GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION IN ZAMBIA EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS

AND ANSWERS

Q1 IF THE ELITIST APPROACH TO GOVERNANCE IS CONSIDERED ANATHEM

IN MANY DEMOCRATIC COUNTRIES, WHAT ALTERNATIVE WOULD YOU
ADVOCATE AND WHY?

Answer

The alternative would be the pluralist approach. This is because, the approach suggests that
governance of the country is not left to a few individuals (as it is in the elitist approach), but
rather the wider society should participate in making policies that governs the. This approach
suggests that to be able to influence policy decisions citizens should join civil society
organisations such as political parties, churches, labour unions among others. These groups
advance demands, ideas, suggestions or criticism to the executive branch of the government for
example, the executive through cabinet examines the suggestions also known as inputs to see
what response or solution it can come up with, then after coming up with the best alternative also
known as output, it communicates to the groups that earlier raised the problems.

Merits

- It is very democratic since it allows citizens to participate in decision making process.

- Many ideas can identify more problems and solutions that fewer people are capable of
doing. It makes collective implementation easier because of collective ownership of
policy decision.

Demerits

- The pluralist model is not appropriate for emergency decisions because of its delays to
arrive at consensus through wider consultation.

- Delay in decision making can, sometimes, be very costly to the nation.

- Even individuals who do not know anything on a particular policy issue would want to be
consulted.
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 Q2 Identify practical examples in Zambia when the Elitist model to decision making has
been found necessary.
Answer

The word ELITE refers to a small group of individuals who, by virtue of the positions they hold
in a particular organization, wield a lot of power and authority. The elite can be subdivided into
two: The Political elite and the civil elite. The political elite are the elected officials such as the
President, Cabinet Ministers, Members of Parliament and Councilors.
The civil elite are civil servants, without electoral mandate, largely appointed on the basis of
their educational and professional attainments. The two groups, the political and civil elite, work
together in making policy decisions to guide the affairs of a country.
Merits

 The elite are defended for making certain decisions without involving many other citizens
because of the following reasons:
 The elite, particularly the elected officials, are representatives of the citizenry.
 They tend to, especially the civil elite, be better educated than most ordinary citizens.

 They, the elected officials, especially the president, often have more classified
information relevant for decision making which ordinary citizens do not have.
 Some decisions may be of emergency nature whose delay to make thorough slow, wide
consultation can be costly to the nation.
 Consensus building tends to be easier and faster when debate is confined to a smaller
group.
Demerits

 The elitist model is less democratic, since it does not encourage wide social participation
in policy making.

 Fewer people means fewer ideas. Hence national policies may leave out important issues
which may be known better by those outside government circles.

 The elitist model can make implementation difficult if there is no feeling among the
wider society of collective ownership of policies.

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Q3 WRITE A REASONED DEFENSE THAT INSIGNIA ARE ESSENTIAL IN MANY
SOCIAL ORGANISATIONS TODAY.
Answer
Insignia are symbols or signs that represents some one’s rank, position, status of membership to
a group or organization. An example of insignia is an eagle number plate of the presidential
vehicle that symbolizes his power and authorities in the country. Insignia are very essential in
many social organization because of the following reasons;

 Insignia make it easier and faster for leaders to be identified.

 They make governance easier since the follower-ship quickly identify who those in
leadership positions, holding ranks are. Insignias’, hence, are good for discipline

 Insignia are also good for accountability. They make it easier to pinpoint who did what
by, for example, looking at the specific uniform members of a certain organization wear.
Insignia create esprit-de corps- the pride and love of belonging to an organization.

 They create a sense of emotional or psychological satisfaction among some people, who,
as a result, may work harder.
Q4 WHEN AND WHY WOULD YOU USE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SANCTIONS
IF YOU WERE HOLDING A POSITION OF GOVERNANCE IN ZAMBIA?
Answer
Positive and negative sanctions can used in times when a top leader is trying to compel
obedience of the followership and change their behavior.
Positive sanction can be inform of the following;
- Rewards given to those deemed to be loyal to the governing elite, for example mumbi
phiri, who was rewarded with a position in parliament by the president for being
supportive to the governing political party (PF)
Negative sanctions can also be in form of the following;
- Penalties imposed on those deemed to be disloyal to the governing elite, for example Dr
CHISHIMBA KAMBWILI, who was fired or dismissed from his ministerial position by
the president for his disloyalty towards the governing elite. However, it should be noted

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 that negative sanctions are not imposed on the followership permanently, once the
behavior of the followership changes, negative sanctions are lifted.

