Rev Manag Sci (2018) 12:519–533

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-017-0271-y

ORIGINAL PAPER

Paving the way for coopetition: drivers for work–life

balance policy implementation

Consolación Adame‑Sánchez1   · Eva‑María Caplliure2   ·
María‑José Miquel‑Romero2 

Received: 10 February 2017 / Accepted: 27 November 2017 / Published online: 16 December 2017
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2017

Abstract  An extensive literature provides evidence that conflict between employ-

ees’ family and work duties is associated with stress and poor well-being, which
have negative consequences for firms and their employees. This paper analyzes the
role of two internal and two external drivers that encourage (or discourage) organi-
zations to adopt and implement work–life balance policies. The role of external
financial assistance and specific laws (external drivers), together with budgetary
provision for work–life balance policies and managers’ perceptions regarding prob-
lems due to work–life conflict (internal drivers), are analyzed. Fuzzy-set qualitative
comparative analysis is used to pursue the study’s research goals. Analysis of data
on 132 SMEs suggests that financial issues (external financial assistance and/or a
specific budget within the company) are key factors for the implementation or lack
of implementation of work–life balance policies. Moreover, to implement these pol-
icies, managers need not necessarily perceive problems due to work–life conflict.
Finally, work–life balance legislation seems not to play an explicit role in the rela-
tionships discussed herein. Consequences of these findings are discussed in the final
section of the paper.

Keywords  fsQCA · Work–life balance · Life–work interference · Institutional

theory

JEL Classification  M14 · M12

* Consolación Adame‑Sánchez
consolacion.adame@uv.es
1
Departamento de Dirección de Empresas, Juan José Renau, Faculty of Economics, University
of Valencia, Avda Los Naranjos, s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
2
Department of Marketing and Market Research, Faculty of Economics, University of Valencia,
Avda. Los Naranjos, s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain

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 520 C. Adame‑Sánchez et al.

1 Introduction

Without doubt, firms must excel to survive in today’s markets. To do so, firms
must often cooperate with competitors to remain competitive. This is the basis
of coopetition (Gast et  al. 2015). Competing and cooperating requires human
resources with a high level of implication and engagement (Thomason et  al.
2013). An individual work–life balance has been revealed to be a valuable tool
to achieve these human resources (Parkes and Langford 2008; Truss et al. 2006).
The large number of work–life balance (WLB) studies published in recent
years is indicative of researchers’ and practitioners’ keen interest in this topic.
Recent social changes such as the rise of dual-earner households, the emergence
of non-traditional gender roles for both genders, and the increase in the number
of hours people spend at work have led many organizations to adopt family-sup-
portive organizational policies (Michel et al. 2013). Not only have these changes
led to conflicts between different life domains, but they have also created institu-
tional pressure on companies to adopt work–life balance policies in response to
people’s changing circumstances (Ingram and Simons 1995).
Accordingly, this paper analyzes the external and internal drivers that encour-
age organizations to adopt and implement WLB policies in small and medium-
sized enterprises (SMEs). The paper also explores how the absence of such driv-
ers may hinder the adoption of WLB policies. The external drivers considered
in this paper are the existence of WLB legislation and the existence of external
financial assistance. Institutional theory (DiMaggio and Powell 1983) provided
the theoretical basis to justify considering these factors as drivers of WLB pol-
icy implementation. Institutional theory offers one of the most widely used theo-
ries to understand the way organizations respond to social, political, economic,
and technological changes in their environment (Weerakkody et al. 2009). Insti-
tutional pressures influence the behavior of organizations, and managerial sup-
port or organization size, among other factors, can moderate the influence of
these pressures on companies (Beauregard 2006). The social, political, and legal
changes that have occurred in recent years in Spain have intensified the institu-
tional pressures aimed at encouraging the implementation of WLB policies (Pasa-
mar and Valle 2013).
The internal drivers considered in this paper are managers’ perceptions regard-
ing work problems arising from work–family conflict and the existence of a
specific budget for implementing WLB policies within the company. The WLB
literature, particularly the literature on family–work conflict, provides the theoret-
ical foundations for analysis of these internal variables (e.g., Amstad et al. 2011;
Frone et  al. 1992). Conflict between family and professional demands arises
because work and family roles are in some way incompatible (e.g., Frone et  al.
1992; Greenhaus and Beutell 1985; Netemeyer et  al. 1996; Pleck 1977). This
incompatibility has negative physical and psychological consequences for indi-
viduals as workers (poor performance, absenteeism, burnout, etc.) and as partners
or family members (low marital and parental satisfaction, poor marital quality,
etc.). In this paper, we address this issue from the organizational perspective, but

