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Tema 2: 
  Teorías generales 
sobre aprendizaje y 
la adquisición de 
una lengua 
extranjera. El 
concepto de 
Interlengua. El 
tratamiento del 
error.   

Madhatter Wylder 
      
 
 Topic 2: 2
T
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje
e y la adquisición de una lengua exttranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.

Topic 2:
2
Teorías ge
enerales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una leng
gua extranjjera.
El conceepto de Interlengua. El
E tratamiennto del erro
or.

Ta
able of contents
1. General peerspectives on
o SLA ____
____________________
_________________________ 3
1.1. Linguisstics _______________________________________
___________________________ 3
1.1.1. Struucturalism ____
____________________________________
______________________________ 3
1.1.2. Coggnitivism_________________________________________
______________________________ 5
1.2. Sociolin
nguistics: __________________________________
___________________________ 6
1.2.1. The Labovian parradigm _____________________________ ______________________________ 6
1.2.2. Speeech accommoodation theory (SAT). _________________ ______________________________ 7
1.2.3. Mottivation. _________________________________________ ______________________________ 8
1.2.3.1.. Definition off Motivation ____________
_ ____________
______________________________ 8
1.2.3.2.. Intrinsic andd Extrinsic Mootivation_________________
______________________________ 9
1.2.3.3.. Motivation inn SLA _____________________________ _____________________________ 10
1.2.3.4.. Integrative Motivation.
M _______________________________________________________ 10
1.2.3.5.. Instrumentall Motivation ____________
_ ____________
_____________________________ 10
1.2.3.6.. Conclusion __________________________________ _____________________________ 11
1.2.4. Aptiitude. ___________________________________________ _____________________________ 11
1.3. Neuroliinguistics __________________________________
__________________________ 12
1.3.1. Hem
misphere domiinance______________________________ _____________________________ 12
1.3.2. Agee hypothesis.____________
__ ________________________ _____________________________ 13
1.3.2.1.. Introduction __________________________________ _____________________________ 13
1.3.2.2.. Critical periood for first lannguage acquisition ________
_____________________________ 14
1.3.2.3.. Critical periood for second language acquuisition __________________________________ 14
2. Treatment of errors ____________
____________________
________________________ 16
2.1. Introdu
uction _____________________________________
__________________________ 16
2.2. Error Analysis
A (EA
A): its roots and develop
pment _____
__________________________ 17
2.2.1. Conntrastive Analyysis ________________________________ _____________________________ 18
2.2.2. Cordder (1967): Inntroduction off the Concept 'Error Analysiis' __________________________ 18
3. Interlanguage _________________
____________________
________________________ 20
4. Brief summ
mary.________________
____________________
________________________ 23
5. bibliograph
hy __________________
____________________
________________________ 24

Iván Matella
anes’ Notes
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1. General perspectives on SLA

1.1. Linguistics
There are two major linguistic theories that count for the Acq of the SL:

1.1.1. Structuralism Structuralism

Bloomfield’s work language (1933) stated than:
- Lg consists of externally conditioned habits, so learning a Lg consists of 1. Lg is acq of a new set
of habits
the acquisition of a new set of habits.
- Habits are acquired through the formation of a paradigm of response 2. Habits acquired
through conditioned
conditioned to a particular stimulus and then generalized to other responses to stimulus

similar stimuli (behaviorism).

3. Learning a SL is
- Learning a SL means displacing one set of habits or linguistic replacing a set of
habits for new ones.
structure & replacing it with a new one.
st
Structuralism 1 Lg Acq
Bloomfield sees the child as acquiring a word separately in a) Children acquire
words separately in
comprehension and production, and only later connecting the two. comprehension & prod.

This view sees children as learning to imitate the speech of adults. b) Children imitate Adult
speech.
Bloomfield claims that children do not ever invent words but have an c) Children do not invent
words
imperfect exposure to the correct range of meanings. Bloomfield's theories are
testable, however: we are able to observe infants with their mothers and
determine whether or not children imitate adult words with their own similar
utterances. Unfortunately, like many language acquisition researchers of his
time, Bloomfield tends to concentrate on early word use and pronunciation, and
neglects the acquisition of grammar. He has no theory that explains how
syntax is acquired, but he does emphasise (possibly too enthusiastically) the
role of correction by the parent. E.g. A response to "Daddy bringed it" would
be "NO! Daddy brought it!"
Lado’s work linguistics across cultures (1957) introduced a new line of Lado’s contrastive analysis

research based on structural contrasts between Lgs. Similar linguistic structures Similar linguistic
structures imply learning
facility due to transfer
imply learning facility due to transfer from one system to another, while from one system to
another, while differences
differences imply learning difficulty due to contrast between two different imply learning difficulty
habits. This was the origin of the Contrastive analysis. CA is a branch of
applied Linguistics introduced in the 1930's which is concerned with

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"producing inverted (i.e. contrastive, not comparative) two-valued

CA theory claimed:
typologies (a CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded Speakers tend to hear
another Lg & attempt to
on the assumption that languages can be compared". CA theory claimed produce utterances in it
in terms of the structure
that "speakers tend to hear another language and attempt to produce of their own MT.

utterances in it in terms of the structure of their own language, thus

accounting for their accent 1 in L2,". In SLA-oriented CA, comparable features of
L1 and L2 are identified and described, and mismatches are identified that are
CA is said to be able to
likely to lead to error on the part of the learner; CA is said to be able to predict and diagnose
errors based on the
predict and diagnose errors. This application is based on the concept of concept of linguistic
transfer
linguistic transfer, which is said to happen when knowledge about one
language is applied (correctly or not) to another and intuitively would seem to
explain why language learners make the mistakes they do.
The most serious arguments against CA were that its foundations were in There are some
problems with CA
structuralism and behavioralism, which had begun to lose favour. Hypothesis:

Furtheremore, CA was not an effective method for predicting errors that 1. Errors occur that are
not due to L1.
learners actually make. Briere (1966) reported on an experiment in which 2. Errors don’t occur
when they are
American students were played non-English sounds from Arabic, Vietnamese, predicted.