Q5 EXPLAIN IN DETAILS THE OBJECTS AND MESASURES WHICH WERE

UNDERTAKEN TO REFORM THE CIVIL SERVICE IN ZAMBIA UNDER THE 1993
PUBLIC SERVICE REFORM PRGRMS (PSRP)
Answer
Objectives
- To improve the cost effectiveness, efficiency and quality of the state bureaucracy
- Improve the capacity of the bureaucracy to formulate, analyze and implement policies
- To enhance ministerial capacities to effectively manage public expenditure.
- Making the bureaucracy responsive to the needs of Zambia.
Measures
1) EDUCATION AND TRAINING
This plays an important role in changing the behavior of the state bureaucracy. It improves the
administrative functionaries’ performances by reducing or completely eliminating errors. This
leads to higher efficiency, less expenses and less wastage of time and resources. Education and
training also increases individual knowledge, competence and skills towards service delivery.
This was achieved by opening up learning institutions such as national institute of public
administration (NIPA).
2) RECRUITMENT AND PLACEMENT
Recruitment and placement of civil servants at lower level and middle level is done by the public
service commissioner, through conducting interviews and aptitude tests and the recruitment is
based on merit, while appointments at the level of permanent secretary is done by the president
also based on merit. Appointments are done on the basis of specialized field of study. For
example for someone to be appointed to be a permanent secretary to the ministry of agriculture,
one must have a PHD in agriculture.
3) RESTRUCTURING IN THE PUBLIC SERVICE
This is done by changing the vertical or horizontal structures of the state bureaucracy, it involves
compressing or expanding by creating new ministries or abolishing some ministries. For example

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the ministry of education was split into two to enhance coordination and efficiency, which now
we have ministry of higher education and ministry of general education.
4) DOWN-SIZING THE STATE BUREAUCRACY
This put in place to reduce the government’s wage bill by reducing the state bureaucrats. For
example it was targeted that for the central government the state bureaucrats were supposed to
reduce from 140,000, to 80,000 and for the local government from 24,000 to 18,000.
5) PROVISION OF ADMNISTRATION AID
This was put in place to modernize the state bureaucracy towards efficient, effective service
delivery and it was done by providing them with equipment such as computers, electronic
phones and vehicles to make their operations much easier.
6) CAPACITY STRENTHENING CONSULTATION
This was put in place to enhance inputs through external consultations from different
organisations and committees to strengthen civil service delivery. For example these external
consultancies lead to unnecessary road-blocks to reduce, for it was found to be one of the major
sources of corruption in the public service.
7) ANTI-CORRUPTION INSTITUTION
This institution was introduced, decentralized and empowered with high authorities and powers
to investigate and bring to book all those people deemed to be corrupt or abusing the public
funds for their personal benefits. This brought sanity and a reduction of corruption in the state
bureaucracy.
8) PERFOMANCE MANAGEMENT PACKAGE (PMP)
This was put in place to support, planning development of skills and application of rewards and
sanction towards the operation in the public service, this gave state bureaucracies some
discretion towards decision making in government institutions hence efficiency, effectiveness
was attained towards the public service delivery.

Q6 EXPLAIN THE MEANING OF SEPARATION OF POWER. USING PRACTICAL

EXAMPLES, DEMONSTRATE WHY THE SEPARETION OF POWERS IN ZAMBIA IS
RELATIVE.
Answer

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The separation of powers is a constitutional principle introduced to ensure that the three major
institutions of the State namely; the Legislative, the Executive and the Judiciary are not
concentrated in any single body whether in functions, personnel or powers. Legislative is a law-
making body, Executive puts law into operation and Judiciary interprets law and settle disputes.

THE EXECUTIVE

The Constitution of Zambia (amended) creates the office of the President of the Republic of
Zambia and grants him the leadership of the State and the Government and he is also
Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. Article 91(2) of the Amended Constitution of Zambia
vests the Executive powers in the President of the Republic of Zambia, which he can exercise
either directly or through his subordinate officers, such as the Cabinet Ministers, who are
appointed by the President himself from amongst the members of the National Assembly and the
Vice-President. The Executive is composed of the President, the Vice-President, Cabinet
Ministers, and all Civil Servants. The Executive powers or functions includes formulating
policies and makes sure they are implemented; it includes the initiation of Legislation,
maintenance of law and order, the direction of foreign policies, the enhancement of economic
and social welfare and the carrying of general administration of the State. In other words the
major function of the Executive is to carry out the law.

