BACHELOR OF ARTS

(BAG)

ASSIGNMENT

(For July 2019 and January 2020 Sessions)

Course Code: BEVAE-181

AECC on Environmental Studies

Name: H. VANLALTHAFAMKIMA
PART-A
Enrolment No.: 195646891
Q. 1.
(a) Explain the importance of environment in day to day life by citing suitable
examples in about 120 words.
Ans: Human Environment Relationship: Since the evolution of man on the
earth he had been dependent on the environment. Initially his number was
small and needs limited. Therefore, his activities did not affect the
environment. Much slowly, he settled down became civilized and learnt how
to cultivate, as time passed the development of science and technology made
the life more and more comfortable, and man also became more and more
ambitious. With such development, human dependence on environment
increased; he consumed more resources and the more effect of his activities on
the environment became more and more visible. With the industrial revolution
the consumption of raw materials such as wood minerals coal and fossil fuels
increased tremendously and with time the pollution of air, water and soil
became visible. This made the man more conscious of his action and their
consequences. Slowly, it was realized that the existence of human racer itself
was in danger and to survive as a race it was necessary to educate about the
environment its repercussion could be minimized. This led to the development
of concept of Environment Education (EE).
EE is a process of providing learning experiences to obtain knowledge
understanding skills and awareness with desirable attitudinal changes about
man’s relationship with his natural and man-made surroundings which
includes the relation of population, pollution, resource allocation,
transportation, technology and urban and rural planning to the total human
environment. Environment education must utilize diverse learning
environment and a board array of educational approaches to teaching learning
about and from the environment with due stress on practical activities and first
hand experiences. It should help learning to discover the symptoms and real
causes of environmental problems and thus to develop critical-thinking and
problem – solving skills. EE should be a continuous life- long process,
beginning at the pre-school stage level and continuing through all formal and
non-formal stages and should be inter-disciplinary discipline or making
possible a holistic and balanced perspective.
The Stockholm Conference in 1972-at Stockholm adopted “Declaration
on the Human Environment” and “Declaration Principles” In short, the
Declaration states that the man is both creature and moulder of his
environment and the protection and improvement of human environment is
major issue for the survival of human race. His capability to transform his
surroundings if used wisely that can bring to all people the benefits of
development and if wrongly applied can do incalculable harm to human being.
In developing countries most of the environmental problem are caused by
under-development and development in these countries must be directed
bearing in mind the need to safeguard and improve the environment. The
natural growth of population continuously present problem for the
preservation of the environment.

(b) “Sustainable development is a goal toward which all human societies need
to be moving.” Elaborate the statement in about 120 words.
Ans: Sustainable development is aimed at ensuring quality of life to present
and future generations. Quality of life is recognized as being able to live in
healthy surroundings (the environmental dimension), with an adequate
standard of living (the economic dimension) and a way of life that is
physically, intellectually and morally satisfying (the social dimension).

Inevitably, our decisions and actions all have an impact on the

environment, the economy and society. For example, when we decide to
purchase quality products regionally or locally, we encourage economic
development at the regional level and in our own community. At the same
time, greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation of food and other
commodities are thereby reduced.
This shows that it is important to anticipate the consequences of our
actions so as to maximize their positive effects and minimize their negative
effects. The goal is to be able to satisfy our needs and aspirations for
development today, while letting future generations also meet their diverse
development needs, with respect for the earth’s resources.
There are three primary goals of sustainable development:
i) To minimize the depletion of natural resources when creating new
developments.
ii) To create development that can be maintained and sustained without
causing further harm to the environment.
iii) To provide methods for retrofitting existing developments to make
them into environ-mentally friendly facilities and projects.
Global organizations such as United Nations, NGOS, aid organizations
and even governments are increasingly sponsoring efforts to ensure
sustainable development goals are realized for every individual across the
board. Some other most important sustainable development goals set by these
bodies include:
 Eradication of poverty across the world: These organizations primarily
focus on the least developed and low-income countries where poverty is rife.
They aim to eradicate poverty across the board by expanding social protection
programs like school feeding, cash transfers, targeted food assistance, social
insurance and labor market programs such as skill training, old age pensions,
wage subsidies, unemployment insurance, disability pensions and so on.
Promotion of good health and well-being: This sustainable development
goal seeks to ensure good health and well-being for all at each stage of life.
The goal takes into account all the main health priorities such as maternal and
child health, reproductive health, environmental, communicable and non-
communicable diseases, universal health coverage, and access to quality, safe,
effective, and affordable vaccines and medicines. It also advocates for
enhanced health financing, increased research and development, strengthening
the capacity of every country engaged in health risk prevention and
management.
Provision of quality education for all: These bodies have realized that the level
of child school dropout is at an all-time high. This gap must be closed to
ensure sustainable future development even as international communities
work to ensure quality and equity in the education sector. In a nutshell, this
goal seeks to ensure equitable and inclusive quality education and promotion
of long life learning opportunities.
Provision of clean water and sanitation: Water and sanitation are on top
of the chart regarding sustainable development. They are critical to the
survival of humans and the planet. This goal aims to address aspects relating
to sanitation, hygiene, drinking water and the quality and sustainability of
water resources across the globe.
Building up strong infrastructure, supporting inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and incubating innovation: This goal takes into account three
aspects of sustainable development: industrialization, infrastructure, and
innovation. Infrastructure is vital because it offers the basic framework
necessary to smooth running of enterprise and society at large.
Industrialization drives up economic development, yield job opportunities,
hence, reducing levels of poverty. Innovation enhances technological abilities
of industrial sectors and triggers the development of innovative skills.
The earth’s resources are not unlimited. If we use them in a more
judicious and equitable manner, our children and grandchildren can have the
benefit of them too. We need to change our habits and improve our ways of
doing things so as not to exhaust the wealth we have today but rather ensure
its quality for those who will come after. These changes cannot be
accomplished without modifying how we manage our economic and social
affairs. With this new way of thinking and realizing development, we are in a
period of radical change, and at a planetary scale.
In the 1970s, environmental groups sounded the alarm about the boom
in economic activity and the ceaseless exploitation of natural resources,
which too often were damaging to the environment. Their efforts to sensitize
people to the ecological downside of development bore fruit, and gradually
there emerged an environmental awareness in societies around the world.
This explains why, in the 1980s, the concept of sustainable development
was associated with protecting the environment. For many people it is still a
valid association.
But sustainable development is really a much broader concept, one that
puts human beings at the heart of decision-making. It brings a new way of
conceiving and carrying out development in which economic, social and
environmental considerations are all taken into account.

