Geography With Sandeep Sir

Drainage Systems and Patterns

Drainage system refers to the origin and development of streams through time
while drainage pattern means spatial arrangement and form of drainage system in terms of
geometrical shapes in the areas of different rock types; geological structure, climatic
conditions and denudational history e.g. trellis pattern, dendritic pattern, parallel pattern, etc.
The examples of drainage system are consequent streams, subsequent streams, obsequent
streams, etc.

The origin and subsequent evolution of any drainage system in a region are determined and
controlled by two main factors viz. (1) nature of initial surface and slope (2) geological
structure (e.g. folds, faults, joints, dips and strikes, etc.)

Drainage systems are broadly divided into two categories on the basis of adjustment of the
streams to the initial surface and geological structures.

(1) Sequent Streams: Which follow the regional slope and are well adjusted to
geological structures, e.g. consequent streams, obsequent, subsequent streams and
resequent streams.
(2) Insequent Streams: Which do not follow the regional slope and are not adjusted to
geological structures, e.g. antecedent streams, and superimposed streams.

Sequent Drainage Systems:

a. Consequent streams:
Consequent streams are the first streams to be originated in a particular
region. These streams have their courses in accordance with the initial slope of land surface.
In other words, the consequent streams follow the regional slope. These are also called dip
streams.
In a region of folded structure (when the crustal rocks are folded due to lateral
compressive forces into parallel anticlines and synclines) consequent streams are formed in
the synclinal troughs. Such consequent streams are called synclinal consequent streams,
which become the master consequent streams of trellis drainage pattern at much later date.

The first streams to be initiated on a newly emerged coastal plain are consequent streams
which are parallel to each other and thus form parallel drainage pattern. The longest stream of
the whole system of consequent streams is called master consequent. Most of the streams
draining the coastal plains of India are the examples of consequent streams. The most ideal
landscapes for the origin and development of consequent drainage system are domes and
volcanic cones.
Consequent streams are divided in two types e.g.:

(1) Longitudinal consequent (which follows the axis of the depression or syncline in a folded
structure) and consequent streams generally join the master or

(2) Lateral consequent (which follows the sides of the longitudinal or synclinal consequent
more or less at depressions or the sides of the anticlines).

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Lateral consequent streams generally join the master or longitudinal or synclinal consequent
more or less at right angle.

b. Subsequent streams:
The streams originated after the master consequent stream and
following the axis of the anticlines or ridges and the strikes of beds are called subsequent
streams. Some of the scientists have opined that the subsequent streams originate on the
flanks of the anticlines and join the master consequent at almost right angle (which means
that the lateral consequents, as referred to above, are the subsequents) while others
maintain that the subsequents are parallel to the master consequent.
S. W. Wooldridge and R.S. Morgan (1960) have opined that it should be noted
that all the first generation tributaries to consequent streams are subsequent in the sense
that they arise subsequently to the establishment and incision of the consequent streams.
According to them „such streams, starting as gullies on the sides of the primary
consequent valleys, discover and explore belts of structural weakness, due to softer strata,
fault, or joint-planes, and shatter zones‟.
E Ahmad (1985) has remarked that “the term subsequent may be used
generally not to indicate a chronological sequence but a relation between drainage on the
one hand and geology, structure and tectonics on the other. Generally, it refers to the
streams transverse to the master consequents.”
The Asan River, a tributary of the Yamuna River and the Song River, a
tributary of the Ganga River in the Dehra Dun valley (in filled alluvial plain) are the
examples of subsequent streams while the Yamuna and the Ganga are the master
consequents.

c. Obsequent streams:
The streams flowing in opposite direction to the master
consequent are called obsequent streams. In fact, obsequent streams are also consequents
because they also follow the slopes of the ranges. The streams originating from the
northern slopes of the west-east stretching ranges of the Himalayas flow northward to
meet the east-west flowing tributaries (subsequent streams) of the southward draining
master consequent streams.
For example several streams originating from the northern slopes of the Siwalik
Range drain due northward to join east-west subsequent streams of the southward flowing
master consequents of the Ganga and the Yamuna, north of the Someshwar Range of
Dundwa Range (of the Siwalik Range). These northward flowing tributaries are the
examples of obsequent streams.
d. Resequent streams:
The tributary streams flowing in the direction of the master
consequents are called resequents. These are originated at much later date in comparison
to the master consequents. Since they are of recent origin, and hence they are called
resequent.
The resequent streams are originated during the initiation of second cycle of
erosion in a folded structure. The gradual denudation of folded mountains during the first

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cycle of erosion results into inversion of relief with the passage of time wherein anticlinal
ridges and synclinal valleys are converted into anticlinal valleys and synclinal ridges
respectively.

