High-Speed Compressor Analysis - Edited - FINAL PDF

High-Speed Engine and Compressor Analysis
INTRODUCTION TO HIGH-SPEED
COMPRESSOR ANALYSIS
General
In this course, we will discuss the proper method of analyzing high-speed compressors. The high-
speed compressor, like the high-speed engine, is becoming more popular each day. Compressor
manufacturers are now employing innovative engineering methods, novel manufacturing techniques
for valve and machine works, and advanced metallurgy. The result is a new generation of high-
volume, high-pressure, highly efficient and highly reliable compressor units assembled in small
packages.
Some advantages of the high-speed compressor:
• Higher throughput in a small package
• Easier, quicker, installation and mobility
• Does not require massive equipment for maintenance
• Lower price than large, articulated units
• Easier to maintain and load than larger, articulated units
• Lower cost to operate
Some high-speed compressors are difficult to analyze because pressure-time data is unavailable.
Therefore, different methods of analysis must be implemented to help determine the mechanical
condition of a compressor.
Analyzer manufacturing companies have developed state-of-the-art analysis equipment, along with
the essential software and methodologies to perform high-speed engine analysis. Compressor
manufacturers, packagers and aftermarket companies have developed excellent monitoring and
control equipment for determining the operating parameters and conditions of high-speed
compressors.
©2003 T.F. Hudgins, Inc. Page 1 of 173

Course Outline
In this course, we will discuss the following topics for high-speed compressor analysis:
• Visual Inspection
• Phased Vibration Analysis
• Spectrum Vibration Analysis
• Pressure Data Analysis
• Temperature Data Analysis
• Compressor Reports
• Troubleshooting and Case Scenarios
Student Requirements
• All students must have a computer with later-version analysis software
• Must have some computer skills
• Must have a basic knowledge of compressor operation

VISUAL INSPECTION
Engine/compressor analysis systems such as the Dynalco Controls 9240ECR or the Windrock 6310
are state-of-the-art systems. However, they are really just data collection devices. You, as an
analyst, must know what parameters to use to get the right information from the compressor and
determine its mechanical integrity. During data collection, you need to develop good habits and
instincts to help you analyze while you collect data. Visual inspection prior to data collection is one
very good habit. It will provide information about the compressor and help you know what to look for
during data collection.
The Walk Around

Walk around the compressor. Write down all gauge readings relative to the operating parameters of
the compressor. Include the manifold pressure/amperage or voltage on electric-driven units that
indicate the percentage load and condition. If gauges are not installed, try to collect pressure
readings with a precision gauge at various points. Temperature data may be collected with the
analyzer or other hand-held thermometer (if gauges are not available).
Install the Test Points in the Software

Once the gauges have been recognized, install all gauge readings as process variables in the
analysis software under the compressor’s controls panel. The data collection device will allow you
to see the previous data and the software will trend all readings in the future.
Below is a typical list of tabular information that should be collected on a high-speed compressor.
• Compressor Oil Temperature Before Cooler (if possible)
• Compressor Oil Temperature After Cooler (if possible)
• Compressor Oil Pressure Before Filters (if possible)
• Compressor Oil Pressure After Filters (if possible)
• Compressor Cylinder Jacket Water Temperature (if possible)
• Air Manifold Pressure (right, left, front and back)
• Governor Setting (if possible)
• Amps (if applicable)
• Suction Pressure (if applicable)
• Interstage Pressures (if applicable)
• Discharge Pressure (if applicable)

• Cylinder Suction Temperatures
• Cylinder Discharge Temperatures
• Volume Calculation At The Meter (if possible)
• Lubricator Flow Rate (if possible)
• Fuel Flow in MCFD (if possible)
Inspection and Tabular Data Collection

Prior to data collection follow the steps below.
A. Establish True Top Dead Center (TDC) and have a legible TDC mark on the motor shaft
or flywheel.
B. Have accurate geometry installed in the analysis software program. This includes:
1. Cylinder Bore
2. Piston Rod Diameter
3. Length of Connecting Rod
4. Stroke Length
5. Cylinder Clearance (both head end and crank end)
6. Current and Accurate Gas Analysis
7. Load Step or Load Setting
C. Know which compressor valves are plugged (if applicable).
D. Have good indicator valve assemblies installed in all cylinders and nozzles (if possible).
E. Maintain a minimum of 90% load. A 100% load is the optimum load for trending. It is
common that some gas gathering systems cannot obtain a 100% load. Try to establish the
highest load possible, but at a load point that is easily obtainable in the future. If you cannot
load the engine more than 70%, load the engine to a 70% load during the next data
collection. This will help you establish good trend levels. If a 100% load is permitted but the
engine cannot produce enough horsepower due to mechanical, fuel or ignition problems,
make the necessary repairs and adjustments (if possible) and re-load the engine to 100%
prior to data collection.
F. Prior to data collection, a visual inspection is good practice. There may be problems that are
easily noticed by the analyst and not by the mechanic that may have adverse effects on the

compressor’s performance and also affect data collection. Following is a typical inspection
list for a high-speed compressor.
Cooling System Inspection
Cooler, shutters/shrouds, cooler fan(s), cooler fan drive belt(s), coolant level, site glass,
temperature gauges, piping, hoses, leaks at coupling hoses and gaskets, etc.
Lube Oil System Inspection
Oil level, filter housing(s), contamination or emulsified oil, hours on the lube oil, hoses, gaskets,
pump(s) piping, cooler, oil pressure, oil temperature, gauges etc. Monitor oil analysis for
contamination and wear metals, etc.
Cylinder Lubricator System
Reservoir and pump assembly, oil level, filter housing (if applicable), contamination or emulsified oil,
gaskets, pump(s), tubing, supply pressure, pressure gauge, flow meter, lubricator No-Flow switch,
(if possible) junction or distribution block, etc.
Compressor Cylinders
Cylinder mounting bolts and supports, excessive vertical axial or horizontal movement, noise,
leaking valve caps or gaskets, burnt paint, lubricator lines and check valves, volume pockets or
bottles (if applicable), coolant leaks, oil leaks, suction and discharge nozzle leaks, temperature and
pressure gauges, etc.
Scrubbers (if applicable)
Mounts, dump valves, check valves, high liquid level shut down device, piping, gas leaks, excessive
noise, temperature and pressure gauges, bolts at flanges, relief valves, etc.
Piping
Mounts, braces, supports, excessive vibration, relief valves, bolts at flanges, block valves, etc.
Compressor Frame
Doors, safety covers, leaking gaskets, coupling, (if possible) noise, excessive movement, loose
mounting bolts and shims, vibration switches or accelerometers, etc.

Visual Inspection Analysis

All analysis programs help us analyze as we collect data. One helpful feature of analysis programs
is process variables (or gauge readings). It provides the analyst with the ability to see current and
previous tabular data to help see any changes in the operating parameters. A change in pressure or
temperature is valuable information and will provide valuable information concerning the compressor’s
mechanical condition and performance. As analysts, we should be able to see an anomaly that will
indicate the cause for a problem elsewhere either in temperature, performance or vibration.
Below are tabular and visual scenarios from a visual inspection, along with the impact they
have on other systems, their components and the data collected on the engine.
Problem…High oil temperature
Possible causes
Insufficient oil level, cooler restricted, auxiliary water system malfunction, excessive packing leaks,
high load condition, defective temperature gauge, restricted oil filters, contaminated lube oil, poor
crankcase ventilation
Possible effects
Oxidation of oil, temperature increases in auxiliary cooling system, decreased life of lube oil system
components, decrease in lube oil pressure, failed component
Problem…High or low oil pressure
Possible causes
Oil is emulsified with coolant or water, defective oil cooling system, defective oil pump, high
oxidation levels, restricted filters, insufficient oil level, incorrect oil viscosity, cold oil, insufficient lube
oil filter, plugged strainer (check filter delta pressure), defective pressure control, defective pressure
gauge
Possible effects
Main and/or rod bearing failure, crosshead or crosshead guide failure
Problem…High or low cylinder jacket water temperature
Possible causes
Wrong or defective coolant temperature control, low or high load condition, defective auxiliary
coolant pump, loose drive belts, worn pulleys, contaminated coolant, restricted flow areas in the
cooling system, low coolant level, defective temperature gauge, defective head or head gasket,
defective cylinder liner
Possible effects.
Poor valve life due to liquids, random knocks, reciprocating component failure

Problem…High suction pressure
Possible causes
Defective gauge, excessive flow to cylinder, low RPM, clearances in cylinder have been adjusted or
increased, defective control valve, open or leaking by-pass valve
Possible effects
Excessive rod loads, higher fuel consumption, engine overload
Problem…Low suction pressure
Possible causes
Defective gauge, insufficient flow to the inlet of the compressor, restricted screen, defective control
valve or block valve, higher than normal RPM, reduced discharge pressure, cylinder clearances
lowered in first stage
Possible effects
Low volume, higher discharge temperatures, imbalance of compression ratios, higher rod loads on
the first stage
Problem…High first interstage pressure
Possible causes
Defective gauge, suction or discharge valve leak in the second stage cylinder, (most likely a suction
valve leak), leaking rings in the second stage cylinder, restricted second stage cooler, restriction in
the piping, restriction in the scrubber, clearances were changed in first and second stage cylinders,
bypass line open, increase in suction pressure, increase in discharge pressure
Possible effects
Decrease in volume, imbalance of compression ratios, higher rod load on first stage, low valve life
in first stage cylinder, relief valve opening
Problem…Low first interstage pressure
Possible causes
Defective gauge, defective discharge valve(s) in the first stage cylinder(s), restricted second stage
scrubber, restricted second stage cooler, open relief valve, open bypass valve, defective rings in
first stage cylinder(s), clearance was adjusted, reduced discharge pressure
Possible effects
Decrease in volume, imbalance of compression ratios, higher rod load on second stage, low
discharge valve life in second stage cylinder, high first stage discharge temperature

Problem…High second interstage pressure
Possible causes
Defective gauge, suction or discharge valve leak in the third stage cylinder (most likely a suction
valve leak), leaking rings in the third stage cylinder, restricted second stage cooler, restriction in the
third stage piping, restriction in the third stage scrubber, clearances were changed in third stage
cylinder(s), increase in discharge pressure, increase in first interstage pressure
Possible effects
Decrease in volume, imbalance of compression ratios, higher rod load on second stage, low
discharge valve life in second stage cylinder relief valve opening, high discharge temperature
Problem…Low second interstage pressure
Possible causes
Defective gauge, defective discharge valve(s) in the second stage cylinder(s), restricted second
stage scrubber, restricted first stage cooler, open relief valve, open bypass valve, defective rings in
second stage cylinder(s), clearance was adjusted in second stage, decrease in first interstage
pressure
Possible effects
Decrease in volume, imbalance of compression ratios, higher rod load on first or third stage, low
discharge valve life in third stage cylinder, high second stage discharge temperatures
Problem…High discharge pressure
Possible causes
Defective gauge, restricted cooler, restriction in the piping, increase in discharge line pressure,
increase in throughput throughout the entire machine due to RPM, clearance, or increase in suction
pressure in first stage
Possible effects
Imbalance of compression ratios, higher rod load on third stage, low discharge valve life in third
stage cylinder, relief valve opening, exceeding MAOP of pipeline
Problem…Low final discharge pressure
Possible causes
Defective gauge, restricted third stage cooler, restriction in the second stage piping, restriction in
the third stage scrubber, defective discharge valve in final stage, clearances were changed in third
stage cylinder(s), decrease in discharge line pressure, open relief-valve, open bypass valve

Possible effects
Imbalance of compression ratios, higher rod load on second stage, low discharge valve life in
second stage cylinder, loss of throughput throughout station
Problem…Random cylinder knocks
Possible causes
Worn cylinder liner, excessive lube oil in compressor cylinders, heavy liquids in gas, defective
scrubbers not removing liquids from gas, liquids formed in gas stream caused by differential in
pressure due to orifices or chokes to lower pulsation, loose suction valve assembly, constant
change in mole weights and temperature of gas, cylinder jacket water cooler than suction
temperature
Possible effects
Low valve life, damage to reciprocating components inside the cylinder, loud intermittent noise
Problem…fluctuation in RPM
Possible causes
Packing leakage into compressor crankcase causing gas to escape from vent and entering the air
inlet of the engine, defective engine governor
Possible effects
Changes in station volume, random shut downs due to over-speed
Problem…fluctuation in volume
Possible causes
Fluctuation in RPM, suction control valve defective, suction and discharge line pressure fluctuation,
defective meter
Possible effects
Unhappy customer
Problem…excessive pulsation
Compressor package is not designed to API 618 guidelines, orifices are missing in piping,
compressor bottles missing baffles, choke nozzles missing or need to be installed
Possible effects
Low valve life, loss in volume, excessive vibration

Problem…low compressor valve life
Possible causes
Abnormal operation, improper setup, foreign material in the gas stream, ring material lodging in
valves, change in compression ratio, constant change in gas composition and temperature
Possible effects
Loss of volume, low ring life, excessive fuel consumption, damage to reciprocating components
Discussion about visual inspection analysis

PHASED VIBRATION ANALYSIS
A reciprocating compressor will vibrate due to forces that are produced by the reciprocating
components moving at high velocity under load.
Some mechanical vibration reduction devices:

1. Counterweights on the crankshaft
2. Balancing of all reciprocating components
3. Helical cut gears instead of spur cut gears in the lube oil pump
4. Drive chains for the lube system
5. Valve design using different materials for valves
Some dynamic or physical vibration reduction devices:

1. Balancing of compression ratios across stages
2. Cylinder design
3. Valve designs
4. Compressor frame stiffness
5. Speed
6. Counteracting natural frequency
All vibration reduction devices are correctable. Some will take more time and money to correct than
others will.

Compressor vibration is collected in several ways

Vibration time domain. Vibration data is collected and measured in vibration per millisecond or
vibration vs. time.
20
15
10
0
g
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Millisecond
Vibration Spectrum. This is vibration amplitude at a given frequency. This type of data is useful
for main rod bearing, crosshead assembly, and rotating equipment analysis.
Phase Marked Time

# Lines: 141
3.0
# Averages NA
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 20.952
2.5
Peak at Frequency
3.260 at 0.0
2.0 1.789 at 2304.4

1.563 at 9217.6
0.996 at 13826.4
g
1.5 0.887 at 6913.2

0.779 at 20739.6
0.604 at 18435.2
1.0 0.485 at 34566.0
0.359 at 32261.6
0.327 at 29957.2
0.5
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
cpm (* 100)

Phase vibration in degrees of crankshaft rotation. This is the most popular vibration
parameter for analyzing reciprocating compressors.
20
15
10
0
g
-5
-10
-15
-20
-0 100 200 300

degrees
Phased vibration or vibration per degree is the most popular method of analyzing events in a
compressor cylinder. The patterns are generally measured in Gs, but may be measured in phased
velocity or phased displacement. Phased velocity and phased displacement are very helpful tools
for trending cylinder movement.
Your job as an analyst is to know how to interpret these phased vibration patterns and to know
which type of vibration parameter is most suitable for the application.
In this session we will discuss the following topics:
A. Vibration parameter types
B. What type of anomalies to look for in a reciprocating compressor
C. Compressor valve vibration pattern interpretation
D. Compressor cylinder vibration pattern interpretation

Vibration Parameter Types

As analysts, we should try different parameter types that measure vibration in different frequency
ranges.
The reason we want to measure vibration in different frequency ranges is because events occurring
in a compressor occur at different frequency levels. For instance, a valve-closing event is usually a
low-frequency vibration, while a gas-passing event, such as a discharge event, is a high frequency
vibration.
It is best to experiment with different vibration parameters to help detect anomalies in a vibration
signature.
Low-Frequency Vibration Parameters
Generally, low-frequency vibration parameters in the .5 Hz to 20 KHz are suitable for finding low-
frequency anomalies like wrist pin knocks, connecting rod and main bearing knocks on the
crosshead guides, etc.
Low-frequency vibration data indicates excessive wrist pin clearance
200
Maximum Rodload Tension: 25000
25000 --------------
20000 175 -
15000 -
150
10000 - 1X VTL
125
5000 -
100 Zero Rodload - Scale 4.8

0
Pressure(psig)
RodLoad(lbs)
-5000 -
75
-10000 -
50
-15000 Inertia -
Gas force
-20000 25 -
Total
Maximum Rodload Compression: 25000 --------------
-25000
0
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Crank Angle (deg)

High-Frequency Vibration Parameters
High-frequency parameters, like ultrasonic (ULT) data and a parameter with a frequency range of
15 KHz to 200 KHz, are suitable for and mostly used to detect ring and valve-leakage, since such
leakage produces a high-frequency vibration. However, ultrasonic data may be used for cylinder
liner faults as well.
Ultrasonic (ULT) data indicates that discharge valve 3CD4 is leaking!
C031 cylinder 3 3/26/2003 9:53:47 AM HE Period 6, CE Period 7

400
--------------
-
-
350 - 3CD4 ULT

-
- Scale 30.0
-
300 205 DGF
-
-
Pressure (psig)
-
---------------
250
-
-
- 3CD3 ULT
200 -
- Scale 30.0
-
203 DGF
-
150
-
-
--------------
100
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Crank Angle (deg)

Medium-Frequency Range
A medium-frequency range vibration parameter that covers a broad frequency range 5 kHz to 200
kHz should always be used for high-speed compressor analysis. It is a good tool for determining
mechanical anomalies, amplitude of valve opening and closing events, and leakage.
Medium-frequency vibration indicates a high amplitude discharge valve closure, which may lead to
premature valve life.
J11B cylinder 3 4/1/2003 3:05:01 PM HE Period 9

Channel Resonance is corrected
450
--------------
-
400 -
- 3HD2 VT1
-
350 - Scale 10.0
-
268 DGF
-
300 -
Pressure (psig)
-
---------------
250 -
-
- 3HS1 VT1
200 -
- Scale 10.0
-
98 DGF
150 -
-
-
100 --------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

Phased displacement and velocity parameters
These types of parameters are useful in some compressors to detect compressor cylinder and
frame movement in degrees of crankshaft rotation.
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
m
il
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
-10.0
-0 100 200 300

degrees
Spectrum Vibration Parameters
Non-phased parameters, like VIB and IPP, are helpful in determining cylinder movement. They also
are useful in finding anomalies with the crankshaft main and rod bearings, along with rotating
auxiliary driven components. Some spectrum data may be used to detect leakage, but the amount
is difficult to determine.
1H VIB 3/15/01 5:05:14 PM

Spectrum
# Lines: 201
# Averages: 2
2.0 Calc overall NA
Trap overall 3.608
Peak at Frequency
2.405 at 405.0
1.5 1.740 at 795.0
1.484 at 1200.0
0.348 at 1605.0
m
il
0.305 at 195.0
1.0 0.287 at 1395.0
0.256 at 2400.0
0.134 at 2805.0
0.067 at 600.0
0.5 0.043 at 1005.0
0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

cpm
A compressor is a very good noise filter and events occur at different frequency levels. Therefore,
you should always use different vibration parameters to ensure that all expected and unexpected

events are present on a vibration signature. The parameter type should be clean and easy to
interpret.
Below are some examples of different parameter types and their benefits.
Below is a cylinder signature plot using ULT data and VT1 mechanical vibration data on a
1400-rpm, high-speed Ariel compressor. Notice how the VT1 data shows the mechanical events,
whereas ULT shows gas passing or leakage.
C031 cylinder 3 3/26/2003 9:53:47 AM HE Period 6, CE Period 7
400 --------------
--
-- 3HD4 ULT
VT1 Data ULT Data -- Scale 30.0
-- 227 DGF
----------------
--
-- 3HD4 VT1
350 --- 227 Scale 25.0
DGF
-----------------
--
-- 3HD3 ULT
-- Scale 30.0
-- 215 DGF
300 ----------------
--
--- 3HD3 VT1
Pressure (psig)
-- 215 Scale 25.0

DGF
--
---------------
--
250 --- 3CD4 ULT
Scale 30.0
-- 205 DGF
--
---------------
--
-- 3CD4 VT1
--- 205 Scale 25.0
DGF
200 --
---------------
--
-- 3CD3 ULT
--- 203 Scale 30.0
DGF
-----------------
--
150 -- 3CD3 VT1
-- Scale 25.0
-- 203 DGF
---------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

Low-frequency and medium-frequency data both show a misalignment between the cylinder and
crosshead on the RDS IR compressor.
60000
65 Maximum Rodload Tension: 60000 --------------
50000 -
60
-
40000 55 - 1X VTL
-
30000 50
- Scale 3.0
45 -
20000
-
40
10000 -
35 -
Zero Rodload
0 ---------------
Pressure(psig)
odLoad(lbs)
30 -
-10000 -
R
25
- 1X VT1
-20000
20 -
-30000 - Scale 2.0

15
Inertia -
-40000 10 -
Gas force
-
-50000 5
Total -
0 Maximum Rodload Compression: 60000 --------------
-60000
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)
The high-speed compressor is difficult to analyze. But with the use of different vibration parameters
and process variables, along with a good trending program, analysis of a high-speed compressor
can be very accurate.

Pattern Interpretation
To perform accurate pattern interpretation, we must know the components inside the compressor.
We must also know how to identify the vibration events (both good and bad) that components in the
compressor cylinder should produce.
Typical components that reciprocate, or are designed to operate inside a compressor cylinder:
1. Piston, piston rings, piston rod assembly or plunger
2. Suction valve(s)
3. Discharge valve(s)
Other components inside a typical compressor cylinder (that do not reciprocate):
1. Cylinder liner (wet or dry type)
2. Packing case
Exponents of a compressor cylinder:
1. Crosshead assembly
2. Compressor frame and crankshaft
3. Unloader(s)
4. Valve caps
5. Volume bottles
6. Variable pockets
7. Indicator valves
Components that will produce mechanical events:
2. Suction valve(s)
Components that are expected to produce a high frequency gas-passing vibration at the right crank
angles:
2. Suction valve(s)

Components inside the cylinder that will produce a high-frequency leakage pattern if defective:
1. Defective piston ring assembly 4. Rod packing in packing case
2. Discharge valve(s) 5. Cylinder liner
3. Suction valve(s) 6. Cracked piston
Components inside the cylinder that will produce a low-frequency, spike-type pattern if defective:
1. Defective piston rings assembly 4. Cylinder liner
2. Discharge valve(s) 5. Loose piston on rod
3. Suction valve(s)
Components of the compressor cylinder that will produce a high-frequency vibration pattern,
if defective:
1. Valve cap seals 4. Unloader(s)
2. Packing vent lines 5. Gaskets at suction and discharge

bottles
3. Indicator valves
6. Variable pockets
Components of the compressor cylinder and frame assembly that will produce a low-frequency,
spike type vibration pattern, if defective:
1. Worn crosshead and wrist pin 4. Variable pockets (if loose)

assembly
5. Unloader assembly
2. Worn connecting rod bearings
6. Loose rod nut on crosshead
3. Worn compressor crankshaft
7. Counterweights loose

Compressor Cylinder Vibration Analysis

When analyzing phased vibration and ultrasonic data, we look for:
1. Suction valve opening and closing events
2. Discharge valve opening and closing events
3. Timing of the valve events
4. The amplitude of the valve opening and closing events
5. Piston and liner faults
6. Piston ring leakage
7. Valve leakage
8. Valve seat leakage
9. Wrist pin and connecting rod bearing faults
Suction Valve Opening and Closing Events
Below is a compressor cylinder head end signature plot showing the suction valve events.
400 --------------
Pressure at discharge level
-
-
350 -3HS2 VT1
-
- Scale 30.0
300 -
-128 DGF
-
Pressure Suction valves open when pressure in the -
250
(psig) cylinder is below suction line pressure. ---------------
-
-
200
-3HS1 VT1
-
- Scale 30.0
150 -
-125 DGF
-
100 -
Pressure at suction level --------------
-0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)
Suction valves close when pressure in the cylinder is equal to suction line pressure.

Discharge Valve Closing Events

Pressure at discharge level
3HD4 VT1
Discharge valves open when pressure in cylinder is above

discharge line pressure.
Pressure at suction level
Discharge valves close when pressure in the cylinder

is equal to discharge line pressure.
Timing of the Valve Events
The crank angle at which the valves open and close can greatly affect the performance of a
compressor cylinder. There are several things that affect valve timing:
Spring tension
Excessive spring tension can adversely affect the SVE and DVE of a cylinder, depending on line
pressures. Excessive spring tension can also affect the losses in horsepower across the valves.
RPM
High RPM will affect the valve opening and closing velocity and the crank angle at which the valve
should close.
Oil Adhesion
Lube oil in over-lubricated cylinders may act as an adhesive between the valve plate(s) and the
guard, affecting the angle at which valves open and close, as well as affecting the velocity of the
valve plates.
Lift of the valve
Excessive lift = high valve plate velocity.