and French and asked to reproduce them. While there were some cases of clear 3. Paradigm shift from
behaviorist to
mentalist views in
L1 transfer, Briere found that in other cases the students approximated one linguistics.
3.1. Errors in child
non-English sound with another (/r/ for /fl/), which would not be predicted by language part of rule
formation and not part
CA. Furthermore, it was observed that some of the non-English sounds were of child’s linguistic
environment.
3.2. Imitation and
easier than others for the American students to learn (Briere gives the example reinforcement/correcti
on don’t seem to be
of a voiceless non-aspirated fortis dental stop as being easier than the important to Lg
acquisition.
dentalized version), a phenomenon for which CA does not provide an
explanation

1
where accent refers not only to phonological accent, but to all elements in the presentation of
speech that mark the speaker as foreign (Ferguson, 1989, p.82)

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1.1.2. Cognitivism Cognitivism

Chomsky’s syntactic Structures (1957) supported Lg creativity against
behaviourist positions. He developed a transformational-generative
grammar & introduced new concepts in Lg structure:
-Infinite external behaviour
- The distinction between an infinite external behaviour (performance) (performance) and a finite
set of rules (competence)
and a finite internal set of rules (competence)2. Thanks to this innate
set of rules, a human being can create an infinite number of sentences
from a finite number of rules.
- The existence of a specific cognitive mechanism for Lg acquisition: the -Specific cognitive
mechanism for Lg
Language Acquisition device (LAD). The LAD is an innate device, Acquisition: LAD.

just dedicated to Lg acquisition and only human beings have such

Genetically
a device. The child’s mind is a black box whose internal workings cannot conditioned:
innate
be inspected. Into it go the Lg data, out of it comes grammatical Species
conditioned:
competence, Ss. The child LAD takes an input & produces output. If Human beings

smthing is found in the output that cannot be derived from the

input, it must have come from the LAD itself.
- Rules that are shared
- The presence of rules that are shared by all Lgs & consist of a set of by all Lgs & consist of a
set of parameters:
parameters. This set of parameters constitutes a model of Universal Universal grammar.

Grammar (UG).
Let us look more closely at how children Acq settings for Parameters.
a) parameters in the
- The parameters in the child’s mind can be thought of as on/off switches, child’s mind can be
thought of as on/off
each to be turned to suit the Lg that is heard. So, Acq the grammar of switches, each to be
turned to suit the Lg
UK means setting all the UG parameters in the UK way. that is heard.

- Children learn either from positive evidence3 & from indirect b) Children learn either
from both:
negative evidence4.
- Hearing a few sentences is enough to set the parameter one way or Positive evidence:
What the children
actually hear
another.
Indirect negative
evidence: What
children do not hear.

2
What speakers know (competence) against what speakers actually do on some particular
occasions (performance)
3
Occurrence of particular sentences in the speech children hear tells them which sort of Lg they
are encountering.
4
The fact that certain forms do not occur in the sentence the children hear may be enough to
set a parameter.

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c) 3 logical possibilities
We can distinguish 3 logical possibilities for parameters: for parameters settings:

1. The switch is in a neutral position; F. ex.: the child is equally

prepared for pro-drop5 or non-pro-drop. Neutral position

2. The switch is set in one direction; F.ex.: The switch is set to non- One direction

pro-drop.
3. The switch is set in the contrary direction; F.ex.: The switch is set Contrary direction

to pro-drop, the reverse position.

The discussion of Acq is no longer concerned with what happens in one Lg; The
interest lies in finding how the child’s UG can cope equally well with diff Lgs.

1.2. Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics

Language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behaviour. In We use Lg to send vital
social messages about
the normal transfer of information through language, we use language to send who we are, where we
come from, and who we
vital social messages about who we are, where we come from, and associate with.

who we associate with. It is often shocking to realize how extensively we

may judge a person's background, character, and intentions based simply upon
the person's language, dialect, or, in some instances, even the choice of a
single word. Given the social role of language, it stands to reason that one
strand of language study should concentrate on the role of language in society.
Sociolinguistics has become an increasingly important and popular field of
study, as certain cultures around the world expand their communication base
and intergroup and interpersonal relations take on escalating significance.
Three approaches to Sociolinguistics must be considered here:

1.2.1. The Labovian paradigm William Labov

William Labov has been more influential than any other researcher in
establishing the notion that Lg varies systematically in accordance with social
characteristics of the speaker. Labov’s theories are based on five axioms:

5
Pro-drop: In some Lgs, the subject (small-pro) can be omitted. English, for example, is a non-
pro-drop Lg, because the subject must be present always in a sentence.

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a) Style shifting in
1. Style shifting: Speakers are able to shift their style in order to order to converge or
diverge with their
converge or diverge with their interlocutors. interlocutors
2. Attention to style shifting is necessary to achieve the goals of b) Attention to style
shifting is necessary
convergence or divergence. Otherwise …
3. The vernacular (default style) is the style a speaker turns to when c) vernacular is the
style a speaker turns
s/he is not paying attention to style shifting. to when s/he is not
paying attention
4. Formality is a determinant factor in style shifting. The more formal a d) Formality is a
determinant factor in
conversation is, the more the speakers try to converge in style. style shifting

5. A good amount of data is necessary in order to establish relevant e) good amount of

data is necessary to
shift style
style shifting.
As a poststructuralist approach Labov's approach demonstrates a new way
of doing research on language: the combination of structural elements
with sociological features, but ignoring the statics of structuralism. His way
to describe language change is independent of the variable of time; it
refers to simultaneously existing differences in one language and searches for
reasons why one speaker uses a certain variety.
L. Dickerson extended Labov’s claims for L1 to the L2 situation. She Extended Labov claims:
- No single style
claimed that: speakers.
- Dimension of attention
- There are NO single style speakers. works in non-native Lgs.
- Vernacular vs.
- The dimension of attention operates whether the Lg is native or non- superordinate style.

native.
- The style where there is the least amount of attention to speech is the
vernacular. When attention is focused on speech, we get the
superordinate style. The vernacular is the more regular & systematic,
the superordinate is the least regular and systematic.