Thus, longitudinal streams are developed in the anticlinal valleys. These features are
peneplained by the end of the first cycle of erosion. The initiation of second cycle of
erosion begins with the excavation of new valleys in the synclines. Thus, the streams
developed in the synclinal portions become resequent streams which though analogous to
the original longitudinal consequents developed during the first cycle of erosion, but in
fact, they are hundreds of metres below the initial surface.

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Insequent Drainage System:

The streams which do not follow the regional slopes and drain across the
geological structures are called Insequent or inconsequent streams. Antecedent and
superimposed streams are the best representative examples of insequent drainage systems.

Antecedent drainage system:

Antecedent streams are those which are originated prior to the
upliftment of land surface. In other words, antecedent streams antedate the upliftment of an
upland or mountain across which they have maintained their present courses through
continuous down-cutting of their valleys. It is, thus, obvious that if a river has developed in a
particular region and if the subsequent uplift or up-warping of the land area across the pre-
existing river does not divert or deflect the course of the river and the river maintains its
previous course through down-cutting its valley at the rate equivalent to the rate of uplift of
the land area, the river is called antecedent or anti-consequent.

The nature and the rate of upliftment of land area is very important parameter
for the development of antecedent drainage system because rivers cannot maintain their
previous courses during all types of upliftment. For example, if the upliftment of the area
occurs very rapidly and is completed within a very short period of time, the rivers draining
through that area cannot maintain their previous courses because the rate of down-cutting of
their valleys cannot keep pace with the rate of the upliftment and thus the rivers are
dismembered and adopt different courses depending on local (new) conditions.

On the other hand, if the rate of upliftment is such that the rivers are able to
degrade their valleys through active downcutting (valley incision) at the rate equal to the rate
of the upliftment, they become able to maintain their previous courses and thus they become
antecedent streams. The nature and dimension of the upliftment also determine the
antecedence of the rivers. It is the local and not the regional upliftment which gives birth to
the development of antecedent streams. The origin and development of antecedent drainage
system can be explained with the help of a diagram.
River „A‟ has fully developed its valley and course in a region of
almost flat topographic surface. The river is flowing from west to east. At a later date there is
upliftment of land area across river „A‟ at point B. The land is rising in a form of a ridge with
slow rate of upliftment. This local upliftment of the land rejuvenates the river „A‟ due to
which it deepens its valley with accelerated rate of downcutting. If the rate of downcutting
(valley deepening) equals the rate of uplift the bed of the river valley remains constant and
the river maintains its usual flow direction. River „A‟ in the second stage has deepened its
valley so much so to match the rate of upliftment.
It is apparent from figure that „A‟ river has cut across the newly uplifted ridge
at „C‟ and has maintained its previous course. The river continues to deepen its valley
through active downcutting so long as the upliftment continues. Thus, the river develops very
deep and narrow gorges across the uplifted land area (ridge) wherein the valley sides are of
convex slope and rise almost vertically from the valley floor.

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Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

It may be pointed out that tributaries of the master antecedent streams cannot deepen their
valleys at par with their master streams and hence their valleys are at higher level than the
valleys of their master streams. Thus, the tributary valleys become hanging valleys.

Examples:
Examples of antecedent streams are found in almost all of the folded
mountains of the world. Many of the major Himalayan rivers are the examples of antecedent
streams e.g., the Indus, the Sutlej, the Ganga, the Ghaghra, the Kali, the Gandak, the Kosi, the
Brahmaputra etc.

Superimposed drainage system:

Like antecedent streams superimposed streams are also not adjusted to

regional geological structures and slope and thus are insequent or anti-consequent streams.
Superimposed stream means a river which, flowing on a definite geological formation and
structure, has inherited the characteristics of its previous form developed on upper geological
formation of entirely different structural characteristics.
In other words, a superimposed drainage is formed when the nature and
characteristics of the valleys and flow direction of a consequent stream developed on the
upper geological formation and structure are superim-posed on the lower geological
formation of entirely different characteristics. It is not necessary that the upper geological
formation is conformal to the lower geological formation, rather it happens that sometimes

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the upper rock cover is entirely different from the underlying geological formation viz., the
upper cover may consist of horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks while the lower cover may
be composed of folded sedimentary beds, or domed structure or batholithic intrusives.

The consequent streams are developed on almost flat ground surface of the
horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks. These streams develop their valleys through vertical
erosion (downcutting). With the passage of time the lower structure is exposed to the river
which continues its downcutting and extends its valley downward on the lower geological
structure (say anticlinal folds, domes or batholiths) and thus the valley developed on the
upper structure is superimposed on the lower structure.