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Paving the way for coopetition: drivers for work–life balance… 521

it is just as relevant to consider the managers’ perception of how family duties

interfere with work. The literature provides evidence that in companies with
WLB policies, workers’ stress levels are lower and well-being levels are higher,
favoring a positive spillover effect on total company productivity and, conse-
quently, financial success (e.g., Bourne et al. 2009). However, scholars have paid
little attention to the relationship between financial issues (budget availability to
invest in WLB policies) and the implementation of these policies, many of which
come at a cost.
Our results suggest that the existence of financial assistance (internal and/or
external) is a key issue for SMEs to implement WLB policies, whereas the lack
of this assistance favors a lack of WLB policy implementation. Notably, managers
need not perceive family interference with work (FIW) problems to consider these
policies, as long as funds are available for their implementation. Surprisingly, com-
panies’ legal obligations regarding WLB issues are not identified as a key factor in
the decision regarding whether or not to implement the aforementioned policies.
This research contributes in three ways. First, the study examined variables that
have until now received little attention from scholars. In particular, the study exam-
ined managers’ perceptions of workers’ behavior in response to possible conflicts
between work and the family. The study also examined financial issues, both internal
and external to the company, which are relevant when organizations seek to adopt
WLB policies. Second, the analysis method, namely fsQCA allowed us to study
how different variables individually and jointly affect the implementation (or non-
implementation) of WLB policies. Finally, the companies analyzed in this study
were SMEs, which limits some of the actions they are able to undertake compared to
larger companies. In addition, SMEs have scarcely been studied in this area.

2 Literature review

Early WLB research focused on the conflict between family and professional
demands. More recently, researchers have adopted a broader focus and have con-
tinued to investigate how people’s lives are subject to conflicting demands due to a
lack of compatibility between different life domains. Proof lies in the sheer volume
of related literature produced in recent years, especially meta-analyses (e.g., Amstad
et al. 2011; Ford et al. 2007; Major and Burke 2013).
Work–life conflict is a multi-dimensional construct linked to the work factors that
influence family and personal life (work-to-life conflict) and the family and personal
factors that affect professional performance (life-to-work conflict). In general, a
cross-domain relationship is assumed (Byron 2005; Frone et al. 1992).
This paper addresses only the latter of these two issues, referred to henceforth as
FIW, because, as Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran (2005, p. 228) note, “despite
some overlap, the two measures have sufficient unique variance to warrant inde-
pendent examinations.” Michel et  al. (2013) performed a meta-analytic review of
the topic, identifying the consequences of the work–life conflict in the work domain.
There are three types of work-related effects of the life-to-work conflict in gen-
eral, and the family-to-work conflict in particular: individual internal effects on the

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 522 C. Adame‑Sánchez et al.

worker, effects on the worker’s psychological attachment to the organization, and