1.2.2. Speech accommodation theory (SAT). Speech accommodation

theory:
SAT explains motivations underlying shifts in people's speech
styles during social encounters (e.g., convergence6 vs. divergence7), and SAT explains motivations
underlying shifts in
some of the social consequences arising from them. One of the first people's speech styles
during social encounters
(convergence vs.
theoretical discussions of the relevance of SAT to SLA was offered by Beebe divergence), and some of
the social consequences
arising from them
6
Speakers adjust their speech to accommodate it to the speech of the interlocutor(s)
7
Speakers adjust their speech to become less similar to the speech of the interlocutor(s)

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and Giles (1984). They discuss learning as occurring when the learner
converges toward the NS’s speech in order to achieve certain
communicative effects or gain social approval from the NS. These
concepts of SAT have been adopted in a few interlanguage pragmatics studies.
Accommodative shifts toward L2 norms of speaking, however, are not
always considered desirable by the learner, especially when it comes to
pragmatic behaviour that reflects their beliefs about who they are. In this
respect, Giles and Byrne’s (1982) Intergroup Theory (IT) of SAT offers a useful Intergroup theory (IT):
learner who perceives
framework for understanding how such factors facilitate or impede NS using an L2 as a betray to
his/her ethnic identity is
proficiency in an L2. According to IT, a learner who perceives using an L2 not likely to achieve NS
proficiency of the TL
as a betray to his/her ethnic identity is not likely to achieve NS
proficiency of the TL. On the other hand, a learner who regards L2 learning
On the contrary, learner who
has integrative motivation
as additive and who has integrative motivation and positive attitudes and positive attitudes towards
the outgroup culture is more
towards the outgroup culture is more likely to achieve NS proficiency likely to achieve NS
proficiency
not only in vocabulary and grammar but also in sociolinguistic mastery of the Maximal convergence is
not achieved because of
L2. Therefore, maximal convergence, Giles’ (1979) term, is not achieved in two competing socio-
psychological needs:
many cases of adult pragmatic acquisition because adults tend to have two
competing socio-psychological needs: the need to become proficient in Become Their own
proficient in ethnic
the L2 versus the need to mark their own ethnic identity by preserving the L2 identity

some of the L1 privilege features. Consequently, most adult learners develop a

unique intercultural system to resolve this conflict.

1.2.3. Motivation.
Motivation:
1.2.3.1. Definition of Motivation
Combination of effort plus
Gardner defined motivation in his social-psychological model as “the desire plus favourable
attitude toward learning
combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the the language

language plus favourable attitude toward learning the language”. It is

an inner state or condition that power up behaviour and gives it direction, a
desire that energizes and directs goal-oriented behaviour, an influence of needs
and desires on the intensity and direction of behaviour, and the arousal,
direction, and persistence of behaviour. But it also concerns the reasons or

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goals that underlie their involvement in academic activities. Although students

may be equally motivated, the source of their motivation may be different.

1.2.3.2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

In general, motivation can be considered as either intrinsic (behavioural,
- Intrinsic
needs) or extrinsic (cognitive and humanistic, reinforcement). Intrinsic motivation:
Personal
motivation is generally possessed by people having personal interest(s) in interest(s) in
doing something
doing something and helping to set their goals. People are intrinsically
motivated not because accomplishing the activity they do brings a reward, but
because doing the activity itself is a reward. Mark Lepper notes that a
student with intrinsic motivation participates in his/her learning “for its own
sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of
accomplishment it evokes.” The feelings of competence and self-determination
are significant factors of intrinsic motivation. - Extrinsic motivation:
Derives from an
Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, derives from an anticipation of external
rewards
anticipation of rewards such as praise, awards, prizes, and evaluation, and
fear for punishment. An extrinsically motivated student do the activity “in order
to obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself”,
and this kind of motivation “refers to learning situations where the reason
for doing a task is something other than an interest in the task (or
broader learning endeavour) itself. In addition, undertaking the task may be
something the person feels pressured to do rather than genuinely wants to do”.
There are some negative aspects of extrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan state
that learners will lose motivation and reason to do something when Learners will probably lose
motivation when rewards
rewards are no longer available, and that giving external rewards to them are no longer available

previously with intrinsic motivation can harm the good effect of it. However,
researches show that extrinsic motivation is effective for those with no
motivation, and when it is a positive feedback.
Comparing these two types of motivation in a classroom, it becomes - Extrinsic motivation:
Derives from an
clear that intrinsic motivation produces more potential benefits than does the anticipation of external
rewards
extrinsic. Intrinsically motivated students tend to try harder and think more
deeply. It is also found by researchers that they tend to prefer Comprehensible
input (i+1) when others tend to choose easier tasks.

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1.2.3.3. Motivation in SLA

The most dominant work in SLA studies of motivation has been done by
Gardner and his associates. In his socio-cultural approach, attitudes play an
important role. He stated that “motivation to learn a second language is
influenced by group related and context related attitudes,
integrativeness and attitudes toward the learning situation
respectively”. A person who has positive attitudes to the target culture and
people is thus considered well-motivated. In general, Gardner’s model of
integrative/instrumental motivation precisely describes the particular features of
motivation in SLA.

1.2.3.4. Integrative Motivation. Integrative

Gardner’s idea was developed from Mower’s idea that to be like a valued motivation is
basically a
person is important in individual development. Gardner and Lambent described motivation to be
a member of a
the motivation as wanting to be respected and identified in a foreign target society.

setting, to be like the foreign people, to understand the culture and Motivation in SLA

participate in it, and called this concept “integrative motivation”.

Integrative motivation is basically a motivation to be a member of a target
Integrative
society in a foreign setting but it also includes a motivation coming from just motivation is
basically a
an interest or a favourable feeling to a target culture or people. McDonough motivation to be
a member of a
noted that there are two types of integrative motivation; “assimilative target society.

motivation”, strong motivation to “belong” to the target group, and

Assimilative
“affiliative motivation”, weak motivation and a desire for wider social motivation.

Affiliative
contact with target language speakers. Dickinson notes that Learners who are motivation

integratively motivated seems to have a strong intrinsic motivation to learn a

language.

1.2.3.5. Instrumental Motivation

Gardner and Lambert described “instrumental motivation” as a Instrumental motivation:
Motivation to acquire
motivation to acquire some advantages by learning a second some advantages by
learning a SL.
language. A learner with instrumental motivation regards language as an
instrument to get a reward. Though “instrumental motivation” also influences
second language learning, to the extent that an instrumental motive is tied to a
specific goal, its influence tends to be maintained only until that goal is

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achieved. On the other hand, if the goal is continuous, it seems possible

that an instrumental motivation would also continue to be effective.

