have descriptive terms for
cleft abnormalities in their native language. Mortality of new-borns with forked lip and/or
palate would have been high in antiquity.

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 The defect inhibits effective nursing which would have contributed to early death. Also
many infants with grossly observable deformities would have been killed. Berndorfer
(1962) has described a female skull about 25-30 years of age excavated in southern
Hungary and dated to the fifteenth century A.D. The only abnormality of the skull is a
poorly developed pre maxilla and a small defect of the inferior aspect of the right
pyriform aperture. The anterior alveolar region of the maxilla has a slight indentation
suggestive of a cleft lip. The incisors are missing Antemortem and the sockets for their
roots are not present. Berndorfer rules out gingival atrophy following antemortem loss of
the incisors, because the remaining teeth are normal. He does not consider cultural
artificial extraction of the teeth as a possible cause of the slight defect in the alveolar
bone. However, the abnormality of the pyriform aperture and subnormal development of
the pre maxilla would support a diagnosis of slight cleft lip.
Brooks and Hohenthal (1963) report the presence of cleft abnormalities in three
indigenous skulls from two archaeological cemeteries in California, USA. Two of the
skulls are from the Newark site on the south eastern shore of San Francisco Bay. The
skulls came from the Late Middle Horizon level dated by carbon-14 to 2340 years B.P.
The skulls are stored in the Museum of Anthropology at the University of California,
Berkeley, USA. The third skull is from a site in Sacramento County in California and is
dated between 2000 and 4000 years B.P from a male about 30 to 40 years of age. Both the
maxilla and palate have cleft defects. The upper right incisors were missing Antemortem.
The mandible is reported to be normal. One Skull is also male with an estimated age
between 22 and 25 years. The nasal bones are abnormal but the picture is obscured by
post-mortem damage. Both the maxilla and palate have cleft-type defects. The extensive
nature of the facial abnormality added to the general porosity of the bones of the forehead
and face are atypical of cleft palate and lip. The authors suggested the possibility of
injury, although they concluded that cleft abnormality is the best interpretation of the
defect. The Cranium is a female skull between 25 and 28 years of age. The skull has a
marked unilateral loss of bone of the alveolar portion of the right maxilla. There are also
extensive inferior bony projections on the maxilla near the suture with the zygomatic
bone. The authors conclude that this is a case of unilateral hare-lip.

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 Such a possibility should be kept in mind in studying pale pathological specimens with
abnormalities of the maxilla and palate. Derry (1938) reports two examples of agenesis of
the pre-maxillary region of the maxilla. The first example is a skull from a Twenty-fifth
Dynasty Egyptian site on the east side of the Nile.

11. Summary

 The skull consist of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones.

 Sutures are fixed interlocking junctions that link skull bones together.
 Cranial fossae are three depressions in the floor of the cranium. These fossae, called
the frontal, middle and later cranial fossae, provide spaces that accommodate the
shape of the brain.
 Nasal cavity is made by cartilage and numerous bones. Air inflowing the cavity is
warned and rinsed by coating lining the cavity.

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