Concepts of Geomorphic Cycles and Landscape Development

Geography With Sandeep Sir
Concepts of Geomorphic Cycles and Landscape Development

Geomorphic cycle, also called as geographic cycle, or cycle of erosion,
theory of the evolution of landforms. American Geographer William Morris Davis (1850-
1934) was the first geomorphologist who proposed the model of the cycle of erosion. Davis
postulated his concept of ‘geographical cycle’ popularly known as ‘cycle of erosion’ in 1899
to present a genetic classification and systematic description of landforms. He developed a
model showing sequential changes in landform through time. On the lines of Charles Darwin,
Davis tried to study evolution of the landforms as an organic form passing through the stages
of Youth, Maturity and Old.
The initial, or youthful, stage of landform development began with uplift that
produced fold or block mountains. Upon dissection by streams, the area would reach maturity
and, ultimately, would be reduced to an old-age surface called a peneplain, with an elevation
near sea level. The cycle could be interrupted by uplift during any period of the life cycle and
thus returned to the youthful stage; this return is called rejuvenation. The geomorphic cycle
could be applied to all landforms such as hillslopes, valleys, mountains, and river drainage
systems. It was assumed that, if the stage of a landform was known, its history followed
directly according to a predetermined framework.
The earth’s surface is affected by two types of forces viz. (i) Endogenetic
forces and (ii) exogenetic forces wherein endogenetic forces create vertical irregularities on
the earth’s surface by forming several types of relief features of different dimensions whereas
exogenetic processes originating from the atmosphere (rivers, wind, glaciers, sea waves,
groundwater, periglacial processes etc.) try to remove the vertical irregularities created by the
endogenetic forces and ultimately become successful in bringing down the reliefs to low
featureless plain called as a peneplain.
The whole period of the creation of relief features by endogenetic processes

and their destruction by exogenetic processes is called cycle of erosion which Davis defined
as follows: “geographical cycle is the period of time during which an uplifted landmass
undergoes its transformation by the process of land sculpture ending into a low featureless
plain-a peneplane.”
Initially the Davisian model was postulated in the context of development

under humid temperate ('normal') conditions, but it was then extended to other landscapes
including arid (Davis 1905), glacial (Davis 1900), coastal (Johnson 1919), karst (Cvijic´
1918) and periglacial landscapes (Peltier 1950).
C. H. Crickmay suggested modifications in Davisian model of ‘geographical

cycle’ in 1933 and described the process of panplanation to be more powerful and effective
than Davis’ process of peneplanation in the evolution of landforms. According to Crickmay
the end product of the cycle of erosion would be panplain and not the peneplain. L.C. King
proposed a new cycle of erosion named as ‘the cycle of pediplanation’ to explain the
characteristics and evolution of landforms of arid and savanna regions of Africa as he found
Davisian model of geographical cycle unfit to explain the landforms of the aforesaid regions.
Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

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A.N. Strahler (1950), J.T. Hack (1960) and R.J. Chorley (1962) rejected the
evolutionary concept of landform development as advanced by W.M. Davis and his followers
and pleaded for the concept of ‘time-independent landforms’ instead of Davisian concept of
‘time-dependent landforms’ and advanced the concept of ‘dynamic equilibrium model’ of
landform development.
Recently, ‘tectonogeomorphic model’ of Marie Morisawa (1975, 1980),

‘episodic erosion theory’ of S.A. Schumm and R.W. Lichty (1965) etc. have been suggested
to explain the landform development. These models are, in fact, modified forms of Davisian
model of landform development.
Davis Model of Cycle of Erosion
Davis postulated his concept of ‘geographical cycle’ popularly known as

‘cycle of erosion’ in 1899 to present a genetic classification and systematic description of
landforms. Later through a number of papers and articles modified his work several times.
Davis envisaged that all the landforms of the world pass through evolutionary sequence
during which denudation processes act upon them to fashion different landforms in different
stages of its evolution. Change in landform with the passage of time formed the cornerstone
of his cyclic concept. The landform would change from ‘initial’ to ‘ultimate form’. The crest
(hill tops) will not remain stable for a long period of time rather their height and slope will
decline with the passage of time. His cycle of landform development was thus dynamic in
nature. Davis argued that all physical landforms can be analysed in terms of the three
variables- structure, process and stage.
His ‘geographical cycle’ has been defined in the following manner:
‘Geographical cycle is a period of time during which an uplifted landmass undergoes its
transformation by the process of land-sculpture ending into low featureless plain or peneplain
(Davis called peneplane).”
According to Davis three factors viz. structure, process and time play important roles in the
origin and development of landforms of a particular place.
Trio of Davis
(i) Structure- The term structure included more than what its literal meaning. It included the
manner of disposition of underlying rocks, level of hardness, porosity, folds and faults etc.
(ii) Process: It includes all types of weathering river, wind and glacial erosion, mass
movements etc.
(iii)Stage: It means the time duration during which the processes operate on a structure
Davis used the terminology of youth, mature and old age to mark different
phase of evolution of landforms. He drew analogy between landscape and living being and
therefore compared the life cycle of living being with the life cycle of landforms. He argued
every landform undergoes sequential changes through the process of evolution where it

