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In the article, Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006) present two strategies that employ direct

instruction to guide student through activity processes. These strategies prevent strain on the

working memory as students only have to follow instructions rather than guide themselves

through an unknown process as they would in a problem-based learning environment. Firstly,

worked examples which requires teachers to show their methods of solving a problem, so

students can observe a step by step instruction guide to follow (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark,

2006). Secondly, process worksheets that provide a description of the steps required to

complete a task and can include hints and rules of thumb that may help in completing each

step (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006). These recommendations emphasis that novice

learners need scaffolding (Arnett, 2013). Vygotsky’s scaffolding theory argued that initially

adolescences need a lot of assistance and gradually they will need less and less assistance

(Arnett, 2013). These recommendations enforce theories of cognitive behaviour; therefore,

the strategies appear to be appropriate and supportive of fostering students learning in the

classroom.

Creating Chord Progressions - Activity/Lesson Plan: Assessment and Revision

The strategies developed in the present article can be explored through the reflection and

revision on the Australian Curriculum produced activity/lesson plan: Creating Chord

Progressions (Melt, 2016.; Appendix). The activity asks that students cut out chord diagrams

and construct harmonies that they can play and analysis (Melt, 2016.; Appendix). The

activity is inquire-based as students are asked to identity which chord progressions sound

“good” without guidance on how musical concepts would demonstrate the quality of the

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progression (Melt, 2016.; Appendix). Specifically, the activity asks students to “analyse these

random chord progressions in terms of the elements of music” (Melt, 2016.; Appendix). The

activity lacks direct instruction and could lead students to investigate properties that are

irrelative to the piece or demonstrate a lack of deep understanding.

Reflecting on Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006) findings, the lesson activity should be

revised to include worked examples and process worksheets to reduce the cognitive strain

placed on students’ working memory in the absence of such interventions. The main concern

about the original lesson plan is that students are asked to analysis their chord progressions in

terms of the elements of music without any guidance (Melt, 2016.; Appendix). This approach

allows students to provide a brief explanation and does not provide any direction as to what

elements are integral in their investigation. The lesson plan should be amended to include a

worked example of a chord progression analysis to emphasis the process students are

expected to go through. Specifically, the worked example should include the analysis of notes

in the chords and the circle of fifths to illustrate how a scale can produce a pleasurable chord

progression. This worked example would allow student to understand how music harmonies

are constructed. A worked example allows students to observe a step by step analysis. The

alteration removes the discovery learning element so that students can focus on thinking

musically and solve musical problems using a formula that focuses on increasing musical

literacy (Blair, 2009).

Furthermore, the original lesson plan would also benefit from including a process worksheet

to allow students to follow the steps to acquiring an in-depth analysis of chord progressions.

Students could assume that a chord clashes with another because of its close proximity;

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however, there are larger musical concepts at work in a chord progression. Students need to

be able to identify the musical concepts working within a chord progression and in a musical

piece. Riegle and Gerrity (2011) emphasis that direct instruction is need for music students to

direct their focus to musical concepts that are sometimes overlooked. Teacher direction

allows students to observe music through a new lens that enhances their musical literacy

through the use of terminology and musical theory. A process worksheet in this circumstance

would allow students to have a constant reminder of the elements they are looking to analyse

and how to analyse them. Again, this approach would allow students to remain focused on

the application of musical concepts. A process worksheet would also allow students to

understand the structure behind music so that they could eventually use the same musical

concepts to enhance their compositions.

Kirschner, Sweller and Clark’s (2006) learning strategies reinforce cognitive theory that

suggests that humans cannot learn effective when the working memory is being used

extensively (Hanham, Leahy & Sweller, 2017). The learning strategies aim to limit element

interactivity so that students can ingest the most integral information rather than gaining a

superficial understanding of the content and processes (Glogger-Frey, Gaus & Renkl, 2017).

The addition of the two learning strategies provides students with the professional

terminology and investigation tactics to make their argument more valid.

Conclusion

The amendment to the Australian Curriculum lesson activity demonstrates the clarity that

direct instruction can imposed on a task. The two strategies implemented into the lesson

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highlighted that pedagogy has the ability to change the learning environment through

enhancing the approachability of tasks. Overall the essay has demonstrated the positive effect

that educational research can have in the classroom as it has the ability to recommend simple

strategies that can enhance the learning environment.

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Reference List

Arnett, J. J. (2013). Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach (5th

__________edition). New Jersey, USA: Pearson.

Ayres, P. (2013). Can the isolated-elements strategy be improved by targeting points of high

__________cognitive load for additional practice? Learning and Instruction, 23, 115-124.

Blair, D. V. (2009). Stepping Aside: Teaching in a Student-Centred Music Classroom. Music

__________Educators Journal, 95 (3), 42-45.

Chowdhury, M. F. (2015). Coding, sorting and sifting of qualitative data analysis: dates and

_________discussion. Quality and Quantity, 49 (3), 1135-1143. doi: 10.1007/s11135-014-

_________0039-2

Elen, J., Clarebout, G., Léonard, R., & Lowyck, J. (2007). Student-centred and teacher-

__________centred learning environments: what students think. Teaching in Higher

__________Education, 12 (1), 105-117.

Glogger-Frey, I., Gaus, K., & Renkl, A. (2017). Learning from direct instruction: Best

__________prepared by several self-regulated or guided invention activities? Learning and

__________Instruction, 51, 26-31.

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Hanham, J., Leahy, W., & Sweller, J. (2017). Cognitive Load Theory, Element Interactivity,