effects on the worker’s output (consult Michel et al. 2013 for further detail). These
three groups of effects embody the negative consequences of FIW. Stress, burnout,
and exhaustion are three proven effects at the internal individual level. Lower organ-
izational commitment, organizational withdrawal behaviors, and turnover inten-
tions are three effects on the worker’s psychological attachment to the organization.
Poorer performance of work duties and having to leave work (with knock-on effects
on task performance) are effects on the worker’s output at work.
Despite the extensive literature on this topic, few authors have empirically linked
the degree of implementation of WLB policies to determinants that are either inter-
nal or external to the company (e.g., Adame-Sánchez and Miquel-Romero 2012;
Adame-Sánchez et  al. 2016a; Baek et  al. 2012). Undoubtedly, the implementation
and application of WLB policies by companies helps reduce the negative effects of
FIW on workers, thereby improving the situation for the company and worker alike
(e.g., Beauregard and Henry 2009). While some WLB policies are free to imple-
ment, many are not. Accordingly, the availability of a specific budget allocated to
the implementation of practices that help alleviate these negative effects is expected
to play a key role.
In this study, we did not measure the degree to which FIW has become
entrenched, nor the possible consequences for the company. Instead, we measured
managers’ perceptions regarding potential problems at work arising from FIW
among workers because it is ultimately the manager who decides whether to adopt
WLB policies (Jenkins et al. 2016). Managers’ perceptions are expected to be a key
driver of the implementation of WLB policies because while some consequences of
FIW are not objectively visible, others such as delays or absences at work are.
Weerakkody et al.’s (2009) meta-analysis documents the interest shown in institu-
tional theory by scholars across numerous disciplines. Institutional theory explains
the impact of external forces on the adoption and spread of organizational practices
among organizations (Kostova and Roth 2002) and describes how these forces insti-
tutionalize rules, regulations, and routines that organizations adopt to achieve legiti-
macy and survive (DiMaggio and Powell 1983; Lawrence and Suddaby 2006; Pasa-
mar and Valle 2011).
The literature provides evidence of the importance of institutional pressures on
the behavior of organizations (Barringuer and Milkovich 1998; DiMaggio and Pow-
ell 1983; Kraus et al. 2017a, b; Pasamar and Valle 2013; Wang and Verma 2012).
The impact of these pressures is moderated by factors such as national context,
industry, job level, organization size, and managerial support (Beauregard 2006).
The institution is the central concept in institutional theory. The institution con-
sists of structures and activities that give meaning to social behavior that is well
established or has been established for a long time (Scott 1995). The three pillars
of institutions are regulative, normative, and cognitive or mimetic elements (Scott
1995). The regulative dimension (coercive pressures) consists of the elements that
force organizations to adopt specific practices (laws, regulations, policies, and other
codified procedures). These elements are the result of pressures exerted by a more
powerful authority (governmental and regulatory agencies or higher levels within
the organization). The normative dimension consists of practices that define socially

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Paving the way for coopetition: drivers for work–life balance… 523

correct behavior by organizations (socially acceptable goals, rejection of labor

exploitation, WLB, etc.). The normative dimension is more closely related to the
cultural domain. The cognitive or mimetic dimension refers to the idea that organi-
zations mimic successful policies and practices implemented by other organizations
(environmental responsibility, consumer orientation, job training, etc.) (DiMaggio
and Powell 1983; Kostova and Roth 2002). As these actions become institutional-
ized and are adopted by a large number of peers, the normative pressure grows (Lu
2002; Pasamar and Valle 2011).

2.1 Current situation of WLB in Europe and Spain

In some European countries, WLB policies have been a social policy priority for
decades, even before WLB policies had been integrated into EU policy actions.
In other countries, especially Mediterranean countries, these measures have been
imposed by EU regulations, and there are considerable differences across countries
in terms of both WLB and its effects.
In Spain, the concept of WLB has been enshrined in Spanish legislation under
two laws. The first is the Law on the Work–Life Balance of Working Persons,
approved on November 5, 1999  (BOE 1999). This law was developed to enhance
and update previous laws, increasing the minimum levels of protection that were
provided for by these laws. This new law thereby covers workers’ WLB needs that
were already envisaged at the European and internationally level as a condition
linked to the new social reality. The second is Organic Law 3/2007 of March 22 for
Effective Equality between Women and Men (BOE 2007). This law is novel in that it
prevents discriminatory behaviors and provides for active policies to put into effect
the principle of equality. This law refers to the majority of public policies in Spain
at the state, regional, and local levels. It introduces a series of modifications in the
work arena, especially in terms of WLB, by acknowledging the worker’s right to
a WLB and fostering greater co-responsibility between men and women regarding
domestic duties and family care. Indeed, this is the inspiration for the entire law.
Table  1 presents a summary of the WLB policies that are provided for in the
Spanish and European legal frameworks.
WLB policies are provided for by the legislation for numerous reasons. In Europe,
interest in achieving gender equality at work highlights the need to examine the fam-
ily sphere and adopt measures in this area to accelerate progress toward achieving
real gender equality in the work arena. Furthermore, population aging and low fertil-
ity rates imply that the entry of women in the workforce has not been accompanied
by changes to society or work structures to make both areas of life compatible, forc-
ing women to choose to delay maternity or simply renounce having children if they
wish to focus on their careers.
In Spain, these policies have been regulated in part to resolve the demands of
today’s workers or perhaps address both of the aforementioned issues and improve
performance. Firms seem to be increasingly committed to the spirit of WLB. Never-
theless, as always occurs during incipient stages, the path to equality and the appli-
cation of WLB measures raises a series of challenges that firms must face to achieve