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passes through youth, maturity and old age. Davis talked about all these stages of life cycle in
relative terms. In other words there is no fixed time duration for youth, maturity or old age
because the time duration for each stage will depend on many factors. In regions of highly
resistant rocks the duration of this cycle will be fairly longer compared with relatively weaker
less resistant rock types.
The basic premises of Davisian model of ‘geographical cycle’ included the following
assumptions made by Davis:
(1) Landforms are the evolved products of the interactions of endogenetic (diastrophic) forces
originating from within the earth and the external or exogenetic forces originating from the
atmosphere (denudational processes, agents of weathering and erosion-rivers, wind,
groundwater, sea waves, glaciers and periglacial processes).
(2) The evolution of landforms takes place in an orderly manner in such a way that a
systematic sequence of landforms is developed through time in response to an environmental
change.
(3) Streams erode their valleys rapidly downward until the graded condition is achieved.
(4) There is a short-period rapid rate of upliftment in land mass. It may be pointed out that
Davis also described slower rates of upliftment if so desired.
(5) Erosion does not start until the upliftment is complete. In other words, upliftment and ero-
sion do not go hand in hand. This assumption of Davis became the focal point of severe
attacks by the critics of the cyclic concept.
Stages of the cycle
Source: Physical Geography Savindra Singh
The cycle of erosion begins with the upliftment of landmass. There is a rapid
rate of short-period upliftment of landmass of homogeneous structure. This phase of
upliftment is not included in the cyclic time as this phase is, in fact, the preparatory stage of
the cycle of erosion.
The above figure represents the model of geographical cycle wherein UC

(upper curve) and LC (lower curve) denote the hill-tops or crests of water divides (absolute

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reliefs from mean sea level) and valley floors (lowest reliefs from mean sea level)
respectively.
The horizontal line denotes time whereas vertical axis depicts altitude from sea level.
AC represents maximum absolute relief whereas BC denotes initial average relief. Initial
relief is defined as difference between upper curve (summits of water divides) and lower
curve (valley floors) of a landmass. In other words, relief is defined as the difference between
the highest and the lowest points of a landmass. ADG line denotes base level which
represents sea level. No river can erode its valley beyond base level (below sea level).
Thus, base level represents the limit of maximum vertical erosion (valley deepening) by the
rivers. The upliftment of the landmass stops after point C as the phase of upliftment is
complete.
Now erosion starts and the whole cycle pass through the following three stages:
(1) Youthful stage:
Erosion starts after the completion of the upliftment of the landmass. The top-
surfaces or the summits of the water divides are not affected by erosion because the rivers are
small and widely spaced. Small rivers and short tributaries are engaged in head-ward erosion
due to which they extend their lengths.
The process is called stream lengthening (increase in the lengths of the rivers).
Because of steep slope and steep channel gradient rivers actively deepen their valleys through
vertical erosion aided by pothole drilling and thus there is gradual increase in the depth of
river valleys. This process is called valley deepening. The valleys become deep and narrow
characterized by steep valley side slopes of convex plan.
The youthful stage is characterized by rapid rate of vertical erosion and valley
deepening because:
(i) The channel gradient is very steep,
(ii) Steep channel gradient increases the velocity and kinetic energy of the river flow,
(iii) Increased channel gradient and flow velocity increases the transporting capacity of the
rivers,
(iv) Increased transporting capacity of the rivers allows them to carry big boulders of high
calibre (more angular boulders) which help in valley incision (valley deepening through
vertical erosion) through pothole drilling.
The lower curve (LC valley floor) falls rapidly because of valley deepening but the upper
curve (UC summits of water divides or inter stream areas) remain almost parallel to the
horizontal axis (AD, in fig.) because the summits or upper parts of the landmass are not
affected by erosion. Thus, relative relief continues to increase till the end of youthful stage
when ultimate maximum relief (EF, in fig) is attained.

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In nutshell, the youthful stage is characterized by the following characteristic features:
(i) Absolute height remains constant (CF is parallel to the horizontal axis) because of insig-
nificant lateral erosion.
(ii) Upper curve (UC) representing summits of water divides are not affected by erosion.
(iii) Lower curve (LC) falls rapidly because of rapid rate of valley-deepening through vertical
erosion.
(iv) Relief (relative) continues to increase.
(v) Valleys are of V shape characterized by convex valley side slopes.
(vi) Overall valley form is gorge or canyon.
(vii) Long profiles of the rivers are characterized by rapids and water falls which gradually
diminish with the march of time and these practically disappear by the end of late youth. The
main river is graded.
(2) Mature stage:
The early mature stage is heralded by marked lateral erosion and well
integrated drainage network. The graded conditions spread over larger area and most of the
tributaries are graded to base level of erosion. Vertical erosion or valley deepening is
remarkably reduced. The summits of water divides are also eroded and hence there is marked
fall in upper curve (UC) i.e., there is marked lowering of absolute relief.
Thus, absolute relief and relative relief, both decrease. The lateral erosion
leads to valley widening which transforms the V-shaped valleys of youthful stage into wide
valleys with uniform or rectilinear valleys sides. The marked reduction in valley deepening
(vertical erosion or valley incision) is because of substantial decrease in channel gradient,
flow velocity and transporting capacity of the rivers.
(3) Old Stage:
Old stage is characterized by almost total absence of valley incision but lateral
erosion and valley widening is still active process. Water divides are more rapidly eroded. In
fact, water divides are reduced in dimension by both, down-wasting and back-wasting. Thus,
upper curve falls more rapidly, meaning thereby there is rapid rate of decrease in absolute
height. Relative or available relief also decreases sharply because of active lateral erosion but
no vertical erosion. Near absence of valley deepening is due to extremely low channel
gradient and remarkably reduced kinetic energy and maximum entropy.
The valleys become almost flat with concave valley side slopes. The entire
landscape is dominated by graded valley-sides and divide crests, broad, open and gently
sloping valleys having extensive flood plains, well developed meanders, residual convexo-
concave monadnocks and extensive undulating plain of extremely low relief. Thus, the entire

