TASK 1

(L02: P2.1)
Kelvin Plank statement
It states that no device or process is possible whereby the only result of this process
is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the conversion of this heat into work
without any other effect. i.e. and produce no other effect on the universe.
Clausius statement
It states that no process is possible whereby the only result of this such process is
the transfer of heat from a cooler body or a low temperature source to a hotter body
or high temperature source.

FIG1.1: Schematic of a heat engine

The purpose of the heat engine is to produce work from heat supplied from a high
temperature reservoir. But from the Kelvin Plank statement of the second law of
thermodynamics this is not possible without any other effect on the universe. This
effect is in the form of wasted heat.

From the equation of efficiency of a heat engine;

Efficiency=¿ * 100%

Qout
Efficiency=(1− ) * 100%
Qin
From the second law, Qout cannot be zero (0) since such a system does not exist,
Qout
therefore the ratio of heat out to heat in cannot be zero. Therefore, efficiency of
Qin
a heat engine cannot be zero.
TASK 2
The Carnot cycle.
Carnot cycle is an ideal or hypothetical cycle where close to 100% efficiency from an
engine can be obtained. According to second law of thermodynamics one cannot
convert all internal energy into work thus the Carnot cycle provides a way to get
maximum efficiency but since it is an ideal cycle and very impractical, it is important
in comparing and as a basis from which real cycles can be built and compared.

Stages of the Carnot cycle

Stage 1 – 2
During the first stage the gas is expanded isothermically from point 1 (V 1, P1, T2) and
gas expands isothermally to point 2 (V2, P2, T2).
work done
V2
W =mRT 2 ln ⁡( )
V1
Δu = 0 since there is no change in temperature
Stage 2 – 3
During the first stage the gas is expanded isentropically from point 2 (V 2,P2,T2) to
point 3 (V3,P3,T3) no heat is supplied since this is an adiabatic expansion thus
internal energy is used for the expansion work.
but T1=T2
work done
P 2 V 2−P3 V 3
W=
γ −1
mR(T 1−T 3)
W=
γ−1

Stage 3 – 4
During this stage the gas is compressed Isothermally and reversibly from point 3
(V3,P3,T3) to point 4 (V4,P4,T4)
but T3 = T4
work done on the gas is negative work done by the gas
work done
V4
W =−mRT 3 ln ⁡( )
V3
V3
W =mRT 3 ln ⁡( )
V4
from the first law, heat
Q= Δu+ w
V3
Q=mRT 3 ln ⁡( )
V4

Stage 4 – 1
In the last stage, the gas undergoes isentropic compression back to its initial stage.
Work done on the gas = negative work done by the gas
but T4=T1
Work done on the gas
−P 4 V 4−P1 V 1
W=
γ −1
mR(T 1−T 3)
W=
γ−1

Total work done

Total work done is the summation of the work in all stages

¿ mRT 2 ln ( VV 21 )+ mR (Tγ −11−T 3) −mRT 3 ln ( VV 34 )− mR (Tγ −11−T 3)

V2 V3
¿ mRT 2 ln (
V 1)
−mRT 3 ln (
V 4)

From

T 2 V 3 γ −1
Stage 2-3 =( )
T3 V 2

T 1 V 4 γ −1
Stage 4-3 =( )
T4 V 1
Equating both equations

V 3 γ −1 V 4 γ −1
( ) =( )
V2 V1
V 3❑ V 4
=
V2 V1
V 3❑ V 2
=
V4 V1

¿ mRT 2 ln ( VV 21 )−mRT 3 ln ( VV 34 )
V2 V2
¿ mRT 2 ln (
V 1)
−mRT 3 ln (
V1)

¿ mRT 2 ln ( VV 21 ) ( T 3−T 1 )
Efficiency (ϕ)
Efficiency is the total work done to work input
ϕ=¿
 ( VV 21 )( T 3−T 1)
( )
mRT 2 ln
ϕ=
V3
mRT 3 ln ⁡( )
V4

ϕ=( T 1−T 3
T1 )

T3
ϕ=( 1−
T 1)
∗100 %
BRAYTON CYCLE
the Brayton cycle describes the workings of a constant-pressure heat engine and is
the most common thermodynamic cycle that can be found in gas turbine power
plants or in airplanes. It is important because it is the air-standard ideal cycle
approximation for the gas- turbine engine.