1.2.3.6. Conclusion
Motivation is one of the crucial factors which determine the success of
language learning. Intrinsic motivation is the most fundamental motivation,
which is derived from the feeling of being competent and self-determinant.
People are motivated to be approved by others and to feel competent.
Whereas intrinsic motivation is essential for successful language learning, it
does not seem sufficient itself, and intrinsic motive is mediated by “cognition”
and “society”, which is when motivation occurs within self. Some ideas to foster
motivation to learn in the classroom are suggested: (1) teachers should view
learners as “active socialization agents capable of stimulating...learner
motivation to learn”, (2) classroom climate should be valued, (3) various task
dimensions work, tasks should be moderately challenging and yet achievable,
(4) tasks with specific, short-term goals can help learners to success, (5) Sociolinguistics
teachers should offer extrinsic rewards with caution.

1.2.4. Aptitude.
Even though the relationship btw aptitude (=aptitudes) & SL learning
Aptitudes:
success is a very important one, it has largely been ignored. J.B. Carroll is the
name associated most with studies of SL learning aptitude. He is the originator Carroll’s Standard “four
component” view of
of the standard “four component” view of language aptitude. language aptitude:

1. Phonemic coding ability: Ability to code sounds so that they can be a) Phonemic coding
ability: Ability to code
retained for more than a few seconds. sounds

2. Grammatical sensibility: Ability to identify the functions that b) Grammatical

sensibility: Ability to
words fulfil in sentences identify the functions that
words fulfil in sentences
3. Inductive Lg learning ability: Ability to take some data from the TL c) Inductive Lg learning
ability: Ability to make
and make generalisations from that material. generalisations
d) Memory & learning:
4. Memory & learning: Ability to form links between native and foreign Ability to form links
between the MT & the FL.
language.

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These four abilities seem to be a reasonable predictor of SL learning success in

that a person who is excellent in one or more of these abilities would seem to
be at an advantage in learning a SL.

1.3. Neurolinguistics Neurolinguistics

The most interesting lines of research in this field are based on clinical
examinations of aphasics. The most important objectives have been the
establishment of hemisphere dominance & finding a critical age in Lg learning.

1.3.1. Hemisphere dominance Hemisphere dominance:

Early research attempted to offer support for hemisphere dominance: Left hemisphere is
where most linguistic
- The left hemisphere of the brain is the one where most linguistic skills are found.
skills are found.
- Though Broca's Area function has Broca’s Area

not been strictly limited, most studies Related to speech

production: list of words
agree that this area of the frontal lobe, & their associated
meanings
in the dominant hemisphere of an
individual, is primarily related to
speech production. Broca's area is usually associated with
maintenance a list of words and parts of words used in producing
speech, and their associated meanings. It has been linked to
articulation of speech, and to semantic processing, or assigning
meanings to words we use.
- Wernicke's area is a semantic Wernicke’s Area

processing area. It is associated with Related processing

area: Associated to
some memory functions, especially Lg comprehension,
or processing of
the short-term memory involved in incoming Lg.

speech recognition and production, as

well as some hearing function and object identification. Wernicke's
area is most often associated with language comprehension, or
processing of incoming language, whether it be written or spoken.
This distinction between speech and language is key to understanding
the role of Wernicke's area to language. It does not simply affect spoken

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language, but also written and signed language. Wernicke's area

works with Broca's area, Wernicke's handling incoming speech
and Broca's handling outgoing speech.
- It has been also defended that the left hemisphere is specialized for 1st Right hemisphere is
specialized for SLA
Lg Acq, whereas the right hemisphere is specialized for SLA.
In SLA, during the first phases of the process, children have shown right
hemisphere dominance, while adults have shown more left hemisphere activity.
According to the manner of SLA, informal learning is related to right
hemisphere activity, while the left hemisphere is more active in formal learning.

1.3.2. Age hypothesis.

Age hypothesis:
1.3.2.1. Introduction
The Critical Period (CP) Hypothesis in essence states that the ability to Critical Period
Hypothesis states
learn a language is limited to the years before puberty (9 to 12 years old) after that the ability to learn
a Lg is limited to the
which, most probably as a result of maturational processes in the brain, this years before puberty
(9 to 12 y.o.)
ability disappears. Since Penfield & Roberts (1959), and especially since
Lenneberg (1967), this has been one of the most hotly debated issues in
psycholinguistics and, generally, in neurolinguistics.
Nowadays there seems to be a wide acceptance that there is a CP for
first language (FL) acquisition, with compelling evidence that, unless they
are exposed to language in the early years of life, humans lose the
ability to learn a language, especially its grammatical system. The
situation with (adult) SL acquisition however appears to be far less clear.
While it is true that very few adult SL learners achieve native
competence in the SL, some competence is nevertheless acquired,
which seems to go against the notion of a biological constraint on language
learning.
The issue of CP is closely related to the issue of access to UG in SL
learning: a CP hypothesis would entail that after a certain age (e.g. early
teens) UG is no longer available.

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1.3.2.2. Critical period for first language acquisition

Nowadays there appears to be a wide acceptance of the idea that FL
acquisition is subject to maturational constraints. As it has been pointed
out, the homogeneity of the process in terms of onset, rate, sequences, age of
completion, level of ultimate attainment, etc. across cultures and environments
suggests that it is biologically scheduled. In addition, there is an increasing
body of evidence from a variety of sources, such as FL acquisition by
linguistically isolated children (the so called feral children, among whom the
tragic Genie is the best documented case), acquisition by hearing children of
deaf adults, by deaf children of hearing adults, late acquisition of American Sign
Language, etc. all of which lend support to the CP hypothesis for FL acquisition.