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landscape is transformed into peneplain. As revealed by fig. the duration of old stage is many
times as long as youth and maturity combined together.
Analysis of Davis’ cycle
There have been diverse views expressed by different geomorphologists on the

concept of ‘peneplain’ put forward by Davis. Some regarded peneplain as theoretical
landform because they considered that for Davis’ cycle to run its full course it requires the
landform should remain stable for a very long time. This possibility was very rare in reality
where both endogenetic and exogenetic forces operate continuously and this may obstruct
the smooth course of the cycle. It is also argued that during the period when the river is
eroding its valley the removal of the overlying load is compensated by addition of more
material to its root as per the principle of Isostatic adjustment. This will give a push to the
overlying landform thus keeping the process of upliftment continue for an infinite time. Thus
the attainment of peneplain stage is questioned as it contradicts the view of isostatic
adjustment. Most geomorphologists also believe that Davis’ idea of sequential change of
landform is too simplistic presentation of landform evolution. Evolution of landform in
reality is a far more complex process.
Criticism of Davis Model:
(1) Davis concept of upliftment is not acceptable. He has described rapid rate of upliftment of
short duration but as evidenced by plate tectonics upliftment is exceedingly a slow and long
continued process.
(2) Davis’ concept of relationship between upliftment and erosion is erroneous. According to
him no erosion can start unless upliftment is complete. Can erosion wait for the completion of
upliftment? It is a natural process that as the land rises, erosion begins. Davis has answered
this question. He admitted that he deliberately excluded erosion from the phase of upliftment
because of two reasons:
(i) To make the model simple, and (ii) Erosion is insignificant during the phase of upliftment.

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(3) The Davisian model requires a long period of crustal stability for the completion of cycle
of erosion but such eventless long period is tectonically not possible as is evidenced by plate
tectonics according to which plates are always in motion and the crust is very often affected
by tectonic events. Davis has also offered explanation to this objection. According to him if
crustal stability for desired period is not possible, the cycle of erosion is interrupted and fresh
cycle of erosion may start.
(4) Walther Penck objected to over emphasis of time in Davis’ model. In fact, Davisian
model envisages ‘time-dependent series’ of landform development whereas Penck pleaded
for time- independent series’ of landforms. According to Penck landforms do not experience
progressive and sequential changes through time. He, thus, pleaded for deletion of ‘time’
(stage) from Davis’ ‘trio’ of ‘structure, process and time’. According to Penck “geomorphic
forms are expressions of the phase and rate of upliftment in relation to the rate of degrada-
tion”.
(5) A.N. Strahler, J.T. Hack and R.J. Chorley and several others have rejected the Davisian
concept of ‘historical evolution’ of landforms. They have forwarded the dynamic equilibrium
theory for the explanation of landform development.
It may be pointed out that non- cyclic concept of ‘dynamic equilibrium’ as valid substitute of
Davis’ cyclic concept of landform development and other so called ‘open system’ and non-
cyclic models of landform development could not arouse any enthusiasm among the modern
geomorphologists.
Although Davis cycle has faced a lot of criticism, it still holds its place in the work pertaining
to slope evolution owing to its wide appeal and manner of presentation.
Normal Cycle of Erosion:
The cycle of erosion which is carried by running water is known as normal

cycle of erosion. This is because running water or fluvial processes are most widespread all
over the world. It plays an important role in the regions of glacial and arid. W. M. Davis
considered humid temperate areas as the most normal case for fluvial cycle of erosion but this
claim is debatable.
The normal cycle of erosion begins when a landmass gets uplifted in

accordance with the sea level. As the land gets uplifted, the rivers get originated and
erosional processes begin thereafter. After some duration of time the upliftment of the
landmass stops resulting in erosional processes to be more active.
There is crustal stability for a long duration of time, and during that period the
landmass neither gets uplifted nor gets subsided. River valleys get originated in sequential
order and the whole area of land passes through stages of youth mature and old. And at last,
low featureless plain which is known as peneplain gets resulted.

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Youthful stage:
(i) This stage gets originated when the landmass gets uplifted. The streams are short
in length and number. The master consequent streams get originated in very less
number.
(ii) Several gullies and rills dominate the slopes. Through headward erosion gullies
and rills lengthens their longitudinal profile.
(iii) The development of the tributaries from the master consequent streams, gives rise
to dendritic drainage pattern.
(iv) The valleys are experienced through rapid rate of down cutting by the rivers. This
is because the transporting capacity of rivers becomes high due to steep channel
gradient.
(v) The valleys become narrow and steep having convex side slopes. This result in the
juvenile valleys to be V- shaped.
Mature stage:
(i) This stage is characterised by decrease in the valley deepening from the youthful
stage, which results in decrease in channel gradient and flow velocity.
(ii) Early maturity gets arrived which is indicated by decrease in the transporting
capacity, decrease in the channel gradient and decrease in the river velocity.
(iii) Valley widening becomes dominant at this stage, through active rate of lateral
erosion.
(iv) Big boulders and sediments are deposited by the rivers at the foothill zones, due to
the decrease in the transporting capacity of the rivers. The deposition of these
materials results in the formation of alluvial fans and cones, which further results
in the formation of piedmont plains due their gradual expansion.
(v) As there is decrease in the channel gradient, the rivers carves their courses
resulting in the formation of several meanders and loops.
Old stage:
(i) This stage is characterised by more decrease in the channel gradient and there is
total absence of valley deepening.
(ii) There is decrease in the number of tributary streams. Moreover the valleys
become broad and flat comprising of concave slopes.
(iii) The transporting capacity of the rivers becomes low at this stage. Sedimentation
and weathering becomes more active.
(iv) Rivers carves their courses to an extreme form and forms extensive deltas at the
mouth of the rivers.
(v) At this stage, the landscape gets transformed into extensive flat plains which are
known as peneplain.