Q. 2. Differentiate between the following terms by giving suitable examples in

about 120 words:

a) Primary succession and secondary succession

Ans: Ecological Succession: Ecological succession is the gradual process by
which ecosystems change and develop over time. Nothing remains the same
and habitats are constantly changing. There are two main types of succession,
primary and secondary.
Primary succession is the series of community changes which occur on
an entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before. For example, a
newly quarried rock face or sand dunes.
Secondary succession is the series of community changes which take
place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat. For
example, after felling trees in a woodland, land clearance or a fire.
 The species living in a particular place gradually change over time as
does the physical and chemical environment within that area.
Succession takes place because through the processes of living, growing
and reproducing, organisms interact with and affect the environment within an
area, gradually changing it.
Each species is adapted to thrive and compete best against other species
under a very specific set of environmental conditions. If these conditions
change, then the existing species will be outcompeted by a different set of
species which are better adapted to the new conditions.
The most often quoted examples of succession deal with plant
succession. It is worth remembering that as plant communities change, so will
the associated micro-organism, fungus and animal species. Succession
involves the whole community, not just the plants.

b) Direct and indirect use value of biodiversity

Ans: Social Bio-diversity Services: The social value of biodiversity includes
aesthetic, recreational, cultural and spiritual values. To this can be added
health benefits resulting from recreational and other activities. While
traditional societies which had a small population and required less resources
had preserved their bio-diversity as a life supporting resource, modern man
has rapidly depleted it even to the extent of leading to the irrecoverable loss
due to extinction of several species.
Thus, apart from the local use or sale of products of biodiversity there is
the social aspect in which more and more resources are used by affluent
societies. The bio-diversity has to a great extent been preserved by traditional
societies that valued it as a resource and appreciated that its depletion would
be a great loss to their society.
There can be marked differences in landscape and biodiversity
preferences according to age, socioeconomic factors and cultural influences.
The lifestyle of the ancient people was closely interwoven with their
surroundings.
The life of the indigenous people in many parts of the world still
revolves around the forests and environment, even in these modern times,
many of them still live in the forests and meet their daily requirements from
their surroundings.
 The bio-diversity in different parts of the world has been largely
preserved by the traditional societies. Since the indigenous people always
protect the forests for their own benefit. In ancient times, especially in India,
the environment in totally i.e., flora, fauna, etc., were held in high esteem.
Trees like Peepal, Banyan and Tulsi are still worshipped. Ladies offering
water to Tulsi daily is considered good and there are festivals when ladies tie
sacred threads around Peepal and Banyan trees and pray for the welfare of
their families.
Water is both a public good and a private good. The economics of water
use includes a sizeable element of external costs in that pollution by
agriculture, industry and the domestic sector presents a social cost to
downstream users. Furthermore, physical abstraction by these sectors reduces
the ecosystem’s capacity to maintain clean water, particularly during periods
of low flow. Agriculture is in the position of being the biggest user and
polluter of water sources. Polluted water presents a significant health risk. The
greatest threat is presented by heavy metals from industry, mining or natural
sources. The ecosystem is unable to mitigate this pollution which can be
exacerbated by acidification. Fortunately, pollution by heavy metals is rather
rare in Ireland. Rivers and lakes in Ireland are relatively clean compared with
some other European countries.
Bio-diversity contributes directly and indirectly to our diet and to our
health, but also to our quality of life. As these are amongst the key
responsibilities that government has for its subjects, so biodiversity is
deserving of protection. Its importance is acknowledged by National,
European and International policy. However, the benefits of biodiversity are
little understood or often intangible and so tend not to be priced by the market.
Without a price signal to indicate importance or scarcity, biodiversity is
under-valued and public and political awareness may be low. Failure to
recognize the benefits, together with individual variations and inequities in
use values, means that social or economic activities can impact adversely on
biodiversity. When this occurs, costs, i.e. external costs, are passed onto
others. Sometimes these activities can even be encouraged by policy, such as
through ill-considered taxation and subsidy schemes.
Ethical Services
It is based on the principle of ‘live and let others live’. Ethical values
related to biodiversity conservation are based on the importance of protecting
all forms of life. All forms of life have the right to exist on earth. Man is only
a small part of the Earth’s great family of species. Don’t plants and animals
have an equal right to live and exist on our planet which is like an inhabited
spaceship? Morality and ethics teach us to preserve all forms of life and not to
harm any organism unne-cessarily.
Some people take pleasure in the hunting of animals. People also
sometimes degrade and pollute the environment by their unethical actions.
Through proper education and awareness, the people’s conscience against
such practices must be raised.

Aesthetic Value Services

The beauty of our planet is because of biodiversity, which otherwise
would have resembled other barren planets dotted around the universe.
Biological diversity adds to the quality of life and provides some of the most
beautiful aspects of our existence. Bio-diversity is responsible for the beauty
of a landscape.
People go far off places to enjoy the natural surroundings and wildlife.
This type of tourism is referred to as eco-tourism, which has now become a
major source of income in many countries. In many societies, the diversity of
flora and fauna has become a part of the traditions and culture of the region
and has added to the aesthetic values of the place.
Informational Value
Bio-diversity has a fundamental value to humans because we are so
dependent on it for our cultural, economic, and environmental well-being.
Some argue that it is our moral responsibility to preserve the Earth’s
incredible diversity for the next generation. Others simply like knowing that
nature’s great diversity exists and that the opportunity to utilize it later, if need
be, is secure. Scientists value biodiversity because it offers clues about natural
systems that we are still trying to understand. Arguably, the greatest value to
humans, however, comes from the ecosystem services? it provides.
Bio-diversity forms the backbone of viable ecosystems on which we
depend on for basic necessities, security, and health. By breaking down plant
and animal matter, for example, insects and other invertebrates make nutrients
available to plants and are integral to the carbon and nitrogen cycles. Other
species pollinate crops, an essential service for farmers. Healthy ecosystems
can mitigate or prevent flooding, erosion, and other natural disasters. These
ecosystem services also play a hand in the functioning of our climate and in
both air and water quality.