1.3.2.3. Critical period for second language acquisition

The issue of CP for SLA is considerably less clear and remains among the
most hotly debated issues in SL research. It should be noted that a CP for SL
acquisition does not necessarily follow from a CP for FL acquisition. The latter
means that there is a limited period in the early years of life when individuals
can exercise a (special) language learning ability, and if this ability is not
exercised (e.g. as a consequence of linguistic isolation during this period), it
dies away and can never again be exercised. In the case of SL acquisition,
we have individuals who have successfully exercised their language
ability during the CP and have attained the normal high level of
competence in their FL. The crucial question here is: does the language
ability die away after the CP without taking into account whether it has been
exercised during the CP or not? For many, the fact that, in contrast to late FL
starters, adult SL learners can achieve a very high level of competence
in the SL can be seen as evidence favoring such a position. Others have
pointed to the highly variable success rate in SL learning and the widely
known fact that native competence in the SL can only be achieved by SLA: native competence
in the SL can only be
very young starters, suggesting that maturational constraints apply to achieved by very young
starters.
SL learning as well. The crucial question then seems to be not so much
whether children are more successful SL learners than adults, but rather
whether it is impossible for adult SL learners to achieve native

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 Topic 2: 15
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.

competence in the TL, because, as Long puts it, "[t]he easiest way to falsify
[the CP hypothesis] would be to produce learners who have demonstrably
attained native-like proficiency despite having begun exposure well after the
closure of the hypothesized sensitive periods". There have been several
experimental studies in recent years in which the researchers identified–usually
after rigorous screening - some highly proficient SL learners whose exposure to
the SL had only begun in adulthood, and using various experimental techniques
(more often than not, grammaticality judgements) compared their competence
in the SL to that of native speakers. The results from these studies appear to
indicate that achieving native competence by adult SL learners, while Achieving native
competence by adult SL
learners, while extremely
extremely rare, is not impossible, thus arguably proving that the CP rare, is not impossible
hypothesis does not hold for non-primary languages.
Many studies have given evidence that young children are more likely to
attain a native-like proficiency in a SL than are teenagers or adults.
Nevertheless, adults often learn certain parts of a new Lg more
quickly (morphological & syntactic development). The evidence is much
more solid for an advantage for young children in the acquisition of
phonology.
To sum up, young children are more successful SL learners than adults.
Why is this case?
- Psychological reasons: Adults do not want to give up the sense of - Psychological
reasons
identity their accent (1st Lg) provides.
- Cognitive
- Cognitive factors: Adults have greater cognitive abilities than children. factors (LAD)

Ironically, these abilities have ended up in a less successful learning of

the SL, probably due to the LAD.
- Neurological
- Neurological changes that prevent adults from using their brains the changes.

same way children do.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Topic 2: 16
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.

2. Treatment of errors ERRORS

In the late 1970s, several researchers conducted comparative studies on
first and SLA with an emphasis on the L2 acquisition process. Researchers
analyzed the speech of second-language learners and, based on their analyses,
many concluded that there are similarities between the two processes. Among
the first to speculate about a possible relation between first- and SLA were
COOK (1973), CORDER (1967) and SELINKER (1972). CORDER stresses the mistakes that are the
products of chance
importance of differentiating between “mistakes” that are the products of circumstances
(performance) & errors
which reveal the
chance circumstances (e.g., memory lapses, physical states and strong learner’s underlying
knowledge of the
emotion) and “errors” which reveal the learner’s underlying knowledge language to date
(Competence)
of the language to date, or the learner’s transitional competence. He
recommends a linguistic study of a second-language learner’s errors as an
indicator of the learner’s testing of the only question that he or she needs to
ask: “Are the systems of the new language the same or different from those of
the language I know?”

2.1. Introduction
Before 1960s, when the behaviouristic viewpoint of language Behaviourism:
Learner errors were
learning was prevailing, learner errors were considered something considered something
undesirable & to be
avoided
undesirable and to be avoided. It is because in behaviourists perspectives,
people learn by responding to external stimuli and receiving proper
reinforcement. A proper habit is being formed by reinforcement, hence learning Errors were a
wrong response
takes place. Therefore, errors were considered to be a wrong response to the stimulus

to the stimulus, which should be corrected immediately after they were

made. Unless corrected properly, the error became a habit and a wrong
behavioural pattern would stick in your mind.
This viewpoint of learning influenced greatly the language classroom,
where teachers concentrated on memorisation of target forms and tried If learners made
any mistake, the
to instil (=inculcar) the correct patterns of the form into learners' mind. If teacher corrected
their mistakes
learners made any mistake while repeating words, phrases or immediately

sentences, the teacher corrected their mistakes immediately. Errors were

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Topic 2: 17
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.

regarded as something you should avoid and making an error was considered
to be fatal to proper language learning processes.
Cognitivism:
This belief of learning was eventually discarded by the well-known Against structuralism.
Human Lg learning cannot
radically different perspective proposed by N. Chomsky (1957). He wrote in be explained by simply
starting off with a tabula
his paper against B.F. Skinner, that human learning, especially language rasa state of mind.

acquisition, cannot be explained by simply starting off with a "tabula

rasa" state of mind. He claimed that human beings must have a certain kind UG

of innate capacity which can guide you through a vast number of sentence
generation possibilities and have a child acquire a grammar of that language
until the age of five or six with almost no exception. He called this capacity
"Universal Grammar" and claimed that it is this very human faculty that
linguistics aims to pursue.
This swing-back of pendulum toward a rationalistic view of language
ability lead many language teachers to discredit the behaviouristic language
learning style and emphasize cognitive-code learning approach. Hence,
learners were encouraged to work on more conscious grammar
exercises based on certain rules and deductive learning began to be
focused again. This application of new linguistic insights, however, did not
bear much fruit since Chomsky himself commented that a linguistic theory of
the kind he pursued had little to offer for actual language learning or teaching
(Chomksy 1966) .
In the school of applied linguistics, however, this shift towards the innate
human capacity raised a growing interest in the learner's powers of hypothesis
formation as he moves towards the bilingual competence sufficient for his
communicative needs. One major result of this shift of attention was an
increasing concern in the monitoring and analysis of learner language.
The concepts of 'interlanguage' and 'approximative system' presented challen

2.2. Error Analysis (EA): its roots and development

As we look into the roots and development of error analysis, let us first
overview contrastive analysis so as to gain better insight into how error analysis
became more popular among SLA researchers.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Topic 2: 18
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.