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This ideal normal cycle of erosion can pass through its all the three stages (i.e.,
youth, mature and old) and the peneplain can be formed only when the region remains in
stand still position for longer duration of crustal stability but the availability of such condition
is of remote possibility because the earth is very much unstable.
The plate tectonics have also revealed that plates are always mobile and hence
long period of crustal stability is not possible. Thus, the smooth functioning and completion
of normal cycle of erosion is very often disturbed due to tectonic events and also due to
climatic changes.
The disturbance in the cycle of erosion is called interruption of normal cycle

of erosion which is caused by changes in sea level (either due to upliftment or subsidence of
oceanic bottoms or due to glaciation and deglaciation during great ice ages, like
Carboniferous glaciation of the Gondwanaland during Carboniferous period and Pleistocene
glaciation of the northern hemisphere during Pleistocene period), upliftment or subsidence of
land areas, volcanic eruptions and climatic changes.
The interruption of normal cycle of erosion by volcanic eruptions or climatic

changes is called ‘accident’. The interruptions caused by negative changes in base level
(lowering of base level-maximum limit of vertical erosion by rivers) due to fall in sea level
(because of the subsidence of the oceanic floors) and upliftment of landmass are called
rejuvenation, which means renewed vigour of erosive capacity of the rivers.
Rejuvenated rivers are again engaged in valley deepening at much faster rate
and thus the cycle of erosion is driven back to youthful (juvenile) stage. Several interesting
landforms, like valley in valley topography or multi- storeyed valleys, paired terraces, incised
meanders, nick points and nick-point water falls, uplifted peneplains, deeply entrenched
gorges and canyons within broad flat valleys etc. are formed due to rejuvenation. The
landforms resulting from several cycles of erosion, whether complete or incomplete, are
called polycyclic landforms or multicyclic landforms. e.g., Chotanagpur region represents
multicyclic landforms.

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Penck’s Model of Cycle of Erosion
Walter Penck was a German. He was dissatisfied with some of the

assumptions of Davis like the process of upliftment of landform which was too short and a
prolonged period of its stability where the cycle would run its full course. He offered
alternative model where landscape would simultaneously be eroded with the process of its
upliftment. The rates of denudation would vary and ultimately it would result into a low
featureless plain called ‘Endrumpf’.
The main goal of Penck’s model of morphological system was to find out the
mode of development and causes of crustal movement on the basis of exogenetic processes
and morphological characteristics. The reference system of Penck’s model is that the
characteristics of landforms of a given region are related to the tectonic activity of that
region.
The landforms, thus, reflect the ratio between the intensity of endogenetic
processes (i.e., rate of upliftment) and the magnitude of displacement of materials by
exogenetic processes (the rate of erosion and removal of materials). Penck is perhaps the
most misunderstood geomorphologist of the world. It is not yet sure whether he used the
word ‘cycle’ or not in his model of landform development.
Basic Concepts:
1. The morphological characteristic of any region of the earth’s surface is the result of
competition between crustal movement and denudation processes.
2. On the basis of morphological characteristics tectonic movements can be explained
and their causal factors ascertained.
3. Development of landscape is not time- dependent.
4. The shape of the hillslope depends on the relative rates of valley incision by rivers
and removal of debris from the hill-slope.
5. Three crustal states are witnessed: (a) state of crustal stability with no active
displacement; (b) state of initial domed uplift in a limited area followed by
widespread uplift; and (c) state of extensive crustal upliftment.
6. Upliftment and erosion are always coexistent.
7. Three states of adjustment between crustal movement and valley deepening are
observed: (a) if for a longer time crustal upliftment remains constant, the vertical
erosion by the river is such that there is balance between the rate of upliftment and
erosion; (b) if the rate of uplift is more than the rate of valley deepening, then the
channel gradient continues to increase till the rate of valley deepening matches with
the rate of upliftment and the state of equilibrium is attained when both become equal;
and (c) if the rate of valley deepening is more than the rate of crustal
upliftment, then the channel gradient is lowered to such an extent that the rates of
upliftment and erosion become equal and the state of equilibrium is attained.
In the place of stage he used the term entwickelung; in the place of youth,
mature and old stages, he used the term; waxing or accelerated rate of development

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(Aufsteigende Entwickelung); uniform rate of development (Gleichformige