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Table 1  WLB policies provided Policy Europe Spain

for in the Spanish and European
legal frameworks. Source: Own Shorter working hours ✓ ✓
elaboration
Part-time work ✓ ✓
Summer hours (shorter working days) ✓ ✓
Flexible vacations ✓
Maternity leave ✓ ✓
Paternity leave ✓ ✓
Parental leave ✓ ✓
Breastfeeding leave ✓
Family leave ✓
Leave due to risk during pregnancy ✓
Leave for surgery ✓
Unpaid leave ✓
Part-time telecommuting ✓
Pay for care of dependent persons ✓
Public services ✓

sustainable competitive advantages based on these issues. Although Spanish pro-

grams to assist WLB policy implementation have been implemented at national and
local levels, they have been sporadic and have received weak financial backing.

3 Objectives, propositions for empirical testing, and research context

The conclusions of the literature review led us to pursue two aims. First, we aimed
to test the relationship between the level of implementation of WLB policies and
each of the following variables: managers’ perceptions of problems at work resulting
from FIW, the company budget allocated to WLB, the available external financial
assistance, and pressure from WLB legislation. Second, we sought to identify the
extent to which the presence (or absence) of all or some of the conditions (i.e., vari-
ables) is necessary for the company to implement (or not implement) WLB policies.
Accordingly, the theoretical framework gave rise to four propositions.

Proposition 1  The managers’ perceptions of problems at work resulting from FIW

are related both negatively and positively to the degree of implementation of WLB
policies. P1a: The perception that problems arise because of FIW encourages the
implementation of WLB policies. P1b: The lack of a perception of such problems
discourages the implementation of WLB policies.

Proposition 2  The company’s budget is related both positively and negatively to

the degree of implementation of WLB policies. P2a: Having a specific budget allo-
cated to WLB encourages the implementation of WLB policies. P2b: Not having a
specific budget allocated to WLB discourages the implementation of such policies.

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Paving the way for coopetition: drivers for work–life balance… 525

Proposition 3  External financial assistance is related both positively and nega-

tively to the degree of implementation of WLB policies. P3a: Having access to finan-
cial assistance encourages the implementation of WLB policies. P3b: Not having
access to financial assistance discourages the implementation of such policies.

Proposition 4  The WLB legislation is related to the degree of implementation of

WLB policies in the company, both positively and negatively. P4a: The existence of
WLB legislation encourages the implementation of WLB policies. P4b: The lack of
legislation discourages the implementation of such policies.

The study examined Spanish SMEs. More than 98% of Spanish companies are
SMEs, and 97% of these companies have fewer than 50 employees (Ministerio de
Industria, Energía y Turismo 2016). We studied SMEs because the academic literature
shows that size and location affect the implementation of WLB practices (e.g., Jenkins
et al. 2016; Las Heras et al. 2015). Another reason to study SMEs was that research on
SMEs is relatively scarce in this field (e.g., Adame-Sánchez and Miquel-Romero 2012;
Adame-Sánchez et al. 2016a, b; Jenkins et al. 2016).
Studying the adoption of WLB policies in SMEs is of particular interest because of
the sheer number of SMEs, their contribution to the world economy, and their role as
a major source of employment. Although most WLB studies have been conducted in
the English-speaking world, many authors cite the need to repeat such studies in dif-
ferent contexts (e.g., Haar et al. 2014; Las Heras et al. 2015). National characteristics
such as culture, the economy, women’s integration in the labor market, unemployment,
employment policy, and the promotion of WLB policies may cause results to differ
across different countries.