Fig: brayton cycle p-v and t-s diagram

Stage 1 – 2:
Isentropic compression
Air at point 1 (P1,V1,T1) is taken into the compressor and compressed to point 2
(P2,V2,T2). The pressure of the gas increases and its volume decreases. This
process is adiabatic and reversible i.e. to heat transfer to or from the gas.

Stage 2 – 3
Constant pressure Heat addition
During this stage the gas is held at a constant pressure while fuel is added, and the
combination is ignited in the combustion chamber.
The heat added/ received by the gas is given by
Q=mCp(T 3−T 2)

Stage 3 – 4
Isentropic expansion
The air expands isentropically in the turbine from point 3 (P3,V3,T3) to point 4
(P4,V4,T4).
The pressure decreases and the volume increases.
Stage 4 – 1
Constant pressure heat ejection
During this stage the gas is held at a constant pressure while heat is ejected to the
surrounding. The volume of the gas and its temperature reduce. From point 4
(P4,V4,T4) back to point 1(P1,V1,T1).
Heat rejected is given by
Q=mCp(T 4−T 1)
Work done = heat in – heat out
W =mCp ( T 3−T 2 )−mCp(T 4−T 1)
W =mCp [( T 3−T 2 ) −( T 4−T 1 ) ]
Efficiency (ϕ)
Efficiency is the total work done to work input

ϕ= ( QoutQin−Qin )
Qout
(
ϕ= 1−
Qin )
( mCp(T
ϕ= 1−
4−T 1)
mCp (T 3−T 2) )

(T 4−T 1)
ϕ=( 1−
(T 3−T 2) )

T2 T1
but =
T3 T4

T1
T 4 (1−

( )
)
T4
ϕ= 1−
T2
T 3(1− )
T3

T4
(
ϕ= 1−
T3 )
ϕ=1−¿
TASK 2 [L02: M2]
Assuming that the heat engine is operating steadily, the thermal efficiency of a
completely reversible heat engine is given by
Tl
(
ϕ= 1−
Th )
∗100 %

where Th is the high temperature reservoir and Tl is the low temperature reservoir

Assuming we double the absolute temperature of the high temperature reservoir(Th),

the new thermal efficiency equation will be as follows:
Tl
(
ϕ= 1−
2Th )
∗100 %

Tl Tl
2 (1− ) ≠ (1−
2 Th 2 Th )

Therefore, doubling the of high temperature reservoir does not double the thermal
efficiency.
However, doubling the temperature of the high temperature reservoir will result in an
exponential increase in the efficiency of the engine up to a certain limit as shown in
the graph below
TASK 2 [L02: D1]
The theoretical Otto-cycle is known as the air-standard Otto cycle and is the ideal
cycle for approximations of spark- ignition related combustion engine.

Stage 1 – 2 Isentropic compression

In this process the air adiabatic (isentropic) compression. Compressing the air
increases its pressure from P1 to P2, the volume decreases from V1 to V2,
temperature rises from T1 to T2, while the entropy remains constant.

Stage 2 – 3 Constant volume heat addition

The piston does not move during this process fuel is adaded and the combination is
ignited; heat is added to the air at constant volume. This results in pressure,
temperature and entropy increasing from (P2 to P3, T2 to T3, S2 to S3) respectively
while volume remains constant.
Δu=Q=mCv (T 2−T 1)
Stage 3 – 4 Isentropic expansion
The air expands isentropically in the turbine from point 3 (P3,V3,T3) to point 4
(P4,V4,T4).This process is reversible and adiabatic. Work is done by the expansion
of the gas

Stage 4 – 1 Constant volume heat rejection

In this process, the piston the piston remains constant while heat is being rejected of
heat takes place at constant volume. The pressure, temperature decrease while the
volume remains constant from (P4,V4,T4) back to point 1(P1,V1,T1)
Δu=Q=mCv (T 4−T 1)
Efficiency
ϕ=( Qin−Qout
Qin )
Qout
ϕ=( 1−
Qin )

mCv (T 4−T 1)
ϕ= 1− ( mCv (T 2−T 1) )
T4
T 1(

( )
−1)
T1
ϕ= 1−
T1
T 2(1− )
T2

For isentropic processes 1-2 3-4

T 2 V 1 (γ −1) T 3 V 4 (γ −1)
=( ) and =( )
T1 V 2 T4 V 3

Since V3=V2 and V4=V1

T 2 T 3❑ T 4 T 3❑
= ∨ =
T1 T 4 T1 T2

T1
ϕ= 1− ( T2 )
for isentropic process 1 – 2

T 2 V 1 (γ −1)
, =( )
T1 V 2

T 1 V 2 (γ −1)
, =( )
T2 V 1

T 2 1 (γ−1) 1 (γ−1)
, =( ) ϕ= 1−( )
T1 r r ( )
Temperature T2
From isentropic process 1-2