Elements of bio-diversity can contribute to cultural identity, and many

ecosystem characteristics are frequently incorporated into cultural traditions.
For example, in folklore, local animals are used to symbolize societal values
or to explain unusual events. Indigenous cultures sometimes recognize bio-
diversity’s value in religious traditions based on honouring the Earth.
Proximity to nature has also been shown to enhance emotional and spiritual
well- being. Following along those lines, many simply believe that there is
great value in the beauty of nature’s diversity.
Other facets of human well-being, such as health and economic and
political security, can influence the value of biodiversity. Many arguments to
increase efforts to conserve diversity often emphasize the value of the
“unmined riches” that has yet to be discovered. These include potential
sources of new foods, medicines, and energy which can further fuel economic
activity, as well as a healthier population. Bio-diversity has proven to hold
enormous value when adapted for use in health, agricultural, or industrial
applications. In the field of medicine alone, approximately 50% of current
prescription medicines are derived from or modeled on natural substances.
The health and diversity of ecosystems can have a significant effect on the
overall stability of nearby communities.

Q. 3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.

a) What is biodiversity hotspot? Why is India considered as a mega

biodiversity hotspot?
Ans: Global Bio-diversity Hotspots: Biodiversity hotspots are defined as
regions “where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are undergoing
an exceptional loss of habitat”. The concept of biodiversity hotspots was
developed by the Norman Myers in 1988 when he identified that the tropical
forest losing its plants species as well as habitat. IUCN prepares ‘Red Data
Book’. There are 34 areas around the world which are qualified as
Biodiversity hotspots. These hotspots represent only 2.3% of the total Earth’s
land surface. These hotspots are important because Biodiversity underpins all
life on Earth. Without species, there would be no air to breathe, no food to eat,
no water to drink. There would be no human society at all. And as the places
on Earth, where the most biodiversity is under the most threat, hotspots are
critical to human survival.
Bio-diversity Hotspots of the World
These hotspots regions support a rich biodiversity because of geologic
formations and endemic flora and fauna and also exhibit exceptional scientific
interest. It is important ecosystem in the world and the habitat of endemic
species. The Bio-diversity Hotspots of the World are given below:
Africa
1. Eastern Afro-Montane
2. The Guinean forests of Western Africa
3. Horn of Africa
4. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
5. Maputoland, Podoland, Albany hotspot
6. Succulent Karou
7. East Malanesian islands
8. South Africa’s Cape floristic hotspot
9. Coastal forests of Eastern Africa
Terrestrial Biomes of the World
Asia and Australia
1. Himalayan hotspot
2. The Eastern Himalayas
3. Japan biodiversity hotspot
4. Mountains of South-West China
5. New Caledonia
6. New Zealand biodiversity hotspot
7. Philippine biodiversity hotspot
8. Western Sunda (Indonesia, Malas and Brunei)
9. Wallace (Eastern Indonesia)
10. The Western Ghats of India and Islands of Sri Lanka
11. Polynesia and Micronesian Islands Complex including Hawaii
 12. South-Western Australia
North and Central America
1. California Floristic Province
2. Caribbean islands hotspot
3. Modrean pine-oak wood lands of the USA and Mexico border
4. The Mesoamerican forests
Aquatic Biomes of the World
South America
1. Brazil’s Cerrado
2. Chilean winter rainfall (Valdivian) Forests
3. Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena
4. Tropical Andes
5. Atlantic forest
Europe and Central Asia
1. Caucasus region
2. Iran-Anatolia region
3. The Mediterranean basin and its Eastern Coastal region
4. Mountains of Central Asia
The aforesaid Bio-diversity Hotspot regions are blessed with a variety of
exceptional plant species and habitat, but facing endemism and serious habitat
loss. Hence, it is our duty to protect and conserve the endemic species and
their habitat. We can conserve biodiversity in two ways- first is in-situ and
second is ex-situ. In-situ conservation involves in the maintenance of bio-
diversity rich area in its natural form, whereas in ex-situ conservation, the
endangered species are kept in a specially protected area which is separated
from its natural habitat region.
India as the Mega-diversity Nation
India is known for its rich heritage of Biological diversity, having
already documented over 91,000 species of animals and 45,500 species of
plants in its 10 biogeographic regions. Nearly 6,500 native plants are still used
prominently in indigenous healthcare systems.
Thousands of locally adapted crop varieties grown traditionally since
ancient times, and nearly 140 native breeds of farm livestock, continue to
thrive in its diversified farming systems. The country is recognized as one of
the eight Vavilovian centres of origin and diversity of crop plants, having
more than 300 wild ancestors and close relatives of cultivated plants still
growing and evolving under natural conditions.
Bio-diversity is not distributed evenly across the globe. Certain countries,
lying mostly in the tropics, are characterised by high species richness and
more number of endemic species-called Mega diversity nations About 19
countries/Nations belongs to this category as on today.
India is one of them. India a mega diversity country with only 2.4% of
the land area of the world, but accounts for 7.8% of the recorded species of
the world.