Entwickelung); and wanning or deccelarating rate of development (Absteigende
Entwickelung). He used the word primarumf to the land before upliftment and Endrumpf
for the residual plain after completion of stages, for which Davis used peneplain.
Stage 1:
With uplift, the interfluves, as well as the lower parts, rise. There is a lack of
brisk undercutting. Penck used the term 'Primarumpf' to represent the characteristic landscape
before upliftment. Primarumpf is, in fact, initial surface or primary peneplane representing
either newly emerged surface from below sea level or a 'fastenbene' or 'peneplane' type of
land surface converted into featureless landmass by uplift. It is the phase of waxing
(accelerating) rate of landform development. Here, land surface rises slowly initially, but
after some time rate of upliftment is accelerated. Continuous active down cutting and valley
deepening result deep narrow v shape valley. As the erosion fails to cope with rate of
upliftment, absolute height continues to increase, also relative relief between highest point
and lowest point continues to grow.
Stage 2:
This stage is characterized by still accelerated rate of uplift. Absolute height

still increases because the rate of erosion is still less than the rate of upliftment. Altitudes of
both summits of water divides and valley floors continue to increase but at relatively lower
rate than in the phase of Aufsteigende entwickelung. Maximum altitude (absolute relief) is
attained but relative relief remains constant because the rate of valley deepening equals the
rate of lowering of divide summits. The valley sides are characterized by straight slopes. This
phase is called the phase of uniform development probably because of uniform rate of valley
deepening and lowering of divide summits.
Stage 3:
Altitude (absolute relief) neither increases nor decreases i.e. remains constant
due to matching of upliftment by the lowering of divide summit due to denudation. It means
that upliftment still continues.

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Relative relief also remains constant because the rate of erosion of divide summits matches
with the rate of valley deepening while both are up-lifted uniformly. The slopes of valley
sides are still straight as in Stage 2 because of parallel retreat. This phase is, thus,
characterized by constant absolute and relative reliefs and thus uniform development of
landforms
Stage 4:
Upliftment of the land stops completely. Absolute reliefs or altitudes of

summit divides start decreasing because of absence of upliftment but continued erosion of
summits of divides. Relative reliefs also remain constant because the rate of the lowering of
divide summits equals the rate of valley deepening. Thus, this sub phase is also characterized
by uniform development of landscape.
Stage 5:
The down cutting and the deepening of valleys slows down. The interfluves
are rounded and further lowered. During this stage landscape is progressively dominated by
the process of lateral erosion and marked decrease in valley deepening. Absolute relief
decreases remarkably because of total absence of upliftment but continued down cutting of
divide summits. Relative relief continues to decrease because of divide summits is being
eroded. Parallel retreat of valley side slope continues, the upper part of this slope is called as
gravity slope or boschungen, and lower segment is called as wash slope or Haldenhang. A
concave slope results: this is the stage of waning erosion or Absteigende Entwickelung.
Stage 6: The process continues and initial landscape transforms in to inselberg and then
finally to endrumpf.
Among the above mentioned 6 stages, first stage is waxing or accelerated

rate of development or Aufsteigende Entwickelung, 2, 3and 4th stage means uniform
development of landforms or Gleichformige Entwickelung. Stage 5 and 6 means waning
development of landscape or Absteigende Entwickelung.
Evaluation of Penck’s Model of Cycle of Erosion:
Penck’s views could not be known in true sense and could not be
interpreted in right perspective because of: (i) His incomplete work due to his untimely
death, (ii) His obscure composition in difficult German language, (iii) Ill-defined terminology
and some contradictory ideas.
Penck followed a deductive approach and did not restrict himself to any
particular condition. Compared to the Davisian cycle, Penck's approach was forward looking.
Penck, quite appropriately, emphasised the mutual relation between uplift and the deepening
of valleys. This indicates Penck's respect for geological evidence. Penck's third stage is
evident in the Middle Alps.

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The Penck’s model of landscape development could not be correctly

interpreted because of its publication in obscure German language and wrong interpretation
of his ideas by English translators. Penck’s morphological system was severely criticised in
the USA in the same way as the ‘geographical cycle’ was criticised in Germany.
Penck’s concepts of parallel retreat of slope and continued crustal movements

became the most sensitive points of attacks by American geologists. It may be pointed out
that earlier translation of Penck’s work in English revealed that Penck believed in parallel
retreat of slopes but subsequent English translations showed that Penck believed in slope
replacement wherein each upper slope unit of hillslope and valley sides was considered to be
replaced by lower slope unit of gentler slope.
It may be, thus, forwarded that most of the criticisms of Penck’s

morphological system came out of the faulty interpretations of his views. Some of the
American critics stooped down to such an extent that they remarked that “his peculiar notions
owed to his incomplete recovery from a head wound suffered in World War I”. His concept
of long continued upliftment and tectonic speculations could not find any support but his con-
cepts of slope development and weathering processes are definitely of much
geomorphological significance.
L.C.King's Cycle of Erosion
King’s work on cycle of erosion is based on his observation of African

landscape. He held that subtropical and semi humid climates should be regarded as ‘normal’
instead of humid temperate on which much of the discussion of slope evolution is based. His
river cycle bears close similarity with the Davis’ cycle of slope evolution.
King made closer examination of African landscape and stated that it is made
up of two important elements one is the gentle concave slope that is found in the valley
bottoms and border the streams or old water course. They are Pediments which over a period
of time slowly extend their area and see the adjoining uplands retreat. Pediments according to
King (1953) are normally covered with detritus but pediments themselves are essentially cut
rock surfaces. The pediment is the fundamental landform to which epigene landscapes tends
to be reduced. He termed the entire process of pediment formation as pedimentation.
The second element is the steep slopes that bound upland blocks. He called it
‘scarps’. The scarps here have originated by the process of erosion only and maintain steep
slopes of 15 to 30 degree. There is no reduction in their steepness when they are wasted back
by weathering or rain-wash. This is the process of Parallel Retreat which King called ‘scarp
retreat’.
King’s cycle of Pediplanation
King’s landscape cycle discusses the process of pediplanation which shapes the erosion
surface. Different stages of his cycle are discussed below

