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Procedia Engineering 101 (2015) 440 – 449

3rd International Conference on Material and Component Performance

under Variable Amplitude Loading, VAL2015

Cumulative damage of high-strength cast iron alloys for automotive

applications
S. Schoenborna,*, H. Kaufmanna, C.M. Sonsinoa, R. Heima
a
Fraunhofer Institute for Structural Durability and System Reliability LBF, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany

Abstract

The cumulative damage calculation method generally applied in the automotive sector is the Palmgren-Miner-Hypothesis with its
modification according to Haibach. In several design codes the theoretical Palmgren-Miner damage sum Dth = 1.0 is still
recommended as the allowable damage sum Dal despite the fact that it renders unsafe calculated fatigue lives.

Results obtained with modern high-strength cast iron alloys such as EN-GJS-500-7, SiboDur 700-10 and MADI (Machinable
Austempered Ductile Iron) under a standard Gaussian spectrum for chassis applications and also under a fuller injection pump
spectrum suggest the allowable damage sum Dal = 0.3 for fatigue life estimations.

© 2015
© 2015TheTheAuthors. Published
Authors. by Elsevier
Published Ltd. This
by Elsevier is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Ltd.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Czech Society for Mechanics.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Czech Society for Mechanics

Keywords: Cast iron alloys; EN-GJS-500-7; SiboDur 700-10; MADI; constant and variable amplitude loading; allowable damage sum

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-6151-705-448; fax: +49-6151-705-214.

E-mail address:steffen.schoenborn@lbf.fraunhofer.de

1877-7058 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Czech Society for Mechanics
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.02.053
 S. Schoenborn et al. / Procedia Engineering 101 (2015) 440 – 449 441

Nomenclature Subscripts
D damage sum CA constant amplitude
Ls sequence length VA variable amplitude
N number of cycles a amplitude
P probability al allowable
R load or stress ratio, R = Fmin/Fmax or Vmin/Vmax an nominal amplitude
k slope of the Woehler- or Gassner-line f failure
k* slope of the Woehler-line after the knee point k knee point of the Woehler-line
for constant amplitude loading o occurrence
k’ slope of the Woehler-line after the knee point s survival, sequence
for cumulative damage calculation th theoretical
Kt theoretical stress concentration factor spec spectrum
(a = axial, b = bending, p = internal pressure) sec sequence
TV scatter of fatigue strength

1. Introduction

Safety-critical automotive parts such as wheel hubs, suspension arms, wheel carriers, swivel bearings, injection
pump housings etc. are designed for a service life of 300.000 km through a consideration of the occurring variable
amplitude (spectrum) loading [1]. For fatigue life assessment, in addition to the spectra, the SN-lines of critical
structural details, i.e. local material behaviour, and the applicable damage accumulation hypothesis must be known.
With regard to cumulative damage calculations, there is a wide variety of hypotheses [2]. However, in the
European automotive industry, the most commonly applied cumulative damage calculation method is the Palmgren-
Miner-Hypothesis, because of its simplicity, with its modification according to Haibach [3] in which the slope of the
SN-line after the knee-point is changed (k’ = 2k-i; k’ = k is applied for materials without a knee-point or submitted
to corrosion) in order to also include the damage by stress amplitudes below the knee-point, Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Most commonly used cumulative damage calculation methods

This calculation firstly results in the total damage sum of the spectrum which should not exceed Dal:

Dspec ¦n / N  d D
i i al (1)
442 S. Schoenborn et al. / Procedia Engineering 101 (2015) 440 – 449

However, the resulting question is the value of the allowable damage sum Dal for the evaluation of the damage
caused by the spectrum. The only design code that considers the assessment of cast iron components under spectrum
loading is the FKM -Guideline of the Cooperative Research Association for Mechanical Engineering (FKM,
Frankfurt/Germany) [4] for the design of machine components.