The Amplitude of Valve Opening and Closing Events

The nature of some valves is to have high amplitude opening events, depending on how they were
set up and the operating parameters of the compressor. One way to determine if the valve opening
and closing are excessive is to trend the valves and compare all suction or discharge valves in that
cylinder. Usually, if a valve spring or dampening plate fails in a valve, the valve plate velocity
increases and slams against the guard, resulting in premature valve life. Below is a single-acting
cylinder with a valve that has defective springs.
--------------
400 -
-
- 3CD4 VT1
-
- Scale 2.0
-
- 135 DGF
350 -
-
---------------
-
-
- 3CD3 VT1
-
300 - Scale 2.0
-
- 151 DGF
Pressure (psig)
-
-
---------------
250 -
-
- 3CS2 VT1
-
- Scale 2.0
-
- 82 DGF
200 -
-
---------------
-
-
- 3CS1 VT1
-
150 - Scale 2.0
-
- 84 DGF
-
-
--------------
100
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Piston and liner Faults
All ranges can all be used to determine faults on the cylinder liner walls. Usually, this data is
collected on the head and crank ends of each compressor cylinder in the vertical position. Liner
faults can appear at any angle throughout the 360º stroke. With the help of a good trending program
and spectrum data, liner faults can be easily detected. Below is a signature plot that has ultrasonic
data indicating cylinder liner faults.
--------------
-
300
-
- 2C ULT
-
250 - Scale 30.0
-
-
Pressure (psig)
-
200
-
---------------
-
150 -
- 2H ULT
-
- Scale 30.0
100
-
-
-
50 -
--------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)
Below is the same liner after corrective actions. This data was collected using an ultrasonic
parameter and found that the liner had severe wear in the 10 and 4 o’clock positions.
Channel Resonance is corrected
--------------
-
300
-
- 2C ULT
-
250 - Scale 30.0
-
-
Pressure (psig)
-
200
-
---------------
-
150 -
- 2H ULT
-
- Scale 30.0
100
-
-
-
50 -
--------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

Piston Ring Leakage

Piston ring leakage can be determined in the early stage, before it really has a large effect on the
cylinder’s performance. What you want to look for is that all vibration patterns will taper down to the
point where the pressure is equal on both sides of the piston.
Ring leakage is a high-frequency gas passing vibration. The patterns stop where the pressure is
equal on both sides of the piston because of the stoppage of gas flow across the rings.
Remember: Pressure is caused by resistance to flow, and flow is caused by a differential in

pressure. If there is a differential in pressure and a path to flow, flow will occur. Vibration from the
gas flow will increase in amplitude if the pressure increases and will decrease in amplitude if the
pressure decreases.
Below is a third-stage cylinder from a Superior compressor. Notice how the vibration patterns taper
down to the point where pressure is equal on both sides of the piston. This is an indication of early
ring leakage.
1900
--------------
1800 -
-
1700
- 4HD1 VT1
1600 -
- Scale 10.0
1500
-
171 DGF
1400 -
-
Pressure (psig)
1300
-
1200 ---------------
-
1100 -
1000 - 4HS1 VT1

-
900 - Scale 10.0
-
800 98 DGF
-
700 -
-
600
--------------
-0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

Valve Leakage
Valve leakage can only occur when the valve is closed and there is a differential in pressure across
the valve. A valve cannot leak when it is open.
Valve leakage, both suction and discharge, has an adverse effect on the compressor SVE and
DVE. If cylinders are operated long enough, a rod non-reversal can occur, causing catastrophic
failure to reciprocating components in the cylinder. Valve leakage can put additional stresses on
other cylinders due to compression ratio imbalance. This causes the cylinders to carry additional
load, which will also lead to expensive component failure. Temperatures will increase, as well as
fuel consumption and losses in horsepower.
Use care when determining a leaking valve. Make sure that the leakage has an effect on
performance. Many high speed compressors do not produce clear valve vibration signals due to
additional inherent vibrations.
The signature plot below indicates discharge valve leakage.
55 --------------
-
-
- 1HD6 ULT
-
50 - Scale 20.0
- 321 DGF
-
-
-
---------------
45 -
-
- 1HD5 ULT
-
- Scale 20.0
40 - 342 DGF
-
-
-
---------------
-
35 -
- 1HD4 ULT
-
- Scale 20.0
Pressure (psig)
- 357 DGF
30 -
-
-
---------------
-
-
25 - 1HS3 ULT
-
- Scale 20.0
- 112 DGF
-
20 -
-
---------------
-
-
- 1HS2 ULT
15 -
- Scale 20.0
- 98 DGF
-
-
10 -
---------------
-
-
- 1HS1 ULT
-
5 - Scale 20.0
- 97 DGF
-
-
-
0 --------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

Valve Seat Leakage

Valve seat leakage looks much like valve leakage. However, valve seat leakage usually produces a
wide vibration pattern, in both medium and ultrasonic frequencies. The reason the pattern is so
large is the small passage through which the high-pressure gas escapes. For example, if you have
a vessel pressurized to 10,000 psi and you allow gas to escape through a 1/8” orifice, it will produce
a larger vibration amplitude than the same vessel pressurized to 10 psi allowing gas to escape
through the 1/8” orifice.
Valve seat leakage will have an effect on the cylinder’s performance, but usually not as much as a
leaking valve. Valve seat leakage should be repaired quickly since the gas may erode some of the
seat area of the valve.
Below is a signature plot indicating valve seat leakage.
70C-403 cylinder 1 6/24/99 8:01:35 AM HE Period 2, CE Period 2

1200 --------------
-
-
- 1HD4 VT1
-
1100 - Scale 10.0
-
- 180 DGF
-
-
---------------
1000 -
-
- 1HD3 VT1
-
- Scale 10.0
Pressure (psig)
900 -
- 184 DGF
-
-
---------------
-
800 -
- 1HS2 VT1
-
- Scale 10.0
-
700 - 91 DGF
-
-
---------------
-
-
600 - 1HS1 VT1
-
- Scale 10.0
-
- 96 DGF
-
500 -
--------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

Valve Restriction
Foreign material, minimal valve lift, or high tension dampening plate or springs can cause restriction
in a valve. Valve restriction will seldom affect the SVE or DVE. However, it will cause additional
losses in horsepower. Flow restriction is easily noticed when the piston is at maximum velocity in
the cylinder, at 90º or 270º.
Below is an example of flow restriction for this head end suction valve.
1000 --------------
-
900 -
- 5HD2 ULT
800 -
- Scale 30.0
700 -
104 DGF
-
Pressure (psig)
600 -
-
500 ---------------
-
400 -
- 5HS1 ULT
300 -
- Scale 30.0
200 -
73 DGF
-
100 -
-
0 --------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

Wrist Pin and Connecting Rod Bearing Faults

Wrist pin knock occurs when the pressure is equal and rod load reversal occurs. There is excessive
clearance between the con rod bearing and crank pin or wrist pin bushing and wrist pin. Reversal
means that the load is reversed on the reciprocating components for that particular cylinder or
throw. Knocks, if excessive clearance is present, are easily detected with low-frequency vibration
parameters. Therefore, exercise care before reporting a defective crosshead wrist pin. Sometimes,
on slower running machines, the low-frequency parameter will show a spike at the reversal points. It
may be in your best interest to use spectrum data for a backup, along with a low-medium frequency
range parameter and a good trending program.
K602CA cylinder 3 9/28/01 11:34:49 AM

25000
Maximum Rodload Tension: 25000 --------------
-
20000 350
-
- 3X VTL
15000 -
- Scale 9.0
10000 300
-
-
5000 -
Pressure (psig)
Rod Load (lbs)
-
250 Zero Rodload
0 ---------------
-
-5000 -
- 3X VT1
200
-10000 -
- Scale 8.0
-15000 Inertia -
-
150 Gas force
-
-20000
Total -
Maximum Rodload Compression: 25000 --------------
-25000
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

The definitions for Median, Average, Maximum, Minimum or Specific Period vibration signatures are
in the following paragraphs.
1. Median, Minimum or Maximum display actual data you collected. For example, if you
collected nine periods of cylinder vibration data, there will be four patterns that have a higher
energy and four patterns that have a lower energy than the median pattern.
2. Median Period displays the period whose vibration energy falls in the middle over all periods
collected for the cylinder.
3. Minimum Period displays the period of vibration that has the minimum energy over all
periods collected for the cylinder.
4. Maximum Period displays the period of vibration that has the maximum energy over all
periods collected for the cylinder.
5. Specific Period displays the period of vibration or pressure data that you specify in the box.
6. Median/Minimum/Maximum displays all three periods on the same panel. These curves are
shown in different colors or line types so you can distinguish them from one another. You
can change these colors and line types in Color Settings.
The choice is yours. You have to determine which type of period is easiest to interpret.

SPECTRUM VIBRATION ANALYSIS ON

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Compressor Vibration
A compressor produces vibrations from the forces of the reciprocating components inside the
machine. These reciprocating forces produce pulses of energy that cause the compressor to vibrate
in response. Compressor designers do their best to make the forces cancel out to minimize
vibrations; however, no matter how well a designer does his job, he cannot eliminate all inherent
vibrations in a compressor. Therefore, we need to remember that it is perfectly normal for a
compressor to produce a characteristic vibration spectrum signature.
Normal Vibration Signature

When each compressor cylinder compresses gas and forces the gas into the discharge header in
short period of time, it produces a vibration that transfers to the compressor frame and cylinders,
with a pulse of energy. Compressor valves must work according to cylinder internal pressures and
piston movement, which also produce vibration when they operate. The vibration spectrum of such
a pulse is a series of vibration spectral lines. These spectral lines will be at integer multiples of the
reciprocating rate of each piston and possibly the operating frequency of the valves.
Half-Order Vibrations
Half-order vibrations usually do not exist in a compressor because no events occur at one-half
times run-speed. A compressor that has half-order vibrations is probably caused by having a four-
cycle engine. If there are high half-order vibrations noticed on a spectrum produced by a
compressor, there might be an engine power cylinder that is dead or very weak.
1P Vibrations
A reciprocating compressor will produce almost the same spectrum data as a two-cycle engine.
Generally, insufficient main bearing clearance (too much or too little), compressor speed,
compressor load, and crankshaft and piston mass balance affects 1P vibrations.

How to Read the Vibration Spectrum Signature

To read the vibration spectrum signature you must know the compressor crankshaft RPM. A
frequency at one times run-speed (1 x RPM or 1P) is the frequency the data collector reads at
crankshaft RPM.
Below is a spectrum collected from the center main bearing from a compressor operating at 945
RPM. This spectrum will help identify the orders at run-speed.
4M VIB
10
Spectrum
1X # Lines: 401
9
# Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
8
Trap overall 10.122
Peak at Frequency
7
9.866 at 945.0
6 0.867 at 1890.0
0.495 at 4710.0
5 0.433 at 1410.0
mil
0.269 at 5655.0
4 0.250 at 3765.0
0.208 at 4245.0
3 0.195 at 5190.0
0.092 at 3300.0
2 0.067 at 2355.0
2X
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
# Lines 401
Lines of resolution is a measure of how much detail or how many peaks at frequencies you want to
see in your spectrum. Generally 200 to 400 lines (or even less on low RPM machines) is sufficient
for a reciprocating machine. If your spectrum has multiple lines that do not come close to a half-
order or an order at 1 x RPM, lower the lines of resolution. This will make the spectrum easier to
read. Higher resolutions also take longer to collect/process and require more storage space.

Number of Averages
You can think of an average as a measure of time. For example, an average may take 10 seconds
to collect. Once ten seconds is counted, another average begins. Averages are needed in case the
vibration level is fluctuating. Averaging the signal will produce a more representative result. Multiple
averages improve the accuracy of the data; however, it does require additional time.
Four averages are generally sufficient for a reciprocating machine.
Trap Overall
If the overall is much higher than the sum of the spectrum peaks, suspect there is energy above the
frequency scale you have selected. Some analyzers have a maximum frequency of 5 kHz;
RT9240’s have a maximum of 20 kHz. If the overall is much lower than the sum of the spectrum
peaks in the Z80, suspect the signal changed between the small amount of time between the
overall and spectrum recordings. If the overall is much lower than the sum of the spectrum peaks in
the RT9240, it may be that the overall and spectrum are calculated from slightly different data.
Peak at Frequency
The spectrum shows a vibration at a given frequency that matches a line of resolution. If there are
not enough lines, the software has no line in which to match the frequency. Therefore, it is
important to have plenty of lines of resolution when collecting spectrum data on reciprocating
machines.
Points of Data Collection on Compressors for Main Bearing Data

The best point to collect main bearing data is at the centerline of the crankshaft on the side of
rotation of the compressor. If you have a right hand rotating compressor viewed from the flywheel,
collect the data on the right side if possible. This is indicated later in this section.

Spectrum Analysis Setup and Data Collection Procedures
Setup:
Parameter Type Frequency Range No. of points # of Averages
VIB (Mills Displacement) 5X Machine Rated RPM 200 Minimum 2 Min 4 Max
IPP (In per sec pseudo peak) 10X Machine Rated RPM 200 Minimum 2 Min 4 Max
Procedure:
Maintain the Same RPM
Try to collect data at the same rpm each time. This will help the consistency of the data and will
help trending.
Maintain the Same Load
If possible, start at a load setting that can be maintained for future data collecting. This will help the
consistency of the data and will help trending.
Use the Magnet
Use the magnet for uniform pressure each time you or some one else collects the data. This will
improve consistency.
Collect Three Axis Data on the Cylinder Heads
Always collect three axis data on the head end of each cylinder and divide the cylinder bore by 1.5.
This method may be used for maximum allowable cylinder movement at 1 x P, which is a good rule
of thumb to use for maximum allowable movement in any axis, especially in the horizontal plain.
Watch the Previous Level
Always watch the previous level indicated on the data collector while collecting spectrum data. If
you see a difference, start the data collection process for that test point over or reposition the
accelerometer and start over. Never collect spectrum data in the center of a compressor cylinder
head, especially on large-bore cylinders. The cast iron cylinder head may be hollow and will
produce a reverb type vibration which will produce a higher than normal 1 x P or overall vibration.
Try to collect data on the cylinder itself at the same point each time.

Collect Data on the Same Side of Compressor Rotation
Collect crankshaft spectrum data on the same side of compressor rotation. If you have a right-hand
compressor, try to collect data on the right side of the compressor. The same goes for a left-hand
compressor or counter-clockwise compressor.
Collect on a Flat, Paint-Free or Uniform Surface
A heavily painted surface will act as a cushion and will produce low amplitude vibration patterns. If
you have to collect on a painted surface, make sure the paint is light and evenly coated.
Try to Collect Horizontally on the Crankshaft Split-line
This may be difficult on some compressors; therefore, collect the data on each frame tie-bolt in HE
horizontal axis. Never collect spectrum data on a cover because the cover may vibrate more than
the machine and produce a false spectrum.
Monitor the Oil Analysis
Monitor the oil analysis closely for wear metals. This will help verify that there is a problem.

Cause of High-Order Ratios
This is what I have found that will cause high amplitude vibration at 1P and half-orders:
High amplitude at high frequency Probable Cause
half-order ratio correctable weak or misfiring cylinder on a four-cycle engine, ring leakage in
the vertical plane
high 1 times run-speed on main bearing correctable high RPM, high load level, improper main bearing clearance,
improper piston mass, misalignment, tight belt tension, or auxiliary
load, improper balance
low 1 times run-speed on one main bearing correctable excessive main bearing clearance, misalignment between
crankshaft webs
high 1 times run-speed on cylinder correctable loose cylinder mounting bolts, unequal piston mass, high RPM,
piston is contacting cylinder head, or crank end of the cylinder
high 2 times run-speed correctable high RPM, excessive rod or wrist pin bearing clearance, excessive
rider band wear in compressor cylinders, improper balance, piston
slap, loose cylinder or sleeve, improper alignment
high 3 times run-speed correctable high RPM, high load level, improper balance of reciprocating
components both driver and driven, misalignment, improper main
bearing clearance, inherent vibration from a six throw compressor
high 4 times run-speed correctable excessive rider band wear in compressor cylinders, misalignment
between crosshead and cylinder, improper balance of
reciprocating components both driver and driven, high compressor
valve lift or noisy compressor valves, exciting a natural frequency
high 5 times run-speed correctable defective cylinder liner, noisy compressor valves

Spectrum Analysis on Reciprocating Compressors

Spectrum analysis (using mills displacement or inches per-second velocity) on reciprocating
compressors is very useful to determine the following:
Unequal Forces on the Crankshaft
1. Unequal piston mass
2. Loose cylinders
3. Imbalance due to compression ratios
4. RPM
Piston and Cylinder Liner Faults
1. Worn liners
2. Liners that move inside the cylinder
3. Leakage
4. Defective rod run-out or misalignment between cylinder and crosshead guide or crosshead-
guide to compressor frame
5. Loose cylinder mounting bolts or excessive cylinder movement
Compressor Valve Faults
1. Excessive valve lift / noisy valves
2. Valve flutter
Main Bearing Anomalies
1. Misalignment between main bearings on compressors that need line boring or have been
improperly mounted
2. Defective or excessively worn main bearings

Connecting Rod Bearing or Wrist Pin Bearing Faults
1. Excessively worn connecting rod bearings or wrist pin bearings.
Examples of Some Anomalies That Have Been Found Using Spectrum

Analysis on Reciprocating Compressors
Cylinder Liner Fault
Below is a compressor cylinder that is not on a high-speed compressor. However, it provides a

good case study for cylinder liner faults. This cylinder was shown in the vibration portion of this
class. The vibration spikes in the circles are anomalies that suddenly appeared between data
collection dates. They are not discharge valve opening events.
11-5-99
--------------
-
300
-
- 2C ULT
-
250 - Scale 30.0
-
-
Pressure (psig)
-
200
-
---------------
-
150 -
- 2H ULT
-
- Scale 30.0
100
-
-
-
50 -
--------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

Spectrum data (collected in mills) indicates a high two times run-speed order due to the two spikes
on the signature plot. If there were three spikes on the signature plot, we may see a high three
times run-speed order.
11-5-99
1.50 Spectrum
# Lines: 201
# Averages: 3
1.25 Calc overall NA

Trap overall 2.570
Peak at Frequency
1.532 at 885.0
1.00
1.368 at 435.0
1.020 at 2640.0
0.427 at 1320.0
mil
0.75
0.232 at 600.0
0.159 at 1755.0
0.110 at 1185.0
0.50
0.110 at 2205.0
0.031 at 990.0
0.024 at 195.0
0.25
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

cpm
An inspection was requested and the machinist found that the cylinder had severe wear in the 10
and 4 o’clock position in the cylinder liner. Below is the data collected after repairs.
11-23-99
--------------
-
300
-
- 2C ULT
-
250 - Scale 30.0
-
-
Pressure (psig)
-
200
-
---------------
-
150 -
- 2H ULT
-
- Scale 30.0
100
-
-
-
50 -
--------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)

The spectrum data collected in the vertical axis indicates that the 2 times run-speed order has
dropped in amplitude a considerable amount after the repairs.
11-23-99
2.00 Spectrum
# Lines: 201
1.75 # Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 2.607
1.50
Peak at Frequency
2.002 at 435.0
1.25 0.659 at 885.0
0.440 at 2205.0
0.372 at 2655.0
1.00
mil
0.324 at 1320.0
0.226 at 1185.0
0.75 0.153 at 1770.0
0.067 at 600.0
0.50 0.043 at 225.0
0.037 at 990.0
0.25
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

cpm
Ring Leakage
Below is signature from a high speed IR RDS compressor with some ring leakage (indicated in the
rectangles) according to the vibration time data. Since pressure time data was not accessible on
this cylinder, spectrum data in three axes on the outer end of the cylinder was collected.
--------------
-
-
250 - 2HD4 VT1
-
- Scale 17.0
-
225 - 192 DGF
-
-
---------------
-
200 -
- 2HD3 VT1
-
- Scale 17.0
-
- 184 DGF
Pressure (psig)
175
-
-
---------------
-
150 -
- 2HS2 VT1
-
- Scale 17.0
-
125 - 99 DGF
-
-
---------------
-
100 -
- 2HS1 VT1
-
- Scale 17.0
-
75 - 96 DGF
-
-
--------------
50
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Crank Angle (deg)

Below is the spectrum data collected on the head of the same cylinder, in the vertical axis. The low
frequency vibration (in the circle) is an indication of flow resonance inside the compressor cylinder.
Flow resonance is caused when the rings and rider band wear in the cylinder. Gas leaks over the
top of the piston in most cases, which in turn, drives the overall reading up on data collected in the
vertical axis. That is why you may see a spectrum that resembles the one below on cylinder that
has ring leakage.
2.00
Spectrum
# Lines: 201
1.75 # Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 3.315
1.50
Peak at Frequency
1.996 at 1890.0
1.25 1.654 at 930.0
1.612 at 2820.0
1.203 at 4710.0
1.00
mil
0.525 at 210.0
0.354 at 2340.0
0.75
0.336 at 5640.0
0.122 at 390.0
0.50 0.110 at 3300.0

0.104 at 2700.0
0.25
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
Below is the other first stage cylinder with very little ring leakage and low overall reading.
1.3 Spectrum
# Lines: 201
1.2
# Averages: 2
1.1 Calc overall NA
Trap overall 2.466
1.0
Peak at Frequency
0.9 1.331 at 930.0
1.221 at 2820.0
0.8
1.062 at 1890.0
0.7 0.849 at 4710.0
mil
0.6 0.195 at 3780.0

0.134 at 5640.0
0.5
0.116 at 1410.0
0.4 0.110 at 3300.0

0.055 at 4500.0
0.3
0.049 at 2700.0
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

Defective Cylinder Liner
Below is spectrum data collected in the axial position. It indicates an increase of five mills at 5 times
run-speed.
1A VIB
Spectrum
9
# Lines: 201
# Averages: 4
8
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 9.548
7
Peak at Frequency
9.304 at 1635.0
6
0.965 at 1965.0
0.623 at 330.0
5
0.592 at 2295.0
mil
0.446 at 1305.0
4
0.366 at 2625.0
0.165 at 975.0
3 0.159 at 2940.0
0.122 at 420.0
2 0.098 at 2775.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

cpm
This trended phase vibration plot for suction valves indicates multiple spikes developed since the
last data collection. After an inspection, maintenance personnel found a defective liner.
cyl 1
Suction valves: Phased Vibration VT1:
5
1CS2 Current
-5 1 2 3 4
5
1CS2 Previous
-5
5
1CS2 Baseline
-5
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Cylinder Misalignment
Crosshead spectrum data indicate a high two times run-speed order.
1X VIB 12/29/99
Spectrum
# Lines: 401
2.5
# Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 1.313
2.0 Peak at Frequency
2.729 at 405.0
2.454 at 802.5
0.812 at 1200.0
1.5
0.604 at 187.5
mil
0.452 at 232.5
0.446 at 1597.5
1.0 0.385 at 270.0
0.366 at 2002.5
0.324 at 292.5
0.293 at 210.0
0.5
0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

cpm
Phased crosshead vibration data indicates two vibration spikes, but nowhere near the reversal
points. The cause of these anomalies was a misalignment between the cylinder and crosshead
guide.
60000
65 Maximum Rodload Tension: 60000 --------------
50000 -
60
-
40000 55 - 1X VTL
-
30000 50
- Scale 3.0
45 -
20000
-
40
Pressure (psig)
-
Rod Load (lbs)
10000
35 -
Zero Rodload
0 ---------------
30 -
-10000 -
25
- 1X VT1
-20000
20 -
-30000 - Scale 2.0

15
Inertia -
-40000 10 -
Gas force
-
-50000 5
Total -
0 Maximum Rodload Compression: 60000 --------------
-60000
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Crank Angle (deg)
Discussion of Spectrum Analysis

Compressor Pressure Data Analysis

Cylinder Pressure Analysis is Used to Determine the Following:
1. Overall efficiency cylinder performance
2. The mechanical integrity of a compressor cylinder
3. Acceptance / compliance
Prior to Data Collection

It is best to perform a good, thorough inspection and install process variables (gauge readings) in
the software. The recommended process variables for compressor cylinder high-speed pressure
data analysis are:
1. Suction temperature of all cylinders (if possible)
2. Discharge temperatures of all cylinders (if possible)
3. Suction pressure
4. Interstage pressure(s)
5. Discharge pressure or final discharge pressure
6. Air manifold pressure from engine
7. Frame oil pressure
8. Volume at the station flow meter (if possible)
9. Volume at the fuel flow meter (if possible)
10. Variable pocket(s) position
11. Load step(s) if different load steps are implemented
12. Atmospheric pressure
13. Atmospheric temperature

Data Requirements
Below are some recommendations for good, accurate data collection. You must collect good data
or your time and effort are wasted and your analysis is inaccurate.
True and Accurate TDC Mark

Before collecting data, be certain that you have a true and accurate TDC mark. An encoder or
crank-angle transducer is the optimum tool for an RPM marker device. Some compressors do not
have access to an encoder drive; therefore, a magnetic pickup or optic eye system may be
implemented for an RPM marker.
Not having access to true TDC will have an adverse effect on the accuracy of your data. A marker
correction angle feature usually is available in the software, but not recommended unless a TDC
mark is not available.
Good Temperature Data

Nearly all compressors are painted. Paint will act as thermal insulation and show a skin temperature
that is lower than the actual temperature collected with an inferred temperature wand. One way to
help the accuracy of inferred temperature data is to paint (with a high-temperature paint) a flat black
spot on the area where you are collecting temperature data.
The most accurate method of collecting temperature data is to use a thermocouple in the gas
stream near the suction and discharge cylinder. Dial type gauges may be used; however, vibration
will soon affect the gauge and may later cause false readings. Be sure all thermocouples and
temperature gauges are calibrated and work properly. If an inferred temperature wand is used,
make sure it is accurate and clean.
Clean Indicator Valves

Make sure that all indicator or Kiene valves are working properly and are free of foreign material
that may harm the pressure transducer. A full open ball type valve equipped with the Whitworth
thread provides the fastest and most accurate pressure time data due to ease of operation and
minimal restriction.
Accurate Transducer
After the transducer is calibrated, confirm the pressure reads zero, plus or minus 6 psi after the
transducer has been calibrated. Be sure the transducer is warm prior to calibration. Verify all
electrical connections are dry and tight.