2.2.1. Contrastive Analysis

Contrastive analysis:
Before the SLA field as we know it today was establised, from the 1940s Where two languages
were similar, positive
to the 1960s, contrastive analyses were conducted, in which two transfer would occur;
where they were different,
languages were systematically compared. Researchers at that time were negative transfer, or
interference, would result
motivated by the prospect of being able to identify points of similarity and
difference between native languages (NLs) and target languages (TLs). There
was a strong belief that a more effective pedagogy would result when these
were taken into consideration. Robert Lado, expressed the importance of
contrastive analysis in language teaching material design: Individuals tend to
transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and
meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language
and culture.
This claim is still quite appealing to anyone who has attempted to learn
or teach a foreign language. We encounter so many examples of the interfering
effects of our NLs. Lado went on to say a more controversial position, however,
when he claimed that "those elements that are similar to his native
language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different
will be difficult". This conviction that linguistic differences could be used to
predict learning difficulty produced the notion of the contrastive analysis
hypothesis (CAH): "Where two languages were similar, positive transfer
would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or
interference, would result."

Error analysis:
2.2.2. Corder (1967): Introduction of the Concept 'Error Analysis' Corder & Selinker
It was S.P. Corder who first advocated in applied linguistics community In L1 acquisition child's
'incorrect' utterances are
the importance of errors in language learning process. In Corder (1967), he usually interpreted as
being evidence that he is
mentions the paradigm shift in linguistics from a behaviouristic view of in the process of acquiring
Lg. These can also be
applicable to SLA.
language to a more rationalistic view and claims that in language teaching
one noticeable effect is to shift the emphasis away from teaching
towards a study of learning. He emphasises great potential for applying
new hypotheses about how languages are learned in L1 to the learning of a
second language.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Topic 2: 19
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.

Corder goes on to say that in L1 acquisition we interpret child's

'incorrect' utterances as being evidence that he is in the process of
acquiring language and that for those who attempt to describe his
knowledge of the language at any point in its development, it is the 'errors'
which provide the important evidence. In SLA, Corder proposed as a working
hypothesis that some of the strategies adopted by the learner of a
second language are substantially the same as those by which a first
language is acquired. (It does not mean, however, the course or sequence of
learning is the same in L1 and L2.) By classifying the errors that learners
made, researchers could learn a great deal about the SLA process by inferring
the strategies that second language learners were adopting. It is in this
Corder's seminal paper that he adds to our thinking by discussing the function
For learners themselves,
of errors for the learners themselves. For learners themselves, errors are errors are 'indispensable,'
since the making of
'indispensable,' since the making of errors can be regarded as a device errors can be regarded as
a device the learner uses
the learner uses in order to learn. (Selinker 1992: 150) in order to learn.

Selinker (1992) pointed out the two highly significant contributions

that Corder made: "that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are
(a) not random, but are in fact systematic, and are (b) not 'negative' or
'interfering' in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a The errors of a learner are:

necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypotheses. Such

Systematic
contribution in Corder (1967) began to provide a framework for the study of
A necessary positive
adult learner language. factor, indicative of
testing hypotheses.
It is generally agreed that the central learning process for Acquiring a Lg
is hypothesis testing. This process follows some steps:
a) Identify a particular
- Identify a particular characteristic of the TL (by transfer or characteristic of the TL
generalization)
b) Forming a hypothesis
- Forming a hypothesis based on that identification. based on that identification
c) Testing the hypothesis.
- Testing the hypothesis by means of the receptive skills.
- Receiving feedback by means of the productive skills. d) Receiving feedback.

- Delay decision until more feedback is provided, or either accepting or e) delay, accept or reject
the hypothesis.
rejecting the hypothesis.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Topic 2: 20
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.

Acquiring a TL linguistic rule is then only possible when the rule is

critical (in conditions to be tested) for the learner. Linguistic
Acquiring a TL linguistic
instruction depends upon learners’ sensibility to explicit correction rule is then only
possible when the rule
according to their stage of IL. Rules become critical according to some is critical (in conditions
to be tested) for the
logical sequencing (Natural order hypothesis) which is not derived from learner.

the L1, but it is part of a creative construction of TL knowledge that seems

to be controlled by universal cognitive principles.

3. Interlanguage Interlanguage

The study of the characteristics of the learners’ language output led

researchers to point out the dynamic and ever changing nature of the learners’
competence. Corder (1967) calls it “transitional competence”8, while
Nemser (1971) refers to it as “approximate competence”9. These terms Corder →
transitional
attempt to communicate the incomplete nature of the L2 acquisition competence.
Nemser →
process, as well as the learner’s progression along an acquisition continuum approximate
competence.
(Seliger, 1988) from zero competence to near native competence in the TL.
Selinker (1972) proposes the notion of interlanguage (IL), meaning the INTERLANGUAGE:
Separate linguistic
language that a learner uses in communication that is neither his or her native system based on the
observable output which
language (NL) nor the target language (TL), the language that the learner is results from the
learner’s attempt
attempting to acquire. It is actually a third system that is employed while production of a TL norm

the learner is progressing in the acquisition of the L2 toward native

speaker competence in the target language. The learner attempts
utterances to express ideas in a target language which are not identical to the
utterances that would be produced by a native speaker expressing an identical
idea. In developing this hypothesis, His main points are:
- Learners develop an IL system
- This IL is a unique grammar not belonging to either the NL or the TL.
- A particular learner’s IL system is formed by the L2 rules he has already
acquired and the rules he is checking for validation or rejection.

8
Transitional Competence Characteristics: (1) L2 learners develop dynamic knowledge
system, (2) This system is constantly changing as new L2 knowledge is added & (3) This
addition requires adjustment in the competence already acquired.
9
Approximate competence Characteristics: (1) L2 learners progress along a continuum,
(2) this continuum runs from zero to a level close the NS’s linguistic proficiency.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Topic 2: 21
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.

Selinker also addresses the concept of fossilization. Fossilised linguistic Fossilization: linguistic
items, rules &
phenomena are linguistic items, rules & subsystems which speakers of subsystems which
speakers of a particular
a particular NL will tend to keep in their IL (relative to a particular TL), no NL will tend to keep in
their IL no matter what
matter what amount of instruction they receive in the TL. These fossilised amount of instruction
they receive in the TL
structures are also “errors”. Fossilization supposedly occurs in the IL when the
learner’s acculturation into the society who speaks the TL ceases.
Selinker clearly conceived IL as being a continuum. IL continuum is a
IL continuum is a
dynamic, goal-oriented (towards a TL) language system of increasing dynamic, goal-oriented
(towards a TL) language
system of increasing
complexity. Note that this definition does not specify that this continuum is complexity.
institutionalized in any Lg community. IL is not normally used for
It is not institutionalized
communication among themselves, but just as an individual step towards in any Lg community

the TL. Many studies strongly agree in the fact that the IL of learners, whatever
their mother tongues, in certain circumstance does go through a similar
IL is a dynamic system
sequence of development (at least, in early stages). In fact, IL is a dynamic similar to that of a
child acquiring his MT
system similar to that of a child acquiring his MT and may follow the same and may follow the
same sequence stages
sequence stages (to some extend). (to some extend).