Here, the theoretical Palmgren-Miner-damage sum Dth = 1.0 is still suggested as the allowable damage sum Dal
despite the fact that this theoretical damage sum renders non-conservative calculated fatigue design lives in about
90% of all published results on the behaviour of steel, aluminium, cast iron as well as of welded materials [3, 5, 6, 7,
8]. Also in [9, 10], much smaller real damage sums than 1.0 were indicated for cast iron alloys such as GJS-400 and
GJS-600. Particular results will be presented in section 3.
In order to define an appropriate allowable damage sum, it is first necessary to determine real damage sums. To
achieve this objective, knowledge is required of the particular Woehler-line (curve), of the spectrum and of the
resulting Gassner-line (curve), i.e. the experimental fatigue life under spectrum loading, Fig. 1. The ratio between
the experimental fatigue life and the calculated fatigue life with Dth = 1.0 then defines the real damage sum:

D real N exp / N cal D th 1.0 (2)

After obtaining real damage sums, the allowable damage sum for design purposes is derived. For instance, for
steel components, the value at the probability of occurrence P o = 50% is fixed as the allowable damage sum Dreal
(Ps = 50%) = Dal = 0.3, which is also recommended for aluminium components [5, 6]. This suggestion has also been
adopted by [4], but not for cast iron components. For such materials, D al = 1.0 is still recommended. The very large
scatter of the real damage sums suggests that a fatigue lifing with any of these allowable values can be no more than
an estimation. If experiences are not available, an experimental proof should be provided, especially in the case of
safety-critical components. In view of the absence of design data on modern high-strength cast iron alloys
(Rm = 650 – 800 MPa) such as EN-GJS-500-7, SiboDur 700-10 [11] and MADI (Machinable Austempered Ductile
Iron [12]), this subject has been addressed within a large project of the Research Association for Combustion
Engines (FVV, Frankfurt/Germany) using component-like notched specimens made from these materials and loaded
by different spectra [13]; the results arising will be reported in the following and an allowable damage sum for
cumulative calculations for cast iron alloys will be proposed.
 S. Schoenborn et al. / Procedia Engineering 101 (2015) 440 – 449 443

2. Materials and experimental

2.1. Material data

The microstructures, chemical compositions and conventional mechanical properties of the investigated cast iron
alloys EN-GJS-500-7, SiboDur 700-10 and MADI are compiled in Tabs. 1 to 3.

Table 1. Microstructures
Material EN-GJS-500-7 SiboDur 700-10 MADI
Microstructure

Nodule count in 1/mm² 325 302 247

Graphite content in % 9.9 10.7 11.7
Perlite content in % 89 82 ---
*)
Graphite shape VI: ≥95% VI: ≥93% VI: ≥95%
Graphite size*), **) 6: 18%, 7: 53%, 8: 29% 6: 29%, 7: 41%, 8: 30% 6: 18%, 7: 53%, 8: 29%
*)
According to DIN EN ISO 945; **) 6 ^ 30-60μm, 7 ^ 15-30μm, 8 ^ <15μm
444 S. Schoenborn et al. / Procedia Engineering 101 (2015) 440 – 449

Table 2. Chemical compositions of the investigated cast iron alloys Table 3. Mechanical properties of the investigated cast iron alloys
Elements EN-GJS- SiboDur EN-GJS- SiboDur
MADI Properties MADI
in weight % 500-7 700-10 500-7 700-10
C 3.55 3.47 3.64 Tensile strength
648 733 803
Rm in MPa
Si 2.19 2.77 2.60 Yield strength
363 436 549
Cu 0.31 0.50 0.91 Rp0.2 in MPa
Elongation
Mn 0.25 0.31 0.29 11.5 8.7 13.4
A5 in %
Mg 0.04 0.04 0.043 Young`s modulus
175 175 173
E in GPa
S --- --- 0.008 Shear modulus
68 68 67
P --- --- 0.023 G in GPa
222 246 287
Ni --- --- 1.84 Hardness
HB5/750 HB5/750 HB10/3000
Mo --- --- 0.06 Poisson's constant μ 0.29 0.29 0.29

2.2. Specimens, test series and loading conditions

The fatigue tests under constant and variable amplitudes were carried out with unnotched and notched specimens,
under pulsating axial loading and bending (R = 0), and with component-like specimens corresponding to injection
pump housings under almost pulsating pressure (R = 0.1), Fig. 2. All specimens were removed from long cast bars
with an outer diameter of d = 50 mm. Emphasis was put on the obtaining of microstructures and mechanical
properties corresponding to those in critical areas of components [13].

a. Unnotched specimens (Kt,a = 1.00) c. Component-like specimens (Kt,p = 8.09)

b. Notched specimens (Kt,a = 2.08, Kt,b = 1.72)