b) Distinguish between Biota of the Pelagic and Benthic zones of the Oceans
with examples.
Ans: Benthic zone is part of Ocean layer which describes the layers closer to
the bottom of the water body, and Pelagic zone is layer which includes the
free water column that interacts with the surface layers of a water body.
Benthic: Referring to the sea, benthic zone start at the shoreline and
extends into deep waters, away from landmass. It is to be noticed that there
isn’t a specified depth to this zone, as it could vary from few inches as in a
stream to several 1000’s of meters as in the open ocean.
Since light cannot penetrate this depth, this zone lacks the ability to
photosynthesis as its energy source. Pelagic Zone: This zone is the uppermost
layers of a water body, especially referring to the ocean, interacts directly with
the atmosphere. Physical and chemical properties of this zone vary greatly
because of the vastness of this area, which extends from the uppermost waters
down to the deeper layers near the benthic zone of a water column. This zone
can be divided into several sub layers that extend from the top to bottom.
In the ocean, the pelagic zone is the surface or the sub-surface water
layers where the fishes, squids and all swimming organisms live. This also
includes the floating but not rooted microalgae and algae. tiny organisms
which do not have or have a very in signifacant swimming or moving
activities such as phyto and zooplankton. The most important fishes of the
pelagic zone are mackerel, tuna., herring, sardine etc. These fishes feed
exclusively in the pelagic zone.
On the other hand the benthic zone animals and plants are the rooted
submerged plants if any and animals like crabs, lobsters, prawns, fishes viz.,
sole and flat fishes which remain on the bottom and feed there. The benthic
zone receives dead organic matter from the pelagic zone, decomposes the
same through the process of mineralization and returns the nutrients back to
water, even the surface water, through the process of up-welling.
c) Differentiate between the surface and ground water. Describe the factors
responsible for degradation of water.
Ans: The nation’s surface-water resources—the water in the nation’s rivers,
streams, creeks, lakes and reservoirs–are vitally important to our everyday
life. The main uses of surface water include drinking-water and other public
uses, irrigation uses and for use by the thermoelectric-power industry to cool
electricity-generating equipment.
Groundwater is an important part of the water cycle. Groundwater is the
part of precipitation that seeps down through the soil until it reaches rock
material that is saturated with water. Water in the ground is stored in the
spaces between rock particles (no, there are no underground rivers or lakes).
Groundwater slowly moves underground, generally at a downward angle
(because of gravity) and may eventually seep into streams, lakes and oceans.
Causes of Land Degradation
a) Deforestation: Deforestation is taking place at a faster rate due to
increasing demands of timber, fuel and forest products which results into
degradation of land resources.
b) Overgrazing: Overgrazing refers to excessive eating of grasses and other
green plants by cattle. It results into reduced growth of vegetation, reduced
diversity of plant species, excessive growth of unwanted plant species, soil
erosion, and degradation of land due to cattle movement.
c) Agricultural Practises: The modern agricultural practises, excessive use
of fertilizers and pesticides has adversely degraded the natural quality and
fertility of the cultivation land.
d) Industrialization: Development of industries for the economic growth of
the country leads to excessive deforestation and utilization of land in such as
way that it has lost its natural up gradation quality.
e) Urbanization: Increasing growth of population and demand for more
residential areas and commercial sectors is also one of the reasons for land
degradation.
Following are some practises for controlling land degradation:
 1. Strip Farming: It is the practice in which cultivated crops are sown in
alternative strips to prevent water movement.
2. Crop Rotation: It is one of the agricultural practice in which different
crops are grown in same area following a rotation system which helps in
replenishment of the soil.
3. Ridge and Furrow Formation: Soil erosion is one of the factors
responsible for lad degradation. It can be prevented by formation of ridge and
furrow during irrigation which lessens run off.
4. Construction of Dams: This usually checks or reduces the velocity of
run off so that soil support vegetation.
5. Contour Farming: This type of farming is usually practiced across the
hill side and is useful in collecting and diverting the run off to avoid erosion.