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Youth Stage
The cycle of pediplanation begins with upliftment of an earlier formed

pediplain. The streams carry out rapid downward erosion. As the cycle draws near the end
of youth the earlier fast down cutting slows down and witnesses the emergence of pediments
in the valley bottoms. These pediments become wider because of the reduction of upland
areas by scarp retreat. In the late youthful stage most interfluves will be converted into
inselbergs, many will be rounded off like domes.
Maturity Stage
In the mature stage the process of weathering causes reduction in the number
of Inselbergs. There will be widening of pediments of adjoining valleys which would
eventually coalesce. The few remaining inselbergs preserve the vestiges of the former
pediplain. The relief which during the youth saw an increase will now show a decline or may
remain constant in maturity
Old Stage
The old Stage will see very few residual hills as relief has mostly been
destroyed. The whole landscape will now be dominated by gently sloping pediments; the
‘multi-concave ‘surface is the ultimate form of the cycle). King did not restrict the
application of his concept to African landscape only but he extended this to other non-arid
climates of the world to explain the process of landform evolution operating under most of
the climatic conditions. Thus, king’s landscape cycle involves two processes of
‘pedimentation’ and ‘scarp retreat’. It is the operation of these two processes which lead to
the formation of erosion surface. King's pediplains, so formed, are analogous to Penck's
piedmont treppen.
Disagreeing with Davis regarding the ‘normal’ type of landscape, he holds

semi-arid type as normal landscape and pediplain is the ultimate cyclic landform formed by
coalescing pediments. A pediplain is multi-concave upward (1953, King).
King's model was subjected to many criticisms:
(a) King's model was limited to the African experience.
(b) It is doubtful to assert that there is uniform development of landscapes in different

environmental conditions.

14
(c) King's concept of antique pediplanation remains questionable.
Interruptions of the Cycle of Erosion (Tectonics, Climatic and Base Level Changes)
There are numerous incidences where the normal cycle of erosion have been
interrupted a number of times due to various reasons. Multicyclic evolution of the land form
is more common as compared to the monocyclic. In such cases where the youthful stage of
the cycle is superimposed on the old stage is termed as rejuvenation. It is therefore very
rare that the landform development in a cycle is ever complete. The ultimate level to which,
but not down to which the river can lower its valley due to fluvial erosion is called base level.
The ultimate base level is sea level. The base level can vary according to the surface it is
flowing on. Any change in the base level can change the local character of the landform. It is
very unlikely that the base level will not be interrupted in during its course of erosional cycle.
There are various reasons due to which rejuvenation happens or there is interruption
in the cycle of erosion.
Base level Change:
The change in the base level can be termed as positive if there is a rise and
negative if there is a fall. This may lead to accelerate alluviation and renewed erosion. A
complete peneplanation may take around from 10 to 50 million year. How early or late it
happens depends on the importance of the local isostatic compensatory uplift. It is unlikely
that any one erosional cycle will run its course uninterrupted by base level changes induced
by either tectonic or Eustatic causes.
Positive movement of the base level associated with accelerated alluviation or

aggradation. It involves the submergence of the lower or the old stage of the river cycle. The
result is the aggradation work done by the stream, which results in the formation of build-up
of the floodplains which is the result of the backfilling of the upper valley and have effects
on the stream gradient. It also forms deltaic outbuildings. All these features give it an
appearance of an old stage of valley. Mississippi river is an example of such river system.
There may be other causes of aggradation which included uplift of the source area, increase
in the debris supply when a certain tributary flush its water in the main stream, due to change
in the climatic conditions and due to various response of the basin due to vide range of
complex changes superimposed on the drainage system.
Negative movement associated with renewed erosion. It involves rejuvenation

of the landforms bringing youthful characteristics in the older stage. It may have
steeper slopes, headward cutting with waves of incision and planation. It first affects
the outcrops of the softer rocks and then work on the harder outcrops. It is marked by
steeper slopes, terrace edges; nick points on the river courses. The river course
produces a kind of valley in valley features also called multicyclic or polycyclic
features. Because of the negative movement rise in base level, the peneplain gets
dissected. Sometimes the resistant outcropped rocks get preserved and acts like
summit peneplain remanant. In the lower terrains too we can observe less resistant

15
outcrop on partial peneplains. Sometimes the marine erosional surfaces are confused
with the stripped plains, pediplains or exhumed peneplain.
Dynamic rejuvenation:
These are the changes brought in the cycle of erosion due to Epeirogenic movements
(tectonic movements). It may include upliftment of the land mass accompanied by tilting
and warping, Lowering of the outlets and the volcanic activity.
(i) Upliftment of landmass: such movement can be caused by local orogenic movements.
When the river is in its old stage nearing its old stage and the landmass on which it flows
uplifts, the cycle gets interrupted and rejuvenates. The process of the rejuvenation can change
a peneplained landscape, which has attained the profile of equilibrium and were aggrading to
revive their erosional power and engage in the process of valley deepening. Sometimes on the
pre-existing peneplain “V” shaped valley, which is typical of a youthful stage, may appear
and the existing cycle would not only retard but a new cycle of erosion will began. We may
see remnant of the old cycle in the early stages of the new cycle of erosion especially near hill
and plateau tops and on the broader interfluves. By the stage of late youth, the old peneplain
will be visible as summit heights, but by early maturity, the renewed onset of effective divide
wasting will cause the peneplain to disappear altogether on the landscape. Most peneplains in
the British Isles take the form of ‘hill-top surfaces’, and are so fragmented that they are by
no means easy to identify, let alone interpret accurately. Their existence however is more
readily inferred from an analysis of detailed topographical maps.
(ii)Tilting of land and warping: Tilting of the land, warping or faulting of the river basin
will steepen the gradient of the stream that leads to the increased down cutting with more
transporting power than the required. When there is a seaward tilt, its effects are noticed
along the entire course of the stream as it is rejuvenated and is reflected in the deepening of
the valley especially in the stream where the direction of the course is parallel to the direction
of the tilting. When the tilt is at the right angle to the direction of the river course will
respond to the rejuvenation only after the joining stream deepens its valley so as to leave the
tributary out of adjustment, even if the effect is only felt at the mouth of the course.
(iii) Lowering of the outlet: The mouth of the river or where the river drains is the outlet. As
the outlet is lowered the river rejuvenates and its velocity increases. Higher velocity leads to
higher degree of erosion and downcutting. If the outlet of the river is a lake then the level
of the lake is its local base level. If this base level suddenly gets lowered then the outlet gets
rejuvenated (at the mouth). The river suddenly joins the lake descending abruptly leading to
down cutting, which is typical of youthful stage.
Niagara fall is an example of the lowering of the outlet, where the water falls from
Niagara and is drained into Lake Erie. It is the condition with the river course having
youthful stage at its mouth near the lake and old stage and topography at the higher side of
the valley.