4 Method

To gather the data to achieve our objectives and test the propositions, we defined
the population as Spanish SMEs. CEOs of these SMEs were contacted to provide
responses to a questionnaire. All scales were taken from research by Chinchilla et al.
(Chinchilla and Poelmans 2002; Chinchilla 2003; Chinchilla et  al. 2005, 2006). The
degree of implementation of WLB policies within the company was measured using an
ordinal scale. The existence of a budget for WLB policies was measured using a nomi-
nal dichotomous scale. External financial assistance was measured using four Likert
items. Pressure from WLB problems in the company was measured using nine Lik-
ert items. Pressure from law was measured using two Likert items. All Likert scales
ranged from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). The final sample, selected
by a non-probabilistic convenience procedure, consisted of 132 valid questionnaires.

4.1 Sample characteristics

This section reports the principal characteristics of the sample that was used in
this study. The sample is representative of the size of the majority of businesses in

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 526 C. Adame‑Sánchez et al.

Spain, where 99.88% of firms are SMEs (DIRCE 2017). First, in relation to firm
size, we followed the recommendations of the European Commission of May 6,
2003. Thus, we defined small enterprises as those with fewer than 50 employees,
medium-sized enterprises as those with more than 50 but fewer than 250 employees,
and large enterprises as those with more than 250 workers. Accordingly, the firms in
our sample were characterized by size as SMEs because no firm had more than 250
employees. Indeed, 67.44% of the sampled firms had no more than 50 employees, as
Fig. 1 shows.
As previously mentioned, the choice of SMEs as the target in our study was fun-
damental because WLB studies of SMEs at the national and international levels are
scarce, so we believe it is important to fill this gap.
Regarding the distribution of firms by sector, most firms in the sample belonged
to the industrial sector. Specifically, 56.59% belonged to this sector, and 43.41%
belonged to the service sector. These figures contrast with data from the Spanish
National Statistics Institute, which reports that 81.1% of Spanish firms belong to the
service sector, and 18.9% belong to the industrial sector (ipyme 2016).
Regarding the size of the firms in each sector (industrial or service), the firms
in the sample were spread evenly in terms of size across both sectors. The indus-
trial sector accounted for 58.6% of firms with fewer than 50 employees, 50% of
firms with between 50 and 100 employees, and 55% of firms with between 100 and
250 workers. The service sector accounted for 41.4% of firms with fewer than 50
employees, 50% of firms with between 50 and 100 employees, and 45% of firms
with between 100 and 250 workers.

4.2 Data analysis: fuzzy‑set qualitative comparative analysis

Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was used to analyze the data.
This method, developed by Charles Ragin (2000), characterizes cases as combina-
tions of causal conditions that lead to a particular outcome. The outcome in this
study was the degree of implementation of WLB policies. The causal conditions

67.44%

17.05% 15.51%

Less than 50 Between 50-100 Between 101-200

Fig. 1  Percentage of sampled firms by number of employees. Source: Compiled by the authors

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Paving the way for coopetition: drivers for work–life balance… 527