d) Write a short note on global carbon cycle with the help of diagram.
Ans: The global carbon cycle refers to the exchanges of carbon within and
between four major reservoirs: the atmosphere, the oceans, land, and fossil
fuels. Carbon may be transferred from one reservoir to another in seconds
(e.g., the fixation of atmospheric CO2 into sugar through photosynthesis) or
over millennia (e.g., the accumulation of fossil carbon (coal, oil, gas) through
deposition and diagenesis of organic matter). This chapter emphasizes the
exchanges that are important over years to decades and includes those
occurring over the scale of months to a few centuries. The focus will be on the
years 1980–2000 but our considerations will broadly include the years
<“1850– 2100. Chapter 8.09, deals with longer-term processes that involve
rates of carbon exchange that are small on an annual timescale (weathering,
vulcanism, sedimentation, and diagenesis).
The carbon cycle is important for at least three reasons. First, carbon
forms the structure of all life on the planet, making up <“50% of the dry
weight of living things. Second, the cycling of carbon approximates the flows
of energy around the Earth, the metabolism of natural, human, and industrial
systems. Plants transform radiant energy into chemical energy in the form of
sugars, starches, and other forms of organic matter; this energy, whether in
living organisms or dead organic matter, supports food chains in natural
ecosystems as well as human ecosystems, not the least of which are industrial
societies habituated (addicted?) to fossil forms of energy for heating,
transportation, and generation of electricity. The increased use of fossil fuels
has led to a third reason for interest in the carbon cycle. Carbon, in the form of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), forms two of the most important
greenhouse gases. These gases contribute to a natural greenhouse effect that
has kept the planet warm enough to evolve and support life (without the
greenhouse effect the Earth’s average temperature would be “33°C). Additions
of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere from industrial activity, however, are
increasing the concentrations of these gases, enhancing the greenhouse effect,
and starting to warm the Earth.
The rate and extent of the warming depend, in part, on the global carbon
cycle. If the rate at which the oceans remove CO2 from the atmosphere were
faster, e.g., concentrations of CO2 would have increased less over the last
century. If the processes removing carbon from the atmosphere and storing it
on land were to diminish, concentrations of CO2 would increase more rapidly
than projected on the basis of recent history. The processes responsible for
adding carbon to and withdrawing it from, the atmosphere are not well enough
understood to predict future levels of CO2 with great accuracy.
Q. 4. How does forest support ecological system and moderate global climate?
Explain with suitable examples in about 250 words.
Ans: Forest as a Resource: The global area of forest of all kinds was about 8.4
billion acres (3.4 billion hectares) in 1990, of which 4.3 billion acres (1.76
billion ha) was tropical forest and the rest temperate and boreal forest. That
global forest area is at least one-third smaller than it was prior to extensive
deforestation caused by human activities. Most of the deforested land has been
converted to permanent agricultural use, but some has been ecologically
degraded into semi-desert or desert. This global deforestation, which is
continuing apace, is one of the most serious aspects of the environmental
crisis.
Forests are an extremely important natural resource that can potentially
be sustainably harvested and managed to yield a diversity of commodities of
eco-nomic importance. Wood is by far the most important product harvested
from forests. The wood is commonly manufactured into paper, lumber,
plywood, and other products. In addition, in most of the forested regions of
the less-developed world firewood is the most important source of energy
used for cooking and other purposes. Potentially, all of these forest products
can be sustainably harvested. Unfortunately, in most cases forests have been
unsustainably overharvested, resulting in the “mining” of the forest resource
and widespread ecological degradation. It is critical that in the future all forest
harvesting is conducted in a manner that is more responsible in terms of
sustaining the resource.
Many other plant products can also be collected from forests, such as
fruits, nuts, mushrooms, and latex for manufacturing rubber. In addition,
many species of animals are hunted in forests, for recreation or for
subsistence. Forests provide additional goods and services that are important
to both human welfare and to ecological integrity, including the control of
erosion and water flows, and the cleansing of air and water of pollutants.
These are all important forest values, although their importance is not
necessarily assessed in terms of dollars. Moreover, many of these values are
provided especially well by old-growth forests, which in general are not very
compatible with industrial forestry practices. This is one of the reasons why
the conservation of old-growth forest is such a controversial topic in many
regions of North America and elsewhere. In any event, it is clear that when
forests are lost or degraded, so are these important goods and services that
they can provide.
Impact of Dams
Energy infrastructure development, such as dams for hydroelectric
power, has a significant impact on forests, as well as other ecosystems. Dam
construction often has large impacts on local populations as well, displacing
communities as the reservoir area is flooded. As countries’ energy demands
increase with growing populations, many governments are looking to
hydropower as a potentially large source of energy and revenue generation.
Large-scale dams are planned and implemented across major river basins
around the world, from the Mekong River in Southeast Asia to the tributaries
of the Amazon in Brazil, and the Nile River in Ethiopia. Hydropower, while
providing a large, renewable source of energy, comes with its own
environmental costs.
The flooding of the physical landscape transforms various ecological
processes, such as hydrological cycles and species composition. Dams are
often built to control the flow rate of rivers, to be directed to agricultural
usage, and are also used to generate electricity. The construction of a dam
converts free flowing rivers into permanently flooded bodies of water. This
environmental disturbance affects organisms that are adapted to specific
flooding regimes, leading to changes in local ecology. Dams prevent fish
species from migrating upstream, disrupting reproduction cycles. Exotic
species such as aquatic plants can quickly colonize newly inundated areas, and
restrict water movement and oxygenation, while preexisting ecologies are
disrupted. Examples include the disruption of nutrient transfer from marine to
riparian ecosystems through migrating salmon (Onchorhynchus spp.), and the
spread of new riparian communities and displacement of terrestrial
populations. The threat that hydropower developments pose to bio-diversity,
especially in complex riparian-forest ecosystems in the tropical zone, are
potentially very high. These changes also threaten the livelihoods of millions
of river-dependent communities that rely on a natural flow regime for
subsistence through fishing or agricultural activities.
A variety of factors affect dam storage capacity over time, such as the
increased incidence of droughts that are predicted to become more common
with climate change. Deforestation in surrounding areas reduces the
evapotranspiration capacity of forests, which in turn reduces the amount of
water that is cycled as rainfall. Standing reservoirs of water are also subject to
increased evaporation, compared to free flowing rivers.
It has been observed that forests maintain humidity of an area. When the
air is humid not only does less solar heat penetrate to ground during day but
also less of it escape to the outer atmosphere during night. This provides
seasonal stability to a forest area. We know that forests play an important role
in maintaining oxygen supply and freshness of the air we breathe. Moreover,
they bind soil, intercept heavy rainfall and help in recharging the underground
waters. They act as environmental buffers regulating climate and atmospheric
humidity. Further, they stop erosion of soil by reducing the speed of run off
waters and velocity of strong surface winds. In this sense, they help prevent
degradation in the physical environment on earth. The destruction of natural
vegetation cover causes loss of top soil. For instance, due to heavy
desertification, Aravali hills, for example, have become woefully naked. A
shrinking forest cover coupled with over exploitation of ground water has
accelerated erosion along the slopes of the lower Himalayas, and Aravali hills,
making them prone to landslides. Secondly, destruction of the forest has had a
fatal impact on the rainfall pattern in an area. Lack of adequate forest cover
has resulted in water flowing off the ground. Floods are also caused due to
deforestation.
Moreover, heat build-up in the atmosphere, which is one of the critical
problems of the century, is also a result of forest degradation. The level of
carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere has also increased due to
deforestation. This leads to increased insolation, implying more heat energy
enters the atmosphere in the form of sunlight than is able to escape back
through the exterior layers. This is because carbon dioxide is a good absorber
of heat. As a result, the temperature of the atmosphere rises. It causes heat
build-up or greenhouse effect. Thus, the entire Himalayan ecosystem is
threatened and is under severe imbalance as snow-line has thinned and
perennial springs have dried now.