THE LEGISLATURE

According to Article 62(2) of the Amended Constitution of Zambia the Legislative powers of the
Republic of Zambia is vested into Parliament, which consists of the President and National
Assembly. Article 68(2), the National Assembly shall consist of hundred and fifty-six elected
members from whom the President appoints the Ministers to his Cabinet, not more than eight
nominated members appointed by the President to increase his influence during the National
Assembly debate sessions and the Speaker of the National Assembly. Article 63(1) of the
Amended Constitution provides that the Legislative power of Parliament shall be exercised by
Bill passed by National Assembly and Assented to by the President. Where a Bill is presented to
the President for Assent, the President has the power to either Assent or Veto the Bill. Article
66(1) provides that, where the president withholds his Assent to the Bill, the President may

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return the Bill to National Assembly requesting the National Assembly to reconsider the Bill
accordingly. If the National Assembly passes the Bill without or amendments by vote of not less
than two-thirds of the members of the National Assembly, the President has to Assent to the Bill
within twenty-one days of presentation unless he sooner dissolves Parliament. Under Article
63(2) of the Amended Constitution of Zambia, the National Assembly also ensures; equity in the
distribution of National resources amongst the people of Zambia. Scrutinizing public
expenditure, including defense, Constitutional and special expenditures, Budget approval,
approve public debt before it is constructed and approving international agreements and treaties
before these are acceded to or ratified, the National Assembly can impeach the President if he
violets the constitution, these among others.

THE JUDICIARY

The doctrine of separation of powers has in form found nearly unadulterated application in the
relationship between the Judiciary and other arms of Government. Article 119(1) of the Amended
Constitution of Zambia vests the Adjudicative powers of the Republic in:

- The Constitutional court of Zambia

- The Supreme court of Zambia
- The High court of Zambia
- The Industrial Relations court
- The Subordinate courts of Zambia
- The Local courts of Zambia, and
- Such Lower courts as maybe prescribe by an Act of Parliament

Article 122(1) of the Amended Constitution of Zambia states that; the Judiciary shall be subject
only to the Constitution and the Law and not be subject to the control or direction of a person or
an Authority. It goes future to provide that Judges, Judicial officers, Magistrates and Justices as
case maybe of courts mentioned in Article 119(1) shall be independent, impartial and subject
only to the Constitution and Law and shall conduct themselves in accordance with a code of
conduct promulgated by Parliament. The Constitution further strengthens the independence of
the Judiciary by providing for specific instances and procedure under which judges can be

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removed from office, thereby providing security of tenure of office. Furthermore the Constitution
gives Judges Immunity from civil and criminal liability which they may incur in the course of
their duties. The Judiciary is composed of the Chief Justices, Director of public prosecution, all
Judges and all judicial officers. The Judiciary have the following powers or functions; they
interpret and enforce the law made by Parliament, act as the watchdog of liberty, the judiciary
has the supreme responsibility to safeguard the rights of the people. A citizen has the right to
seek the protection of the judiciary in case his rights are violated or threatened to be violated by
the government or by private organisations or fellow citizens. In all such cases, it becomes the
responsibility of the judiciary to protect the rights of the people. The judiciary acts as the
guardian of the Constitution. The Constitution is the supreme law of the land and it is the
responsibility of the judiciary to interpret and protect it. For this purpose the judiciary can
conduct judicial review over any law for determining as to whether or not it is in accordance
with the letter and spirit of the constitution. In case any law is found to be (unconstitutional), it is
rejected by the judiciary and it becomes invalid for future. This power of the court is called the
power of judicial review, these among others. However, these provisions attempting to establish
and secure Judicial independence are inadequate and in some cases undermined by other
provisions of the same Constitution, one such provision is Article 97(1) of the Amended
Constitution of Zambia which gives the President powers or Prerogative of Mercy to; grant to
any person convicted of any offence pardon, either free or subject to Lawful conditions. For
example he can commute death sentence to life in prison or pardon the convict completely.
Furthermore the President appoints the Chief Justice, deputy Chief Justice, all Supreme and High
court Judges, among others.