He also explicitly recognized the process of regression, which he called Backsliding:

reappearance in IL of
backsliding, when he spoke of reappearance in IL of linguistic structures linguistic structures
which were thought to
which were thought to be erased. He noted that this regressions are not be erased. These
regressions are
random or towards the MT norm, but towards the IL norm. normally towards the IL
norm
Selinker identifies five processes central to second language learning
and acquisition, these can both result in error and can prevent them. These Five processes central
to SL learning &
processes are responsible for the development of IL systems: acquisition:

1. Language Transfer: Errors from native language. Can be from a. Lg Transfer: Errors
from native language
pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary. Can mean using native words in
place of SL ones, replacing SL phoneme with one from NL, calquing, etc
2. Transfer of training: These are errors due to the language learning b. Transfer of training:
These are errors due to
process itself. These can be due to problems in the textbook, the Lg learning process
itself (problems in the
teacher’s mistakes, uncorrected mistakes made by the students, etc. textbook)

Once these mistakes are "fossilised" in the IL, it can be difficult to

correct them.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Topic 2: 22
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje
T e y la adquisición de una lengua exttranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.

3. Strattegies of 2nd Lg learning: Some

S errorrs produce
ed by SL le
earners c Strategies off 2nd Lg
c.
le
earning: Errorss produced
are du
ue to the actual
a strattegies thatt the learners use. Th
hese can b
be such by
b strategies thhat the
le
earners use.
techniques as im
mitating others, guesssing, hype
erregulariza
ation, etc.
4. Strattegies of 2nd Lg communic
c anguage learners w
cation: La will find d Strategies of SL
d.
communication
c n
themsselves in FL
F situation
ns for whicch they do not know all the neccessary
vocab
bulary, phrrases, gram
mmar, etcc. This will force the
em to imp
provise.
They will have to
t circumlo
ocute, coin words, ap
pproximate
e, gestures,, etc
5. Overg
generaliz
zation: Th
hese are errrors resultting from the
t applica
ation of e.
e Overgeneralization:
Application
A of commonly
c
comm
monly occurring gram
mmatical ru
ules improp
perly. Thuss, a rule th
hat the occurring
o gram
mmatical
ules improperly
ru
student knows to be true
e in some situations is overge
eneralized to new
situattions where it does not apply. The consstant emp
phasis on ffamiliar
formss in the lan
nguage learrning proce
ess is partiially to blame for thiss.

Iván Matella
anes’ Notes
 Topic 2: Brief summary
23

4. Brief summary. Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera. La Interlengua. El error.
- LINGUISTICS: Two major linguistic theories that account for SLA
Structuralism Bloomfield’s “Lg”:
- SLA consists of the Acq. of a new set of habits.
- Habits are acq through stimulus – response – reinforcement.
Contrastive - Child Acq a word separately in comprehension & production, later on connecting both.
Analysis (CA) – Children learn through imitation & they never invent words.
Lado-:

- Theory based on the assumption that Lgs can be compared. Problems:

- L2 speakers tend to produce utterances in terms of the structures of their MT. - Errors do not occur bc of L1.
- CA states that is able to predict and diagnose errors based on the concept of - Errors don’t occur when predicted.
linguistic transfer. - Shift to behaviour to mental theories.
- Imitation don’t seem so important to Lg Acq.
Cognitivism: Supported the idea of Lg creativity against behaviouristic positions

- Distinction btw infinite external behaviour (performance) and finite inter set of rules (competence). ∞ nº of sentences from a
finite nº of rules.
- Specific cognitive mechanism for Lg Acq: LAD. Innate device, just dedicated to Lg Acq in humans.
- Rules shared by all Lgs which consist of a set of parameters: UG.
How children set parameters? Positive evidence and Indirect Negative Evidence.

SOCIOLINGUISTS: We use Lg to send social messages about who we are & where we came from. 3 approaches:
Labovian paradigm (IL): Lg varies systematically in accordance with social characteristics of the speaker. FIVE AXIOMS:
a. Speakers are able to shift their style in order to converge / diverge - EXNTENDED LABOV’S CLAIMS to SLA:
with their interlocutors. i. No single style speakers.
b. Attention to style shifting is necessary to achieve the goals. ii. Dimension of attention operates whether the Lg
c. The vernacular is the style a speker turns to when the speaker is not is Native or Non-native.
paying attention. iii. Amount of attention: Vernacular
d. Formality is a determinant factor in style shifting. (+ regular, -systematic)
e. A good amount of data is necessary in order to establish relevant iv. Amount of attention: Superordinate style
style shifting. (- regular, -systematic)

Speech accommodation theory (SAT): SAT explains motivations underlying shifts in people speech styles
during social encounters (converge / diverge) and some of the social consequences arisen from them.
- Intergroup theory (IT) : Learners who perceive using an L2 as a betray to his/her ethnic identity:
Learners with intergroup motivation are more likely to achieve NS proficiency.
Two competing socio-psychological needs: Become proficiency in L2 & their own ethnic identity.

Motivation : the combination of effort and desire to achieve the goal of learning.
- INTRINSIC: Personal interest in doing something. Doing the activity is a reward.
- EXTRINSIC: External interests. The reason for doing the task is something other than an interest in the task itself (rewards, gift)
- MOTIVATION in SLA (Gardner):
Integrative Motivation: Motivation in search of respect and be identified in a foreign setting, to understand its culture & participate in it.
Instrumental Motivation: Acq some advantages by learning a L2.
- APTITUDE (Carroll):
Phonetic coding ability: Ability to code sounds.
Grammatical sensibility: ability to identify Fncst.
Inductive Lg learning ability: Ability to make generalizations.
Memory and learning: Ability to link NL with the TL.