Q. 5. “India has tremendous potential in non-conventional sources of energy.”

Elucidate the statement with suitable examples and arguments in about 250
words.
Ans: In India, non-conventional energy sources consist of those energy
sources that are infinite, natural, and restorable. For example, tidal energy,
solar energy, and wind energy are nonconventional sources of energy.
Fascinatingly, the application of tidal energy and wind energy was operational
in the form of energy sources long back when mineral oil, coal, and natural
gas were not broadly introduced as conventional sources of energy.
In the beginning, windmills were utilized for taking out water and
pounding grains. Running water and wind were applied for direction finding.
Currently, some of the important and widely used non-conventional sources of
energy are tides, wind, solar geothermal heat, and biomass comprising animal
waste, agricultural waste, and human body waste. For example, disposals from
big metropolitan areas can work as a source of producing biogas. All these
non-conventional energy sources are unlimited or restorable and are
essentially quite economical.
Some of the India non-conventional energy sources are given below -
Tidal Energy: Tidal energy is a limitless and renewable source of
energy. For producing electrical power from tidal energy, dams are built close
to estuaries to make use of inward and outward water currents and surges.
Subsequently, the water is used to power turbines to generate electricity via
the usage of water. The tidal surge has to be minimum seven meters for cost-
effective performance. In the state of Gujarat, the Gulf of Kutch is an
appropriate place for electrical energy from the energy generated by tall and
powerful tides moving into small brooks.
Wind Energy: Wind energy is a popular form of non-conventional
energy. It is utilized for drawing water, which is an essential requirement in
watering agricultural lands in the rural areas. In addition, it can be utilized for
electricity generation. In India, states like Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Orissa, and
Maharashtra are regarded as superior areas with respect to this type of energy.
Places that have regular and rapid wind flows are appropriate for this kind of
power generation. Other than windmills, wind farms are there as well.
Solar Energy: The sun is the most abundant and unlimited source of
energy. The sun functions as a global source of energy and has tremendous
potential. As a result, solar energy is one of the most important non-
conventional sources of energy that are utilized in India. The solar cookers are
quite economical and they have been a remarkable invention. These cookers
assist in food preparation nearly without any expenditure. Additionally, many
tiny and medium-scale solar power plants have been intended for the
countryside areas in India. Until now, some of the effective usages of solar
energy include water heating, food preparation, area heating, removal of salt
from water, and drying of harvest. Furthermore, it has been forecasted that
solar energy will become the future source of energy while fossil fuels,
specifically oil and coal, would be completely used up.
PART-B
Q. 6. Explain the following terms in about 50 words:
a) Ecofeminism
Ans: Ecofeminism also called ecological feminism, branch of feminism that
examines the connections between women and nature. Its name was coined by
French feminist Françoise d’Eaubonne in 1974. Ecofeminism uses the basic
feminist tenets of equality between genders, a revaluing of non-patriarchal or
nonlinear structures, and a view of the world that respects organic processes,
holistic connections, and the merits of intuition and collaboration. To these
notions ecofeminism adds both a commitment to the environment and an
awareness of the associations made between women and nature. Specifically,
this philosophy emphasizes the ways both nature and women are treated by
patriarchal (or male-centred) society. Ecofeminists examine the effect of
gender categories in order to demonstrate the ways in which social norms
exert unjust dominance over women and nature.

b) Agenda 21
Ans: Agenda-21 is an action plan of the United Nations (UN) related to
sustainable development and was an outcome of the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de
Janerio, Brazil, in 1992. It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken
globally, nationally and locally by organizations of the UN, governments, and
major groups in every area in which humans directly affect the environment.

c) Global Warming
Ans: Global warming refers to climate change that causes an increase in the
average of Earth’s temperature. Natural events and human influences are
believed to be top contributions towards the increase in average temperatures.
Global warming is a rise in the surface and atmospheric temperature of the
earth that has changed various life forms on the earth. The issues that ascertain
global warming are divided into two broad categories – “natural” and “human
influences’ of global warming.
Human influence has been a very serious issue now as it is contributing
more than natural causes of global warming. Since human evolution, the earth
has been changing for many years until now and it is still changing because of
our modern lifestyle. Human activities include industrial production, burning
fossil fuel, mining of minerals, cattle rearing and deforestation.
Industries, transportation such as cars, buses, trucks burn fuel to power
machines, which eventually releases carbon dioxide and monoxide from the
exhaust, leading to an increase in a temperature rise of Earth’s atmosphere.

d) Hazardous Wastes
Ans: Defining Hazardous Wastes: We can define hazardous wastes by asking
the following five questions:
i) Hazardous to what?
ii) Hazardous to what degree?
iii) Hazardous for what reason?
iv) Hazardous at what time?
v) Hazardous under what conditions?
We may define hazardous waste as a waste, which because of its
quantity, concentration or physical, chemical or biological characteristics does
the following:
a) It may cause a substantial present or potential hazard to human health
or to environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed.
b) It may cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or
an increase in serious, irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness.

Q. 7. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.

a) How does Landfilling act as an important method of waste disposal?
Explain.
Ans: Landfill Disposal: Several countries do the disposal of hazardous waste
by landfilling which means storing harmful substances under the ground. It
consists of hauling the refuse to an area allocated for this purpose. India has
many types of landfills ranging from unsanitary open dumps to properly
operated sanitary landfills. Open dumps cause environmental problems by
ruining the appearance of an area and providing a home for rats and other
rodents who spread disease. Foul smell and smoke produced on burning such
garbage are other problems. Finally, rain water can drain through refuse and
carry harmful substances to streams and other water sources.
If we operate sanitary landfills properly, they cause little damage to the
environment. Thus, the area to be filled with waste must be lined with a
nonporous substance such as clay, or High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)–
plastic membrane to prevent the wastes from leaking to the surrounding areas.
Generally, a landfill site consists of an artificial double liner at the bottom and
a cover at the top. However, this design does not have any provision for
monitoring and repair of the site. Recently, the modified landfill site is
constructed on a structure consisting of concrete cells. The cell is a space for
plant personnel to visit and observe any fault and repair the same.

b) What is Acid rain? Describe its effect.