Accurate Atmospheric Conditions

If you are in the mountains, the atmospheric pressure is lower than it is at sea level. When you
calibrate your transducer, determine the atmospheric pressure and add it to the software program
for pressure time data corrected to atmospheric pressure.
Accurate Gas Analysis

For engine units, gas samples of the fuel gas and the compressed gas should be taken periodically
with a minimum of one sample per test, if possible. This is very important on gas gathering
compressors. The gas analysis should include the gas composition for the gas being compressed
and the heating value (determined as specified by A.G.A).
The gas analysis should include the following
Specific gravity Isentropic compression exponent
Compressibility Speed of sound
Density Enthalpy
Cylinder Clearances
Clearance percent (CL) represents the ratio of the actual volume of gas in cubic inches trapped in
the cylinder (including that in pockets) when the piston is at top dead center divided by the piston
displacement (PD).
Dynamic clearance percent may also be determined from the indicated data on the PV curve.
Brake Horsepower from Driver

Brake horse power (BHP) is the power required to drive the compressor and must included in the
performance calculations to the determine mechanical and compression losses in IHP and percent
load on the engine. If known, the horsepower requirements for auxiliary equipment that is driven by
the engine should be deducted from the brake horsepower.
Pressure Measurement Locations

Several pressure measurement locations will normally be used in high-speed compressor
performance testing. It is essential that the necessary pressure taps be available with the
appropriate fittings and valves prior to the start of data collection.

Cylinder Pressure
Gas dynamics between the interior cylinder pressure port and the transducer diaphragm can
produce several profound and detrimental effects on apparent dynamic cylinder pressure. The most
obvious of these result from excitation of the quarter-wave acoustic length resonance of the gas
passage between the cylinder interior and the pressure transducer. This effect superimposes a
large amplitude periodic pressure wave on the true cylinder pressure and can result in a
significantly distorted pressure volume diagram. When this channel resonance is encountered,
pinching the transducer cut of the valve will frequently destroy this resonance; however, this is not
recommended because it can introduce a greater error in indicated horsepower than the effects of
the channel resonance itself. Channel resonance can be corrected in the analysis software.
Extreme caution must be used while using this tool because it will affect the performance measures
of the cylinder.
Suction and Discharge Nozzle Pressures

Pressure taps should be located in the individual cylinder nozzles as close to the cylinder as
possible. These pressures are normally used for determinations of overall compressor
performance. Most analysis software programs allow PV curves to be corrected to the nozzle
traces. It should be mandatory that the PV curves are corrected to the nozzle traces only if proper
data was collected.
Optional Suction and Discharge Pressure

The piping locations most representative of the pressures seen by the cylinder as suction and
discharge pressure are near the valves. If nozzle traces are not available, accurate gauge readings
may be used for VE corrections.

Analyzing the Pressure Signature Plot

The pressure versus crank angle curve illustrates the relationship between time and pressure. This
relationship helps identify valve events. The pressure-time pattern is a valuable reference when
analyzing vibration patterns because the compressor valves are pressure-actuated (open and close
due to pressure differential).
Sequence of Events for the Head End of a Compressor Cylinder
At position A, the piston is at top dead center (TDC). The pressure in the head end of the cylinder is
discharge pressure. The head end discharge valve just closed and crankshaft angle is 0°.
The piston moves toward bottom dead center (BDC), increasing the volume. The pressure in the
cylinder drops rapidly because the volume is increasing and no gas is entering the cylinder (all
valves are closed).
When the cylinder pressure is sufficiently lower than suction line pressure, the head end suction
valves open (position B). At position B, cylinder pressure is at a minimum.
Gas enters the cylinder through the open suction valves as the piston continues to move toward
BDC. As long as the cylinder pressure is below suction line pressure, gas enters the cylinder.
At BDC (position C) the piston changes direction. Now (or a bit later) the suction valves close. At
position C, all valves are closed and the piston starts to move toward TDC. The pressure rises as
the volume in the cylinder decreases. When the cylinder pressure is sufficiently greater than the

discharge pressure, the head end discharge valves open (position D). The gas is discharged into
the discharge line as long as the cylinder pressure exceeds discharge line pressure.
At TDC, the discharge valves close.
Analyzing Pressure-Volume Patterns

The pressure volume (PV) curve illustrates the relationship between cylinder volume and pressure.
Displaying pressure in this form allows us to identify cylinder and valve condition and performance.
The ‘swept volume’ on the graph is the head end volume displaced by the piston as it moves from
TDC to BDC. Therefore, 0% swept volume means the piston is at TDC. Ideally, valves close either
when the piston is at TDC or BDC. In practice, there is usually a very slight delay due to valve
inertia.
Sequence of Events for the Head End of a Compressor Cylinder
After the discharge event, the discharge valve closes (D) and the chamber contains a minimum
amount of gas. As the volume of the chamber increases, the gas expands. When the gas in the
chamber reaches a low enough pressure, the suction valve opens (A) and gas is drawn into the
chamber. The valve closes at the end of the stroke (B). During the compression event, pressure in
the chamber increases with decreasing cylinder volume. The discharge valve opens (C) when the
pressure in the cylinder is high enough to overcome the pressure and spring force holding it shut.

Operating Factors that Affect the Shape of the PV Curve

Normal factors that affect the shape of the PV curve are compression ratio and loading conditions
(clearance volume).
Compression Ratio
The figures below depict what happens when the discharge pressure is increased while suction
pressure is held constant. Note how suction and discharge volumetric efficiencies and the area of
the PV curve are affected by decreasing compression ratio. See how these changes affect
horsepower and capacity.
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
Pressure(psig)
30
25
20
15
10
0 25 50 75 100
Percent swept volume
High Compression Ratio / Low Volume produces a PV curve like the one above.

Low Compression Ratio / High Volume
3000
2750
2500
ressure(psig)
P
2250
2000
1750
0 25 50 75 100
Cylinder Clearance
When an unloader or clearance bottle is opened, there is an increase in cylinder volume. Increasing
the cylinder volume delays the suction valve opening and therefore shortens the effective suction
stroke. Less gas is drawn into the cylinder and less gas is compressed and discharged. The effects
of increasing clearance are seen most effectively in the pressure volume curves (see below). The
suction and discharge volumetric efficiencies are reduced as clearance volume increases. The area
inside the PV curve is used to calculate the horsepower required to move the gas. Also evident in
the PV curve is that as clearance is increased, capacity and horsepower requirements are
decreased (the effect of unloading a compressor cylinder).
High End Clearance
275
250
High cylinder clearance

225
200
Pressure(psig)
175
150
125
100
0 25 50 75 100

3000
2750 Low or minimal cylinder clearance
2500
Pressure(psig)
2250
2000
1750
0 25 50 75 100
Mechanical Conditions that Affect the Shape of the PV Curve

There are a number of mechanical problems that will affect how the PV curve looks. You can use
these changes in the PV shape to detect problems like suction and discharge valve leaks or ring
leaks.
Compare actual PV curves with the theoretical PV curve to determine the nature of the problem.
Suction Valve Leaks
When a suction valve is leaking:
The VED decreases The VES increases And the flow balance > 1.00
Defective suction valve

700
650
600
550 DVE
500
450
re(psig)
400
ressu
P
350
300
250
SVE
200
0 25 50 75 100

Discharge Valve Leaks

When a discharge valve is leaking:
The VED increases The VES decreases And the flow balance < 1
65
60
55
50
45
DVE
40
35
ressure(psig)
30
P
25
20
15
10
SVE
5
0 25 50 75 100
Ring Leaks
When rings are damaged or broken the effect is usually apparent on both ends. The most
significant change in the PV curve is bulging toes. Ring leakage also affects the SVE and DVE. It
may increase or decrease depending on the stage. Some interstage cylinders may see an SVE or
DVE increase due to ring leakage.
550
500
450
400
Pressure(psig)
350
300
250
200
0 25 50 75 100

Restricted Indicator or Pressure Tap

False data due to defective Kiene valves makes this cylinder appear like it is in poor condition.
Resticted Kiene Valve on Head end
900
800
700
600
Pressure(psig)
500
400
300
200
0 25 50 75 100
Blown Discharge Valve

When a discharge valve has no plates, the cylinder end will never reach suction pressure and the
discharge temperature will increase.
800
750
700
650
600
Pressure(psig)
550
Blown discharge valve
500
450
400
350
0 25 50 75 100

High Horsepower Losses

The losses in horsepower are excessive across the discharge valves in this cylinder. This is common
on older, high-speed multistage compressors.
70
60
50
40
Pressure(psig)
30
20
10
0 25 50 75 100
Unloaded Cylinder
The pattern shape varies from cylinder to cylinder. If a cylinder is unloaded, there is a port or valve that
is fully exposed to the inlet of the cylinder (in most conditions). Gas may circulate inside the cylinder,
but there is no compression of any gas.
51
50
49
48
47
Pressure(psig)
46
45
44
43
0 25 50 75 100

Analyzing Log P - Log V Plots

Theory of Log P - Log V Plots
When gas is pumped through a healthy compressor cylinder, the cycle is essentially composed of four
events: compression, discharge, expansion and suction. These events are bound by the opening and
closing of valves in the cylinder. Equation (1) relates the pressure in the cylinder to the volume during
the compression and expansion events.
Equation 1 PVn = Constant
This equation holds true assuming that:
1. The gas is ideal. An ideal gas is one in which the compressibility is equal to 1.0. All gases begin
to behave like ideal gases as the pressure of the gas decreases to vacuum. In most process
and pipeline applications the characteristics of natural gas approximate ideal gas
characteristics.
2. The polytrophic exponent, n, is constant throughout the compression and expansion events.
3. The compression and expansion events are reversible processes.
Rearranging Equation 1, we obtain:

Log(PVn) = Constant Log P + LogVn= constant and LogP + Log nV = constant
Equation 2
Equation 2 is in the form of a straight line. It indicates that a plot of the log of pressure versus the log of
volume will yield a straight line that has a slope of n. This equation is only valid during the compression
and expansion events since the discharge and suction events are not reversible.
The polytrophic exponent, n, is measured from the log P-log V plot. It takes into account the
thermodynamic properties of the gas and the cylinder end and, therefore, may be different in each plot.
The polytrophic exponent should not be confused with the isentropic exponent, usually denoted by k.
The isentropic exponent, or specific heat ratio, is a gas characteristic and used in Equation 1 instead of
n for all reversible adiabatic processes involving an ideal gas.

How analysis systems construct A Log P - Log V Plot

The technique used by analysis systems to obtain the plot is outlined below.
1. Measure the pressure as a function of crank angle.
2. Convert the pressure versus crank angle data to pressure versus volume data. The volume
component is determined in cubic inches so the clearance that is used in the calculations must
be accurate.
3. Calculate the logarithm of both the pressure and the volume components and plot the data on a
linear scale.
4. On the head end plot, identify the point on the compression stroke at which the pressure is the
same as the pressure at TDC. Draw a straight line through this point and the point at BDC.
5. To obtain the second line, find the point on the expansion stroke at which the pressure is the
same as the pressure at BDC. Draw a straight line through this point and the point at TDC.
6. Repeat this procedure for the crank end.
7. Calculate the slope of each line and display it.
8. Obtain the n ratio by dividing the expansion exponent by the compression exponent.
Examples of Log P versus Log V Plots

Normal Log P - Log V n ratios are .99 and 1.00
ne = 1.03 nc = 1.04
eadEnd
clear. = 12.0 %
H
n ratio = 0.99
n ratio = 1.00
clear. = 12.0 %
rankEnd
C
nc = 1.09 ne = 1.10

Log P - Log V Showing a Ring Leak
ne = 1.92 nc = 1.38
HeadEnd
clear. = 40.0 %
n ratio = 1.39
n ratio = 1.46
clear. = 27.0 %
rankEnd
C
nc = 1.43 ne = 2.10

ANALYZING VALVE CAP TEMPERATURES
When you analyze temperatures, use the valve cap temperature bar graph to compare valve cap
temperatures for a specific date, and trend the valve cap temperatures to examine the rate of change in
temperatures over time. When you analyze temperatures be sure to make:
1. Valve-to-valve comparisons
2. Cylinder-to-cylinder comparisons
3. Historical comparisons
Expected Temperature Differences

For a given stage and same valve type, all suction valves should have approximately the same
temperature and all discharge valves should have the same temperature (higher than suction valves). If
the head and crank end valves are the same types, there should be no difference between ends.
Furthermore, if the valves from one cylinder to another are the same, there should be no difference
between cylinders on the same stage.
The position of the valve on the cylinder may have some effect. (A suction valve that is closer to a
discharge valve would likely be hotter).
The valve cap temperature is a skin temperature and is susceptible to a number of factors that are
related to data collection. However, if you have established a technique and precise location (painted
flat black), you have already eliminated most of the problems associated with temperature
measurement. One factor that you cannot control is ambient temperature. If the temperature of the air
fluctuates around the unit or from season to season, make notes of hotspots and trend ambient
temperature along with the valve cap temperatures. When you remove these types of external effects, it
is called normalizing the information. Think of normalizing as removing the noise from a signal.
Valves with pocket unloaders have higher temperatures than valves in a similar service without
unloaders. Also, opening pockets on the cylinder would tend to increase temperatures, due to the
friction in the gas entering and leaving the pocket.
Unexpected Temperature Differences

Once you measure and normalize the valve cap temperatures, you are ready to analyze them.
Temperature increases are a useful secondary indicator of cylinder problems. When valves or rings are
leaking, the recirculating gas acts to heat the valves and cylinder to above normal temperatures.
Increased temperatures could also indicate a faulty cooling system. You would use pressure and
vibration signatures to confirm valve and ring problems. If the problem is with the cooling system, you
would trend the gauge readings for the cooling system and look for differences from normal behavior.

Suspect valves that have temperatures significantly lower than normal. A severely leaking discharge
valve can actually decrease the valve cap temperature. The effect is due to re-expansion of the gas as
the pressure decreases from discharge pressure to cylinder pressure.
Using the Valve Cap Temperature Bar Graph
The bar graph displays all valve temperatures by stage. Examine all suction valves that are on the
same stage. Compare the valve temperature to the suction line temperature you measured (appears on
the bar chart as dashed line for reference). All suction valves should have the same or a similar
temperature. Use the notepad in the RTwin software to enter your explanation for any differences from
what is expected. Examine all discharge valves in the same way. Examine all stages.
Below is a valve cap temperature bar graph for a compressor cylinder. The lower line (blue or S1) is the
measured suction line temperature. The upper line (red or D2) is the measured discharge line
temperature. The blue bars or bars with the letter S represent the valve cap temperatures for the
suction valves. The red bars or bars with the letter D represent the valve cap temperatures for the
discharge valves.
Discharge
175
150
Discharge Discharge
125
Valve
Temperature (F)
Valve
100 Suction
75
Suction Suction
Valve Valve
50
25
0
S1 D2 S1 D2
Head End (Stage# 1) Crank End (Stage# 1)

Using Historical Trends of Temperatures

Temperature changes over time may indicate progressive deterioration. Among the normal valve cap
temperatures, trend lines should be parallel to each other, although not necessarily the same. On
abnormal valves, the trend lines would likely cross over each other.
When operating and ambient conditions change, temperatures change in direct proportion. Trend these
external factors with the valve cap temperatures. For a normal condition, the lines are parallel.
Below is a trend of suction valve cap temperatures (top) and discharge valve cap temperatures
(bottom) for the head end of a cylinder. Notice that the lines are parallel and all values change in direct
proportion to each other.
150
1HD2: 1HD2
140
130
Group 1
120
110
100 1HS1: 1HS1
May 11, 1994 May 11, 1994 Apr 03, 2001 Sep 26, 2001
90

Criteria
Many high-speed compressor cylinders do not have access to pressure time data. Therefore, it is
essential to have good vibration data, along with accurate temperature data. These two parameters
cannot give you the actual swept volume. However, with process variables and temperature trended
data, you will be able to set some criteria for alarm limits for high-speed cylinders. Criteria should be
based on the station or the individual machine. After three sets of data or three different data collection
dates in a year, temperature criteria should be established for valve caps, cylinder pressure packing,
scrubber dump lines, etc.
Valve Cap Temperature Analysis

Suction Valve Cap Temperatures Analysis
If all suction valve cap temperatures are 10 to 15º lower than suction nozzle temperature, inspect for:
1. Low or insufficient flow to compressor cylinder
2. Flow restriction across valve due to lift or excessive spring tension
If one suction valve cap temperature is 10 to 15º or higher than suction nozzle temperature, inspect for:
1. Leaking suction valve
2. Leaking seat gasket
If one suction valve cap temperature is 5 to 10 degrees cooler than suction nozzle temperature, inspect
for:
1. Leaking suction valve ( sometimes valve will cool down when leaking)
2. Restricted flow across valve

Discharge Valve Cap Temperatures Analysis

If all discharge valve cap temperatures are higher than normal, equal to discharge nozzle temperature
or higher, inspect for:
1. Leaking piston rings
2. Discharge valves leaking on both ends of cylinder
3. Excessive clearance on both ends of compressor
4. Excessive lube oil in cylinder, causing the valve plates to stick
5. Flow restriction across all valves ( suction and discharge)
If one discharge valve cap temperature is equal to or higher than discharge nozzle temperature, inspect
for:
1. Leaking discharge valve
2. Leaking discharge valve seat gasket
3. Restriction of flow across the valve
If one discharge valve cap temperature is much cooler than discharge nozzle temperature, inspect for:
1. Leaking discharge valve
2. Leaking discharge valve seat gasket

Additional points for temperature data collection

Below are some additional points of temperature data collection that are essential for a thorough
analysis of a high-speed compressor. You may not have access to some of the areas.
Cylinder Pressure Packing Vent Temperature
When performing analysis on any compressor, either a high- or slow-speed unit, install a TMF or gauge
reading for each cylinder-packing event. This data can be trended or even set up as a valve in the
geometry so that it may appear on the bar graphs. Packing is one part of the cylinder that is often
overlooked. If collected, it may help determine where any leakage originates.
When cylinder packing starts to fail, the temperature usually decreases a few degrees. Then as wear
increases, the temperature also increases, depending on the type of gas being compressed.
Scrubber Dump Valves
Inferred temperature readings for dump valves on stage scrubbers on or off the skid should be included
in the analysis route for a high-speed compressor. Through time, a dump valve seat will wear and allow
gas to leak to the process tanks on location that can add large amounts of volume loss through time.
Also, if a dump valve starts to leak on a gas gathering system, the dump valve is susceptible to form an
ice block in the dump system forcing the unit to shut down due to a high liquid level alarm in a scrubber.
Motor Shaft Support Bearings
Some high-speed compressors are motor driven and do not have vibration shut down devices to
protect the motor from catastrophic failure. Therefore, a temperature reading should be collected and
trended on both shaft support bearings.
Optional Crosshead Guide Temperatures
Some analysts collect temperature data on the crosshead assembly and are successful at finding low
crosshead guide shoe to guide clearance. This is very helpful to determine low crosshead shoe
clearance on new installations, re-grout, or cylinder overhauls.

Introduction to High Speed Engine Analysis

General
In this course we will discuss the method of analyzing high-speed, gas-fueled engines. Some
of this information may be used for diesel engines. The high-speed engine is getting more and
more popular each day. And with new engineering methods, manufacturing techniques, and
new metallurgy, engine manufactures are now producing high horsepower, fuel-efficient
engines in small packages. High-speed engines are characterized by their rated RPM. Engines
ranging from 750 to 2500 rated RPM are considered high-speed engines
Some advantages of the high-speed engine are:

High horsepower output in a small package
Easier installation and mobility
Does not require massive equipment for maintenance
Lower price than large articulated units
Easier to maintain and load than larger articulated units
Easier to produce the required permitted amount of exhaust emissions without expensive modifications to
the engine
The high-speed engine is difficult to analyze. Without access to pressure/time data and ignition
data on some engines, different methods of analysis have to be implemented to help
determine the mechanical condition of an engine. Analyzer manufacturing companies have
developed state-of-the-art analysis equipment and the essential software to operate them. This
is the best method to perform analysis on high-speed engines. Also, engine manufacturing and
aftermarket companies have developed better monitoring and control equipment for ignition
and exhaust emission systems.
Course Outline
In this course, we will discuss the following topics for high-speed engine analysis:
Visual Inspection
Engine Phased Vibration Analysis
Analysis of a Normal Vibration Signature
Spectrum Vibration Analysis on Reciprocating Engines
Ignition Analysis

VISUAL INSPECTION
An engine analysis system is really just a data collection device. You (the analyst) must know what
parameters to use to get the right information from the engine to determine its mechanical integrity.
During data collection, you need to develop good habits and instincts that will help you analyze while
you collect data. The visual inspection prior to data collection is one very good habit. It will provide
information about the engine and help you know what to look for during data collection and during
analysis.
The walk around

Walk around the engine. Write down all gauge readings and any other tabular information that may be
from the engine control system, emission reduction system, and ignition system. If the proper gauges
are not available, use the Caterpillar Engine Company Peach Plug method. Peach plugs may be
installed at various points around the unit to collect pressure data. Be sure to use an accurate, reliable
gauge. Temperature data may be collected with the data engine analysis system or other hand-held
thermometer if gauges are not available.

Install the test points in the software
Once the gauges have been recognized, install all gauge readings as process variables in the analyzer
software under the engine’s control panel. Some analyzer systems will allow you to see the previous
data, which is a great analysis tool, and the software will trend all readings in the future.
Below is a typical list of points of tabular information that should be collected on a high-speed engine. If
applicable, and if possible, collect information from the engine points listed below.
• Engine Oil Temperature before cooler • Main Bearing Temperature (if possible)
• Engine Oil Temperature after cooler • Amps (if applicable)
• Engine Oil Pressure before filters • Suction Pressure (if applicable)
• Engine Oil Pressure after filters • Interstage Pressures (if applicable)
• Jacket Water Temperature before cooler • Discharge Pressure (if applicable)
• Jacket Water Temperature after cooler • O2 Sensor(s) (right, left, front, and back)
• Jacket Water Level (if possible) • Stepper Motor Position (if applicable)
• Auxiliary Water Temperature before the • Temperature Pre Catalyst (if applicable)
cooler (if possible)
• Temperature Post Catalyst (if applicable)
• Auxiliary Water Temperature after the
cooler (if possible) • Ambient Temperature
• Auxiliary Water Pressure (if possible) • Air Cleaner Restriction (if possible)
• Air Manifold Pressure (right, left, front, • Exhaust Temperature for each cylinder
and back) and bank. (If possible)
• Air Manifold Temperature (right, left, • Fuel Manifold Pressure

front, and back)
• Exhaust Back Pressure
• Engine RPM
• Fuel Primary Pressure
• Governor Setting (if possible)
• Crank Case Pressure

Inspection and tabular data collection
Prior to data collection follow the steps below:
• Establish True Top Dead Center
• Know your valve timing and, if applicable, the injection timing
• Know the recommended ignition timing
• Know the recommended 02 level or the target voltage from the air/fuel ratio controller, if
applicable
• Maintain a minimum of a 90% load. A 100% load is the optimum load for trending. It is
common that some gas gathering systems cannot obtain a 100% load. Establish the highest
load possible, but at a load point that is easily obtainable in the future. If you cannot load the
engine to any more than 70 %, load the engine to a 70 % load during the next data
collection. This will help you establish good trend levels. If a 100% load is permitted, but the
engine cannot produce enough horsepower due to mechanical, fuel or ignition problems,
make the necessary repairs and adjustments (if possible) and re-load the engine to 100%
prior to data collection.
• Prior to data collection, a visual inspection is good practice. There may be problems (easily
noticed by the analyst and not the mechanic) that may have adverse effects on engine
performance and also have some effects on data collection. Below is a typical inspection list
for a high-speed engine.
Cooling system inspection
Cooler, shutters shrouds, cooler fan, cooler fan drive belts, coolant level, surge tank, site glass,
water pump(s), water pump(s) drive belts, temperature, gauges, shaft bearings, piping, hoses, leaks
at hoses and gaskets, etc.
Air system inspection
Governor, governor control, governor oil level, air manifold and piping, air cleaner, air cleaner
housing, piping, air cleaner restriction, turbo charger(s), throttle body(s), throttle body(s) linkage,
carburetor(s), carburetor(s) linkage, gauges, leaks at hoses and gaskets, potentiometer, air
manifold pressure, gauges, etc.
Lube oil system inspection
Oil level, contamination or emulsified oil, hours on the lube oil hoses, gaskets, pump(s), piping,
cooler, oil pressure oil temperature, gauges, etc. Monitor oil analysis for Nitration and Oxidation.
Fuel system inspection
Fuel pressure regulators, fuel pressure, check valves, and or fuel valves, piping and hoses.
Linkage, air/fuel ratio control system, O2 sensors, fuel scrubber, dehydration equipment, etc.