FUSION OF POWER

In Zambia as we can see there is no strict separation of powers, there is instead the fusion of
powers. For example Cabinet Ministers who are members of the Executive are appointed from
the National Assembly by the President, which makes the members of both the Executive and the
Legislature. The President by appending his Assent to the Bills before they become Law also
connects himself to the Legislature. There is also the fusion of power between the Executive and
the Judiciary, for instance the President appoints all High and Supreme court Judges and also by
using his prerogative of Mercy, in which he can change the verdict passed by the Judiciary or

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courts of Law. He can for instance commute a death sentence to life in prison or pardon the
convict completely.

In conclusion, though it has been noted that the doctrine of separation of powers has not
achieved its general application in Zambia is correct, that is not to say that it has completely not
been applied because in some instances generally speaking, it has been realized. For example
during criminal arrests, the police from the Executive organ of the Government will arrest
someone suspected to have committed a crime and then hand that person to the judiciary for
vindication using the laws passed by the Legislature and the handed back to the Executive to be
jailed.

Q7 USING PRACTICAL EXAMPLES GIVE A DETAILED CRTIQUE OF THE

UNITARY SYSTEM OF GOVERNEMENT

Answer

Unitary is a system of government in which a country is administered as a single unity, all

decision making authority rests at the top, the central government. Any form of decentralization
is for administrative convenience purposes only.

The central government can create local authorities or divisions and delegate some functioning
powers to them and at the same time the central government as the power to abolish local
divisions.

Unitary states or republic like the country Zambia have the following:

- A single cabinet for the whole country, which is believed to be convenient for decision
making for the whole country.
- A single legislature for the whole country.
- A single judicial system for the whole country.
- A single law or constitution for the whole country.
- A flexible constitution which can be altered through periodic reviews.

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 - A single appointing authority for all major administrative and political positions.

Unitary system have the following merits.

- Uniform developmental plans for the whole country, for example road construction is
being done in all parts of Zambia.
- With fewer divisions, unitary system tend to be less expensive to administer.
- With fewer division administration coordination and communication tend to be easier.
- It works conveniently for smaller countries like Zambia, Malawi among others.
- It fosters national unity and acts as a check against secessions.

However, unitary system of government have the following demerits;

- It does not promote citizens participation in governance issues.

- It is less democratic
- It make policy implementation difficult, as the implementers are not involved in the
policy formulation
- It reduces the levels of input into the policy making process
- It is not suitable for lager countries like the United States of America.

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Q8 COMPARE AND CONTRAS BETWEEN UNITARY AND FEDERAL
GOVERNEMENT SYSTEMS

Answer

federal Unitary

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 1. power is distributed between federal and 1. all powers are concentrated at the top
the states central government

2. There is an independent judiciary to 2. There is no such mechanism in unitary

resolve conflict between the federal government.
government and the state government.
3. in this system there is only one constitution
3. In this government citizens have to obey which citizens have to obey
to sets of law.
4. In this system there is a single legislature
4. In federal there are separate legislature at for the whole country.
federal and state government levels.
5. There is promotion of national unity.
5. In federal secessions are eminent.
6. The constitution is flexible and it can be
6. The constitution is rigid in this system amended through certain reviews.
and amending it is not easy.
7. A unitary state may or may not have a
7. A federal government must have a written written constitution.
constitution.
8. A country is administered as a single unity.
8. The country is not administered as a
single unity.

Q9 DEMONSTRATE HOW THE TRINITY CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE ENABLES

YOU TO UNDERSTAND THE ORGANIC NATURE OF GOVERNEMENT.
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Answer

The government is an institution that run the affairs of the state towards safe-guarding the
interests of the governed, it has the monopoly of force to eliminate threats.

There are three organs through which the government exercises its powers in order to govern the
country, such as the executive, the legislature and the judiciary.

The executive

This is the organ of the government which is composed of the president, the vice president,
cabinet ministers and all civil servants. The main functions of the executive are;

- To formulate policies and ensure that they are implemented

- To carry out the laws
- To enhance economic and social welfare of the people.
- To formulate the state budget.

The legislature

The legislature is the organ of the government composed of the president, the speaker, the deputy
speaker and all members of parliament and its main functions are as follows;

- To approve the budget of the state

- To make laws through bill passing
- To ensure that there is equity in the distribution of the national resources among the
citizens
- To approve the debt before it is constructed
- To approve international agreements and treaties before they are acceded to.