16
(iv)Volcanic Activity: Volcanic activity can cause accidental flow of lava in the valley which
may interrupt the normal cycle of erosion. Blocked by lava the river will try to erode the
obstacle by intensifying the erosive activity. If the lava flow engulfs the entire valley then an
all new cycle begins on the volcanic surface.
Eustatic Rejuvenation:
Processes which results in the world wide lowering of the sea levels and is not
related to the local changes happening to the base level. The Eustatic changes can be
produced by a decrease in ocean basin capacity as a result of the formation of the mid oceanic
ridges. There can be two kinds of Eustatic rejuvenation.
(i)Diastrophic eustatism: when the change in the sea level is due to the change in
the capacity of the ocean basin. Baulig (1935) who is modern proponent of diastrophic
eustatism, recognized glacio-eustatism but gave more importance to diastrophic eustatism
stating that there is evidence of the world wide lowering of the sea level during the Pliocene
and Pleistocene, which was of far greater magnitude than possible changes made by glacio
eustatism. According to him it was the result of epeirogenic movement associated with
orogenic movement and not independently orogenic alone.
(ii)Glacio eustatism: when there is change in the sea level as a result of the withdrawal of
water in the ocean which was earlier accumulated in the form of ice sheets and glaciers.
During the glacial period the sea water gets stored and locked up and as a result the sea level
falls. Fall in the sea level leads to upliftment of the land.
Climatic interruptions to the cycle of erosion: Static rejuvenation
Many times streams that shows characteristics of youthful stage starts by

eroding vast volume of unconsolidated glacial debris. Such a heavily loaded stream when
spreads in the lower levels they start to deposit these sediments. Over a period of time the
stream has lesser load. So the river requires less energy to transport the load and more energy
is used for vertical erosion. This may have involved neither upliftment by diastrophic
movement nor eustatic lowering of the sea level. Such interruption is called static
rejuvenation. Static rejuvenation of the river course involves increase in the discharge of the
river, which is caused without any upliftment of the base level, nor lowering of the sea level,
but because of the climatic changes. According to Davis, the climatic changes have
tremendous effect on the normal cycle of erosion, and in certain circumstances climatic
effects on erosion would totally change the course that is outlined in the ‘normal’ cycle.
Increase in the precipitation is usually reason for the increase in the volume without having
increase in the load. The stream in such situation is able to carry load over more gentle
slopes. As a result of the decrease in the load as compared to runoff and subsequent rise in
the stream volume through acquiring the new drainage because of diversion or derangement
will increase the erosive power of stream further. This kind of rejuvenation was common
during post –glacial times, when the river valleys comprised of large volumes of glacial
outwash.

17
Rejuvenated landforms (poly cyclic or multi cyclic reliefs):
The typical landforms resulting from interruptions in the fluvial cycle of

erosion and from rejuvenation resulting in the formation of mosaic of poly or multi-cyclic
landforms include topographic discordance, valley in valley or multi-storeyed valleys, up-
lifted peneplains, incised meanders, paired terraces, nick points etc.
Topographic discordance
It refers to the creation of older topographic forms above and younger forms
below. In other words, when the topographic accordance or uniformity from the top of the
river valley to its bottom is not maintained rather is disturbed due to interruption in fluvial
cycle of erosion caused by rejuvenation, the resultant topographic expression is called
topographic unconformity or discordance wherein the upper part of the valley reveals the sign
of senile or mature stage whereas the lowest part of the valley belongs to youth stage.
‘Valley in valley topography’ or ‘two storeyed valleys’ or ‘two cycle valley’
The river develops flat and shallow valley at the end of mature and beginning
of senile stage but if there is sudden negative change in the base level of erosion caused either
by fall in sea level or upliftment of landmass, the river is rejuvenated and begins active
downcutting of its valley due to increased erosive power. Thus, a deep and narrow valley is
formed within flat and broad valley.
This new deep and narrow valley is flanked by terraces on its either side which
represent earlier older valley. Such topography is called ‘valley in valley topography’ or ‘two
storeyed valley’ or ‘two cycle valley’. By the march of time the rejuvenated river deepens its
valley to the new base level and thus forms second broad and flat valley within the first broad
and flat valley formed during first cycle of erosion.
Suppose, if there is again upliftment of landmass or fall in sea level, the cycle
is again interrupted and the river is rejuvenated. Consequently, again a narrow and deep
valley is formed within previously formed two storeyed valley. Now there are two paired
terraces on either side of the new deep and narrow valley. Thus, the resultant form of the
valley is called three storeyed valley. Such topographic forms, where there is more than one
valley in a single river’s cross profile, are called ‘multi storeyed or multicyclic valleys’.