Exhaust system inspection
Exhaust manifold, turbo charger(s), expansion joint, exhaust backpressure, (rule of thumb 1’ of
water per 100 rpm), muffler converter housing, pre-catalyst temperature, post catalyst temperature
leaks insulation, etc.
Ignition system inspection
Ignition control module, magnetic pickups, mounting bracket primary wiring and connection devices,
secondary wiring, secondary wiring connection devices, and magneto, magneto drive system, etc.
Engine frame inspection
Mounting bolts, loose or missing shims, crankcase pressure, safety covers, cover and door gaskets,
excessive vibration, etc.
Engine control system inspection
Control panel, gauges, tubing, wiring, and conduit, shut down devices, etc.

Visual Inspection Analysis

Most analysis programs help us analyze as we collect data. A helpful feature of the data collector is
its ability to show the analyst the current and previous tabular data. This will help you notice
changes in pressure, temperature and other valuable information concerning the engine’s load and
performance. As analysts, we should be able to troubleshoot problems, not just analyze.
Below are tabular and visual scenarios from a visual inspection and the impact they have on other
systems, their components and the data collected on the engine.
Problem…High oil temp before the oil cooler
Possible causes
Insufficient oil level, cooler restricted, auxiliary water system malfunction, blow-by, high load
condition, defective temperature gauge, restricted oil filters, contaminated lube oil, poor crankcase
ventilation
Possible effects
Oxidation of oil, temperature increases in auxiliary cooling system, decrease life in lube oil system
components, decrease in lube oil pressure
Problem…High oil temp after the oil cooler
Possible causes
Insufficient oil level, cooler is not efficient, defective temperature control system, auxiliary water
system malfunction, blow-by, high load condition, defective temperature gauge, restricted oil filters,
insufficient oil viscosity, defective check valve in the pre-lube system, defective oil pump
Possible effects
High oxidation or lube oil failure, failure of the lube oil system components, increase in jacket water
temperature, and slight increase in air manifold pressure, decrease in oil pressure, increase in oil
filter differential pressure, oil filter failure, piston liner failure
Problem…High or low oil pressure before the filters
Possible causes
Oil is emulsified with coolant or water, defective oil cooling system, defective oil pump, defective
check valve in the pre-lube system, high oxidation levels, filters are restricted, insufficient oil level,
wrong oil viscosity, cold oil, insufficient lube oil filter, plugged strainer (check filter delta pressure),
defective pressure control, defective pressure gauge, high nitration and oxidation, poor crankcase
ventilation, fuel mixed with lube oil

Possible effects
Oil filter failure, increase in oil temperature, high delta pressure across the lube oil filter, slight
increase in air manifold pressure, main and rod bearing failure, piston liner failure
Problem…High or low oil pressure after the filters
Possible causes
Restricted oil filters, defective lube oil pump, high or low oil temp, clogged lube oil strainer, worn
main bearings, insufficient oil level, insufficient oil viscosity, contaminated oil from water or coolant,
defective pressure gauge, high nitration and oxidation
Possible effects
Oil filter failure, increase in oil temperature, high delta pressure across the lube oil filter, slight
increase in air manifold pressure, main and rod bearing failure
Problem…High or low jacket water temperature before the cooler
Possible causes
Wrong or defective coolant temperature control, low or high load condition, engine is in poor
mechanical condition, defective coolant pump, contaminated coolant, restricted flow areas in the
cooling system, low coolant level, defective temperature gauge, defective head or head gasket,
defective cylinder liner, pre-ignition and/or detonation
Possible effects
Pre-ignition, detonation, oxidation of lube oil, change in air manifold pressure, increase in lube oil
temperature, decrease in lube oil pressure, liner or piston failure, change in ignition levels, increase
in air manifold temperature, decrease in engine performance, premature head, cylinder, bearing life
Problem…High or low jacket water temperature after the cooler
Possible causes
Wrong or defective coolant temperature control, low or high load condition, restricted cooler,
defective coolant pump, contaminated coolant, low coolant level, defective temperature gauge,
loose fan drive belts, insufficient fan speed, worn belts and pulleys, improper shutter position
Possible effects
Pre-ignition, detonation, oxidation of lube oil, change in air manifold pressure, increase in lube oil
temperature, decrease in lube oil pressure, liner or piston failure, change in ignition levels. Increase
in air manifold temperature, decrease in engine performance, premature head, cylinder, and
bearing life

Problem…Low or high jacket water level
Possible causes
Combustion gases in the cooling system, oil in the cooling system, leaks (both internal and
external)
Possible effects
Insufficient cooling, contamination of the cooling system, vibration and ultrasonic data collected on
cylinder heads may indicate internal leakage, low ignition levels on defective cylinder, high jacket
water temp, high oil temp, slight increase in air manifold pressure, ash on exhaust valves from the
crystallized coolant, premature head cylinder and bearing life
Problem…Low or high auxiliary coolant temperatures
Possible causes
Loose drive belts, defective pump, worn pulleys, and low coolant level defective cooler, defective
temperature gauge, restricted cooler, defective temperature control system
Possible effects
Increase in air manifold temperature, detonation, decrease in air manifold pressure, increase in
governor movement, decrease in secondary voltage, change in air/fuel ratio controller system, poor
engine performance
Problem…High air or low manifold pressure, both ends or banks
Possible causes
Engine banks or air manifolds not balanced, increase in load, decrease in load, defective pressure
gauge, wrong nozzle ring in a turbocharger, defective turbocharger, misfiring cylinders due to
ignition faults, misfiring or weak cylinders due to mechanical faults, restricted air cleaner, defective
air/fuel ratio controller stepper motor, defective O2 sensor, defective fuel check valves, improper fuel
pressure, defective waste gate, defective carburetor diaphragm, high manifold temperature
Possible effects
Engine surge, difference in turbocharger vibration, increase in fuel consumption, detonation-pre-

ignition, excessive stress on other reciprocating components inside the engine, constant governor
change, stepper motor position change, change in exhaust temperature, O2 sensors change in main
bearing spectrum data
Watch for defective cylinders and heads with different secondary ignition levels, VT4, VTL, and
ultrasonic vibration data

Problem…High air manifold temperature
Possible causes
Faults in auxiliary cooling system, inefficient inner cooler, restricted air cleaner, increase in load,
turbocharger faults, engine manifolds not balanced, improper valve adjustment, engine has high
time heads, high ambient air temperature, exhaust restriction, leaking valves
Possible effects
Loss of power, increase in governor movement, detonation pre-ignition, increase in fuel

consumption
Watch secondary data for changes, watch VT4, VTL, and ultrasonic vibration for worn valve guides,
and seats, poor engine performance
Problem…Engine rpm surge
Possible causes
Improper fuel setting, faulty fuel regulator, defective carburetor diaphragm, engine out of balance,
defective ignition system, weak cylinders due to mechanical faults, defective governor, defective
load control, consistent change in load, mag pickup sensors and/or gap setting are incorrect
Possible effects
Inconsistent secondary voltage levels, primary voltage may be slightly affected, air fuel ratio
controller will be hunting, difficulty in collecting good clean, compressor data
Watch VT4, VTL, and ultrasonic vibration for worn valve guides, seats, weak or misfiring cylinders,
change in suction and discharge pressure, change in kilowatts or amps on generator sets,
inconsistent flow through compressor station, or change in valve at suction
Problem… Change in governor setting to maintain the same rpm
Possible causes
Change in load, problems with the engine, engine’s fuel, air, and ignition system, defective governor
Possible effects
Change in fuel consumption, change in stepper motor position, change in secondary voltage,
change in air manifold pressure
Watch VT4, VTL, and ultrasonic vibration for worn valve guides, seats, weak or misfiring cylinders,
change in suction and discharge pressure, change in kilowatts or amps on generator sets

Problem…High main bearing temperature
Possible causes
Increase in load, engine is out of balance, engine web and base deflection needs to be inspected,
improper lubrication, defective thermocouple, defective thermometer
Possible effects
A high 1x run-speed order on the main bearing spectrum data
Watch VTL data on crankcase, as well as VT4, VTL, and ultrasonic vibration for worn valve guides,
seats, weak or misfiring cylinders, drop in oil pressure, oil contamination, main bearing and rod
bearing failure
Problem…High O2 target sensor voltage
Possible causes
Rich air fuel ratio, engine out of balance, air cleaner restriction, defective turbo, defective stepper
motor, restricted air cleaner, excessive fuel pressure, rich fuel mixture adjustment, defective O2
sensor, defective power cylinder, increase in NOx
Possible effects
Stepper motor position change, secondary voltage increase, exhaust temperature excessive (over a
150 degree spread is excessive between banks), air manifold pressure imbalance, governor
change, increase in fuel consumption, engine rpm surge, engine will not carry a heavy load,
excessive catalytic converter temperature, increase in exhaust backpressure due to catalyst
meltdown
Problem…Low O2 target sensor voltage
Possible causes
Lean air fuel ratio, defective spark plug or misfiring cylinder due to an ignition problem, insufficient
fuel pressure, lean fuel mixture adjustment, defective O2 sensor defective stepper motor
Possible effects
Stepper motor position will change, secondary voltage should decrease, exhaust temperature is
cooler on one bank, (over a 150 degree spread is excessive between banks) air manifold pressure
imbalance, governor change, increase in fuel consumption, engine rpm surge, engine will not carry
a heavy load, detonation

Problem…High or low stepper motor position
Possible causes
High or low O2 sensor voltage, improper fuel pressure, defective emission control system, defective
stepper motor, defective O2 sensor
Possible effects
Change in secondary voltage, air manifold pressure, and O2 sensor voltage, exhaust temperature,
excessive catalytic converter temperature
Problem…High pre-catalyst temperature
Possible causes
Misfiring cylinders due to mechanical and ignition problems, defective O2 sensors, defective
emission control device, high-BTU fuel, late ignition timing, converter housing too far up stream in
the exhaust system, high load level
Possible effects
Catalyst meltdown, increase in exhaust back -pressure, improper catalyst conversion rate, high
exhaust temperature loss in horsepower, engine shut down
Watch ignition timing and problems in the secondary circuit. Monitor the VT4, VTL, VTM and ULT
data for anomalies on power cylinders.
Problem…High exhaust temperature
Possible causes
Defective exhaust valves, high exhaust back pressure, poor valve adjustment, high time cylinder
heads, late ignition timing, low air manifold pressure, defective O2 sensor, defective stepper motor,
high BTU level fuel, defective ignition components, high load levels, defective turbo charger
restrictions in the air system, late combustion, incomplete combustion
Possible effects
Catalyst meltdown, engine shut down, problems with exhaust manifold, increase in NOx, exhaust
valve failure, pre ignition, increase in jacket water temperature, difficulty in collecting engine data
Problem…Low fuel manifold pressure
Possible causes
Freeze-ups at pressure regulators, defective fuel regulator, defective pressure gauge, fuel line relief
valve open, incomplete combustion

Possible effects
Engine has a loss of power, rpm surge, stepper motors hunting, O2 sensor voltage is low, catalyst
conversion rate is low, lean air/fuel ratio
Discussion about visual inspection analysis

Engine Phased Vibration Analysis

A reciprocating internal combustion engine is forced to produce vibrations due to the controlled
explosions in the combustion chamber(s) and to operate the valve train and auxiliary-driven
accessories. Engine design engineers develop methods to help reduce vibration amplitude levels
using design methods, mechanical devices or weights that quiet the valve train and related
components and counteract the reciprocating motion of the piston(s).
Some mechanical vibration reduction devices are:

1. Counter weights on the crankshaft
2. Rubber, viscous types, or gear driven, crankshaft harmonic balancers
3. Helical cut gears instead of spur cut gears
4. Drive chains
5. Opening and closing ramps on cam lobes
6. Hydraulic valve train components
Some dynamic or physical vibration reduction devices are:

7. Firing order
8. Balance of combustion forces and the crank angles they occur, on the crankshaft
9. Combustion chamber design
10. Engine frame stiffness
All of the vibration reduction devices are correctable. Some will take more time and money to
correct than others will.

Engine vibration is collected in several ways.
Vibration time domain. Vibration data is collected and measures in vibration per millisecond or
vibration vs. time.
2 0 8 0 F L - 1 1 V T 4 9 /1 3 /0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
M illi
Vibration Spectrum. This is vibration amplitude at a given frequency. This type of data is useful
for main bearing analysis and for rotating equipment analysis.
2080FL - 1 1 VT4 9/13/00 11:17:50 AM
0.7 Phase Marked Time
# Lines: 141
# Averages NA
0.6 Calc overall NA
Trap overall 5.546
Peak at Frequency
0.5
0.701 at 0.0
0.647 at 2687.0
0.4 0.373 at 5373.9
0.215 at 13434.8
g
0.212 at 16121.8
0.3
0.202 at 10747.9
0.188 at 8060.9
0.172 at 23287.0
0.2
0.123 at 18808.7
0.121 at 25974.0
0.1
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
cpm (* 100)

Phase vibration in degrees of crankshaft rotation. This is the most popular vibration
parameter type for analyzing reciprocating engines.
2080FL - 1 1 VT4 9/13/00 11:17:50 AM
-0
g
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-0 100 200 300

degrees
Phased vibration or vibration per degree is the most popular method of analyzing controlled events
in a cylinder.
The patterns are generally measured in G’s but may be measured in Phased Velocity or Phased
Displacement.
Your job as an analyst is to know how to interpret these phased vibration patterns and know which
type of vibration parameter would be most suitable for the application.

Pattern Interpretation and Parameter Types
Pattern interpretation consists of recognizing events that normally occur and events that do not
normally occur.
What is a normal vibration pattern?
These are normal events that occur in a high speed, four-cycle, Stochiometric, gas-fueled or diesel
engine.
Combustion Exhaust Opening Intake Opening
Intake Closing
Exhaust Blow-down Event

Exhaust Closure
0 180 360 540 720
These are normal events that occur in a high-speed, two-cycle, Stochiometric, gas-fueled engine.
Exhaust Opening
Combustion Intake Port Opening
Intake Port Closing
Exhaust Blow-down Event Exhaust Closing
0 180 360

Here is a normal vibration signature from a four-cycle, high- speed, gas-fueled engine.
Intake 347 600

145 391 Exhaust
1000 --------------
Combustion Exhaust
900 Intake Close -
Open
Exhaust Close
800 -
700 - 5R VT4
600 -
Pr
es
su 500 - Scale 4.0
re
() 400 -
300 -
200 Exhaust Blow down -

event Intake
100 -
Open.
0 Diffi lt t --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
Below is a normal vibration signature for a diesel Fairbanks Morse Opposed piston engine.
#4SSDG Cylinder 7 7/14/99 3:46:31 PM Period 4

1000 Intake 136 253
115 245 Exhaust --------------
-5 2 Fuel
900
Combustion Exhaust open -
800 Injection -
700
- 7 VT4
600
-
500
- Scale 15.0
Pressure(psig)
400
-
300
-
200
-
100
-
0
--------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Angle (deg)

Parameter types
As analysts, we should try different parameter types, which measure vibration in different
frequencies.
The reason we want to measure vibration in different frequencies is because events occurring in an
engine occur at different frequency levels. For instance, a valve-closing event is usually a low-
frequency vibration; however, a gas-passing event, such as an exhaust blow down event, is a high-
frequency vibration.
It is to our best interest to experiment with different vibration parameters to help detect anomalies in
a vibration signature.
Most generally, low-frequency vibration parameters (in the frequency range of .5 kHz to 20 kHz) are
suitable to find low-frequency anomalies like wrist pin knocks, piston slap, connecting rod and main
bearing knocks etc.
Ultrasonic parameters are suitable (and mostly used) to detect ring and valve-leakage, since
leakage produces a high-frequency vibration. However, ultrasonic parameters have been used to
detect connecting rod and main bearing faults when collected at each main bearing web.
Midrange vibration parameters (in the 15 kHz to 200 kHz range) should always be used for high-
speed engine analysis. This frequency range is a good tool to use as a backup for low- and high-
frequency parameters.
Phased displacement (like MD and velocity MI) is very useful in some engines to detect combustion
forces and movement of components on an engine in degrees of crankshaft rotation.
Non-phased parameters like VIB, IPP and GP are very helpful in finding anomalies with the
crankshaft main and rod bearings, as well as with rotating auxiliary driven components on an
engine.
Always use different vibration parameters to make sure that all expected and unexpected events
are present on a vibration signature. An engine is a very good noise filter and events occur at
different frequency levels.
The parameter type should be clean and easy to interpret. Different methods may be used during
data collection to help obtain a clean vibration signal. Some examples are: (1) using the magnet
with a grease coupling, (2) using pliers with the accelerometer attached or (3) using a long metal
probe. Exercise caution when using these methods or devices. They will affect trending the data.

Examples of Different Parameter Types and Their Benefits

This is a vibration signature using ultrasonic 36 kHz to 44 kHz data and medium-frequency range
vibration data (15 kHz to 200 kHz) on an 1800-rpm high speed Cummins KT series 16-cylinder
engine. Notice how the medium-frequency data shows a large gas-passing vibration at 0º; however,
the ULT parameter detects nothing in the area.
PME Cylinder 11 5/24/99 3:43:23 PM Period 6

Intake 340 575
1000 123 396 Exhaust --------------
1 Fuel 708
-
900 -
- 11 ULT
800 -
- Scale 26.5
700 -
-
600 -
ULT data -
500 Medium Frequency data ---------------
Pressure()
-
400 -
- 11 VT4
300 -
- Scale 14.4
200 -
-
100 -
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
Below is another signature plot showing how ULT can detect ring chatter were the medium-
frequency data parameter does not.
7832 Cylinder 13 4/4/01 3:25:40 PM Period 8

1750 135 219 Intake
105 233 Exhaust --------------
-6 2 Fuel
-
-
1500
- 13 ULT
-
- Scale 30.0
1250
-
-
1000 ULT -
-
---------------
Pressure(psig)
-
750
Medium-Frequency Data -
- 13 VT4
500 -
- Scale 15.0
-
250 -
-
-
0 --------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Angle (deg)

Below is a signature plot using several vibration parameters indicating how some parameters detect
events and some do not. This is due to the different frequency levels at which events and
anomalies occur.
7832-NL Cylinder 10 4/4/01 10:10:20 AM Period 5
135 225 Intake
Exhaust 118 250 --------------
2 Fuel 346 -
-
350 - 10 MG
-
- Scale 1.0
-
-
300 -
-
---------------
-
-
250 - 10 ULT
-
- Scale 1.1
-
-
200 -
-
---------------
-
Pressure(psig)
-
- 10 VTL
150 -
- Scale 1.0
-
-
-
100 -
---------------
-
-
- 10 VT4
50 -
- Scale 1.0
-
-
-
-
0 --------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Angle (deg)
Phased displacement is useful to measure piston movement in degrees of crankshaft rotation and,
sometimes, combustion forces.
EC-604 Cylinder 4R 6/7/00 9:54:05 AM Period 6
Intake 343 604
133 388 Exhaust --------------
1000
-
900
-
800
- 4R MD
700
-
600
- Scale 22.0
500
Pressure()
-
400
300 -
200 -
100 -
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)

Phased velocity may be used in some engines to detect tortional vibration and combustion forces
on a crankshaft.
Below are 12 combustion spikes from a 12G-825 White Superior Engine

EC-604 Main Bearing 4 6/7/00 9:54:05 AM Period 6
1000 --------------
900 -
800 -
700 - 4R MI
600 -
500 - Scale 0.7

Pressure()
400 -
300 -
200 -
100 -
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
The high-speed engine is difficult to analyze. But with the use of different vibration parameters and
process variables (along with a good, solid trending program) analysis of a high-speed engine can
be very accurate.

Vibration Pattern Interpretation

To perform good pattern interpretation, we must know the engine geometry and how
to identify expected and unexpected events.
We know what expected events are:

1. Valve opening and closing events
2. Exhaust blow down event
3. Combustion events
4. Fuel injection events
The Analysis software Geometry files allow us to insert information regarding the valve timing
events and the crankshaft phase angles. It does not provide information for other expected events
like combustion forces. However, most analysis software has provisions for combustion or TDC.
To detect combustion forces, we must know when the combustion event occurs in degrees of
crankshaft rotation on one bank of an engine or an inline engine.
For example: An EMD 16 cylinder engine diesel engine has a combustion vibration event every
22.5 degrees and 45 degrees on one bank. Therefore, you would expect to see events occur at 45-
degree integers on a vibration signature.
Below is an illustration of expected combustion events on a 1 Hz to 8 KHz vibration signature in

firing order on one bank.
2082-NL Cylinder 1 9/11/00 8:54:40 PM Period 6

-6 2 Fuel
800 135 219 Intake --------------
105 233 Exhaust
-
700
-
600
- 1 MG
500
Pressure (psig)
400 - Scale 5.0
-
300
-
200
1 8 3 6 4 5 2 7 -
100
-
0 --------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Angle (deg)
Below is a vibration signature for a Caterpillar 3606 gas fueled engine showing the combustion
forces every 120 degrees of crankshaft rotation.

G-3606 - P2 P2 VT4 12/9/98 8:23:48 AM

5
-0
g
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

degrees

Now that we know what an expected event is, let’s look at unexpected events.
As analysts, our best interest is served by analyzing as we collect vibration data. A data collector is
just a data collector. You have control of the quality of the data and its accuracy. Some analysts use
certain methods to filter out extra vibration, such as using tape or grease on an accelerometer or
ultrasonic microphone to dampen or filter out unwanted events. The choice is yours. You need to
experiment with different data collection techniques and data collection locations on an engine.
What you want to see on the vibration signature is all of the expected events. One of the most
important expected events to collect on a cylinder vibration signature is the exhaust blow-down
event. The exhaust blow-down event indicates that the cylinder has combustion and is producing
power. You want to see a good, strong event that could help determine if the cylinder is weak due
to improper ignition or leakage past the rings or power valves. There are some cases where the
blow-down event may be seen only with certain vibration parameters.
While collecting vibration data, place the accelerometer in various places to find the exhaust blow-
down event. Make sure that it is in an area that is easily collected on each cylinder head.
Points of data collection should be (if possible) the same on each cylinder. The same point of data
collection must be used each time data is collected for proper trending. A flat on a cylinder head nut
or a clean, flat, smooth surface is usually an ideal point to collect good, clean data on most engines.
Remember, you can collect data that is very noisy or busy. It is best to monitor the screen on the
data collector for the level of data and the quality of the data being collected.

Finding Unexpected Vibration Events
We have discussed what events we expect to see. Now let’s discuss those events that are not
supposed to be on the vibration signature. Most analysis software allows us several ways to look a
vibration patterns. Generally, unexpected vibration events are called cross talk, echo, or carry over.
For our purposes, we will use the term cross talk.
Cross talk is vibration caused by expected events (or even unexpected events) from other power
cylinders that appears on a cylinder vibration signature. We can look at each power cylinder
vibration signature individually, but the easier and faster way is to observe the vibration plot. It
allows you to compare cylinder-to-cylinder vibration.
Below is a vibration plot representing several cylinders for easy comparison.