The judiciary

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The judiciary organ of the government is practiced through the constitutional court, the Supreme
Court, the high court, industrial relations court, subordinate courts, local courts and other lower
courts as maybe prescribed by an Act of parliament. It is composed of the chief justice, deputy
chief justice, and director of public prosecution, all judges and all judicial officers. Its main
functions are as follows;

- To interpret the law

- To act as the watchdog of liberty
- It is the guardian of the constitution
- It can reject any law that is found to be unconstitutional.

Q10 DISTINQUISH BETWEEN POWER AND AUTHGORITY USING PRACTICAL

EXAMPLES, EXPLAIN WHY A HIGH DEGREE OF LEGITMACY MAKES
GOVERNANCE EASIER.

Answer

Power is the ability of the leadership, the political elite, to issue commands, for example in the
form of policy decisions, which have to be obeyed by the followership, the citizenry.

Political power can be explained under three elements:

Influence,
Persuasion and
Force.
INFLUENCE
Influence, in governance, is the ability of the leadership to change the behavior of the
followership by demonstrating desirable, exemplary behavior, for instance:

 Declaring one’s assets before taking up public office.

 Taking the initiative to undergo an HIV/AIDS test.

 Being the first to arrive and the last to leave the work premises.
MERITS OF INFLUENCE
Influence is the most benign (friendly) form of power.

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  It does not require verbal commands to ask the project team members to behave in the
expected manner.

 It is thought that through setting demonstrable standards, the followership is likely to do

the same.

 Its objective is to convert many citizens into wannabes, followers, or imitators of the
leaders‟ desirable behavior. If influence fails to change the citizens‟ behavior, the
leadership can use the next form of power – persuasion.

PERSUASION
Persuasion is cognitive. It is intellectual, the ability of the leader to change the behavior of
the followership by giving them convincing reasons.

 Persuasion may require quick thinking, quick conception of answers on the spar of the
moment in order to change attitudes of the followership and guide them into desirable
behavior.

 It may also require researched facts before talking to the followership. Persuasion is often
used at public rallies, seminars, on radio, TV or in the print-media.
FORCE
Force is the application of violence to make the followership obey the commands of the
leadership.
 Almost all modern states have constitutionally established institutions trained in the
application of violence to compel obedience.
 The police, the army, the air-force and the navy are some of the legally established state
institutions for the use of violence.
 Put together, they are referred to as the coercive state apparatus.
MERITS OF THE USE OF FORCE
 Though destructive, violence, itself, can prevent the destruction of more life and
property.
 It is often the last remedy used for resolving situations of lawlessness and anarchy.
 It is often applied in stages, for instance, the use of water cannons first, then tear-gas,
rubber bullets and finally, if the situation warrants, live bullets on selected targets.

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AUTHORITY

Authority is the right or official permission to use power to issue commands in order to control
the behavior of the followership. Official permission is granted largely in three ways as follows:

Legal-Rational Authority- This is authority granted to the political elite, for instance, through
following the rules in the constitution, the highest law of the country.
Rational authority is derived from the ability of the leadership to make reasoned policy
decisions, largely resulting from training in the techniques of decision making. In other words,
modern education is vital for rational leadership.
TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY
Traditional authority is granted to those who hold positions of leadership through customary
laws, beliefs and practices that have existed in particular communities for a long time.
Monarchies, chiefs and head men fall within that category of leadership. In many African
countries, some communities are patri-lineal, conferring leadership positions to the male lineage,
while matrilineal groups look on the female fork for leadership inheritance.

CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY
Charismatic authority is characterized by certain gifts or talents some individuals may have. For
instance, some individuals have a fine, attractive and commanding personality. Oratory in public
speech, or performance in magic or witch-craft or sporting area which makes people marvel at
you and become willing and ready to listen to you and do as you would like them to do are other
attributes of charisma.