Ans: ‘Acid rain’ became a household term in the 1980s when unchecked
emissions from industry and motor vehicles were blamed for causing
environmental deterioration. Scientific evidence has linked acid rain to
decreased fish and wildlife populations, degraded lakes and streams, and
human health hazards. Although the term has since faded from public
consciousness, acid rain is a complex and global problem that still exists
today.
Effects of Acid Rain on Humans: Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just
like clean rain. The harm to people from acid rain is not direct. Walking in
acid rain, or even swimming in an acid lake, is no more dangerous than
walking or swimming in clean water. The air pollution that causes acid rain is
more damaging to human health. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, the
major sources of acid rain, can irritate or even damage our lungs.
The pollutants that cause acid rain can also reduce visibility, limiting
how far into the distance we can see. The primary pollutants associated with
acid rain and poor visibility are human-made sulfur dioxide emissions. These
emissions form small sulfate particles, or aerosols, in the atmosphere. These
aerosols reduce visibility by scattering light. Sulfate aerosols are the main
cause of poor visibility in the eastern United States.
Nitrogen oxide emissions are also associated with the acid rain problem.
They, too, can form aerosols in the atmosphere that significantly reduce
visibility. Nitrate aerosols are often the main cause for poor visibility in the
western United States where sulfur dioxide emissions and humidity are lower
than in the east.
Effects of Acid Rain on Agriculture: Acid rain comes from chemical
reactions in the atmosphere among oxygen, water and sulfur or nitrogen
oxides. When sulfur dioxide dissolves in small droplets of water in clouds, it
reacts with the hydrogen and oxygen of the water to form a weak solution of
sulfuric acid. Similarly, nitrogen oxides form weak nitric acid in water
droplets. The clouds can drift over hundreds of miles carrying their acid
droplets. When conditions are right for rain, the droplets grow and fall to the
ground. In many areas of the United States, such as the great plains, the acid
rain falls mostly on land used for agriculture.
Acid rain influences both the quality and yield of agricultural products.
Acid rain can damage the leaves of vegetables such as spinach and cause
blemishes on delicate products such as tomatoes. The production and quality
of root vegetables is reduced. The damage depends on the strength of the acids
in the acid rain and the frequency with which the crops are exposed. In
addition to cosmetic damage, there is the possibility that crops grown under
acidic conditions have lower nutritional value with fewer minerals.
The acidic nature of acid rain leaches plant nutrients out of the soil and
can make it less productive for agriculture. Soils with high alkaline content,
such as those containing calcium carbonate or limestone, can neutralize the
acids and are less sensitive. Other soils normally contain the minerals that
plants need, but the acid in acid rain dissolves them and replaces the metallic
ions with hydrogen. When the plants absorb water that normally contains the
minerals, they get hydrogen instead and can’t grow as large or as quickly as
before. In severe cases, this lack of minerals can kill the plants.
c) Describe issues emerges in enforcement of national environment
legislations.
Ans: Despite all the governmental efforts and legislative activity, environment
is still polluted at very large scale. For example, we can see that the rivers and
the lakes continue to be choked with sewage and industrial waste, the air
quality in some major cities has gained the dubious distinction of being worse
than that of the American cities like Chicago and New York. Forests continue
to disappear, and the consequent loss of soil has led to the scourge of floods
with sickening regularity. Country is still waiting a hard and strict way of
mechanism so that environmental pollution and degradation can be stopped.
Government has made sound legislation but the implementation part is
very weak in the country. We know that environment is the most precious
resources available on the earth. Thus, it should be treated in a good and
responsible manner so that management and development aspects should be
the major priority. In India, fire-brigade approach is rushing to the spot of fire,
after it breaks out. The strategy should lay equal emphasis on attacking the
cause of fires. Prevention is more vital than cure. We can take another
example related to river pollution in India. The basic cause for the pollution of
rivers is dumping of domestic sewage into nearest rivers, even ninety per cent
of the pollution of Ganga stems from the 100-odd municipal waste dumping.
Different cleansing plans will be ineffective till we stop dumping the domestic
waste as well as industrial waste to rivers. We have technology for treating
municipal wastes but we do not have sufficient money to build infrastructure.

d) What is environmental ethics? Why do we need a set of ethics for the

environment? Explain.
Ans: Morality refers to the concept of human ethics which pertains to matters
of good and evil, often referred to as “right or wrong”, used in three contexts–
individual conscience, systems of principles, and judgements; these three
collectively called moral values. Morality is a collection of beliefs as to what
constitutes a good life. Morals reflect a cultural predominant feeling on ethical
issues.
Most cultures have reverence for life and hold that all individuals have a
right to live. Morals differ from ethics because morals reflect the predominant
feeling of culture. Moral codes are often complex definitions of right and
wrong that are based upon well-defined value systems and dictate proper pe
rsonal conduct. The systematic study of morality is a branch of philosophy
called “ethics”.
Ethics (the ancient Greek word “ethikos” meaning arising from habit) is
the study of value or quality, and it is a major branch of philosophy. Ethics are
concerned with what is right and what is wrong, irrespective of the culture and
society. For example, it is ethical to have reverence for all forms of life and
any killing is unethical.
It seeks to address questions such as how a moral outcome can be
achieved in a specific situation (applied ethics), how moral values should be
determined (normative ethics), which morals people actually hold to
(descriptive ethics), and so on. It has been applied to analyse human use of
Earth’s limited resources. This has led to the study of environmental ethics
and social ecology.
Moral principles that try to define one’s responsibility towards the
environment are called “environmental ethics’ or ‘environmental philosophy’
which considers the ethical relationship between human beings and the natural
environment.
 The inspiration for environmental ethics was the first Earth Day in 1970
when environmentalists started urging philosophers who were involved with
environmental groups to do something about environmental ethics. A growing
trend has been to combine the study of both ecology and economics to help
provide a basis for sustainable decisions on environmental use.
Environmental ethics try to define the moral basis of environmental
responsibility. Environmental issues require a consideration of ethics and
morals. For example, because there is currently enough food in the world to
feed everyone adequately, it is unethical to allow some people to starve while
others have more than enough. However, the predominant mood of those in
the developed world is one of indifference. They don’t feel morally bound to
share what they have with others.
In reality, this indifference says that it is permissible to allow people to
starve. This moral stand is not consistent with the purely ethical one. As we
can see ethics and morals are not always the same, thus it is often difficult to
clearly define what is right and what is wrong. Some individuals view the
world’s energy situation as serious and reduce their consumption. Others do
not believe there is a problem and so do not modify their energy use. They
will use energy as long as it is available.