The lower structure has to accept the form of the valley already developed on the entirely
different upper structure. Thus, the river maintains the form of its valley, the flow direction
and its drainage patterns as usual. Such rivers are called superimposed rivers. Had the lower
structure been present on the ground, the nature of drainage system would have certainly
been entirely different but the buried different geological structure has no alternative other
than to adapt the nature of valley and flow direction developed on the upper structure. Such
streams are unconformal to the local geological structure and slopes. Such unconformal
valleys have been named as „superimposed‟ by J.W. Powell (1857) and D. Maw (1886) and
„superposed‟ by W.J. McGee (1888).

The mechanism of the development of a superimposed stream and valley can be explained
with the help of a diagram. Figure depicts such a region which is characterized by a flat
ground surface consisting of horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks and the lower structure
of anticlinal fold.
Stages of the Development of Superimposed Drainage System

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First of all a consequent stream develops on the upper horizontally

bedded sedimentary formation. The river is flowing in harmony with the geological
formation and structure and local slope. With the passage of time the consequent stream digs
out its valley with slow process of valley deepen-ing.
In the second stage the consequent stream fully develops its valley on
horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks. Now the anticlinal part (third stage) is exposed to the
river as the upper horizon-tal beds of sedimentary rock have been removed due to gradual
downcutting.
This anticlinal lower structure is entirely different from the upper structure of
the hori-zontal beds of sedimentary rocks but the river extends its valley on this lower un-
conformal structure of anti-cline in accordance with its already developed valley on the upper
structure i.e. the river degrades the anti-cline through down-cutting and continues to develop
its valley further downward.

The development of river valley goes on unhindered because the anticline

be-comes a passive factor in controlling the development of the river valley as it has no
option other than to accept the form of the valley already developed in the upper structure.
Now the consequent river and its valley are superimposed on the anticline and the river
maintains its usual course. Had this anticline been initially exposed to the ground surface, the
drainage system would have been entirely different.

The fundamental difference between superimposed and antecedent drainage

systems lies in the fact that the former represents the superimposition of the valley developed
in the upper geological formation and structure on the lower structure irrespective of its types
and complexities but without any upliftment of the land area while the latter represents the
mainte-nance of former course of the river and its valley inspite of upliftment of the land area
across the river course due to concomitant valley deepening and up warping of the land.

Most of the rivers of the Deccan trap (lava) region of Peninsular India are superimposed
because new drainage system was evolved on the new surface formed due to cooling and
solidification of lavas erupted during late Cretaceous and early Tertiary periods and these
rivers were superimposed on the lower formation after the removal of lava covers. For
example, the Subarnarekha River is superimposed on Dalma and phyllite hills to the west of
Chandil in the south-eastern Chotanagpur plateaue region of Jharkhand.

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Drainage Patterns
Drainage pattern means the form (geometrical forms) of the drainage systems and the spatial
arrangements of streams in a particular locality or region. Generally the drainage patterns are
divided into the following types

1. Trellised Drainage Pattern

2. Dendritic Drainage Pattern
3. Rectangular Drainage Pattern
4. Radial Drainage Pattern
5. Centripetal Drainage Pattern
6. Annular Drainage Pattern
7. Barbed Drainage Pattern
8. Pinnate Drainage Pattern
9. Herringbone Drainage Pattern
10. Parallel Drainage Pattern.

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Trellised Drainage Pattern:

Trellised drainage patterns are formed by the network of tributaries and master
consequent streams which follow the regional slope and are well adjusted to the geological
structures. Such patterns are developed in the area of simple folds characterised by parallel
anticlinal ridges alternated by parallel synclinal valleys. Several master consequent
longitudinal streams valleys occupying the furrows between parallel ridges are parallel to
each other.

Several streams develop on both the flanks of the ridges and join the
longitudinal synclinal streams at right angle. These tributary streams are called as lateral
consequent streams. Thus the resultant network of numerous longitudinal streams and
transverse or lateral consequents is called trellised pattern.

This pattern also resembles the rectangular pattern. In fact, the trellised and
rectangular patterns are differentiated on the basis of spacing between the streams. If the
streams are closely spaced the resultant pattern becomes trellised while rectangular pattern is
formed when the streams are widely spaced. Trellised drainage patterns are generally formed
in the regions of cuesta topography where hard beds become escarpments and soft beds are
eroded to become valleys or lowlands.

Dendritic Drainage Pattern:

Dendritic or tree-shaped drainage pattern is the most common and widespread

pattern to be found on the earth‟s surface. The pattern is called dendritic on the ground that
the network of tributaries of various orders and magnitudes of the trunk or master stream
resembles the branches and roots and rootlets of a tree.

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The dendritic pattern is associated with the areas of homogeneous lithologies,

horizontal or very gently dipping strata, flat and rolling extensive topographic surface having
extremely low reliefs. Though dendritic pattern is independent of structural and lithological
controls but almost uniform lithology (presence of same type of rocks in extensive area)
presents most ideal condition for the development of dendritic drainage pattern.