Some people may combine all three aspects of charisma. This may make it easier for them to
lead. Others may have only one or two aspects. Charisma often fades with the passage of time,
so that sooner or later an individual who attracted attention may lose that impressive following.
A charismatic leader may die, and the followership may be without an equally charismatic
successor, resulting in social dis-integration. Some leaders have used their charisma for misrule,
for instance despotism.
LEGITIMACY- is the right and acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or regime.
Legitimacy denotes a system of government that is widely accepted by the governed for example

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through a system of 50+ 1 voting system, were the part elected to power is considered to be a
legitimate elected party to form government, because the majority is said to have voted for it.
And this make governing easy because policy formulation and implementation will be easy and
unopposed by the citizens, for there will be willingness towards the addition of inputs needed for
the better formulation of the policies, citizens will have the will to participate in developmental
projects and goals at all levels, hence such an authority will be viewed as legitimate, for it will
have the right and justification to exercise power.
Q11 WRITE SCHOLARY NOTES ON ALL THE FOLLOWING
a) Civil service commission
b) Public service commission
c) Governance
d) Checks and balances in government
Answers
a) Civil service commission- this is the service responsible for the public administration of the
government of a country. It excludes the legislature, judiciary and the military branches.
Members of the civil service have no political allegiance and are not generally affected by the
change of government.
b) Public service commission- this is both a constitutional and statutory body responsible for
ensuring that appointments, promotion, discipline, retirement among others are done in
accordance with the prescribed guidelines and procedures.
c) Governance- this is the process of decision making and the process by which the decisions are
implemented.
d) checks and balances- the constitution divides the government into three branches, executive,
legislature, and judiciary, the point of checks and balances is to ensure that no branch of
government abuses its powers.

Q12 EXPLAIN SOME FUNCTIONS OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION IN

ZAMBIA AND DISCRIBE THE MAJOR DOCUMMENTS THAT GUID THEIR
OPERATIONS.

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Answer
The public service commission is the body that is constitutional and statutory responsible for the
appointments, promotion, transfer, discipline, and separation of personnel in accordance to the
law in the public service of Zambia.
Functions
- To appoint civil servants on probation, confirmation in appointments, promotion, transfer
among others.
- To carry out disciplinary procedures and remove any person from office if deemed to be
indiscipline
- To provide advice to the president in fashioning, policy and procedures of employment
and for conducting disciplinary procedures in the public service
- To implement and review the rules, policies and procedures of employment in the public
service.
- To act as a judgment body of the public service.
- To authorize and withhold any salary or pay of employees undergoing disciplinary
actions
Documents that guide their operations
- Service commission regulations- this is the book which guides the operations and
management of the service commission
- Disciplinary code and procedures for handling offences in the public service – this book
provides details on various offences, penalties and procedures for handling offences in
the public service
- Service commission policies and procedures for employment in the public service- this
book provides guideline for employment and administration in the public service
- Terms and conditions of services in the public service- this book provides a general
framework of what constitute conditions of service for public workers
- Code of ethic for public service- this book contains the dos and don’ts in the public
service
- Circular issued from time to time by the secretary to the cabinet, permanent secretary,
and public service management division.

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Q13 DISCUSS THE MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SPECIALIST AND
GENERALIST ADMINISTRATOR AND IN YOUR VIEW, WHICH POSITION WOULD
YOU GIVE TO THE TWO IN THE ORGANISATION.
Answer
Specialist administrators are expert functionaries who have devoted time and studies to a
particular branch of learning and have acquired specialized skills and knowledge that make them
identify and make decisions quickly. And so in an organization such positions like accountants,
engineering manager are suitable for specialists’ positions
Merits of specialists administrators
- They make quick decisions with fewer mistakes
- Specialists in emergency times are the ones needed in decision making
- Specialists tend to have relevant theoretical construct as a basis for practice in their
specific areas
- They are cost effective workers in the organization
- They reduce time wasting towards executing their operations
Demerits
- They are less consultative
- They are less inclusive and less involving
- They are less democratic in running their operations
- They tend to alienate themselves from their fellow workers.
- In time of job loss, specialist tend to find it difficult to find other jobs
Generalist administrators are those with a generally good level of liberal education without
particular focus. And so they can be suitable in the position of a general manager, for example at
the hospital, they have general doctors, who are the first to see every patient in the first place,
unless things are beyond the general doctor’s control that’s when the penitents are referred to the
specialist doctor.
Merits
- They are more consultative
- They are more interactive with many workers in the organization

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 - They allow other workers to participate in decision making process, hence they are
democratic
- They also promote organisational unity
- They tend to be better coordinators in many organization

Demerits
- They tend to make many mistakes in their functions, if they try to work alone without
consultations
- Many mistakes can be deadly costly to an organization
- In their attempt to consult widely, they waste a lot of time
- They are not appropriate for emergency situations, since they take long to make decisions

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