were the variables identified as leading to the outcome. This study considered four
causal conditions: the existence of a budget for WLB policies, external financial
assistance, pressure from perceived WLB problems in the company, and pressure
from legislation.
As well as being ideally suited to respond to the research question at hand (e.g.,
Kraus et  al. 2017a, b), fsQCA has certain characteristics that differentiate it from
other techniques (e.g., structural equations modeling) commonly used in this type of
study. First, fsQCA allows for the existence of equifinality, which means that mul-
tiple paths or solutions may lead to the same outcome. Second, fsQCA embraces
causal complexity, meaning that not all conditions considered in the analysis have
to be relevant at the same time: Different combinations of causal measures may lead
to the same outcome. Third, fsQCA allows researchers to test not only which condi-
tions lead to the outcome, but also which conditions lead to the absence of the out-
come, which in this study was the non-implementation of WLB policies (Woodside
2016). Finally, this technique allows for the use of different types of scales, measur-
ing metric and non-metric data, as was the case in the present study.
For each condition that was constructed from responses to multiple items, the
value for the condition was computed by taking the mean of all items forming the
condition. Data were then calibrated (Ragin 2008). The median value of each con-
struct was used as the crossover point for all causal conditions, except existence of
a budget, which was a nominal scale that did not require calibration. For full mem-
bership (1) and full non-membership (0) the 90th and 10th percentiles, respectively,
were used (Table 2).

5 Results

To test the propositions, we first conducted an analysis of necessary conditions to

identify causal conditions that were necessary for the outcome to occur. For imple-
menting WLB policies, just one condition was necessary, namely external financial
assistance (see Table 3). For the absence of WLB policies, however, two conditions
were necessary, namely that the company has no specific budget and no external
financial assistance. In both cases, the consistency and coverage values for these
conditions surpassed the minimum threshold set by Ragin (2006).

Table 2  Thresholds used for calibration (conditions based on 5-point Likert scales)

Construct .05 .5 .95
Full non-mem- Cross-over point Full membership
bership

Implementation of WLB policies 1 2 3

External financial assistance 0 1 1.75
Pressure from perceived FIW problems 1.44 2.44 3.22
Pressure from legislation 1 2 3.5

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 528 C. Adame‑Sánchez et al.

These findings support the assertion that financial matters are a key considera-
tion for companies seeking to implement WLB policies. The data revealed that
external financial assistance was a necessary condition for companies to imple-
ment WLB policies. The reverse was also true. The absence of this external finan-
cial assistance, together with the lack of a budget allocated to WLB, was neces-
sary for companies not to implement WLB policies.
The next step was to perform an analysis of sufficient conditions. Table  4
shows the intermediate solution for both outcomes, surpassing the minimum
threshold for consistency established by Ragin (2000).
As Table 4 shows, two solutions lead to the implementation of WLB policies.
Together, these solutions explain 86% of the sample. Companies implement WLB
policies when they receive external financial assistance, even if there is a lack of
pressure from managers’ perceptions of FIW-related problems at work (solution
1a, corresponding to the majority of empirical cases in the sample). Companies
also implement WLB policies when they receive external financial assistance and
have budgetary provision for implementing WLB policies (solution 2a). Legisla-
tive demands do not play a major role in the outcome. This does not mean that the
law is not relevant for CEOs of these SMEs, but rather that it was not possible to
identify a specific pattern of answers related to the role of law in leading compa-
nies to implement WLB policies. Hence, the empirical data support propositions
P2a and P3a. In contrast, the data fail to support either P1a (even if managers do
not perceive that problems arise because of FIW, it is still possible to encourage
WLB policy implementation) or P4a.
For the causal conditions leading to not implementing WLB policies, Table 4
shows two solutions. Either the company lacks financial resources (external assis-
tance or internal budgetary support) for implementing the policies (solution 1b),
or the company lacks a budgetary allowance for WLB policies and there is no
pressure due to FIW-related problems at work (solution 2b). Among companies
without WLB policies, the situation described in solution P1b is the most com-
mon. Again, legislation plays no specific role (it was not possible to identify a

Table 3  Analysis of necessary conditions

Construct For implementing WLB For not implementing
­policiesa WLB ­policiesb
Consistency Coverage Consistency Coverage

Pressure from perceived FIW problems .57 .27 .56 .82

WLB budget existence .70 .78 .94 .91
External financial assistance .90 .85 .95 .97
Pressure from legislation .69 .30 .54 .82
a
 In the analysis of necessary conditions for implementing WLB policies, presence of the causal condi-
tions was considered
b
 In the analysis of necessary conditions for not implementing WLB policies, absence of the causal condi-
tions was considered