__________and the Testing and Reserve Testing Effects. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 31,

__________265-280.

Kervin, L., Vialle, W., Howard, S., Herrington, J., & Okely, T. (2016). Research for

__________Educators (2nd ed., pp. 71-102). Victoria, Australia: Cengage Learning

__________Australia.

Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why Minimal Guidance During

__________Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist,

__________Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential and Inquiry-Based Teaching.

__________Educational Psychologist, 41 (2), 75-86. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102 1

Lee, H. S., & Anderson, J. R. (2013). Student Learning: What Has Instruction Got to Do

__________With It? Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 445-469.

Lowe, G., & Belcher, S. (2012). Direct instruction and music literacy: one approach to

__________augmenting the diminishing? Australian Journal of Music Education, 1, 3-13.

Ludwig, J., & Gore, J. (2003). Quality Teaching in NSW Public Schools A classroom practice

__________guide. Retrieved from https://app.education.nsw.gov.au/quality-teaching-

__________rounds/Assets/Classroom_Practice_Guide_ogogVUqQeB.pdf

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Melt, M. (2016). Creating Chord Progressions- A Music Lesson for Year 9/10. Australian

__________Curriculum Lessons. Retrieved from

__________https://www.australiancurriculumlessons.com.au/2016/12/29/creating-chord-

__________progressions-music-lesson-years-910/

Riegle, A., & Gerrity, K. (2011). The Pitch-Matching Ability of High School Choral

__________Students: A Justification for Continued Direct Instruction. National Association

__________for Music Education, 30 (1), 10-15.

Ward, H. (2011). Seek and ye shall find the answers. The Times Educational Supplement

__________Scotland, 2244, 26.

Wilder, S. (2015). Impact of problem-based learning on academic achievement in high

__________school: a systematic review. Educational Review, 67 (4), 414-435.

Yeung, S. (2010). Problem-Based Learning for Promoting Student Learning in High School

__________Geography. Journal of Geography, 109, 190-200.

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Appendix

Creating Chord Progressions- A Music Lesson for Years 9/10

BY MICK MELIT ON DEC 29, 2016 FEATURED, MUSIC, THE ARTS LESSONS, YEAR 5 & 6 MUSIC
LESSON PLANS, YEAR 7 & 8 MUSIC LESSON PLANS, YEAR 9 & 10 MUSIC LESSON PLANS

Summary of Lesson Plan:

This plan provides students with the opportunity to learn and rehearse basic chords and apply various
elements of music in order to perform guitar accompaniment for a vocalist. The suggestions outlined can
provide for several lessons of activity for your students depending on the skill level and other factors.
Some of the elements covered may include:

Rhythm
Regular and irregular time signature and beat subdivisions; triplets and duplets; further time signature
Rhythmic devices including syncopation, rhythmic motif, rhythmic augmentation and diminution
Pitch
Melodies and chords based on major, minor and modal scales; tonal centres; modulation; consonance and
dissonance; chromaticism; pitch devices including riff, ostinato and pedal note
Dynamics and expression
Dynamic gradations; expressive devices and articulations relevant to style such as rubato, ornamentation,
terraced dynamics, pitch bending, vibrato, oscillation, filters and pedals
Form and structure
Structures appropriate to styles and repertoire studied including theme, hook, motivic development,
head, sonata form, interlude and improvisation
Timbre
Identifying instruments and voice types by name and method of sound production; use of mutes, pedals,
harmonics, digitally manipulated sound, distortion, and techniques appropriate to style
Skills (including aural skills)
Performing with expression and technical control and an awareness of ensemble.
Students will be creating chord progressions with a very basic strum pattern.

Australian Curriculum Links:
Year 9 & 10 Music:

§ Manipulate combinations of the elements of music in a range of styles, using technology

and notation(ACAMUM100)
§ Practise and rehearse to refine a variety of performance repertoire with increasing technical and
interpretative skill (ACAMUM101)


Lesson Plan Sequence:
Introduction and Preparation:

§ Each group of students will need a chord chart.

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§ Use the PDF attached: Major Chords In All Keys

§ Practice a selection of chords according to the ability level of your students.
Body:

§ Print several copies of the PDF Major Chords In All Keys

§ Cut out the chord diagrams into squares. Only cut out the chord shapes the students can perform.
§ Make several copies of the cards so you can have more than one bar of each chord.
§ There is also a PDF entitled Blank Chord Blocks provided so students can draw their own chord
shapes. This is a good way to improve their understanding of chord formations.
§ When each group has a selection of chord cards cut out, they can randomly select the chords and
play them in the order selected.
§ Experiment with mixing the order of chords chosen.
§ Write out the chord progressions of your choice and practice.
§ Use a basic common-time strum for beginners or a strum of your choice
§ You could also create a set of rhythm cards for strumming variations that can be chosen at
random.

Example 1:
So the student chooses these cards:

Write a simple chord chart as follows:

Example 2:

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§ Analyze these random chord progressions in terms of the elements of music.
§ You will notice that Example 1 sounds okay.
§ Example 2 however is not really that pleasing to the ear.
§ Discuss the reasons why some chord progressions “work” and some don’t.



Conclusion:

Looks like we need to learn more chords and get to know which ones work well together and which ones
don’t. The next session will look at minor chords and chord progressions that we know work according
to music theory.

Assessment Ideas:
§ Anecdotal notes of students recorded during observation, discussion and activities.
§ Guitar Assessment – Observation Checklist (DOCX)

Resources:
Download all of the lesson-related resources below:

§ Guitars
§ Major Chords in All Keys (Chord Chart) (PDF)
§ Blank Chord Blocks (Chord Cards) (PDF)
§ Rhythm Cards

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