T 2 V 1 (γ −1)
=( )
T1 V 2

T 2=T 1(r )(γ −1)

Temperature T3
From isentropic process 3 – 4

T 3 V 4 (γ −1)
=( )
T4 V 3

1 (γ −1)
T 3=T 4( )
r

Pressure P3

T 3 P 3 (γ−1)/ γ
=( )
T 2 P2
Therefore
γ
T3 ( )
P 3=P 2 ( )
T2
γ−1

T 3 1 (γ−1)
But =( )
T2 r

P 3=P 2 (1 /r )(γ )

Temperature T4

T 3 V 4 (γ −1)
=( )
T4 V 3

V 3 (γ −1)
T 4=T 3( )
V4

T 4=T 3(r )(γ−1)

For a compression ratio of 2:20 and assuming γ =1.4

1 (γ−1)
(
ϕ= 1−( )
r )
ϕ=( 1−(0.4)(1.4−1) )
ϕ=60.12 %
From

1 (γ −1)
T 3=T 4( )
r
From T 2=T 1(r )(γ −1)

Given T1 = 20oC = 293oK

T 2=293(r )(1.4−1 )
T 2=735.98 K
From
Q=mCv (T 3−T 2)
100
=( T 3−735.98 )
Cv
Assuming heat in per kg = heat out per kg
Q=mCv (T 1−T 4)
100
=( 293−T 4 )
Cv
T2 T3
=
T1 T 4
T3
T 4=
2.512
T3
(
( T 3−735.98 )= 293−(
2.512 )
)

T 3=736.0 K
TASK 3 [L03: P2.4]
Turbo charging and intercooling
A turbo charger uses the exhaust gases directed from an engine to drive a turbine
wheel depending on the type of turbo charger; some gather the exhaust all at once,
some gather it in pairs of cylinders in alternating sequence. This turbine wheel is
connected to a compressor wheel via a common shaft. When the compressor wheel
spin, it draws in air from the atmosphere and compresses it, this increases it
pressure and temperature.
The air is the passed to an intercooler which is basically a heat exchanger to cool
down the air before it continues to the combustion chamber.
The turbo charger and intercooler pair increase the engine's efficiency and power
output by providing extra compressed air to an engine’s combustion chamber, the
compressed air is denser and can produce more work output from its combustion

Engine cooling system

This consists of a water pump, radiator, cooling fluid/ coolant. The engine housing
consists of paths where the coolant can flow, these are known as the water jacket.
The coolant is pumped from the radiator to and from the engine housing absorbing
excess heat from the engine block and dissipating that heat in the radiator, which is
a heat exchanger. The whole process is monitored by the thermostat valve sensor
which opens or closes depending on the temperature

Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery

Exhaust gas Heat Recovery (EGHR) uses a mini heat exchanger to extract heat
from the exhaust gas in a car system to a given fluid such as a coolant to utilize that
heat to do more work. For example, to accelerate coolant heat up time. which in turn
heats up the engine faster during startup. This results in less fuel being the heat can
also be used to warm up the car during winter reducing more fuel use.
“The peak efficiency reached by a 4-cycle Otto cycle engine is around 35%, which
means that 65% of the energy contained in the fuel is lost as heat.” This energy lost
as heat being utilized for work, makes the engine theoretically more efficient
https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-Brayton-cycle
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112106133/Module_4/11_Brayton_Cycle.pdf
http://www.mechanicaltutorial.com/rankine-cycle-efficiency
https://www.quora.com/Why-are-we-studying-carnot-cycle-when-it-is-practically-not-
possible
https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-
engineering/thermodynamics/thermodynamic-cycles/brayton-cycle-gas-turbine-
engine/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66nCeHyeO5I&vl=en
https://www.turbodynamics.co.uk/technical/understanding-turbochargers/
https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/129001/efficiency-of-reversible-
engines
https://thefreeanswer.com/question/claimed-efficiency-completely-reversible-heat-
engine-can-doubled-doubling-temperature-energy-source-justify-validity-claim/
https://www.learnthermo.com/T1-tutorial/ch06/lesson-C/pg07.php
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/thermodynamics/laws-of-
thermodynamics/v/carnot-cycle-and-carnot-engine
http://mfame.guru/man-diesel-turbos-two-stage-turbocharging-passes-the-acid-test/