18
The Damodar valley at Rajroppa in Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) is a typical example of poly-

cyclic valley or topographic discordance which is characterized by two-storeyed valley.
A river terrace along the River Dovey.
Uplifted Peneplain:
Due to various reasons the level of the peneplain gets uplifted higher than the
present base level. This makes peneplain come to the second cycle of the erosion. Various
factors can give evidence of such upliftment like peneplain’s accordance with the summit
areas and the inter stream levels, topographical unconformities, truncation of rocks of varying
resistance, presence of the rocks with varying resistance to erosion, presence of layers with
weathered rock debris and evidence of remnants of former alluvium
Knick points:
Sometimes in the long profile of the river there is a break due to

fall or lowering of the base level. Rejuvenation causes the renewal of the down
cutting along the long profile of a valley. When this valley intersects with the long
profile of the other valley, knick points are formed. It is the starting point in the
formation of the river terrace.
Incised Meanders: Meandering of steam over the flood plains is rejuvenation. It can cut
gorges and canyon into old meander because of the extra erosional capacity while still
retaining the meandering form. These are called incised meanders.

19
Which are further divided into:
(i) Entrenched meanders (having uniform slopes of both the valley sides of meander loops),
and
(ii) ingrown meanders which have unequal slopes of valley sides wherein one side of the
valley representing concave side is deeply undercut and the outer side(convex side) is
characterized by gentle valley side slopes.
Treppen Concept:
The concept of Treppen refers to a step like landscape and is derived from a
petrographic term ‘trap’ or ‘trap rock’ for all dense, dark igneous rocks that look like basalt.
Treppen landscape emerges out of erosional dissection of basalt plateaus. This process is
strongly controlled by the sheet like continuity and columnar jointing of the flows. In the
landscape so created, flat benches and vertical cliffs dominate.
The basalt topography responsible for giving rise to Treppen landforms results
from solidification of consecutive layers of basaltic material erupting in a fissure mode of
volcanic activity. The largest flood basalt region is the Deccan region of peninsular India
covering more than 5 lakh square kilometres. The Deccan flood basalts were emplaced within
an interval of two million years between 65 million and 69 million years ago (Cretaceous-
Tertiary geologic boundary). The western margins of peninsular India are in the form of step
like terraces having undergone intense erosion to produce a rugged scarped relief—a
typically treppen feature.
Similar basalt plateaus are present in Columbia plateau (USA), southern

Brazil, Manchuria (China), central Siberia and in fragments around the North Atlantic basin
on Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, Faeroe Islands and Jan Mayen.

20
Source: Physical Geography -Savindra Singh; ePG Patashala MHRD; Wikipedia; Internet, etc.

21

Concepts of Geomorphic Cycles and Landscape Development

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Geography With Sandeep Sir

Concepts of Geomorphic Cycles and Landscape Development

The whole period of the creation of relief features by endogenetic processes

Initially the Davisian model was postulated in the context of development

C. H. Crickmay suggested modifications in Davisian model of ‘geographical

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Recently, ‘tectonogeomorphic model’ of Marie Morisawa (1975, 1980),

Davis Model of Cycle of Erosion

Davis postulated his concept of ‘geographical cycle’ popularly known as

His ‘geographical cycle’ has been defined in the following manner:

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Stages of the cycle

Source: Physical Geography Savindra Singh

The above figure represents the model of geographical cycle wherein UC

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(1) Youthful stage:

(i) The channel gradient is very steep,

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In nutshell, the youthful stage is characterized by the following characteristic features:

(iv) Relief (relative) continues to increase.

(v) Valleys are of V shape characterized by convex valley side slopes.

(vi) Overall valley form is gorge or canyon.

(2) Mature stage:

(3) Old Stage:

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Analysis of Davis’ cycle

There have been diverse views expressed by different geomorphologists on the

Criticism of Davis Model:

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Normal Cycle of Erosion:

The cycle of erosion which is carried by running water is known as normal

The normal cycle of erosion begins when a landmass gets uplifted in

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Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

The disturbance in the cycle of erosion is called interruption of normal cycle

The interruption of normal cycle of erosion by volcanic eruptions or climatic

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Penck’s Model of Cycle of Erosion

Walter Penck was a German. He was dissatisfied with some of the

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(Aufsteigende Entwickelung); uniform rate of development (Gleichformige

This stage is characterized by still accelerated rate of uplift. Absolute height

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Upliftment of the land stops completely. Absolute reliefs or altitudes of

Among the above mentioned 6 stages, first stage is waxing or accelerated

Evaluation of Penck’s Model of Cycle of Erosion:

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The Penck’s model of landscape development could not be correctly

Penck’s concepts of parallel retreat of slope and continued crustal movements

It may be, thus, forwarded that most of the criticisms of Penck’s

L.C.King's Cycle of Erosion

King’s work on cycle of erosion is based on his observation of African

King’s cycle of Pediplanation

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The cycle of pediplanation begins with upliftment of an earlier formed

Disagreeing with Davis regarding the ‘normal’ type of landscape, he holds

King's model was subjected to many criticisms:

(a) King's model was limited to the African experience.

(b) It is doubtful to assert that there is uniform development of landscapes in different

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

(c) King's concept of antique pediplanation remains questionable.

Base level Change:

Positive movement of the base level associated with accelerated alluviation or