Q. 8. “Habitat destruction is recognised as most significant threat to global

biodiversity?” Elucidate the statement in present context with suitable
examples in about 250 words.
Ans: The primary effect of habitat destruction is a reduction in biodiversity,
which refers to the variety and abundance of different species of animals and
plants in a particular setting. When an animal loses the natural home or habitat
that it needs to survive, its numbers decline rapidly, and it moves toward
extinction. It’s estimated that 14,000 to 35,000 species are at risk of becoming
extinct, and habitat destruction is one of the main causes.
Both wild and agricultural plants depend on pollination for reproduction.
Fruits and vegetables, key components of the human diet, depend on bees and
other insects to transfer pollen from flower to flower. When habitat
destruction reduces the varieties of these pollinators, crop yields drop as well.
For example, stingless bees in Costa Rica that nest only in forests increase the
yield in coffee plantations located near forest patches by 20 percent. Many
plants also rely on animals, particularly ones that eat fruit, for seed dispersal.
Destroying the habitat of animals of this type can severely affect the plant
species that depend on them.
Biodiversity affects climate mainly through regulation of the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Destruction of forest habitats reduces the
capacity of forests to absorb carbon dioxide. The growth rate and woodiness
of a plant determines the rate of carbon turnover within it. Landscape patterns
are also important since carbon sequestration is reduced at the edges of forest
fragments. Marine ecosystems also play a significant role in carbon
sequestration.
Pests often target specific types of plants. When habitats are destroyed
and plant diversity is reduced, the environment contains more of a particular
type of plant. This makes it easier for pests to spread. Plant diversity provides
habitats for a greater variety of insects and other animals and for the natural
enemies of pests. Fungal plant diseases are more severe in monoculture areas
where a single type of crop is being cultivated.

Q. 9. Differentiate between the primary and secondary pollutants. Explain how

these pollutants are harmful for humans and environment in about 250 words.
Ans:
Primary Pollutants
A harmful chemical that directly enters the air as a result of a natural
event or human activities is called a primary pollutant. For instance, when
coal, oil, natural gas or wood is burnt, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
are formed, automobiles contributing a large share of carbon monoxide.
Moreover, Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) is a pollutant which is added to atmosphere
by burning of coal and oil containing sulphur as impurity in electric power
plants. Oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons and suspended particulate matter are
some other primary pollutants.

Secondary Pollutants
 Secondary pollutants are product of harmful chemical reaction between
two or more air components. For instance, sulphur dioxide, the primary
pollutant reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere to form the secondary
pollutant, Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) which can then react with water vapour in
air to form droplets of Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4), another secondary pollutant
of the air.
Genetic, behavioural and environmental influences are known to affect
the health of an individual. It is observed that disease represents maladjustment
of human beings to their environment. Thus, since the individuals of a
community share a common environment, their health problems are usually
common. This gives rise to community health studies whereby diseases are
investigated and the health care is planned at the community level. According
to scientists, illness involves interaction of a triad, i.e., agent, host and
environment. In order to understand a health problem to the community, an
extensive knowledge of this triad is obtained. The epidemiological approach is
used to study the influence of environmental contaminants. Various toxic
chemicals get into our body daily through food, water and air. But the extent
of harm they will cause to the body depends upon the amount of toxin, the
part of body they reach, the susceptibility of individual and their synergism in
the body.
Moreover, some of the food additives and adulterants are toxic and show
adverse effects on health. In the last few decades, chemicals like DDT,
nitrosamine, heavy metals and many others have been introduced in the
environment. They are extremely harmful for health. At present, unplanned
development projects and mismanaged environment have brought in return of
malaria, Japanese encephalitis, filariasis, knock-knees, fluorosis, dengue fever,
etc. Our environment also contains disease-causing micro-organism and other
pathogen that result in infectious diseases. It has been observed that
mismanaged environment helps in the spread of communicable diseases in the
community.

Q. 10. Critically analyse a case of people’s movement in India against

environmental degradation in about 300 words.
Ans: Most effectual and popular environmental movement in India was the
Chipko which became known for environmental movements in world. The
Chipko movement concentrated world attention on the environmental
problems of the Alaknanda catchment area in the mid-Western Himalayas
(Santra, S. C. 2009). The Chipko movement of Uttaranchal is famous for its
tree-hugging campaign to resist the tree cutting. It was started by noted
environmentlist Sunderlal Bahuguna in 1970 to safe guard the rich forest of
western Himalaya Range. This movement was basically a people movement
to resist the cutting of trees. There were frequent floods in the Alkanand River
catchment area due to cutting trees for developmental world like the
construction of roads, river dam project etc . Environmentalist, Reddy (1998)
stated that, “Chipko movement, launched to protect the Himalayan forests
from destruction, has its roots in the pre-independence days. Many struggles
were organized to protest against the colonial forest policy during the early
decades of the twentieth century. The main demand of the people in these
protests was that the benefits of the forests, especially the right to fodder,
should go to local people” (Reddy, Ratna V. 1998). In this context Santra,
(2000) recorded that in 1960, to maintain border security, a vast network of
roads was constructed in this area besides taking up projects of various other
types. All this was catastrophic for the forests and also total environment of
the area chopping of trees and rolling them down hills loosened the upper soil
which eroded further during rain. This had disastrous impact and resulting the
devastating flood in the Alaknanda in July 1970, which caused destruction in
the upper catchment area
Reddy (1998) further stated that, “in early 1973, the forest department
allotted ash trees to a private company. This incident provoked the Dasholi
Gram Swarajya Sangha (DGSS) a local cooperative organization to fight
against this injustice through lying down in front of timber trucks and burning
resin and timber depots as was done in the quit India movement. When these
methods were found unsatisfactory, Chandi Prasad Bhat, one of the leaders,
suggested embracing the trees to prevent them from being cut. With its
success, the movement has spread to other neighboring areas, and then
onwards the movement is popularly known internationally as Chipko
movement (Reddy, Ratna V. 1998: 688).”
The name of the movement, that is ‘Chipko’, comes from the word
‘embrace’, in Hindi. It is believed that the villagers hugged or embraced or
stuck to the trees in the forest to avert them from being felled by the
contractors. The strategy of ‘embracing’ the trees to resist the felling of the
trees was thought of by Chandi Prasad Bhatt in a meeting in the Mandal on
April 1, 1973. The name ‘Chipko’ was derived from the consensual strategy
of clinging on to the trees as a non-violent direct action (Nepal, Padam 2009).
Karan (1994) indicated that “by the late 1980s, the movement had
broken into two groups that have broad grassroots support and advocate
participatory methods which respond to local issues in the context of local
social and cultural traditions. One group followed a strategy that emphasizes
ecologically sound development of forest by local people to meet local needs.
The second group followed the deep-ecology paradigm of environmental
management” (Karan, P. P. 1994).