Statistics and Probability

Statistics and probability are sections of mathematics that deal with data collection and analysis.
Probability is the study of chance and is a very fundamental subject that we apply in everyday living,
while statistics is more concerned with how we handle data using different analysis techniques and
collection methods. These two subjects always go hand in hand and thus you can't study one
without studying the other.

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Introduction to Statistics
This section deals with introducing the concept of statistics and its relevance to everyday life. data is
defined and the various methods of data collection, like sampling are also introduced.

Averages
We have all used the term 'Average' in some form or another at some point in our lives. Statistical
averages are introduced and defined in this section. Mean, median, mode and range are discussed
both at an introductory level and also at a more advanced level, like the concept of Assumed mean.

Frequency and its aspects like Cumulative Frequency are also discussed.

Probability
This section serves as an introduction to the concept of Probability, including definitions of the
different terminology and the fundamental method of calculating Probability.

Different concepts like Dependence and Independence of Events are discussed including the

methods of dealing with such concepts.

Probability Distributions
This section sets the stage for a more advanced view of Probability by introducing the idea
of Random Variable and the meaning and types of probability distributions including Discrete and
Continous Probability Distributions.
Probability Formula

Probability is based on observations of certain events. Probability of an event is the ratio of the

number of observations of the event to the total numbers of the observations. An experiment is a

situation involving chance or probability that leads to results called outcomes. An outcome is the

result of a single trial of an experiment. The probability of an event is the measure of the chance

that the event will occur as a result of an experiment.

Probability of an event A is symbolized by P(A). Probability of an event A is lies between  0 ≤

P(A) ≤ 1.

Probability is the measure of how likely an event is. And an event is one or more outcomes of
an experiment. Probability formula is the ratio of number of favorable outcomes to the total
number of possible outcomes.

Measures the likelihood of an event in the following way:

   - If P(A) > P(B) then event A is more likely to occur than event B.
   - If P(A) = P(B) then events A and B are equally likely to occur. 

What is the Formula for Probability?

The probability of an event tells that how likely the event will happen. Situations in which each
outcome is equally likely, then we can find the probability using probability formula. Probability is a
chance of prediction. If the probability that an event will occur is "x", then the probability that the event
will not occur is "1 - x". If the probability that one event will occur is "a" and the independent probability
that another event will occur is "b", then the probability that both events will occur is "ab".
Probability of an event  A can be written as:
In the following multiple choice questions, circle the correct answer.

1. What kind of a question is this: You ask all 6th graders in your school, "What is your favorite color?"
A. Statistical question B. Non-statistical question

2. What kind of a question is this: You ask all 6th graders in your school, "In what grade are you?"
A. Statistical question B. Non-statistical question

3. What kind of a question is this: You ask all 6th graders in your school, "How many hours of television did you watch this
week?"
A. Statistical question B. Non-statistical question

4. What kind of question is this: You ask people in an airport, "How many states have you visited?"
A. Statistical question B. Non-statistical question

5. What kind of a question is this: You ask your parents, "Can I go to the movies tonight?"
A. Statistical question B. Non-statistical question

6. What kind of a question is this: You ask your math teacher, "How many students earned an A on our statistics quiz?"
A. Statistical question B. Non-statistical question

7. In a five number summary, which of the following is not used for data summarization?
A. the smallest value
B. the largest value
C. the median
D. the 25th percentile

8. The sum of squared deviations is a good measure of variability except

A. it uses the mean in its calculation.
B. it can only be used with ratio data.
C. it does not take N into account.
D. it can not be used in any other statistical analyses.

9. If I am interested in describing only the variability in my data sample, but not in making an estimate for the population
variance, I should use
A. the population parameter.
B. the unbiased estimate of the variance.
C. the biased estimate of the variance.
D. the variance estimate that divides by (N-1).

10. Which of the following is used to represent a known value for the population variance?
A. s
B. σ
C. σ2
D. s2
Quartiles

The values that divide the data set into 4 equal parts after it has been arranged in ascending orden are
called quartiles.

Split into quartes the following set of data:

213211231431

Step 1. Rearrange the value in ascending order:

11111222333

Step 2. Split into quartes:

This are the same data as before, but this tim eit's split into quartes:

The quartiles are:

1. Q1 , the lowest quartile is known as the lower quartile, or first quartile. The lowest 25% of the
data being found below the first quartile value. It is the same as P25.
2. Q2 , the quartile in the middle is known as the median. The lowest 50% of the data set should be
found below the second quartile. It is the same as the median, D5 and P50.
3. Q3  , the highest quartile is known as the upper quartile. The lowest 75% of the data set should be
found below the third quartile. It is the same as P75.

Steps to find quartile values on a data set with n elements:

Step 1. Calculate:   and round to the nearest integer. If L falls halfway between two integers,
round up. The Lth element is the lower quartile value. 

Step 2. Calculate:   and round to the nearest integer. If U falls halfway between two
integers, round down. The Uth element is the upper quartile value.

Find the quartiles of the data set: {1, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 9, 14, 21}

Step 1. n = 9, so   which becomes 3 after rounding up. The lower quartile value is the
3rd data point, Q1=4.

Step 2.   which becomes 7 after rounding down. The upper quartile value is the 7th
data point, Q3 =9. Using this method, the upper and lower quartile values are always two of the data points.
Step 3. Q2=5, because the median is 5.
There is another way to find the quartiles: Turkey's method: 

Divide the set into four equal parts (by Turkey's method): 
{6, 3, 4, 9, 6, 2, 7, 7, 8, 4, 10}
Step 1. Arrange your data in ascending order:
2, 3, 4, 4, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10

Step 2. Find the median of the data set.

This is Q2=6

Step 3. Find the median of the lower half of the data set (in parenthesis)
(2, 3, 4, 4, 6), 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10
This is Q1=4.

Step 4. Find the median of the upper half of the data set (in parenthesis)
2, 3, 4, 4, 6, 6, (7, 7, 8, 9, 10)
This is Q3=8

Quartiles for grouped data. 

The formulae for calculating Q1, Q2 and Q3 for grouped data are:

where:

  is the lower limit of interval (or class) containing 

  is the frequency of the interval containing 

 w is the width of the interval containing 
 cf is the cumulative frequency up to, but not including the   interval.
What are the quartiles for the following set of numbers?

8, 11, 20, 10, 2, 17, 15, 5, 16, 15, 25, 6

A.Q1 = 15, Q2 = 16, Q3 = 15.5
B.Q1 = 6, Q2 = 13, Q3 = 17
C.Q1 = 7, Q2 = 13, Q3 = 16.5
D.Q1 = 8, Q2 = 13, Q3 = 16