1MAIN Cylinder P1 3/9/00 10:29:30 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
10
P
4(M
ed3)
0
-10
10
P5(M
ed4)
0
-10
10
P6(M
ed2)
0
-10
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

Before further discussion of cross talk, it is in your best interest to know what type of unexpected
events that we are looking for, such as:
1. Exhaust valve leakage 21. Compressor rod and piston

problems
2. Intake valve leakage
22. Ring snap
3. Ring leakage
23. Combustion spikes at various
4. Valve-guide wear, intake, exhaust, phase angles
fuel, worn guides due to lack of
lubrication 24. Cross talk
5. Valve-seat wear, long exhaust- 25. Air inlet restriction, or normal air
valve closing duration due to valve scavenge flow noise
recession
6. Rocker bushing and bridge wear
7. Rocker to bridge or valve stem

contact area defects
8. Ring clip
9. Ring chatter
10. Symmetrical liner faults
11. Rod and wrist pin knocks
12. Main bearing knocks
13. Piston slap
14. Detonation
15. Fuel valve anomalies or injector

anomalies
16. Ignition noise
17. Ring land wear
18. Lifter problems
19. Valve spring problems
20. Cam shaft problems

All of the anomalies vary from one type on engine to another, but each engine or engine power cylinder
will produce its own specific vibration signature and will allow you to find some of the anomalies listed
above.
Finding anomaly events from the list above requires you to know not only the engine, but the location
of the piston at all times. You must also know when the cylinder has combustion and compression
pressure and when the cylinder is going through its scavenging period.
Knowing where the piston is helps determine what type of unexpected event is present.

Below is a list of expected and unexpected events that may occur at certain crank angles relative to
piston location in a four-cycle engine.
Crank angle Possible unexpected event What is the piston doing
0º Ring leakage, detonation Stopped

Wrist-pin rod-bearing knock
Combustion noise
0-25º Moving down the cylinder Piston slap, detonation

under great load, Leakage, Ring chatter
Liner faults, Combustion
25-45º Moving down the cylinder, Ring chatter, Liner faults

increasing in velocity Cross talk
45-90º Piston is at maximum Ring chatter, liner faults

velocity Cross-talk
90 –135º Slowing down, volume Exhaust valve train faults,

is increasing Cross talk
135-170º Slowing down, volume Exhaust valve train faults

is increasing Wrist pin rod-bearing knock
Main bearing faults
170-190º Slowed to a stop and Wrist pin and connecting

changed direction bearing faults, valve train
faults
190-235º Moving up the cylinder, Exhaust valve train faults

increasing in velocity Exhaust port restriction,
resulting in a high frequency
gas passing vibration pattern
235-350º Moving up the cylinder, Exhaust valve train faults

decreasing in velocity Exhaust port restriction,
resulting a high frequency
gas passing vibration pattern
Intake valve train faults
Cross talk

350-370º Piston has slowed to a Intake valve train faults

stop and changed Rod, wrist pin bearing,
direction. Cylinder is and main bearing faults.
going through the Liner faults. Cross talk
scavenging process.
Piston is under air
manifold pressure.
370-450º Piston is moving down Intake and exhaust valve

the cylinder, increasing in train faults. Liner faults
in velocity filling the Air intake restriction resulting in
the cylinder with a fresh a high-frequency gas-passing
air charge. vibration pattern.
Cross talk
450-540º Piston is slowing down Intake valve train faults

allowing fresh air to fill the connecting rod and wrist pin
cylinder. Piston is near bearing faults. Fuel valve faults.
or at BDC Cross talk.
540-630º Piston has changed Intake valve train faults

changed direction and Fuel valve train faults
is moving up increasing in
velocity, while building
pressure
630-720º Piston is slowing and Liner faults, Leakage

building pressure. Air injection or ignition noise
temperature inside the detonation, pre-ignition
cylinder is increasing rod and wrist pin bearing
rapidly. Knocks.

Below is a list of unexpected events that may occur at certain crank angles relative to where the piston
is in a two-cycle engine.
Crank angle What is the piston doing Possible unexpected event
0º Stopped Ring leakage, Detonation

Wrist pin rod-bearing knock. Combustion noise. Ignition
noise
0-25º Moving down the cylinder Piston slap, Detonation

under great load. Leakage. Ring chatter.
Liner faults. Combustion
Noise. Cross talk
25-45º Moving down the cylinder Ring chatter, Liner faults

increasing in velocity Cross talk
45-90º Piston is at maximum Ring chatter, liner faults

velocity Cross talk
90 –135º Slowing down, volume Exhaust Valve train faults

is increasing Cross talk. Ring clip past
intake or exhaust ports.
Cross talk
135-170º Slowing down, volume Exhaust Valve train faults

is increasing Wrist pin rod-bearing knock.
Main bearing faults Ring clip
past intake or exhaust ports
Cross talk
170-190º Slowed to a stop and Wrist pin and connecting

changed direction bearing faults, valve train
faults. Ring clip past intake or
exhaust ports. Cross talk
190-235º Moving up the cylinder Exhaust valve train faults

increasing in velocity Ring clip past intake or
exhaust

235-350º Moving up the cylinder Exhaust valve train faults,

decreasing in velocity ring clip past intake or
building pressure, air exhaust ports, cross talk
temperature is increasing
rapidly.
350-360º Piston is slowing and Liner faults, leakage

building pressure. Air injection or ignition noise
temperature inside the detonation, pre-ignition
cylinder is increasing rod and wrist pin bearing
rapidly. knocks
The list of anomalies above apply for many engines, including both diesel multi-fuel and gas-fueled
engines. Some engines may have additional events, such as fuel or ignition.

Engine Power Cylinder Vibration Plot Interpretation

As mentioned earlier, the vibration plot is a very quick and efficient way to analyze engine power
cylinder vibration. It allows the analyst to compare cylinder-to-cylinder vibration signatures to help
identify the normal signature and the abnormal signature.
Remember: you must know the expected events before analysis of power cylinder
vibration signatures.
Below are some expected events in a four-cycle engine:

1. Combustion (depending on engine and load)
2. Exhaust blow-down
3. Intake open (depending on valve train)
4. Exhaust closure
5. Intake closure
6. Injection or ignition (depending on engine)
Below are the expected events in a two-cycle engine:

1. Combustion (depending on engine)
2. Exhaust blow-down
3. Exhaust closure
4. Fuel valve event
5. Injection or ignition (depending on engine)

Now look a vibration plot and compare vibration signatures. Look at that signature that stands out from
the others. Is it a normal signature? Be careful – some signatures may differ in amplitude but you have
to make sure that all expected events are present. If there is an additional event present, usually there
is a problem or cross talk. A missing event, such as a valve closure, may not be a problem due to the
valve velocity when it contacts the valve seat. But if the blow-down event or combustion event is
missing, there may be a problem with that cylinder.
The signature plot below shows four cylinders with some that stand out because of the difference in
amplitude. However, all expected events are present. Is there a problem with any of these cylinders?
2633-FL Cylinder 1 5/9/01 9:46:49 AM
13(M
10
ed6)
0
-10
14(M
10
ed2)
0
-10
15(M
10
ed4)
0
-10
16(M
10
ed2)
0
-10
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Below is a vibration plot from the same kind of engine. A couple of cylinders have additional
unexpected vibration events. The anomalies occur where the piston is under a great amount of load on
one cylinder and where the piston changes direction on another.
2354-FL Cylinder 5 9/27/00 12:50:56 PM
10
5(M
in4)
0
-10
10
6(4)
0
-10
10
7(4)
-10
10
8(M
ax4)
-10
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Now that we have power cylinder vibration signatures that appear to have anomalies, we have to
determine if those anomalies are cross talk.
Cross talk, echo, or ghost vibration patterns are vibration patterns on a cylinder vibration
signature produced from an expected or unexpected event from a neighboring power cylinder.
In order to find cross talk, you should have the vibration plot shown in the firing order sequence (this is
a menu option in the analysis soft ware).
Below is a vibration plot for four power cylinders in a two-stroke diesel engine. Cylinder #1 and #2 have
defective valve bridges or improper exhaust valve settings, while cylinder #3 has an anomaly in the
area where the piston is near maximum velocity. This could indicate a ring-liner issue.
10
1
(M 0
ed
5)
-10
10
2
(M 0
ed
8)
-10
10
3
(M 0
ed
2)
-10
10
4
(M 0
ed
7)
-10
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Now, using a menu option in the analysis software, phase the data to firing order or to the marker. The
anomaly in cylinder #3 is cross talk from cylinder #2
10
1
(M 0
ed
5)
-10
10
2
(M 0
ed
8)
-10
10
3
(M 0
ed
2)
-10
10
4
(M 0
ed
7)
-10
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Keep in mind that cross talk occurs from one of the cylinders next to the cylinder that you are
collecting data on (in most cases).
It is good practice to move back and forth from cylinder to cylinder to see if the anomaly gets larger or
smaller. For instance, let’s say you are collecting phased vibration data on cylinder #8 on an 8-cylinder
engine. You see a spike on the data collector that has not been seen on the other cylinders. While your
data collector is on cylinder #8, attach the accelerometer(s) to cylinder #7. If the anomaly gets larger, it
is cross talk you are seeing on cylinder #8. If it gets smaller, then there is an anomaly in cylinder #8.
Attach the accelerometers back on cylinder #8 and resume data collection looking at the consistency of
the anomaly.
If a vibration spike occurs at or near the crank angles where the piston changes direction, it should be
considered a lower-component or lower-end vibration and is transmitted (in most cases) to the
connecting rod assembly that shares the same crank pin. For instance, on a Vee configured engine, if
you see a vibration spike produced by excessive rod or wrist pin bearing clearance, you should see it
on the opposing cylinder on the other bank.

Check the vibration consistency
If an anomaly is present in the cylinder vibration signature and is not cross talk, check the consistency
of the anomaly by looking at all vibration samples or periods collected on that cylinder.
The analysis systems allow us to collect up to 40 vibration periods. They usually default to 11, but there
may be times that you want to collect more vibration periods when troubleshooting an engine that
produces a random knock or misfire.
Below is data from the #4 left cylinder on the Waukesha VHP series engine. Data indicates a
defective cylinder liner.
L7042GU 12/5/2001 11:34:55 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Acceleration VTM:
10
4L (M/M/M)
0
-10
10
4L (1)
0
-10
10
4L (Med 2)
0
-10
10
4L (3)
0
-10
10
4L (4)
0
-10
10
4L (5)
0
-10
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

Below are all six samples, including the Maximum, Median and Minimum Vibration Signatures. You can
see the anomaly at 180º occurs four times out of the six periods. A rod bearing was found to have been
defective due to improper installation.
2354-FL Cylinder 5 9/27/00 12:50:56 PM
10
0
/M
/M
5(M )
-10
10
0
5(1)
-10
10
0
5(2)
-10
10
0
5(3)
-10
10
0
in4)
5(M
-10
10
0
ed5)
5(M
-10
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Below is data for a 12G825 that shows cylinder #1 left has a random misfire due to defective fuel check
valves. The misfires are identified by the missing exhaust blow-down event and the absence of a
fuel valve event.
2 ENGINE 8/12/2002 4:57:26 PM

25
1L (6)
0
-25
1L (Max 7)
25
-25
25
1L (Min 8)
0
-25
25
1L (9)
0
-25
25
1L (10)
-25
25
1L (11)
-25
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

In most cases, if the anomaly occurs 50% or more, corrective actions are required. Therefore,
this cylinder is a candidate for a rod or wrist pin bearing inspection. What was found was a
defective rod bearing. The cause of the failure was improper installation.
Selection of the vibration signatures

The best type of period for observation will vary from engine to engine. Sometimes a small, high-speed
engine operating at 2200 rpm can produce data that is very difficult to interpret due to high inherent
vibration levels and cross talk. Therefore, the minimum periods may be the best choice because small
engines produce a very busy vibration plot. A large engine operating at a slower speed has a large
distance between the head and cylinder. Therefore, the maximum periods may be the best type of
periods to observe for an accurate analysis.
The default selection in some analysis software is the median periods. This has been found to provide
signatures that can be interpreted accurately.
The definitions for Median, Average, Maximum, Minimum or Specific Period vibration signatures are in
the following paragraphs.
Median, minimum or maximum display actual data you collected. For example, if you collected nine
periods of cylinder vibration data, there will be four patterns that have a higher energy and four patterns
that have a lower energy than the median pattern.
Median Period displays the period whose vibration energy falls in the middle over all periods collected
for the cylinder.
Minimum Period displays the period of vibration that has the minimum energy over all periods collected
for the cylinder.
Maximum Period displays the period of vibration that has the maximum energy over all periods
collected for the cylinder.
Specific Period displays the period of vibration or pressure data that you specify in the box.
Median/Minimum/Maximum displays all three periods on the same panel. These curves are shown in
different colors or line types so you can distinguish them from one another. You can change these
colors and line types in Color Settings.
The choice is yours. You have to determine which type of period is easiest to interpret.

ANALYSIS OF A NORMAL VIBRATION SIGNATURE
The normal vibration signature will show all expected events in most conditions. Some of the expected
events may not be present or may be very low in amplitude due to the frequency range of the
accelerometer, ultrasonic microphone, or the vibration parameter type. Placing the accelerometer in
various places on an engine cylinder head or cylinder assembly to establish a good clean vibration
pattern is essential and will make it easier to trap and trend all events in the normal vibration signature.
In this section, we will discuss analysis and trending methods of the normal vibration signature. The
normal vibration signature can provide ample information concerning the integrity of the valve train,
cylinder head(s), cylinder condition and (sometimes) performance.
A good practice (prior to data collection and analyzing the engine vibration signature) is to adjust all
valves (and injectors, if equipped) with the engine at operating temperature and at a steady rpm.
Before data collection, it is best to ask a few questions. A small amount of information you obtain now
will help answer questions later. Some engine operators have records (updated daily) of operating
parameters and conditions that may cause changes in the normal vibration signatures. Some operators
have access to maintenance records that will also inform an analyst of any noticeable changes (e.g.,
the new installation of a cylinder or turbocharger, etc.). These changes will affect a cylinder vibration
signature and a new base line should be started. If this information is not provided, ask questions.
Some engine manufactures provide their customers with operating windows or parameters to prevent
mechanical failures. If the operator or mechanic does not know these parameters, he should ask
questions or find the setup manual for this particular machine. Have correct information to ensure that
these operating windows or parameters are not exceeded.
One of the best tools used for high-speed engine vibration signature analysis is a good trending
program. Also important is the knowledge of how to implement the software in order to get the most
from it. It is essential that you collect good quality data each time from the same place on the engine.
The engine should be under the same load condition during each data collection and the operating
pressure, temperatures, and rpm should be the same for each data collection. At some locations, (e.g.,
gas gathering fields or storage facilities), this may be difficult.
An analyst may implement different methods of data collection to help to ensure that all expected
events are present on normal vibration signature. Good data and data collection techniques are very
important for trending. Trending the data and updating cylinder base lines are crucial for high-speed
engine analysis. Trending will help identify the rate of change in the vibration signature, and with these
changes, you should correlate the data with performance and gauge readings.

Below is a list of events and how they should be analyzed for a four-cycle, gas-fueled
Stochiometric engine.
Combustion event
1 Generator Cylinder 10 3/10/00 8:25:07 AM
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
ed10)
9(M
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
-10.0
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
When the fuel-air mixture ignites and starts burning and expanding in the combustion chamber, it
causes this vibration event. It may be considered a high-frequency vibration or gas-passing vibration. It
usually starts at TDC 0º or after. The reason the combustion event is at TDC or after is because the
peak firing pressure occurs after TDC, allowing the peak pressure inside the combustion chamber to be
applied on top of the piston after starting its downward power stroke. This allows the pressure on the
piston to produce more positive work. Ignition timing and/or fuel injection timing controls the combustion
event timing. Ambient conditions will make the event timing change from day to day.
For gas-fueled engines or engines that burn fuels other than diesel fuel, the combustion event may not
be captured on the normal vibration signature due to the lower firing pressure. If you suddenly notice a
combustion event on a gas-fueled engine, it may be cross-talk or leakage.
Some vibration parameters will not show a combustion event due to: (1) low load condition; (2)
thickness of the cylinder head; or (3) the frequency of the event is not in the accelerometer frequency
range or in the frequency range of the vibration parameter being used. The point of data collection on
the engine will also affect the amplitude of the combustion event. Having the combustion event on a
vibration signature of a high-speed engine will help ensure the cylinder is producing horsepower or
determine if there is leakage.

Below is a phased normal vibration plot from a Caterpillar G-399TAA engine. The combustion events
are not present on these signature plots. Notice in cylinder #3, the combustion noise is really
leakage.
E F-21 Cylinder 1 10/7/98 3:51:19 PM

Engine Cylinders: Phased Ultrasonic ULT:
25
0
ed1)
1(M
-25
25
0
2(1)
-25
25
0
3(1)
-25
25
0
4(1)
-25
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
The vibration signature below shows a cylinder with vibration spikes at 0º and 180º, which is an
indication of excessive wrist pin or connecting rod bearing clearance.
E106 Cylinder P7 03 AM Period 6
Wrist pin clearance
1250 Intake 310 567
120 432 Exhaust --------------
-
-
- P7 ULT
-
1000 - Scale 30.0
-
-
-
-
---------------
750 -
-
- P7 VTM
-
- Scale 43.9
Pressure()
-
-
500 -
-
---------------
-
-
- P7 VT4
250 -
- Scale 30.0
-
-
-
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)

Trending the combustion event

When trending the combustion event, look for vibration anomalies that may occur in that particular
event (e.g., wrist pin clearance, rod bearing clearance, ring chatter, leakage liner faults etc.). The size
of the combustion event itself can also help determine the load or performance of that cylinder.
Below is a trended vibration plot indicating piston slap followed by liner problems and combustion
leakage.
10
Leakage Current data

5
0
P1Current
-5
-10
10
0
P1Previous
-5
-10
10
5 Piston slap Base Line data
0
P1Baseline
-5
-10
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

Exhaust Blow-down Event

3616 Caterpillar
20
15
10
0
d2
1(M
e )
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
This event occurs when the exhaust valves open or when the exhaust ports have been exposed. The
cylinder is filled with hot combustion gases and produces a high-frequency vibration or gas-passing
vibration when the combustion gases are exposed to the exhaust chamber.
We must know what is going on inside the cylinder during the exhaust blow-down event to know how to
analyze it.
The cylinder is now filled with hot combustion gasses. The exhaust valve(s) are forced open by a cam
and the expanded gases are now forced out of the cylinder by the upward piston movement.
When the exhaust valve(s) are forced open, defective valve train components (such as a defective
hydraulic lifter or worn rocker arm bushing) may produce a vibration spike or multiple spikes before or
at the start of the exhaust valve opening. These anomalies may affect the timing of the valve opening
and the duration in degrees or the time valve(s) are off the seat, which will affect performance and
emissions.
Defectiv e exhaust rocker bushing
10.0
7.5 Vibration spike produced by a defective rocker bushing.
5.0
2.5
0.0
ed1)
1(M
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
-10.0
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

As the piston is moving down, the cam follower(s) is moving up the opening ramp on the cam lobe(s),
opening the exhaust valve(s) at a high rate of speed. If there is any excessive valve lash, it may
produce a single, high impact valve opening that is late. Excessive valve guide wear will usually
produce multiple low-frequency vibration spikes on the vibration signature. The vibration spikes are the
result of the exhaust valves moving inside the guides, and by the high-velocity gases trying to escape
the cylinder. This usually occurs on a high-time engine.
Vibration Patterns Indicate Worn Valve Guides
Intake 340 575

1000 123 396 Exhaust --------------
1 Fuel 708
-
900 -
- 12 ULT
800 -
- Scale 29.0
700 -
-
600 -
Worn exhaust valve guide(s). -
500 ---------------
re()
ssu
-
re
P
400 -
- 12 VT4
300 -
- Scale 22.2
200 -
-
100 -
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
Having the exhaust blow-down event present on a power cylinder signature will also indicate that
particular cylinder is producing horsepower. It is very important to try to capture the exhaust blow-down
event on the normal vibration signature. It is also important that the same load be applied during each
data collection for accurate trending. Sometimes, if an engine is under a low-load condition, the gas
passing vibration pattern may be delayed due to less heat and pressure in the combustion chamber.
Generally, if the exhaust blow-down is missing from the normal vibration signature, the cylinder
probably is misfiring or has internal leakage (either past the rings or valves).
To determine whether the exhaust valves are leaking or the rings are leaking, monitor exhaust
temperature or crankcase pressure. A leaking exhaust valve will increase the cylinder exhaust
temperature because the hot combustion gases are leaking past the valves, instead of doing the
required work and expanding and cooling in the combustion chamber. A leaking exhaust valve closure
is generally quieter than normal due to the valve binding in the valve guide itself, or the valve has
expanded to the extent that it does not come in contact with the valve seat.
Leaking rings will increase crankcase pressure and cause high nitration and oil oxidation. The vibration
signature will produce a large diamond-shaped vibration pattern before TDC 0º and after (while the
piston is on the power stroke). If the rings are leaking a small amount, the pattern will be very large and
the exhaust blow-down event may still be present. The exhaust valve closure will also be present.

Below are three stacked cylinder VT4 vibration signatures. These are from a poorly tuned engine with
high run time. Notice cylinder #3 is missing the exhaust blow-down event. This is a dead cylinder, which
was in need of a good tune-up.
2.5
0.0
ed10)
1(M
-2.5
2.5
0.0
ed3)
2(M
-2.5
2.5 ?
0.0
ed8)
3(M
-2.5
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
Trending the Exhaust Blow-down Event.

Below is a trended VT4 vibration plot with two signatures from the same engine collected on the same
day under different load conditions. The top vibration signature was collected when the engine load was
dropped from 90% to 60%.
This is an example of how load affects the exhaust blow-down event.

0
1RCurrent
-5
0
1RPrevious
-5
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

Intake Valve Opening Event
E F-21 Cylinder 13 10/7/98 3:51:19 PM Period 6

Intake 343 590
133 410 Exhaust --------------
800 -
-
- 13 ULT
700
-
- Scale 8.0
600 -
-
500 -
-
---------------
400
Pressure()
-
-
300 - 13 VT4
-
200 - Scale 1.0

-
-
100
-
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
After the exhaust valve is open, it is time for the intake valve to open and start the process of purging
the combustion gases from the cylinder to allow fresh air in the cylinder. Generally, high horsepower
turbocharged engines have earlier intake valve-opening events. This allows pressurized air in the air
manifold to force more air into the cylinder and help cool the combustion chamber and valves. It also
helps reduce emissions.
It is very important that the intake opening timing is correct and there are no indications of excessive
valve lash or valve train anomalies (like a worn rocker bushing or guide). An intake valve that is timed
correctly and has a good valve train will produce a quiet opening event. An intake valve that has
excessive lash or a defective lifter will produce a large vibration spike at the opening and will also open
late as indicated below.
Late intake opening vibration spike caused by a defective lifter.

Intake 343 604
900 133 388 Exhaust --------------
-
-
800 - 1R ULT
-
- Scale 30.0
-
700 -
-
-
600 ---------------
-
-
500 - 1R VTM
-
- Scale 13.0
ressure()
-
400 -
P
-
-
300 ---------------
-
-
200 - 1R VT4
-
- Scale 8.0
-
100 -
-
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)

Engines with multiple intake valves on the cylinder heads may produce multiple spikes at the opening
event if improperly tuned. This is caused by intake valves opening at different crank angles.
2 Engine Cylinder P8 1/8/2002 6:15:52 PM Period 1

Intake 374 586
1200 138 398 Exhaust --------------
40 Compression 680
1100
-
1000
-
900
- P8 VT5
800
-
700
Pressure ()
600 - Scale 2.8
500
-
400
-
300
-
200
-
100
0 --------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)
Worn intake valve guides may produce a ski slope vibration pattern. This is caused by the rapid
opening and closing of the intake valve(s), allowing the movement of the valves inside the guide. The
vibration tapers down as the amplitude decreases (caused by the decrease in the rate of the opening
process).
PORT Cylinder P2 3/29/99 9:40:13 PM Period 12

Intake 332 558
149 391 Exhaust --------------
150 10 Fuel 706
-
-
- P2 ULT
125 -
- Scale 23.0
-
100 -
-
-
75 ---------------
Pressure(barg)
-
-
- P2 VTM
50
-
- Scale 43.0
-
25 -
-
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)

Exhaust Valve Closure

Intake 343 590
133 410 Exhaust --------------
800 -
-
- 15 ULT
700
-
- Scale 20.0
600 -
-
500 -
-
---------------
Pressure()
400
-
-
300 - 15 VT4
-
- Scale 4.0
200
-
-
100
-
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
The next expected event on the engine vibration signature is the exhaust-valve-closing event. Most
engines allow both intake and exhaust valves to be open at the same time to allow the pressurized air
in the air manifold to purge the combustion chamber from any leftover combustion gases and to aid in
cooling the crown of the piston and exhaust valves. The terminology for this period where both intake
and exhaust valves are open is rock-over or the lap-over time. Engines that are supercharged or
turbocharged usually have a longer rock-over time to help complete combustion, lowering the exhaust
emissions, increasing performance and aiding in spark arresting. Naturally aspirated engines use the
inertia from the flow of air in the manifolds to help the cylinder purging process.
Some engine manufacturers design cam lobes to open exhaust valve(s) quickly to allow the
combustion gases to leave the combustion chamber as soon as possible. The valve(s) then close
slower to protect the valve(s) from impacting the valve seat. This also eliminates the possibility of
lowering valve seat life and the possibility of dropping or damaging an exhaust valve(s).
The exhaust valve closure should be clean and on-time. If the exhaust valve closes too quickly, it will
lower the rock-over time, which will have an adverse affect on the engine performance, emissions, and
exhaust valve life due to a high impact closure. If the exhaust valve closes too late, it will allow the air
fuel mixture on Stochiometric engines to enter the exhaust manifold, decreasing engine performance.
Most of the anomalies that we look for in the exhaust-valve closing events are timing, guide problems,
seat problems, amplitude of the closure and valve train component anomalies.