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Paving the way for coopetition: drivers for work–life balance… 529

Table 4  Sufficient Condition Implement- Not

combinations of conditions ing WLB implement-
policies ing WLB
policies

Solutionsa Solutionsa
1a 2a 1b 2b

Pressure from perceived FIW problems ∅ ∅

WLB budget existence ● ∅ ∅
External financial assistance ● ● ∅
Pressure from law
Raw coverage .67 .60 .93 .52
Unique coverage .27 .19 .42 .01
Consistency .91 .84 1.00 .96
Overall solution coverage .86 .94
Overall solution consistency .86 .98
a
 ● Indicates the presence of a condition. ∅ indicates the absence of
a condition

specific pattern regarding its role), so the data support propositions P1b, P2b, and
P3b, whereas proposition P4b is rejected.
The analysis shows how financial considerations drive the implementation of
WLB policies. Having external financial assistance is a necessary and sufficient con-
dition for companies to implement WLB policies. Similarly, a lack of external finan-
cial assistance and no budgetary allowance are necessary and sufficient conditions
for the company not to implement WLB policies.

6 Discussion

The study examined the existence of internal and external factors that drive or hin-
der companies’ implementation of human resources policies that tend to reduce con-
flicts between different domains of people’s lives. We also sought to identify which
factors must be present (or absent), either on their own or in conjunction with other
factors, to cause the company to implement (or not implement) WLB policies.
Analysis was performed on a sample of 132 Spanish SMEs. This sample was
chosen for two main reasons: (1) fewer WLB studies have focused on SMEs than on
other types of companies; and (2) there have recently been a number of changes in
Spanish legislation related to WLB and equality.
The findings reveal the pivotal role of financial resources in the implementation
(or non-implementation) of WLB policies. The results indicate that having access
to external financial assistance is necessary and sufficient for companies to imple-
ment formal WLB policies. The converse is also true. A lack of external financial
assistance is sufficient and necessary for the company not to implement such poli-
cies. In terms of the role of internal financial factors (i.e., having a specific budget

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 530 C. Adame‑Sánchez et al.

to implement WLB policies), a lack of such budgetary resources is also a necessary

condition for the company not to implement WLB policies.
Finally, the data also show that companies with external financial assistance and
a specific budget for WLB policy adoption implement WLB policies. Conversely, if
these conditions are both absent, the company does not implement WLB policies.
These results are relevant because, to the best of our knowledge, no prior study
has focused on analyzing the importance of financial issues in the implementation
of WLB policies. The present study fills this gap. Of course, economic issues are
always a key factor for numerous initiatives undertaken by the company. In this case,
however, without money from external sources and/or the internal budget, WLB
policies have no chance of being used or implemented.
Another notable finding is that even when managers did not perceive problems
at work derived from FIW, if managers had access to external financial assistance,
they nonetheless implemented WLB policies. This finding has two interpretations,
one negative and one positive. Given that Spain’s economy remains in a state of
crisis (the data collection took place in this context) and that the study focused on
SMEs (companies that are less likely than large firms to benefit from external finan-
cial assistance), the negative implication is that these companies are less likely to be
able to implement WLB policies. In contrast, the positive implication is that among
Spanish managers, the belief that these policies are both necessary and useful
(Adame-Sánchez et al. 2016b) has become widespread, meaning that managers are
prepared to implement such policies if they can secure the necessary resources to do
so. Regardless of the interpretation (positive or negative), according to Bourne et al.
(2009), family and working life rarely clash: Although FIW occurs, this phenom-
enon is not so widespread. Perhaps for this reason, the manager’s perception of FIW
problems is less relevant for implementing (or failing to implement) WLB policies.
These results are consistent with the existing literature, which provides evidence
of a positive and significant relationship between managers’ attitudes toward WLB
policies and the implementation of such policies (Adame-Sánchez and Miquel-
Romero 2012; McCarthy et al. 2013). The findings of this study reinforce this idea
by showing that if the company lacks resources to implement WLB policies (a key
issue highlighted earlier) and the manager does not perceive that FIW causes prob-
lems at work, the company will not implement WLB policies, as is to be expected.
Surprisingly, the results imply that pressure exerted by WLB legislation does not
explicitly explain the implementation of WLB policies. As mentioned in the litera-
ture review, legislation is a form of coercive pressure, and it should therefore have
ramifications for companies. There are two plausible explanations as to why our
findings do not show a specific role of legislation in companies’ implementation of
WLB policies. The first explanation is that companies may view the laws as manda-
tory and therefore dutifully comply. The alternative explanation is that the legisla-
tion exerts little pressure on companies because the legal obligations set forth can
easily be shirked. Managers can find ways of complying with the law but still cheat
the system. They can thus save the financial and non-financial costs (e.g., having
to cover for employees entitled to leave work during their shift for family reasons)
associated with implementing WLB policies. Fernández-Kranz and Rodriguez-Pla-
nas (2011) found evidence that companies seek to avoid the costs of WLB practices