Fig. 2: Specimens

For the tests under spectrum loading, two different spectra were applied, i.e. the standardised Gaussian spectrum
with a sequence length of Ls = 5∙104 cycles and, for the component-like specimens, the injection pump spectrum
CORAL (COmmon RAil Load) with Ls = 3∙104 cycles. Cut-offs of the applied load-time histories and the load
sequences according to different counting methods are presented in Figs. 3 and 4. Imposed stress ratios R and
frequencies f are included in the fatigue life diagrams of next section.
 S. Schoenborn et al. / Procedia Engineering 101 (2015) 440 – 449 445

From the cut-offs as well as from the comparison of the counting results, it can be seen that the Gaussian
sequence is not undergoing a mean-load fluctuation, but that CORAL is subject to a mean-load fluctuation. The
maximum cycle-ratio between the range-pairs and level-crossings countings is about 2, Fig. 4. Therefore, it can be
assumed that this fluctuation will not enhance the fatigue life as it is below 3 [7, 8]. Furthermore, the CORAL
sequence is fuller and much more damaging than the Gaussian one, Fig. 4. At one run each, despite its smaller
sequence length, CORAL generates an 8 to 16 times higher damage Dseq than the Gaussian sequence. On load levels
higher than the knee point of the SN-line, the damage is smaller than on lower levels due to the different slopes
before and after the knee point.

a. Gaussian load sequence

b. CORAL load sequence

Fig. 3: Cut-offs of applied load-time histories Fig. 4: Level-crossings and range-pair countings of applied load sequences for each run

2.3. Experimental results

An extract of the test results are displayed in Figs. 5 to 6. The steeper courses of the lines for the component-like
specimens result from their higher stress concentration. While the results of Woehler-tests are presented as stress
amplitudes versus cycles to total failure (rupture), the results of Gassner-tests are presented as the maximum
amplitude of the applied sequence versus cycles to total failure (rupture) [7, 8]. All of the fatigue lines contain very
tight scatter bands TV between the probabilities of survival P s = 10 and 90% [14]. As fatigue tests in the high-cycle
fatigue regime are very much more time consuming, a few tests only were carried out after the particular knee
points. However, after the knee points of the particular Woehler-lines, an experience-based slope of k* = 45 (5%
fatigue strength decrease per decade) for cast iron alloys is assumed [14], covering the few results determined [13].
Based on the evaluations of the Gassner-lines it can be observed that the Gassner-lines for the CORAL-sequence
tend to intersect the Woehler-lines. This is also the case for the Gaussian tests, but at much longer fatigue lives. It
can be assumed that Gassner-lines also have a knee point that joins the high-cycle part of the Woehler-line and
continues together with it. The region of overlapping of both lines depends on the shape of the sequence, especially
at the maximum level of the sequence, on the knee point of the Woehler-line and on the slope after the knee point.
446 S. Schoenborn et al. / Procedia Engineering 101 (2015) 440 – 449

Fig. 5: Woehler- and Gassner-lines of notched cast iron alloy SiboDur 700-10 specimens under axial loading

Fig. 6: Woehler- and Gassner-lines of component-like cast iron alloy SiboDur 700-10 specimens under internal pressure

3. Cumulative damage evaluation of test results

As already discussed in the introduction, the real damage sums are determined by the linear damage
accumulation hypothesis of Palmgren-Miner modified according to Haibach with i = 2, Fig. 1. The calculation of
real damage sums, using equation (2), requires knowledge of both the spectrum and the appertaining experimental
Woehler- and Gassner-lines. As the applied CORAL load sequence especially reveals changing mean-loads and
consequently different stress ratios, for the cumulative damage calculations, the amplitudes are first transformed to a
single R-value R = 0, which is also the stress ratio of the Woehler tests as well as of the maximum load cycle of the
sequence. The amplitude transformations were carried out using Haigh-diagrams [15] and applying the mean-stress
sensitivities M1 and M2 of the particular materials obtained in [13], Tab. 5. For the Gaussian sequence, a
transformation was not necessary because each load cycle was, in any case, pulsating, i. e. R = 0. The mean-stress
 S. Schoenborn et al. / Procedia Engineering 101 (2015) 440 – 449 447

sensitivity M1 is the classical one [16], describing the strength reduction between R = -1 and 0 and M2 is the one
characterising the strength decrease between R = 0 and 0.5:

V a R 1  V a R 0  V a R 0.5
M1 1 and M2 (3, 4)
V a R 0 V a R 0  3 ˜ V a R 0.5

Real damage sums were calculated from each appertaining pair of Woehler- and Gassner-lines, which were
determined for the criterion of total failure, at the lowest and highest load levels of the Gassner-lines with the
probability of survival Ps = 50%. For the unnotched specimens real damage sums between 0.13 and 0.35, for the
notched ones between 0.22 and 0.40 and for the component-like specimens between 0.47 and 0.77 were determined
independently of the material.
In Fig. 7, the mean values of real damage sum ranges obtained for particular load levels are evaluated statistically
and compared with already known data [5, 6] while all real damage sums are below Dth = 1.0. The mean value from
all plotted points corresponds fairly well to the mean value of previous investigations with cast iron materials [5, 6].
The larger scatter from the previous investigations within the range 0.01 < Dreal < 10.0 depends on the interaction of
several parameters, such as the different materials, loading modes, stress ratios, different sequences, stress
concentrations etc. However, a clear correlation between damage sums and particular parameters could not be
determined [5, 6]. A distinction between the failure modes of total rupture and crack initiation could perhaps reduce
the large scatter and thus offer clarification of the particular roles of applied parameters. However, because of the
absence of fatigue lives determined to crack initiation, this aspect will not be considered in more detail here.

Table 5. Mean-stress sensitivities of the investigated cast iron alloys

Properties
Materials M1 M2
(R = -1 Æ R = 0) (R = 0 Æ R = 0.5)
EN-GJS-500-7 0.37 0.17
SiboDur 700-10 0.32 0.19
MADI 0.41 0.25

Fig. 7: Real damage sum distributions for the investigated

cast iron alloys compared with known distributions

4. Conclusions and recommendations for practitioners

The cumulative damage behaviour of the investigated high strength cast iron alloys EN-GJS-500-7, SiboDur 700-
10 and MADI is not different from the behaviour of known cast iron materials. The determined real damage sums all
fall within the already known range 0.01 < Dreal < 10.0, Fig. 7. However, the question which arises from this fact and
448 S. Schoenborn et al. / Procedia Engineering 101 (2015) 440 – 449

from the observation that a clear correlation between the investigated parameters and resulting real damage sums
does not exist, is which allowable damage sum can be recommended to design engineers for fatigue life estimations.
Based on the distributions presented in Fig. 7, a pragmatic proposal was made in the FKM -Guideline of the German
Cooperative Research Association for Mechanical Engineering for designing machine components [4], firstly for
steels.
It was suggested that the mean value with the probability of occurence Po = 50% be set as an allowable damage
sum Dal = 0.3 as an engineering compromise, being aware that this value will certainly not predict the real fatigue
life. However, with regard to the theoretical damage sum, it renders a reasonable estimate, which is on the
conservative side, and reduces the risk of an unsafe estimation. In order not to confuse applicants with different
allowable damage sums, the value Dal = 0.3 was also adopted for aluminium alloys, which revealed a mean value
Dreal,50% = 0.37, Fig. 7. This procedure is suggested here for cast iron alloys with the mean values D real,50% = 0.33 and
0.36 respectively, Fig. 7. Therefore, fatigue life estimates for steel, aluminium or cast iron components should all be
carried out by application of the Palmgren-Miner rule with the modification according to Haibach using the same
allowable damage sum Dal = 0.3. However, this allowable damage sum should be applied for load-time histories
without or with insignificant mean load fluctuations, which is indicated by the ratio of cycles between level
crossings and range pairs not exceeding factor 3 [7, 8]. Otherwise, lower damage sums have to be applied, i.e.
Dal = 0.1 [7, 8].
The damage sums for cast iron alloys presented in this investigation [13] as well as in previous ones [5, 6, 9, 10]
were determined using fatigue tests with the failure criterion of total failure only and not of crack initiation.
However, industrial experiences with Dal = 0.3 and 0.1, respectively, show that comparable results are obtained for
the criterion of crack initiation [17, 18]. However, as cumulative calculations with such values result only in an
estimated fatigue life, they still contain a certain risk due to possible lower real damage sums. Therefore, in the case
of safety-critical components, which must never fail, an experimental verification is recommended.

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