It is important that engine operators use good quality engine oil to prevent or lower ash and other
combustion deposits from forming on the valves and on the upper walls of the combustion chamber. If
not noticed or watched for, and exhaust valve life is down, it may be caused from ash deposits breaking
loose in the combustion chamber and lodging between the crown of the valve and the seat, as well as
from poor heat distribution. An ash deposit between the seat and the valve will cause a channel on the
exhaust valve that will lead to leakage, misfire and damage to exhaust valve(s). Late ignition or
injection timing and over-fueling also contribute to low exhaust valve life.
Most exhaust valve timing problems are caused by improper valve lash, defective lifter assemblies, or
worn/defective valve train components. A defective exhaust valve closure will produce a high exhaust
temperature, and eventually, a misfire. It will also lower engine oil life and will show an increase in O2 in
the exhaust if the engine has an air fuel ratio control device. Once the misfire develops many failures
will soon follow.
Excessive valve lash will produce a late opening event and a high impact closure which may cause
premature valve life and performance problems.

20
13(M
ed8)
0
-20
20
14(M
ed4)
0
-20
20
15(M
ed6)
0
-20
20
16(M
ed9)
0
-20
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
A cylinder with a valve that has been adjusted too tightly will not show an exhaust-closing event. Worn
exhaust valves in need of an adjustment can also cause tight lash or a low-impact or a non-existent
valve closure. If the vibration that represents the closure is missing from the signature, it could be
caused by the valve contacting the valve seats at a low speed. If the event is missing, that may be
alright. However, if the event is missing and leakage is present along with a high cylinder exhaust temp,
most likely the exhaust valves may be leaking.

Below is a vibration plot from a G399 Caterpillar engine. Cylinder #1 has a tight exhaust valve lash due
to excessive exhaust valve projection. Cylinder #3 is adjusted too loose.
0
ed10)
1(M
-5
1CYL
5
0
ed3)
2(M
-5
5
3CYL
0
ed8)
3(M
-5
0
ed4)
4(M
-5
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
Cylinders with valve bridges that are incorrectly adjusted may show both exhaust valves closing at
different angles. This usually affects performance or emissions.
miss adj usted v alv e bridges
Intake 340 590
154 429 Exhaust --------------
0 Fuel 702
125 -
100
- 12 VT4
-
75
- Scale 10.0
Pressure()
-
50
-
-
25
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
Engines with excessive valve guide wear or valve guide degradation will show multiple spikes during
the valve closure and a late closure due to the valve binding in the guide.

Below is a cylinder signature with a defective valve guide that had metal deposits between the guide
and the valve stem. This caused a late closure.
exhaust guide defectiv e

Intake 374 567
138 362 Exhaust --------------
800
-
700
-
600 - P7 VT4
500 -
- Scale 6.0
re()
400
s
re
P su
-
300
-
200
-
100
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
A cylinder with a worn exhaust seat will produce multiple spikes during the valve closure. A defective
exhaust valve seat can also produce a long duration-closing event.
Intake 345 579
1100 141 375 Exhaust --------------
-
-
1000 - 2R ULT
-
900 - Scale 17.4
-
-
800 -
-
--------------
-
700 -
-
- 2R VTL
600 -
- Scale 21.2
re()
-
u
500
ss
-
re
P
-
400 -
--------------
-
-
300 -
- 2R VT4
-
200
- Scale 9.1
-
100 -
-
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
Here is a long duration closure on an EMD Diesel caused by defective valve bridge.
1200 135 219 Intake

105 233 Exhaust --------------
1100 -6 2 Fuel
-
-
1000
- 8 ULT
-
900
- Scale 50.0
800 -
-
700 -
-
600
---------------
sig
re(p )
-
500
ssu
-
re
P
400 - 8 VT4
-
300 - Scale 12.0
-
200
-
100 -
-
0 --------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Angle (deg)

Intake Valve Closure
Intake 343 590

133 410 Exhaust --------------
800 -
-
- 11 ULT
700
-
- Scale 30.0
600 -
-
500 -
-
---------------
ressure()
400
-
P
-
300 - 11 VT4
-
- Scale 4.0
200
-
-
100
-
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
This is the last event on a gas-fueled Stochiometric engine. Fuel valve opening and closing events may
also be present between the exhaust closure and the intake closure. Also, fuel injection noise will follow
the intake closure on a diesel engine.
Most engines allow the intake valve to close after the piston has reached bottom dead center of the
stroke. The delay in the intake valve closure will allow more air to fill the cylinder.
The intake valve closure must be clean and on-time. If the intake valve closes too early, the cylinder will
be starved for air and will cause poor combustion (leading to poor performance) and will have an
adverse effect on exhaust emissions. Also, early valve-closure will produce a high-impact valve-closing
event that can lead to premature valve and seat life.
If the valve closes too late, the air in the cylinder will be forced into the air manifold by the upward
movement of the piston that can also lead to performance and emission problems. Improper valve
setting and defective lifters are the cause of most intake valve closure problems.
Most intake valve timing problems are caused by improper valve lash, defective lifter assemblies or
worn or defective valve train components. A defective exhaust valve closure will produce a low exhaust
temperature, and eventually, a misfire. It will also lower engine oil life and will show an increase in O2 in
the exhaust if the engine has an air/fuel ratio control device. Once the misfire develops, many failures
will soon follow. Some intake valve failures may be due to lube oil problems (which have been
explained previously in the exhaust-closing paragraphs).
Most of the anomalies that we look for in the intake-valve closing events are timing, guide problems,
seat problems, amplitude of the closure, and valve train component anomalies.

Below is a vibration signature that has patterns which indicate both intake and exhaust guides are
defective. The defective valve guides are causing the valves to bind in the guides, delaying the valve
closure.
exhaust guide defectiv e

Intake 374 567
138 362 Exhaust --------------
800 Late Closure
-
700
-
600 - P7 VT4
500 -
- Scale 6.0
400
Pressure()
-
300
-
200 Worn Intake Guide

-
100
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
Intake valve vibration signature from a KT series Cummins engine indicates some valve seat wear. The
valve vibrates as it slowly centers itself in the valve seat.
Intake 340 575

1000 123 396 Exhaust --------------
1 Fuel 708
-
900 -
- 5 ULT
800 -
- Scale 29.0
700 -
-
600 -
-
500 ---------------
Pressure()
-
400 -
- 5 VT4
300 -
- Scale 22.2
200 -
-
100 -
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)

Improper valve lash is the cause of the high-impact closure for cylinder #4L.
ENGINE Cylinder 1L 4/2/98 6:54:02 AM

0
ed9)
4L(M
-5
0
ed2)
5L(M
-5
0
ed2)
6L(M
-5
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
Multiple spikes indicate that a valve bridge is out of adjustment.
UNIT 1E Cylinder 1L 10/28/2002 12:59:39 PM Period 1

Intake 343 603
800 133 388 Exhaust --------------
20 TDCC 700
-
700
-
600
- 1L VT5
500
-
Pressure ()
400 - Scale 3.0
-
300
-
200
-
100
-
0 --------------
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)

Other Expected Events on Engines with Fuel Valves or Injectors

Engine manufacturers set the fuel valve timing during the time the pressure is low and clean from
combustion gases in the cylinder. Most fuel valves on gas-fueled engines are cam operated and must
be tuned like the intake and exhaust valves. If the fuel valves are not tuned properly, it can lead to an
imbalance of engine firing pressures, poor emissions, or excessive fuel consumption.
Diesel engines inject fuel into the cylinder when the cylinder pressure is high. These fuel systems need
the high pressure and high temperature air to vaporize the fuel so that it can reach auto ignition
temperature. Diesel fuel injection systems also need to be timed correctly to prevent an imbalanced
condition of the cylinder firing pressure.
Some aftermarket companies make pre-combustion chambers with check valves to help lower exhaust
emissions and increase fuel economy. Most of these systems operate only when the cylinder is in a
certain pressure range.
The analyst needs to know the fuel valve timing and the fuel injection timing. Some fuel systems
operate by hydraulic or electronic actuators. Insufficient voltage or low hydraulic pressure usually
causes incorrect fuel timing for these types of operating systems.
The O2 level or the emissions level (in addition to the air manifold pressure, fuel pressure, pilot
pressure, if applicable) need to be monitored. Engine rpm high- or low-exhaust temperatures are other
indicators of fuel valve problems.
Below is a signature plot from a 3616 Caterpillar engine with a defective fuel valve.
C y lin d e r 1 4 /6 /0 0 9 :3 3 :2 6
100
A M P3I n1 t1aik e d 6 429 570 ----------
0 143 F uE
el h t -
465 608 -
90 - 1
0 -U L T
- S c a le
80 -3 0 0
0 -
-
70 -
0 ----------
-
60 -
0 - 1
- TM
V
P r5 0 - S c a le
e s0 -4 6 0
sur -
40 -
0 -
----------
30 -
0 -
- 1
20 - T4
V
0 - S c a le
- 1 0
2
10 -
0 -
-
0 ----------
©2003
- T.F.
0 Hudgins,
4 9 Inc.1 3 18 22 27 31 36 40 45 49 54 58 6 Page
3 67120 of
7 2 1737 6
45 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 A n 0g le 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5
(d )
Below is a vibration plot that shows several cylinders on the same engine that have fuel valves in need
of inspection.
EG-300 Cylinder 1 4/6/00 9:33:26 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Ultrasonic ULT:
25
0
ed4)
1(M
-25
25
0
ed5)
2(M
-25
25
0
ed5)
3(M
-25
25
0
ed5)
4(M
-25
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
Below is a vibration plot from a diesel engine operating at 750 rpm. Cylinder #2 has a defective injector.
The needle in the injector body was cracked, causing a quiet fuel closure.
#1 Main engine
25
0
ed9)
P1(M
-25
25
0
ed8)
P2(M
-25
25
0
ed9)
P3(M
-25
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

Below is an EMD 2-Cycle engine operating at 904 rpm. Cylinder #7 has late injection timing causing a
severe firing pressure imbalance condition.
Locomotiv e engine
10
5(M
ed8)
0
-10
10
6(M
ed1)
Fuel injection starting late.
0
-10
10
7(M
ed2)
0
-10
10
8(M
ed6)
Fuel injection ending late
0
-10
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Ignition Interference
Some engine analyzer systems are not shielded properly to prevent ignition interference on ultrasonic
vibration data. This data can be detected if you know the ignition timing and the phase angles of the
engine on which you are collecting data. Electrical interference will produce an ultrasonic spike at the
degree where each sparkplug fires on the engine. If you have an 8-cylinder, 4-cycle engine, and there
are 8 ultrasonic spikes 90 degrees apart, electrical interference is present. It does not have any effect
on the accuracy of the ULT data for detecting leakage or other anomalies.
Below is an example of what ignition interference may look like on the ultrasonic vibration data.
E106 Cylinder P2 10/13/98 8:31:03 AM Period 6
Intake 308 567
138 430 Exhaust --------------
800
-
700
-
600 - P2 ULT
500 -
Pressure ()
- Scale 16.9
400
-
300
-
200
-
100 -
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
If your engine analyzer suddenly shows interference, your should have the system inspected. Improper
internal shielding can have adverse effects on the life of your system.

SPECTRUM VIBRATION ANALYSIS ON

RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Piston Engine Vibration

An internal combustion engine produces power in the form of controlled explosions. These controlled
explosions produce powerful pulses of energy that cause the engine to vibrate in response. Engine
designers do their best to make the forces cancel out to minimize vibrations. However, no matter how
well the designer does his job, he cannot eliminate all inherent vibrations in an engine. Therefore, we
need to remember that it is perfectly normal for an IC (internal combustion) engine to produce a
characteristic vibration spectrum signature. Vibration analysis of reciprocating machines then must
focus on variations from the “normal” vibration signature.
Normal Vibration Signature

Each combustion pulse acts much like a hammer blow, hitting the engine block with a pulse of energy.
The vibration spectrum of such a pulse is a series of vibration spectral lines. These spectral lines will be
at integer multiples of the firing rate of each piston. In a four-cycle engine, the piston fires every other
revolution; therefore, the fundamental spectral line will be at one-half the engine rpm, often called the
half-order vibration or frequency at half engine speed. The result will be vibration signature that has
spectral lines at the ½P, 1P, 1½P, 2P, 2½P, 3P, etc. In my experience, I have found that amplitude is
affected by the thickness of the engine frame, rpm, and combustion pressure.
Half-Order Vibrations
I have found that if all of the pistons produce nearly identical combustion pulses, the half-order vibration
will be equal and usually small. What makes a half-order vibration increase in amplitude is
excessive clearance in the reciprocating components of the engine, firing pressure, balance of
the crankshaft, and anomalies in the gear and valve train.
A half-order vibration is noticed when the engine misfires. For example, it is very noticeable when
you operate your automobile engine with one plug wire removed. The engine will shake the entire car
due to the low frequency, high amplitude vibration, because the engine is out of balance.
1P Vibrations
I have found that insufficient main bearing clearance (too much or too little), engine speed,
engine load, and crankshaft balance affects 1P vibrations. Balance is also affected by unequal
piston mass. Most engines will have higher 1P-vibration amplitude at the center of the engine.

How to Read the Vibration Spectrum Signature

To read the vibration spectrum signature, you must know the engine crankshaft rpm. A frequency at
one times run-speed (1 X rpm or 1P) is the frequency the data collector reads at crankshaft rpm.
Below is a spectrum collected from the center main bearing from a four-cycle, Waukesha engine
operating at 945 rpm. This spectrum will help identify the orders at run-speed.
4M VIB
10
Spectrum
# Lines: 401
9
# Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
8 1
Trap overall 10.122
Peak at Frequency
7
9.866 at 945.0
6 0.867 at 1890.0
0.495 at 4710.0
5 0.433 at 1410.0
mil
0.269 at 5655.0
4 0.250 at 3765.0
0.208 at 4245.0
3 0.195 at 5190.0
0.092 at 3300.0
2 0.067 at 2355.0
1&1/2 X
1
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

Number of Lines 400

Lines of resolution is a measure of how much detail or how many peaks at frequencies you want to see
in your spectrum. Generally 200 to 400 lines or even less on low rpm machines is sufficient for a
reciprocating machine. If your spectrum has multiple lines that do not come close to a half-order or an
order at 1 x rpm, lower the lines of resolution. This will make the spectrum easier to read.
Higher resolutions also take longer to collect and process and require more storage space.
Number of Averages
You can think of an average as a measure of time. For example, an average may take 10 seconds to
collect. Once 10 seconds is counted, another average begins. Averages are needed in case the
vibration level is fluctuating; averaging the signal will produce a more representative result. Multiple
averages increase the accuracy of the data. However, they do require additional time.
Four averages seems to be sufficient on a reciprocating machine.
Trap Overall
If the overall is much higher than the sum of the spectrum peaks, suspect that there is energy above
the frequency scale you have selected. Some analyzers have a maximum frequency of 5 kHz.
RT9240’s have a maximum of 20 kHz. If the overall is much lower than the sum of the spectrum peaks
in the Z80, suspect that the signal changed between the small amount of time between the overall and
spectrum recordings. If the overall is much lower than the sum of the spectrum peaks in the RT9240, it
may be that the overall and spectrum are calculated from slightly different data.
Peak at Frequency
The spectrum shows a vibration at a given frequency that matches a line of resolution. If there are not
enough lines, the software has no line to match the frequency to. Therefore, it is important to have
plenty of lines of resolution when collecting spectrum data on reciprocating machines.
Points of Data Collection on Engines for Main Bearing Data

The best point to collect main bearing data is at the centerline of the crankshaft on the side of rotation
of the engine. If you have a right-hand rotating engine (viewed from the flywheel), collect the data on
the right side if possible. This is indicated later in this section.

3516 Caterpillar
1M 2M 3M 4M 5M 6M 7M 8M 9M
3516 Main Bearing Test Points
Spectrum Analysis Setup and Data Collection Procedures
Setup
Parameter Type Frequency Range No. of points No. of Averages
VIB (Mills Displacement) 5X Machine Rated rpm 400 Minimum 2 Min 4 Max
IPP (In per sec pseudo peak 10X Machine Rated rpm 400 Minimum 2 Min 4 Max
Procedure
Maintain the Same rpm
Try to collect data at the same rpm each time. This will help the consistency of the data and will help
trending.
Maintain the Same Load
If possible, start at a load setting that can be maintained for future data collecting. This will help the
consistency of the data and will help trending.
Use the Magnet
Use the magnet for uniform pressure each time you or someone else collects data. The data will be
always be consistent.

Find the Highest Amplitude
Try to collect data where you can get the highest amplitude. Check for the highest level at different
angles and locations on the crankshaft webs and crossheads.
Collect Data on the Same Side of Engine Rotation
Collect crankshaft spectrum data on the same side of engine rotation. If you have a right-hand engine,
try to collect data on the right side of the engine. Use the same procedure for a left-hand engine or
counter-clockwise engine.
Collect on a Flat, Paint-free or Uniform Surface
A heavily painted surface will act as a cushion and will produce low-amplitude vibration patterns. If you
have to collect on a painted surface, make sure the paint is light and evenly coated.
Try to Collect Horizontally on the Crankshaft Split-line.
Try to collect crankshaft spectrum data on the split-line (on the same plane as the crankshaft) in the
horizontal position. At the split-line, the reciprocating forces inside the machine produce more energy.
Monitor the Oil and Exhaust Analysis
Monitor the oil and exhaust analysis closely for wear metals. This will help verify that there is a problem.
High CO or NOX can be a result of weak or misfiring cylinder on a high-speed engine.

Cause of High-Order Ratios

This is what I have found that will cause high-amplitude vibration at 1P and half orders.
High amplitude at high frequency Probable Cause
½ order ratio* correctable weak or misfiring cylinder, excessive clearance in the wrist pin bushing
and connecting rod bearing, high load level, piston slap, constant
detonation, excessive main bearing clearance, excessive cam shaft
clearance or faulty cam follower
low random frequency correctable misalignment, (improper web deflection), main or rod bearing is wiping
or washing due to high oil pressure and cavitation, improper oil and
around ½ order temp
1 times run-speed correctable high rpm, high load level or firing pressure, excessive main bearing
clearance, improper piston mass, misalignment, tight belt tension or
auxiliary load, improper balance
1½ order* correctable weak cylinder, misfiring cylinder, piston slap, detonation, excessive
wrist pin and connecting rod bearing clearance, valve train anomalies
2 times run-speed correctable high rpm, excessive main bearing clearance, excessive rider band
wear in compressor cylinders, improper balance, piston slap, loose
cylinder or sleeve, improper alignment, excessive rod bearing, wrist pin
bearing clearance
2½ order* occasional misfire, weak cylinder, valve train anomalies, slight

detonation, improper balance, excessive wrist pin and connecting rod
bearing clearance, occasional piston slap, valve train anomalies
3 times run-speed high rpm, high load level, improper balance of reciprocating
components both driver and driven, misalignment, improper main
bearing clearance, inherent vibration from a six throw compressor
3½ order* high load level, weak cylinder, occasional misfire, improper balance of
reciprocating components both driver and driven, very slight
detonation, exciting a natural frequency, valve train anomalies,
misalignment, improper main bearing clearance
4 times run-speed correctable improper wrist pin and connecting rod bearing clearance, improper
main bearing clearance, excessive rider band wear in compressor
cylinders, misalignment, improper balance of reciprocating
components both driver and driven, exciting a natural frequency
4½ order* improper balance of reciprocating components both driver and driven,

very slight detonation, high load level, valve train anomalies
* = for four-cycle engines

Spectrum Analysis on Reciprocating Engines

Spectrum analysis using mills displacement on reciprocating engines is very useful to determine the
following:
Combustion forces on the crankshaft
• Imbalanced combustion forces due to a misfire, weak or dead cylinders
• Imbalanced forces caused by over-fueling or cylinders with early ignition or injection timing
Main bearing anomalies
• Misalignment between main bearings on engines that need line boring or have been improperly
mounted
• Defective or excessively worn main bearings
Connecting rod bearing or wrist pin bearing faults
• Excessively worn connecting rod bearings or wrist pin bearings
Following are examples of some anomalies that have been found using spectrum analysis on
reciprocating engines.
The next page shows an analysis of an engine with a dead cylinder that is easily indicated on the PT
parade. The PT parade is all cylinders firing pressure data in firing order using a DC pressure
transducer and a portable analyzer. This data was collected with the engine running at full load and at a
steady RPM. The spectrum data was primarily collected on this engine to monitor main bearing faults
and any misalignment between main bearings and not used for detecting combustion forces. But this
data is a good example how the spectrum data can show a weak or dead cylinder on engines for which
you do not have access to pressure/time data.

Cylinder #1R is dead due to late injection timing.
4L
2L 7L
3L 3R 8L 6L
1L +10%
5R 8R 7R
2R 5L 6R
1250 +2%
4R -2%
-10%
1000
1R
750
Pressure(psig)
500
250
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Crank Angle (deg)
This engine was operating at 850 rpm. This is also represented on each spectrum as an order or
vibration spike at 850 cycles per minute (CPM). This is called a one times run-speed order (1 X rpm
order). Since this is a four-cycle engine, you must keep in mind that every other revolution is a power
stroke, and therefore, you can expect orders at ½ times rpm or 1 and 1½ times run-speed. Four-cycle
engines that have balanced combustion forces will not show a ½ order vibration or a 1½ order vibration
in most conditions.
Below is the data collected (at the centerline of the crankshaft on a paint free surface using a flat
magnetic coupling on the accelerometer) at the first three main bearing webs. Please observe the 1x
order and the high ½ order vibration on main bearings 1 and 2 caused by the weak cylinder 1R.
1 Main
Spectrum
3.5
# Lines: 401
½ X RPM # Averages: 5
3.0 Calc overall NA

Trap overall 12.265
Peak at Frequency
2.5 3.657 at 420.0
3.571 at 225.0
3.181 at 270.0
2.0
2.735 at 300.0
m
il
1.172 at 840.0
1.5 1.129 at 540.0
0.940 at 375.0
0.757 at 495.0
1.0
0.678 at 585.0
0.476 at 645.0
0.5
-0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

2 Main
Spectrum
4.5 # Lines: 401
½ X RPM # Averages: 5
4.0 Calc overall NA

Trap overall 11.624

4.890 at 420.0
3.0 1.947 at 285.0
1.929 at 240.0
2.5 1.777 at 195.0
m
il
1.239 at 840.0
2.0 0.836 at 570.0
0.617 at 465.0
1.5
1 X RPM 0.598 at 495.0
0.366 at 780.0
1.0 0.354 at 690.0
0.5
-0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
Below is the number 3 main bearing, which supports healthy cylinders. Notice the amplitude of the
order at ½ times run-speed is less than on main bearings 1 and 2
3 Main
4.0
Spectrum
# Lines: 401
3.5
1 X RPM
# Averages: 5
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 5.061
3.0
Peak at Frequency
3.968 at 840.0
2.5 1.142 at 420.0
0.873 at 195.0
2.0 0.678 at 255.0

mil
0.385 at 345.0
½ X RPM
0.348 at 600.0
1.5
0.305 at 2115.0
0.305 at 555.0
1.0 0.299 at 2535.0
0.287 at 510.0
0.5
-0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

Below is phased vibration data collected on a high-speed Cummins engine that is used for a marine
application. The rpm for this engine was 1620 during data collection. Cylinder #10 shows a high
amplitude combustion force due to an improperly tuned injector.
The higher amplitude combustion force will produce a higher vibration at 1 and ½ times run-speed as
indicated below.
This is data from one of the main bearings that supports cylinder #10. Notice the higher 1½ times run-
speed order.
5 Main
Spectrum
# Lines: 401
12.5
1 X RPM # Averages: 5
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 14.335
Peak at Frequency
10.0
14.109 at 1620.0
0.922 at 2430.0
0.788 at 6450.0
7.5 0.763 at 4050.0
m
il
0.549 at 7260.0
0.513 at 3240.0
5.0 0.507 at 1710.0
1½ X RPM 0.409 at 4830.0
0.330 at 8880.0
0.324 at 5640.0
2.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

cpm (* 100)

Below is spectrum data from main bearing #4 which supports cylinder #9. Notice the difference in
amplitude of the 1 and ½ times order vibration. Cylinder # 9 shows no anomalies in the phase vibration
data.
4 Main
Spectrum
10
# Lines: 401
1 X RPM # Averages: 2
9
Calc overall NA
8 Trap overall 10.256

Peak at Frequency
7 10.495 at 1620.0
0.586 at 810.0
6 0.556 at 6480.0
0.458 at 3240.0
m
5
il
0.403 at 2430.0
0.342 at 210.0
4
0.269 at 1770.0
0.220 at 5670.0
3
0.208 at 10500.0
1½ X RPM
2 0.195 at 4860.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

cpm (* 100)
Below is phased vibration signature plot that appears to have some excessive connecting rod
bearing or wrist pin bushing clearance. The vibration spikes at 0 and 180 degrees of crank angle
indicate this.
Intake 308 567

138 430 Exhaust --------------
800 -
-
- P7 ULT
700
-
- Scale 16.9
600 -
-
500 -
-
---------------
Pressure()
400
-
-
300 - P7 VT4
-
200 - Scale 27.9

-
-
100
-
-
0 --------------
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765
Angle (deg)
The phased vibration data is sufficient data for an inspection, however, these vibration spikes may be
produced by piston slap and valve guide-wear. The spectrum data collected at each main bearing web
that supports this cylinder, indicates a higher two times order than the other main bearings.