13
Paving the way for coopetition: drivers for work–life balance… 531

by hiring workers who are unlikely to demand the rights they are entitled to by law.
For instance, companies may hire men, who in Spain rarely request a reduction in
working hours for family reasons, or they may offer temporary contracts to women,
who will not exercise their right to a reduction in working hours due to fears that the
company will not extend their contract. This alternative explanation appears to be
much more coherent with the finding that legislation does not explicitly lead to the
implementation of WLB policies among Spanish SMEs. However, the reality, which
supports both explanations, is that, as stated earlier, European and Spanish legisla-
tion stipulates very few mandatory WLB policies for companies, considering the
huge range of policies that they could offer.
The findings presented herein reinforce the idea expressed by Jenkins et  al.
(2016) and Las Heras et al. (2015) regarding the need for further research into WLB
while addressing company size and location, two factors that obviously affect which
legislative framework applies.
Considering the study as a whole, two main conclusions can be drawn from
the results. First, money is closely linked to the implementation of WLB policies.
Regarding the relevance of financial issues, a financial model that is directly linked
to WLB policies and is rooted in the legislation should to be implemented. Com-
panies should be forced by law to access financial support from external sources
(e.g., government) free of charge or as a loan, depending on the provisions of these
external sources and the company, and this financial support should target the imple-
mentation of WLB policies. Furthermore, the law should force companies to allo-
cate a specific percentage of their budget to these policies. If this budgetary alloca-
tion depends solely on managers, it cannot be guaranteed. In relation to this last
point, the second conclusion refers to managers’ attitudes. Although this study did
not measure managers’ attitudes toward WLB policies, our results are consistent
with the literature regarding the positive relationship between a positive attitude and
the effective implementation of WLB policies. Accordingly, the manager’s positive
attitude toward WLB policies is also a key factor. Thus, communication and educa-
tion on this issue could help develop family–friendly companies. A strong institu-
tion (e.g., government) should promote a campaign to raise managers’ awareness of
the positive consequences of effective implementation of WLB policies. Moreover,
within the education sector, potential managers should be taught to appreciate the
relevance of these issues by, for example, studying this topic at university and con-
sequently increasing their awareness of the benefits of family–friendly companies.
The main limitation of this study was the sample size and selection, which could
be expanded and improved in subsequent studies. Although fsQCA is a case-ori-
ented method that was originally designed for small samples, it is also suited to anal-
ysis with larger empirical datasets. Considering the large number of SMEs in Spain,
future research should use a bigger sample to provide results that are more gener-
alizable. Regarding the economic sector, our sample was biased toward companies
in the industrial sector, so a more varied sample is advisable for future research.
Accordingly, future studies should verify whether results differ across the three
subcategories of SMEs (micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises) and across
economic sectors. In addition, qualitative research focusing on company manag-
ers could reinforce certain ideas discussed herein and identify new variables to be

13
 532 C. Adame‑Sánchez et al.

examined in future research. Regarding the methodology and taking into considera-
tion some limitations of the fsQCA highlighted by Rubinson (2013), other analysis
could be considered in future research on this topic, in order to compare the results.

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