NEUROLINGUSITICS: Clinical examinations of aphasics: Hemisphere dominance & critical age in Lg learning
Hemisphere Dominance : Left hemisphere of the brain is the one where the most linguistic skills are found. Right for SLA.
- BROCA’S AREA: Related to speech production, list of words used in producing speech and their associated meaning.
- WERNICKE’S AREA: Related to speech processing. Associated with memory functions (short-term memory).

Critical period hypothesis (CP): the ability to proficiently learn a L1 is limited to the years before puberty (9 to 12) after
which this ability disappears.
- In SLA this situation seems to be far less clear. Native-like competence in the L2 can be achieved by very young learners, adult L2
learners have it much more difficult.
- Young children are more successful L2 learners than adults. WHY?
Psychological reasons: Adults don’t want to give up their identity markers
Cognitive factors: fewer abilities to learn a Lg, probably due to the LAD.
Neurological changes: Prevent adults from using their brains in the same way children do.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Topiic 2: Brief summ
mary
24

ERROR ANA
ALYSIS: 70s, se
everal researchhers speculateed about the possible relatioon btw FLA & SLA
- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:
- Diff bttw mistakes (bcc of chance of circumstances
c – performance-) & errors (revea als the Identify
y a particular ch
haracteristic
learnerr’s knowledge off the TL – comp petence- ) of the
e TL
- HISTOORICAL INTRO: Form and
a test a hypotthesis
Behaviouristic vie ewpoint: Errorss considered sm
mthing undesirab ble & to be avoiided bc they Receiv ve feedback
were a wrong resp ponse to a stimu
ulus. Mistakes must
m be correcte
ed. Accept or reject the hyypothesis or
Cognitive viewpo oint: Human Lg learning cannott be explained only
o by simply stating
s off delayy decision.
withh a “tabula rasa
a”. Innate capacity which guidess the speaker: UG.
U

- ROOTS AND DEVELOPM MENT:

CAA Hypothesis: TwoT Lgs were siimilar: + transfer. Two Lgs were e diff: - Transferr.
Corder:
st
_ 1 writer to emph hasize the impo ortance of errorss in Lg learning process. Shift fromf a study of tteaching to a stuudy of learning.
_ In
n FLA: Incorrectt utterances are e evidence that the t learner is in process of Acq qη a Lg.
_ In
n SLA: Sm strattegies are simila ar to FLA. Errorss are used as a device the learrners manipulate e in order to lea
arn.
_ Errors
E of learnerrs are (a) not ran
ndom but system matic, and (b) a necessary facttor, indicative off the testing hy ypothesis.
_ Acqη
A a TL rule iss only possible when
w it is critica
al for the learne
er. Rules becom me critical accordding to logical sequencing (the
nattural order hypoothesis) which iss not derived fro om L1, but a parrt of a creative construction
c of the TL knowledg ge.

INTERLANGU
UAGE (IL): Co
order’s “transiitional competence” & Nem
mser’s “Approoximate
- These e terms try to co
ommunicate the incomplete natture of the L2 Ac cq process.
- Selink ker proposed th he notion of IL to
o label the Lg a learner uses to
o communicate in i the L2 which is not the TL orr the MT.
rd
It iss a 3 system th hat is employed while the learner is processing g in the Acq of the L2.
Ma ain points of Se elinker’s hypothe esis:
_ Learners
L develop an IL
_ IL L is a unique gr not belonging tot TL or MT.
_ Itt is formed by th
he L2 rules area ady acquired & some
s other rules checking for validation.
v
- IL is a continuum, dynamic, goal orie
ented (towards the
t TL) Lg syste
em of increasing
g complexity. Th
his continuum is
s not
institutionalized in any Lg community.
& subsystem whiich speakers of a particular Lg will tend to keep in their IL, no matter what
- FOSSILIZATION: Linguistic item, rule&
amountt of instruction they
t receive.
- REGRESSION (backsliding): Reappea arances in IL of linguistic structu
ures which were
e thought to be erased. This regressions are not
n
towardss the MT, but to
owards a preced
ding IL norm.
- Selinkker identified 5 PROCESSES
P CENTRAL TO SLA. They are respons sible for the devvelopment of the
e IL:
1. Lg
L transfer: Errrors from MT.
2. Transfer
T of traiining: Lg teachiing process (texxtbooks, …)
3. Strategies
S of L2 learning: Imittations, guessinng, hyper-regula
arization.
4. Strategies
S of L2 communication: Coin wordss, gestures …
5. overgeneraliza
o ations: The application of a gr rule
r improperly.

5. bibliography
Gass, Susan M.
M & Selinker, La arry. 1994 Lingu uistics:
http://www.uooregon.edu/~gu uion/444notes/ccontranal.html
http://www.lin
ng.lancs.ac.uk/ch himp/langac/LE ECTURE10/10fra a2.htm
http://216.239
9.41.104/search?q=cache:ZjttuEi0qPsJ:www.css.cmu.edu/~lau ura/thesis.ps+Dickerson+extended+Labov%E2 2%80%99s+cla aims
+&hl=es&ie=U UTF-8
sociolinguistics:
http://www.lsa
adc.org/web2/so ocioling.htm
http://www.sppectrum.uni-bielefeld.de/~ttripp pel/labov/node33.html#SECTION N000200100000 000000000
http://homepaage3.nifty.com/m mmsagawa/hoo oked/tesol_motivvation.html
http://www.u-gakugei.ac.jp/~ ~tefldpt/dissertaations/2000ichin
nose/ichinose-6..htm
Gass, Susan M.
M & Selinker, La arry. 1994. Nonlanguage influen nces. Second laanguage acquisittion. An introduc
uctory course. Ch
hapter 9 (topicss in
applied psycho
olinguistics). Hilllsdale, NJ, USA.
http://www.lanng.ltsn.ac.uk/resources/goodprractice.aspx?ressourceid=91
Neurolinguis stics:
http://www.mo olbio.princeton.edu/courses/mb b427/2000/projects/0008/norm mbrainmain.html
http://216.239
9.51.104/search?q=cache:lBmyypnwvEygJ:lingu uistics.anu.edu.a
au/ALS2001/pap pers/Moskovskyy.pdf+%22criticcal+Age+hypoth hesis
%22&hl=es&ie e=UTF-8

Iván Matellanes’ Notes