The reason the two times order increases or even appears on some spectrum data is because
the piston in the cylinder changes direction two times per revolution and therefore may produce
a low frequency vibration or knock if there is any excessive clearance.
Below is main bearing 8, which is one of the main bearings that supported this cylinder.
Notice the amplitude at 1740 CPM that is two times run-speed.

8M VIB
4.0 Spectrum
# Lines: 201
3.5 # Averages: 4
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 4.158
3.0
Peak at Frequency
4.011 at 870.0
2.5 0.440 at 1740.0
0.305 at 990.0
0.250 at 1290.0
2.0
m
il
0.244 at 2160.0
0.226 at 3450.0
1.5 0.189 at 3030.0
0.165 at 420.0
1.0 0.165 at 1080.0
0.165 at 2580.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
The next main bearing is the #9 bearing which also supports the cylinder. Notice the order at two times
run-speed.
9M
Spectrum
# Lines: 201
2.5 # Averages: 3
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 3.230
2.906 at 870.0
0.403 at 1740.0
1.5 0.360 at 1320.0
mil
0.354 at 2190.0
0.348 at 2610.0
1.0 0.250 at 3480.0
0.250 at 1020.0
0.220 at 3060.0
0.5 0.116 at 450.0

0.092 at 3930.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

Below is #7 main bearing that does not support the cylinder but may have a two times order from the
other two main bearings due to cross talk.
7M
5.5 Spectrum
# Lines: 201
5.0 # Averages: 3
Calc overall NA
4.5
Trap overall 5.873

5.623 at 870.0
3.5 0.501 at 990.0
0.250 at 1740.0
3.0
0.238 at 3480.0
m
il
0.232 at 1080.0
2.5
0.214 at 2160.0
2.0 0.201 at 2610.0
0.159 at 210.0
1.5 0.104 at 1290.0
0.104 at 3060.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
Normal Main Bearing Data

During data collection and analysis, of spectrum data on reciprocating engines, you may often find that
the #1 main bearing may be a little higher than the #2 main due to vibration from the gear train and belt-
driven auxiliary equipment on the front of the engine. Some may be different due to the thickness of the
engine frame or the way the engine is mounted.
Amplitude at
1 X Run Speed
1M 2M 3M 4M 5M 6M 7M

Below are some spectrum signatures from a Waukesha naturally aspirated engine. Please observe the
frequency at 1 x Run Speed. 1 x rpm is 945 CPM.
E3107 1M VIB 6/14/00 11:47:29 AM
2.00 Spectrum
# Lines: 401
# Averages: 2
1.75
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 2.363
1.50
Peak at Frequency
2.021 at 945.0
1.25 0.611 at 2355.0
0.580 at 2835.0
0.531 at 4245.0
1.00
m
il
0.293 at 3765.0
0.232 at 5655.0
0.75 0.189 at 195.0
0.171 at 3300.0
0.50 0.159 at 1410.0

0.134 at 4710.0
0.25
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
E3107 2M VIB 6/14/00 11:47:29 AM

Spectrum
1.75
# Lines: 401
# Averages: 3
Trap overall 2.155
Peak at Frequency
1.25 1.825 at 945.0
0.568 at 4245.0
0.568 at 2835.0
1.00
0.427 at 1410.0
m
il
0.366 at 2355.0
0.75 0.195 at 3780.0
0.153 at 4725.0
0.147 at 5190.0
0.50
0.134 at 465.0
0.098 at 5655.0
0.25
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
E3107 3M VIB 6/14/00 11:47:29 AM

4.0
Spectrum
# Lines: 401
3.5 # Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 4.090
3.0
Peak at Frequency
3.956 at 945.0
2.5 0.525 at 1890.0
0.513 at 4245.0
2.0 0.458 at 2835.0

m
il
0.415 at 1410.0
0.238 at 4725.0
1.5
0.147 at 2355.0
0.128 at 5190.0
1.0 0.055 at 240.0
0.055 at 465.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

E3107 4M VIB 6/14/00 11:47:29 AM

5.5 Spectrum
# Lines: 401
5.0 # Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
4.5
Trap overall 5.769

5.617 at 945.0
3.5 #4 main is the center main and has 0.397 at 1890.0
0.354 at 4710.0
3.0 the highest amplitude at 1x Run 0.317 at 2835.0
m
il
2.5 Speed. 0.287

0.116
at 4245.0
at 1410.0
2.0 0.079 at 4755.0
0.079 at 5190.0
1.5 0.073 at 3300.0
0.061 at 1125.0
1.0
0.5
-0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
E3107 5M VIB 6/14/00 11:47:29 AM

4.5 Spectrum
# Lines: 401
4.0 # Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
3.5 Trap overall 4.731
Peak at Frequency
3.0 4.536 at 945.0

0.421 at 1890.0
0.409 at 4710.0
2.5
0.263 at 2820.0
m
il
0.263 at 1410.0
2.0
0.128 at 3300.0
0.122 at 2355.0
1.5
0.110 at 465.0
0.110 at 4245.0
1.0
0.098 at 1065.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

E3107 6M VIB 6/14/00 11:47:29 AM

Spectrum
3.0 # Lines: 401
# Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
Peak at Frequency
3.168 at 945.0
2.0 0.360 at 2835.0
0.342 at 4710.0
0.324 at 1410.0
m
il
1.5 0.293 at 2355.0

0.226 at 1890.0
0.226 at 465.0
1.0 0.165 at 195.0
0.153 at 240.0
0.147 at 3300.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
E3107 7M VIB 6/14/00 11:47:29 AM

Spectrum
2.25
# Lines: 401
# Averages: 2
Trap overall 2.729
2.369 at 945.0
1.50 0.470 at 2820.0
0.440 at 2355.0
1.25 0.348 at 4710.0
m
il
0.287 at 3300.0
1.00 0.244 at 1890.0
0.220 at 5655.0
0.75 0.128 at 4245.0
0.128 at 3765.0
0.50 0.116 at 1125.0
0.25
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

Misalignment Between Main Bearings

As indicated earlier in this chapter, spectrum data can be used to detect misalignment between
bearings. Improper installation, engine frame fatigue and changes in the foundation that supports the
engine cause most misalignment between main bearings. It is very important on two-cycle engines that
the combustion forces are nearly equal on the crankshaft. Performing a cylinder balance test on
engines that do not have access to pressure/time data may be used to check the combustion forces. A
cylinder balance test is performed with the engine at idle or at medium load and then disabling each
injector or fuel nozzle or deadening the spark plug while monitoring engine rpm drop. All cylinders must
have nearly equal rpm drop during this test. If not, inspect the fuel or ignition system components. Use
caution when performing this test on spark-ignited engines because a backfire may occur. Cylinder
exhaust temperatures are other reliable sources to find if the combustion quality is equal in all cylinders.
When analyzing main bearings for misalignment, watch for the orders at one times run-speed. The
center main generally produces the highest amplitude at one times run-speed. What you need to look
for are the quiet bearings. Usually if there is one bearing that is high in amplitude and the one next to it
is very quiet, the bearing producing the high amplitude is supporting the weight and carrying the load
for the quiet bearing. Therefore, the quiet bearings are usually worn to an extent that they do not make
contact with the crank shaft and will produce a low amplitude vibration level at one times run-speed.
Below is an example of engine that has a misalignment between the main bearings. Observe the order
at 1 x run-speed.
1M VIB 6/14/00 8:28:09

S p ec trum
# Lin es : 401
8
# A v erages : 3
C alc ov erall N A
7
Tra p ov era ll 20 .556
P e ak a t Fre que nc y
6 8.75 5 at 2 55.0
1.35 at 945 5.44 0 at 3 15.0
5 4.10 3 at 1 95.0
3.58 4 at 5 10.0
m il
4 3.51 0 at 4 80.0
3.46 2 at 4 20.0
2.86 3 at 3 90.0
3
1.85 6 at 6 00.0
1.58 1 at 6 45.0
2
1.52 6 at 6 75.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
c pm (* 10 0)

2M VIB 6/14/00 8:28:09 AM
0.8 Spectrum
# Lines: 401
# Averages: 2
0.7
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 1.606
0.812 at 1410.0
0.5 0.574 at 945.0
0.488 at 2820.0
0.421 at 3765.0
0.4
m
il
0.403 at 1890.0
0.379 at 4245.0
0.3 0.287 at 465.0
0.256 at 5655.0
0.2 0.250 at 4710.0

0.214 at 3300.0
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
3M VIB 6/14/00 8:28:09 AM

Spectrum
5.5
# Lines: 401
5.0 # Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
Peak at Frequency
4.0
5.708 at 945.0
3.5 0.842 at 1410.0
0.726 at 1890.0
3.0 0.348 at 3765.0
m
il
0.330 at 4245.0
2.5
0.299 at 465.0
2.0 0.293 at 4710.0

0.263 at 2820.0
1.5 0.238 at 5655.0
0.201 at 5190.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
4M VIB 6/14/00 8:28:09 AM

10
Spectrum
# Lines: 401
9
# Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
8
Trap overall 10.122
Peak at Frequency
7
9.866 at 945.0
6 0.867 at 1890.0
0.495 at 4710.0
5 0.433 at 1410.0
m
il
0.269 at 5655.0
4 0.250 at 3765.0
0.208 at 4245.0
3 0.195 at 5190.0
0.092 at 3300.0
2 0.067 at 2355.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

5M VIB 6/14/00 8:28:09 AM

6.0 Spectrum
# Lines: 401
5.5
# Averages: 2
5.0 Calc overall NA
Trap overall 6.282
4.5
Peak at Frequency
4.0 6.056 at 945.0

0.757 at 1890.0
3.5 0.476 at 4710.0
0.372 at 3765.0
3.0
m
il
0.263 at 2835.0
2.5 0.244 at 5655.0
0.238 at 5190.0
2.0
0.177 at 465.0
1.5 0.073 at 1290.0

0.073 at 4245.0
1.0
0.5
-0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
1.0 Low-Amplitude
6M VIB 6/14/00 8:28:09 AM
Spectrum
# Lines: 401
0.9
# Averages: 2
Calc overall NA
0.8
Trap overall 1.532

0.983 at 945.0
0.6 0.501 at 3765.0

0.476 at 2835.0
0.5 0.354 at 4710.0
m
il
0.336 at 1890.0
0.4 0.317 at 5190.0
0.263 at 465.0
0.3 0.256 at 5655.0
0.128 at 1410.0
0.2 0.128 at 2355.0
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)
7M VIB 6/14/00 8:28:09 AM

2.00 Spectrum
# Lines: 401
# Averages: 2
1.75
Calc overall NA
Trap overall 2.448
1.50
Peak at Frequency
2.021 at 945.0
1.25 0.659 at 2835.0
0.415 at 3765.0
0.403 at 1890.0
1.00
m
il
0.354 at 5190.0
0.317 at 4710.0
0.75 0.299 at 1410.0
0.287 at 3300.0
0.50 0.226 at 5655.0

0.220 at 2355.0
0.25
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
cpm (* 100)

Below is a graph that indicates the amplitude for all the main bearings on the preceding pages. You can
see main bearing #6 is in poor condition due to the low amplitude and main bearings #5 and #7 are
high in amplitude because the worn #6 main bearing is not providing sufficient support for the
crankshaft.
Amplitude at
1 X Run Speed
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 Defective!
1
0
1M 2M 3M 4M 5M 6M 7M
The data above proves that this engine is a candidate for a base and web deflection inspection or main
bearing line bore.

IGNITION
Engine Ignition Analysis
In this section, we will learn the purpose of the ignition system, the components in various ignition
systems, how they operate and how to analyze the primary and secondary ignition systems on a gas-
fueled engine.
General
An engine has several support systems to make it produce work.
1. Ignition system
2. Fuel system
3. Air intake system
4. Exhaust system
5. Cooling system
6. Lubrication system
7. Shutdown system
8. Air/fuel ratio and operating control system
Of all theses systems, the ignition system is the heart of the engine and depending on the type, age,
condition and quality of installation, the ignition system requires more attention than the other support
systems.
Ignition systems are constantly being improved with the help of rapid increases in computer technology.
Ignition system analyzers are also advancing to aid in the problems caused by a defective ignition
system ignition, e.g. some of the problems listed below:
1. Unexpected or unplanned shutdowns

2. Excessive downtime
3. Decrease in production
4. Excessive wear of cylinders, heads and related components
5. Excessive emissions
6. Excessive fuel consumption
7. Low oil life
8. Excessive overtime
9. Unnecessary replacement of engine and ignition parts

Purpose of the Ignition System

The purpose of the ignition system is to ignite the air/fuel charge in the engine cylinder or
pre-combustion chamber at the proper degree of crankshaft angle. The ignition system is designed to
produce an arc that passes between the spark plug electrodes igniting that portion of the air/fuel
mixture in the gap of the plug in the cylinder or pre-combustion chamber. Arc duration in microseconds
must be sufficient to provide a good start of combustion igniting the rest of the air/fuel mixture forming a
flame front across the cylinder. Ignition timing controls the position where the spark plug ignites the
air/fuel charge and starts combustion. It is also used to position the peak combustion pressure in
relation to crankshaft angle. Engine efficiency and emissions are affected by ignition timing due to its
influence on the cylinder pressure. Work is lost due to heat transfer and compression if placed too early
and expansion work is lost if placed too late. The optimum ignition-timing angle depends on several
parameters (e.g., engine speed, engine load, air/fuel ratio, fuel characteristics, air humidity, altitude, air
temperature, and coolant temperature). Emission regulations also effect ignition timing.
Types of Ignition Systems

Ignition systems can be classified on the basis of how and where the energy for the ignition is stored
immediately prior to its use in the formation of the spark energy. Today's industrial engines have two
ignition types: inductive or capacitive discharge (CD) storage.
Inductive Ignition Systems

Inductive ignition systems were introduced in the late 1800’s. Although many improvements were made
to the systems, the most significant advancement came with the emergence of insulated gate bipolar
transistors (IGBT) – or “smart switches” – in the 1980's. The IGBT has made it possible to develop
efficient solid-state inductive ignition systems.
The IGBT's used in inductive ignitions have a low voltage drop, and therefore, low power dissipation for
a high voltage device. They also have internal circuitry to turn on the IBGT and dump the induced
transient voltage, thus protecting the switch.
The most significant advantage of the inductive ignition system is that more energy can be delivered to
the secondary. The inductive ignition coils are designed to be more efficient than CD coils. Up to five
times more energy can be delivered to the secondary with the same power supply current draw.
Typically, CD coils can deliver a maximum of 10 millijoules of energy to a spark – compared to
inductive ignitions systems that can deliver as much as 50 millijoules of energy. As a result, the spark
duration can be up to 1500 microseconds for an inductive system versus 300 microseconds for a CD
system. (Figure 1).
The high energy and long, programmable arc duration is an advantage since it provides better lighting
of lean or non-homogenous air/fuel mixtures. In many cases, engines that cannot meet emission
standards with single strike CD ignitions can be brought into compliance with electronic inductive
ignition systems.

Figure 1 Spark duration can be up to 1500 microseconds for an inductive system versus 300 microseconds
for a CD system.
Inductive Ignition Secondary Trace
extended, variable,
arc duration
Secondary Voltage
variable coil
soak time
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (ms)
Capacitive Discharge Ignition Secondary

Secondary Voltage
limited arc duration
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (ms)

Capacitive Discharge Ignition Systems
Electronic CD ignition systems are common on large industrial engines because the silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR) technology (used to switch the high voltage stored in the capacitor) has been available
since the 1960's.
The most significant advantage of the capacitive discharge ignition system is that the energy storage
and the voltage step up functions are accomplished by separate circuit elements. Each one can be
optimized for its particular job.
Capacitive discharge ignition systems store energy in an external capacitor separate from the ignition
coil. This capacitor is charged between ignition pulses. When ignition is required, the timing switch is
closed and the stored energy is abruptly discharged through the primary winding of the ignition coil. The
discharge current is much higher than the prolonged flow in the primary of the inductive storage system
and the rate of secondary voltage rise is also slightly greater.
The higher voltage rise rate reduces the amount of energy that leaks off through a given amount of
fouling across the spark plug, as the voltage builds up. This factor extends the useful life of the spark
plug but also means that the CD system has less available secondary energy.
The output energy of some capacitor storage type systems is reduced to the point that they will not
consistently light marginal mixtures in the engine. However, CD ignition systems can be designed to
optimize output energy for rich fuel mixtures.
Another disadvantage of a CD ignition system is its high voltage power supply. The high voltage supply
must handle the power requirements for all cylinder firings and is most susceptible to failure.
In multi-spark systems, the interval between sparks can be up to 1200 microseconds. Firing may occur
late or not at all – especially in lean burn engines, where emission control is important. Multi-spark
systems can also significantly increase plug wear as most of the metal is removed from the plug when
the arc is initially drawn.
Detonation Detection
Some inductive and CD ignition systems have vibration transducers that are capable of detecting
cylinder detonation. Some use this knock detection capability to adjust ignition timing to the threshold of
detonation with the intention of maximizing operating efficiency. Although this practice may increase
efficiency, operating the engine at this threshold will introduce thermal stress and accelerate wear and
ultimately increase engine maintenance. Other ignition systems use detonation detection only to protect
the engine from damage. In such systems, the ignition system retards the timing to stop detonation. If
detonation continues, alarm relays can be used to shut down the engine.

Visual Inspection and Setup

Prior to collecting data on the ignition system, it is good practice to visually inspect all components in
the ignition system. The analyst should also check the air manifold pressure for an increase or a
difference between banks. A good steady rpm signal must be present. The O2 levels in the exhaust
stream and the cylinder or bank exhaust temperature should also be checked. Usually high O2 level and
cold exhaust readings are good indicators that there is a plug misfire. Always look for corrosion on both
primary and secondary terminals and connections. Expect some secondary faults on engines that have
transformers or capacitors exposed to weather in most cases. Quality of installation is another factor
often overlooked along with the proper supply voltage to the primary circuit.
Use the proper parameter type when setting up the test points for the primary/secondary system. The
primary reading should be collected with a DCV parameter type that fits most applications with the use
of an attenuation device. Make sure that the same attenuation setting is used each time to aid in proper
trending.
Accurate Top Dead Center (TDC) with a steady marker system is also very important for accurate
ignition analysis. The encoder or crank angle transducer provides the most accurate ignition data;
however, there are some engines that do not allow access for an encoder assembly. Therefore,
alternative markers such as a magnetic pickup may be used.
Multiple ignition samples are also very important. Take your time to ensure that you collect a minimum
of ten ignition samples. It is also good practice to move the secondary lead around while collecting data
to check for a bad connection that may cause random misfires or even violent backfires. If the engine
displays ignition timing on a control panel, verify that your readings are the same. If they are not, then
true TDC was not pre-established or the ignition system was improperly installed.
Primary Ignition Analysis
To perform proper primary ignition analysis, you must know what type of test-point parameter to use.
DCV
This test-point type is used to collect ignition primary DC voltage from a circuit. The front panel displays
the attenuated voltage level, engine speed and marker type. The graph display shows charging cycle
patterns for all power cylinders on the circuit.
PRIM DCVprimary DC ignition signal from one wire
PRI1 DCV
PRI2 DCVprimary DC ignition signal for circuit numbers 1 and 2
Whenever you use this type of test-point, you must attenuate the signal. Use the test-point type LVL to
trap the setting on the attenuator. DCV is the popular test-point used for primary analysis.

ACV
This test-point type is used to collect ignition primary AC voltage from a circuit. The front panel displays
the attenuated voltage level, engine speed and marker type. The graph display shows charging cycle
patterns for all power cylinders on the circuit.
PRIM ACV primary AC ignition signal from one wire
PRI1 ACV
PRI2 ACV primary AC ignition signal for circuit numbers 1 and 2
Whenever you use this type of test-point, you must attenuate the signal. Use the test-point type LVL to
trap the setting on the attenuator.
LVL
This test-point type is used as a process variable under the engine to collect any gauge reading that is
measured as a number with no particular units. For example, this type is used for trapping the
attenuation level setting required for ignition test-points. It also multiplies the voltage times the
attenuation level for actual primary voltage. It does not correct for secondary signal data.
ATNS LVL attenuation level setting for ignition secondary
ATNP LVL attenuation level setting for ignition primaries
AFR LVL air / fuel ratio

Analysis of the Typical Ignition Primary Parade

The Primary Parade pattern in the following figure represents patterns that are displayed for each storage
capacitor in the ignition system. The analyst will know the synchronization degree and the unit firing order,
and therefore, he will know the complete charging/discharging cycle supplies the primary ignition pulse to
each individual cylinder.
Primary Ignition Analysis
D
B
J
H
A C F
G
E K
I
A. Peak primary voltage (DC) K. C to G one complete discharging and

charging cycle of the capacitor with a DC
B. Zero ground reference system
C. Degree at which the capacitor is
discharged
D. Degree at which the capacitor reaches
zero (fully discharged)
E. End of charging cycle
F. Degree or period of time the capacitor
holds charge
G. Same as C
H. D to E charge time or degrees
I. C to G one complete discharging and
charging cycle (stage)
J. Threshold in the charging cycle

The primary parade can be used to evaluate the following:

1. The primary voltage charge in the capacitor when it discharges to each individual cylinder. The
primary voltage is measured from point A to point B. When this voltage drops below the design
levels, the secondary reserve energy and (as the voltage drops lower), the arc duration will
decrease. If this voltage increases above a given level, the high voltage will develop excessive heat
and damage the storage capacitor. This voltage must be at design levels at the time the capacitor
discharges. If the voltage reaches design levels but begins to decrease before the distributor sends
the charge to the proper primary at C or G, the capacitor is leaking and needs to be replaced or
repaired.
If design level is never reached during the charge cycle; either the output of the alternator is too low
or the capacitor requires excessive charging.
2. The ignition timing can be checked for each cylinder by measuring the degree the capacitor
discharges (point C, G, ECT). If all cylinders primary pulses are early or if they are all late, the
ignition timing for all cylinders is corrected at the ignition unit. If an individual cylinder or cylinders
consistently fire at an incorrect degree, the problem could be:
A. Incorrect program chip in a microprocessor system
B. Incorrect ignition back-plate (distributor)
C. Failed component in the distributor system for those cylinders consistently firing
early or late
D. A problem with the ignition or engine mechanical drive mechanism
3. If the ignition timing varies from cycle to cycle on all cylinders, the problem is either in the engine
mechanical drive mechanism or the distributor section of the unit.
4. If the ignition timing varies from cycle to cycle on or more but not all of the cylinders, the problem is
usually with the distributor section of the ignition control unit.
5. The capacitor discharge from point C to point D is evaluated as follows:
A. If the capacitor voltage remains at full charge, no primary pulse was sent to that cylinder due
to either p problem I the distributor section of the system, an open circuit in that primary to
the coil, including the coil winging and primary ground.
B. If the capacitor voltage drops, but not more than 75%, the problem is usually an open circuit
in the secondary lead on a dual plug system.
If the capacitor discharge pattern of all cylinders either goes below or above zero (depending on the
polarity of the system) only a few volts, the problem is usually poor engine ground or a voltage rise in the
engine mass. Comparing the engine ground reference voltage to true ground checks this. This can be
achieved by creating another DCV or ACV test point called PRIG, which means primary ignition ground or
a regular voltmeter may be used.
T.F. Hudgins, Inc. Page 150 of 173

6 From point D to point E (dimension H) is voltage building up in the capacitor during the charging
portion of the cycle. The period of time or number of crankshaft degrees of rotation required to full
charge E are an indication of:
A. Alternator speed. The slower the alternator rpm, the longer period or more degrees or
crankshaft rotation required to charge the capacitor; therefore, more charging stages
(thresholds) will occur.
B. Alternator output. As the output of an alternator decreases, it will take longer (more
degrees of crankshaft rotation) to charge the capacitor. Performance will not be affected
until the capacitor fails to reach full charge by the degree the distributor completes the circuit
at point C or G. The most common problems in the primary circuit are:
1. Ignition timing problems due to bad drive coupling or magnetic pickup mount or wiring
2. Variations in timing from cylinder to cylinder and from cycle to cycle on individual
cylinders
3. Low primary voltages
4. Primary wiring problems

Secondary Ignition Analysis

In order to perform proper secondary ignition analysis, the analyst must know what type of test point
parameter to use.
IGN (Recip-Trap)
This type records the timing and level of each ignition event from up to 100 engine cycles. On the front
panel, it displays the number of misfires, maximum, average, and minimum voltage level and the
maximum, average and minimum advance angle.
IGN (Recip-Trap)
Stores the ignition secondary timing angle and ionization voltage levels for each period of data. When
you dump and process the data, RT win calculates the following values that appear on reports and can
be trended:
Ionization Level Statistics calculated for each spark plug
Timing Angle Statistics calculated for each spark plug
Average, maximum, minimum, deviation, and percent misfire average, maximum, minimum, deviation, and
engine misfires
SEC (Recip-Trap)
This type is only available on newer models of the RECIP-TRAP 9240. This type of test point collects
and records an ignition secondary pattern. Use the graphic screen on the RT9240 to identify ionization
voltage, arc voltage, spark duration, and ring down.
LVL (Recip-Trap)
This test point type is used as a process variable to collect any gauge reading that is measured as a
number with no particular units. For example, this type is used for trapping the attenuation level setting
required for ignition test points.
For example:
Test point ID …ATNS LVL means attenuation level setting for ignition secondary data collection
Typical Secondary Analysis
The most common problems noted in the ignition secondary circuit are:
Spark plug gap and other high and /or varying resistance in the secondary circuit
Mixture, temperature or pressure problems in the combustion chamber
Secondary lead failure or connector corrosion
Transformer failure
Secondary Signature Analysis

When the secondary inductive pickup or hippo clip is connected to the secondary lead, the inductive
pickup reads the energy field induced around the secondary wire through the insulation when high
voltage flow through the secondary circuit. The reading may be 30k to 80k energizing the secondary
circuit, but voltage normally induced into the pickup is generally between 1 to 50 volts. The amplitude of
the induced voltage is a function of the efficiency of the wire insulation and the actual amount of voltage
developed in the secondary circuit. Since the pickup will be constant in size mass from reading to
reading, the two variables the analyst must deal with are:
A. The condition of the lead and the efficiency of its insulation (both of which can vary from lead
to lead and from test to test)
B. The actual voltage buildup and flow through the secondary circuit. This method of testing is
really an evaluation of the resistance to flow through the secondary circuit. The greater the resistance
to flow the greater the voltage induced into the pickup. The less the resistance, the lower the voltage.
Keep in mind that you are reading relative voltage and not true voltage. The levels should be similar
from wire to wire and test to test, so that most factors causing a change in amplitude can be attributed
to either the condition of the secondary circuit or the changes, which occur in the spark plug gap and
the air/fuel molecules passing through that gap during the ionization and arc duration.

Each secondary ignition circuit should be evaluated with 2 patterns:
1. Voltage verses degree of crankshaft rotation
2. Voltage verses time.
There are six essential measurements and evaluations normally required to properly evaluate
secondary ignition signatures: The measurement is indicated on the figure below.
1. Ignition Timing Degree
2. Peak Ionization Voltage
3. Arc Voltage
4. Arc Duration Period in

milliseconds
5. Reserved Energy Dissipation
6. De-Energized Period
501 MICROSECONDS PER DEGREE OF CRANKSHAFT REVOLUTION @ 330 RPM
6
A B F
3
5
D
2 E
4
C
1

Figure 3 is a typical expanded secondary ignition pattern for an engine timed at 20º before TDC. At
point A, as throughout the previous 700º, the voltage is zero. At point B the primary induces the charge
into the secondary winding and the secondary voltage increases until at point C the voltage is great
enough to ionize the plug gap and air/fuel molecules passing through it. Once the gap is ionized, the
voltage in the secondary circuit drops to point D because it takes less voltage to maintain the arc once
the gap has been ionized. The arcing of the gap continues until the available potential can no longer
maintain the arc point E. The voltage remaining in the secondary circuit drops to zero as it dissipates to
ground. That dissipation to ground causes an oscillation back and fourth across zero as sensed through
the secondary inductive pickup. The only two listed above that requires accurate measurements of true
relative values are: (1) ignition degree and (4) arc duration. The other measurements are relative
values.
On the preceding figure:
Point #1 is usually the first evaluated to determine the polarity of the secondary circuit, and the ignition
timing.
Point #2, B to C is the relative peak voltage measured at point C required to ionize the gap and
complete the secondary circuit.
Point #3 is the relative voltage required to maintain the secondary circuit.
Point #4, C to E is normally the period of time there is an arc across the plug. The time is in
milliseconds and is determined by the transformer or capacitor. It varies from at times.
Point #5, the secondary potential is no longer high enough to maintain the arc, the voltage charge
remaining in the circuit dissipates to ground causing this portion to show a waveform. Usually 4 to 8
symmetrical oscillations across the zero voltage line as the reserve voltage dissipate to ground.
Point #6, there should be no voltage in the secondary except for points 1 through 5. Any residual
voltage it could multi-fire the spark plug or cause pre ignition only if there is sufficient air and fuel in the
cylinder.

Ignition Secondary
This is the new test point to see the actual arc of the secondary for each cylinder. This test point can
only be used on the 32-bit 9240. Do not use this test point on a 16-bit 9240.
When viewing the arc, you can do the analysis for that plug while you are on the engine.
Secondary ignition plot will reveal the condition of most of the components within the secondary
system. Changes in voltage and spark duration can mean defects in plugs coils, wiring or grounds.
IF YOU SEE IT CAN MEAN

High Arc Voltage Bad Plug or Wide Gap
Short Arc Duration High Resistance in the Secondary Lead
High Secondary Voltage broken coil windings
Corroded or broken connectors
Heavy cylinder load
Low Arc Voltage Narrow plug gap
Long Duration light cylinder load
Low Secondary Voltage shorted plugs
Secondary ignition signature Samples
Secondary trace indicates faulty coil.

E540 10/13/98 3:05:27 PM
Secondary Ignition (Y Axis: mV -- X Axis: ms)
50
-50
4LC (Med 1)
-100
-150
-200
Ignition timing angle = 14.6
0 1 2 3 4 5

High ionization voltage and short arc duration indicates excessive plug gap.
E540 10/13/98 3:05:27 PM
50
-50
4LC (Med 1)
-100
-150
-200
0 1 2 3 4 5
Low number of oscillations and deviating arc duration is an indication of a faulty capacitor or transformer.
E540 10/13/98 3:05:27 PM

150
100
50
0
6LC (Med 1)
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 1 2 3 4 5

Secondary Ignition Statistical Data

The secondary ignition report is very useful at determining the crank angle the spark plugs fire and the
voltage levels. An ignition secondary report is shown below. The parameter type used for this data is IGN.
Engine Ignition Secondary Report
399 Cat TA
Unit Name: Model: G-399 TA Date:

Location: Unit Mfr: Caterpillar Serial No.: 49C01328
Attenuation Level: N/A Marker Correction Angle: 359.5 degrees Periods Collected: 20
Cyl Plug Timing Angle Signal Level %

Location AVE DEV MAX MIN AVE DEV MAX MIN Misfire
1 center spark plug 23.8 0.8 26.1 22.0 3757 101 4073 3514 0
Engine: center spark plug 22.8 0.9 4132 336
Notes: 1. Timing refers to the angle by which the spark fires BTDC. Negative values indicate that the spark fired ATDC.
2. Level refers to the peak level of the ignition signal. These levels are unitless and should be compared to the ignition levels
of the other cylinders on the same engine.
3. Deviation is the average deviation of the sample from the sample average.
4. Marker Type: Once Per Turn (OPT) and Trap Type: 9240.
5. "--" implies that there is no data for this cylinder.
Analyst Signature: 4/17/2003 2:33:11 PM

Report Interpretation
Timing Angle Column
AVE The average ignition timing in degrees of crank shaft rotation.
Improper timing angle is usually caused by the following:
Improper ignition timing
Marker angle or TC was not established
Reset pin in wrong position
Wrong back-plate or wrong ignition module
Improper primary and secondary wiring
Other problems that may effect ignition time are the firing pressure, air/ fuel ratio, and
resistance which affect this level in the secondary system due to poor connections, spark
plug gap, and problems in the primary ignition system.
DEV Deviation in ignition timing

The distributor drive mechanism or poor connections on an inductive system affect this level.
Usually, the inductive system will not operate with poor connections. A good rule of thumb is
a maximum 3 degrees deviation.
MAX The Maximum ignition timing level.
MIN The Minimum ignition timing level
Signal Level Column

AVE The average ionization level.
The firing pressure, air/ fuel ratio, and resistance affect this level in the secondary system
due to poor connections, spark plug gap, and problems in the primary ignition system.
DEV Deviation of signal level

High deviation is usually caused by excessive plug gap, and improper air/fuel ratio.
Deviation should be a maximum of 30% of the Average signal level. If excessive the plug
should be inspected or the fuel/ air system should be checked.
MAX The Maximum ionization level

The firing pressure, air/ fuel ratio, and resistance affect this level in the secondary
system due to poor connections and spark plug gap. Dual firing ignition system will drive up
max level.
MIN The Minimum ionization level

The firing pressure, air/ fuel ratio, and resistance affect this level in the secondary system
due to poor connections, spark plug gap, and problems in the primary ignition system.

SPARK PLUG FIRING END ANALYSIS
Standard Spark Plug Conditions

An examination of used spark plugs can reflect the accuracy of heat range application. Close scrutiny
of the firing end can also suggest a variety of possible engine conditions and point the way to achieving
improved spark plug and engine performance. The quantity, color or overall appearance, as well as the
chemical make-up of the deposits, are all important in making the correct diagnosis.
Remember that the electrical properties of deposits at operating temperatures in the engine may be
entirely different than the properties at normal ambient temperatures.
Deposits normally occur in distinct bands on the insulator. These reflect the different temperatures
which occur between the hot insulator tip and the relatively cool insulator base.
Generally, tip deposits near the electrodes are the ones that control spark plug operation. If they
become conductive, their "shunt resistance" is said to drop and the plug short circuits.
Illustrations in this section include common spark plug appearances as well as those rarely
encountered.
Firing End Analysis

Normal
This plug has been running at the correct temperature in a "healthy"

engine. When operating in such a desirable environment, deposits
will be light tan or gray in color with most grades of commercial
gasoline.
If LP gas or natural gas has been used, the color will be almost
brown.

Oil Fouled
This spark plug was shorted by excessive oil entering the combustion chamber. This condition is often
caused by piston rings or cylinder walls that are badly worn. Oil may also be pulled into the chamber
because of excessive clearance in the valve stem guides, or badly worn valve stem seals. If the PCV
valve is plugged or inoperative, it can cause a buildup of crankcase pressure. This condition can force
oil and oil vapors past the rings and valve guides into the combustion chamber.
Carbon Fouled
Basically, soft, sooty carbon deposits having a

dry, black appearance appear on carbon-fouled
plugs. If only one or two plugs in a set are
fouled, it is a good practice to check for sticking
valves, a cracked distributor cap, or bad
secondary ignition wires. Fouling of the entire
set might result from an incorrect heat range
spark plug or an over-rich air/fuel mixture
caused by a clogged air cleaner filter element,
a sticking heat riser valve, or a faulty choke.
Fuel injectors that malfunction can also lead to
this condition.
Other causes include weak ignition system

voltage or an inoperative pre-heating system
(carburetor intake air) or poor cylinder
compression.
Worn
The spark plug shown has served its useful life

and should be replaced. Voltage required to fire
the plug has approximately doubled and will
continue to increase the longer the engine
operates. Even higher voltage requirements (as
much as 100%) above normal may occur when
the engine is accelerated quickly. Poor engine
performance and a loss of fuel economy are traits
of worn spark plugs.

Insulator Glazing
This condition may cause misfiring at high engine

rpm. Shiny deposits usually suggest that
temperatures have suddenly increased during
hard acceleration. As a result, normal metallic
deposits do not have a chance to slough off the
plug and they melt and form a conductive coating,
which causes the misfire. Yellow or tan deposits,
as shown below, usually indicate the use of
leaded fuel.
Mechanical Damage
Some foreign object in the combustion chamber,

as shown below, causes mechanical damage to
the firing end. Since small objects can travel from
one cylinder to another (because of valve
overlap), the other cylinders should always be
checked to prevent reoccurrence of damage.
When working on an engine, it is advisable to

keep the carburetor throat (or throttle body
openings on central type fuel injected engines)
covered. That precaution also applies to spark
plug holes.

Overheated
This example shows an overheated plug. Note

the dead white or gray insulator nose, which
appears "blistered." Electrode gap wear rate will
be considerably in excess of that normally
expected. This is often caused by over advanced
ignition timing, poor engine cooling system
efficiency (scale, stoppages, low level), a very
lean A/F mixture, a leaking intake manifold, or the
use of a spark plug too hot for the application.
Splashed Fouled
Splashed fouling, as shown below, may

sometimes occur after a long-delayed tune-up.
Here, deposits accumulated after long periods of
misfiring or low power operation may be suddenly
loosened when normal combustion temperatures
are restored after a set of new plugs has been
installed. During a high-speed run, these
materials shedding off the piston are thrown
against the hot insulator surfaces.

Ash Fouled
The buildup of combustion deposits stem

primarily from the burning of oil and/or fuel
additives during normal combustion. These are
normally nonconductive. However, when heavier
deposits are allowed to accumulate over long
mileage periods, they can "mask" the spark,
resulting in a plug misfire condition.
Gap Bridging
This example shows gap bridging on the plug. It

rarely occurs in automotive engines. Gap bridging
is caused by conditions similar to those that
produce splash fouling. Combustion deposits
thrown loose may lodge between the electrodes,
causing a dead short and misfire. Fluffy materials
that accumulate on the side electrode may melt to
bridge the gap when the engine is suddenly put
under a heavy load.

Pre-Ignition
This condition produces melting of the center

electrode, and somewhat later, the ground
electrode and insulator. Usually one or a
combination of several engine operating
conditions are the prime causes of pre-ignition. It
may originate from glowing combustion chamber
deposits, hot spots in the combustion chamber
due to poor control of engine heat, cross-firing
(electrical induction between spark plug wires), or
the plug heat range is too high for the engine or
its operating conditions.
Detonation
This form of abnormal combustion has fractured

the insulator nose of the spark plug. Explosions
that occur when the operating condition exists
apply extreme pressure on internal engine
components. Major causes include a faulty EGR
valve, lean air/fuel mixtures, ignition timing
advanced too far, and insufficient octane rating of
the gasoline.

Surface Gap Spark Plug Conditions

ID Condition
Light tan or gray colored deposits indicates good

engine and ignition system conditions. Electrode
wear indicates normal spark operation.
Worn Out
Excessive electrode wear may cause misfire

during acceleration or hard starting. Electrically
conductive deposits on the firing end provide low-
resistance paths for the voltage.

Carbon Tracking
This condition causes carbon tracks to form, and

misfire could occur.
Aluminum Throw Off Concentrated Arc

Cold Fouled
This condition should alert you to the fact that

pre-ignition has occurred. It is not caused by a
spark plug problem. An internal inspection of the
major engine components should be conducted
to determine cause and extent of damage.

Concentrated Arc
A multicolored appearance is normal condition. It

is caused by electrical energy consistently
following the same firing path. Arc path will
change with deposit conductivity and gap erosion.
Cold Fouled
“Drowning” with raw fuel mix during cranking,

over-rich carbonation or fuel injection, or improper
fuel oil ratios can cause wet fuel/oil deposits.
Weak ignition can also contribute to this
condition.

Low Temperature Fouling Channeling
Soft, sooty deposits indicate incomplete

combustion. Probable causes include over-rich
carburetion or fuel injection, weak ignition,
retarded timing, or low compression. Other
causes include continuous low-speed operation,
or, with oil injection systems, gunning the throttle
at engine idle speed.
Channeling
This condition is sometimes incorrectly diagnosed

as cracking. It is believed to be caused by
extreme temperatures due to the spark traveling
along the surface of the insulator. When deposits
cover the shallow channels, the rate of insulator
erosion is aggravated, the spark is masked, and
misfire may occur.

ENGINE SELECTION — CRITERIA
The selection of an engine to provide the power required by the load requires an understanding of:
(1) engine performance; (2) conditions which affect performance; (3) efficiency; and (4) cost.
Some of these general parameters tend to overlap and are dependent on manufacturers’
recommendations. Personal history on the credibility of these recommendations in a specific
environment becomes a significant factor in selecting an engine.
Therefore, the analyst (using two inputs) initiates the selection process:
1. Power required — horsepower (pressure, temperature, flow rate) / speed
2. Duty requirements — this input includes several factors:
A. Ambient pressures (altitude) and temperature range
B. Type of’ operation (such as continuous compressor or intermittent compression)
Both of these inputs can be found on performance data sheets or curves supplied by the manufacturer.
Both of these inputs are interrelated as can be seen on a performance curve (see Page 5, Figure 12-1,
provided by Caterpillar Tractor Co. for the 0399 TA—HCR).
The ratings as defined on this curve are SAE standard as is stated; however, the only curve tested is
maximum output. The manufacturer will usually rate this curve as a guarantee within 5%. This is only a
demonstration condition and cannot be operated at this point for any oilfield application. A careful
review of this curve also indicates that the power output guaranteed does not include a fan drive. An
engine of this size when applied as a compressor driver will consume about 50 horsepower. This must
be deducted from the continuous or rated brake horsepower curve.

The definition of continuous or rated brake horsepower is provided in SAE standard J816b where it
states “it is that power recommended by the manufacturer for satisfactory operation.” This open
definition requires careful monitoring of the manufacturer’s experience with the specific application.
A useful analytical tool used to evaluate a manufacturer’s continuous rating is the calculation of brake
mean effective pressure (BMEP).
The BMEP of an engine cannot be measured but is representative of the average cylinder head
pressure. It can be calculated from the following formula:
BHP X 33,000
BMEP =
LAN
BMEP = # / In2
BHP = Brake Horsepower
L = Length of stroke, Ft.
A = Total Area of Bore
N = No. of Power Strokes / Min.
3300 = Ft.− # / BHP

No.K of K
Min.
Since L is usually in inches and multiplied with area to give displacement, the above formula can also
be rewritten as follows:
396000 X BHP
BMEP =
Displaceme nt X N
From the previous discussion on two-stage and four-stroke engines, it is easily seen that for:
Two—stroke engines, N 1 x RPM
Four—stroke engines, N 1/2 x RPM

Let us examine the Cat 399 TA—HCR.
The engine is turbocharged and aftercooled with aftercooler water temperature maintained at a
maximum of 900F.
Displacement = 3927 cu. In.
Speed = 1200 RPM
Horsepower = 930 maximum
4-stroke, and, therefore = 1200

N= = 600
2
396000 X 1115
BMEPmax = = 187 PSI
3927 X 600
As a general rule for a continuous application such as the compressor, the rated BMEP should not
exceed 75 percent of the maximum.
Atmospheric Effects on Engine Performance

The power rating of an engine depends upon the weight of air its cylinders will hold. Therefore, the
rating is directly affected by atmospheric pressure and indirectly by ambient temperature.
Engine rating curves are, without exception, based on specific ambient pressures and temperatures.
Most “industrial” engines are rated at standard ISO (International Standards Organization) day of 150C
(590F.), 1.013 BARS (14.7 PSIA). Engines designed primarily for application in the transportation
industry are rated at a standard SAE condition of 32.20C. (900F.), 0.960 BARS (13.92 PSIA).
Corrections must be made to the published rating curves when available. Engine horsepower must be
established at site ambient conditions. These corrections may be made utilizing curves and/or data
furnished by the manufacturer. When the manufacturer’s data is not available, the following corrections
will provide reasonably accurate data:
Naturally Aspirated Engines
1. Reduce brake horsepower 1% for each 100F increase in ambient temperature above the rated
condition.
2. Reduce brake horsepower 3% for each 1000 feet altitude above rated condition or equivalent.
Turbocharged Engines
Reduce brake horsepower 1% for each 100F ambient temperature above rated conditions.
Reduce brake horsepower 2% for each 1000 feet altitude above rated conditions or equivalent.

Torque
The turning force of the engine crankshaft is called torque. A formula found in any textbook defines
torque as a function of both horsepower and speed.
In reviewing the attached curve, compare BHF and torque as a function of shaft speed. Certain
relationships should be noted. Particularly, as speed decreases, torque tends to increase over finite
range. The preferred match of a specific engine to a compressor would require that the operating range
provide increasing torque with decreasing speed. This action provides stable governor control as the
fuel rate is more consistent with the power demands of the system.
Author: Phillip Livengood, April 2003
©T.F. Hudgins, Incorprated. All rights reserved.
All trademarks mentioned herein are the property of their respective owners.

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High-Speed Engine and Compressor Analysis

Some advantages of the high-speed compressor:

• Higher throughput in a small package

• Easier, quicker, installation and mobility

• Does not require massive equipment for maintenance

• Lower price than large, articulated units

• Easier to maintain and load than larger, articulated units

• Lower cost to operate

©2003 T.F. Hudgins, Inc. Page 1 of 173

• Phased Vibration Analysis

• Spectrum Vibration Analysis

• Pressure Data Analysis

• Temperature Data Analysis

• Troubleshooting and Case Scenarios

• Must have some computer skills

• Must have a basic knowledge of compressor operation

©2003 T.F. Hudgins, Inc. Page 2 of 173

The Walk Around

Install the Test Points in the Software

• Compressor Oil Temperature Before Cooler (if possible)

• Compressor Oil Temperature After Cooler (if possible)

• Compressor Oil Pressure Before Filters (if possible)

• Compressor Oil Pressure After Filters (if possible)

• Compressor Cylinder Jacket Water Temperature (if possible)

• Air Manifold Pressure (right, left, front and back)

• Governor Setting (if possible)

• Amps (if applicable)

• Suction Pressure (if applicable)

• Interstage Pressures (if applicable)

• Discharge Pressure (if applicable)

©2003 T.F. Hudgins, Inc. Page 3 of 173

• Cylinder Suction Temperatures

• Cylinder Discharge Temperatures

• Volume Calculation At The Meter (if possible)

• Lubricator Flow Rate (if possible)

• Fuel Flow in MCFD (if possible)

Inspection and Tabular Data Collection

2. Piston Rod Diameter

3. Length of Connecting Rod

5. Cylinder Clearance (both head end and crank end)

6. Current and Accurate Gas Analysis

7. Load Step or Load Setting

C. Know which compressor valves are plugged (if applicable).

©2003 T.F. Hudgins, Inc. Page 4 of 173

Cooling System Inspection

Lube Oil System Inspection

Cylinder Lubricator System

Scrubbers (if applicable)

©2003 T.F. Hudgins, Inc. Page 5 of 173

Visual Inspection Analysis

Problem…High oil temperature

Problem…High or low oil pressure

Main and/or rod bearing failure, crosshead or crosshead guide failure

Problem…High or low cylinder jacket water temperature

©2003 T.F. Hudgins, Inc. Page 6 of 173

Problem…High suction pressure

Excessive rod loads, higher fuel consumption, engine overload

Problem…Low suction pressure

Problem…High first interstage pressure

Problem…Low first interstage pressure

©2003 T.F. Hudgins, Inc. Page 7 of 173

Problem…High second interstage pressure

Problem…Low second interstage pressure