This pattern develops in a variety of structural and lithological environments

such as in the mountainous and hilly areas (e.g., dendritic pattern is one of the dominant
patterns in the Himalayas), on extensive plateau surfaces (e.g., Deccan plateau), on peneplain
surfaces (e.g., the Peninsular peneplains of India, mostly in the basins of the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Damodar etc.), in the alleviated plains (e.g., Great
Plains of North India), in the desert plains (e.g., Rajasthan desert), in the glaciated lowland
regions (e.g., North European plains and northern lowlands of North America) etc.

Slope and permeability of rocks very effectively control the number and
extension of streams of dendritic drainage pattern. The drainage network of dendritic pattern
becomes most extensive if the land surface is characterized by flat surface, level to gentle
slopes and impermeable rocks.

Rectangular Drainage Pattern:

Rectangular pattern shows some degree of resemblance to trellised drainage

pattern as tributary streams in both the patterns join their master streams almost at right angle
but the confluence angle in the trellised pattern is guided by the strikes and dip angle of the
rock beds while it is determined by the lines of weaknesses (e.g. faults and fractures and
joints) of the rocks in the rectangular pattern. The second line of difference between these
two drainage patterns is related to the spacing of streams i.e. the rectangular pattern is
characterized by widely spaced tributaries while trellised pattern has a dense mesh of closely
spaced tributaries.

Rectangular pattern is generally developed in the regions where the rock joints
form rectangular pattern. The rocks are weathered and eroded along the interfaces of joints,

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fractures and faults and thus surface runoff collects in such long and narrow clefts (resulting
from the weathering and erosion of joints) and forms numerous small rills.

These rills are further extended in length and width and become channels.
With the march of time a network of streams is developed wherein streams follow the lines of
weakness (joints and fractures). The tributaries join their master streams almost at right
angles and thus a rectangular drainage pattern is formed.

Radial Drainage Pattern:

Radial drainage pattern, also known as centrifugal pattern, is formed by the

streams which diverge from a central higher point in all directions. It is obvious that dome
structures, volcanic cones, batholiths and laccoliths, residual hills, small tablelands, mesas
and buttes, and isolated uplands favour the development of ideal radial pattern.

The streams emerge at the central point of the aforesaid reliefs and drain down
the slopes in all directions. As the streams follow the slopes they are basically consequent
streams. These streams resemble the spokes of a wheel or the radii of a circle. If we take the
entire drainage network of Sri Lanka, it exhibits the best example of radial drainage pattern at
macro-level.

The local upland situated to the south-west of Ranchi city has given birth to
radial drainage pattern wherein the South Koel, the Subarnarekha, the Kanchi and the Karo
rivers take their sources and radiate in different directions.

Centripetal Drainage Pattern:

Centripetal or inland drainage pattern is opposite to the radial drainage pattern

because it is characterized by the streams which converge at a point which is generally a
depression or a basin. This pattern is formed by a series of streams which after emerging
from surrounding uplands converge in a central low land which may be a depression, or a
basin or a crater lake.

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The Kathmandu valley of Nepal presents an ideal example of centripetal drainage pattern
wherein the tributary streams of the Baghmati converge in the tectonically formed circular
basin. The depression formed at the top of Raigarh Dome in the Lower Chambal Basin has
given birth to centripetal drainage pattern.

Annular Drainage Pattern:

Annular pattern, also known as „circular pattern‟ is formed when the

tributaries of the master consequent streams are developed in the form of a circle. Such
pattern is developed over a mature and dissected dome mountain characterised by a series of
alternate bands of hard and soft rock beds.

The differential erosion of hard and soft rock beds results in the truncation of
the beds which produces ringed belted structure wherein relatively resistant beds project
outward whereas the weaker (soft) beds form circular clefts.

The master consequent streams emerge at the top of the dome and radiate in
all directions down the slope like radial drainage pattern whereas tributary streams develop in
the clefts formed due to erosion of soft beds, assume actuate shape and join the master
consequent streams and thus annular drainage pattern is formed. At a much later date
tributaries of circular subsequent streams, which join the radial consequents, are also
developed and thus the drainage pattern becomes a special case of trellised pattern. Annular

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drainage pattern has developed over denuded domes in the Weald of England. The mature
dissected Sonapet dome of Uttaranchal presents an ideal example of annular drainage pattern.

Barbed Drainage Pattern:

Barbed drainage pattern, a rare kind of drainage pattern, is formed when the
tributaries flow in opposite direction to their master streams. The tributaries join their master
streams in a hook-shaped bend. Such pattern is generally developed due to river capture.

Pinnate Drainage Pattern:

Pinnate pattern is developed in a narrow valley flanked by steep ranges. The

tributaries originating from the steep sides of parallel ridges join the longitudinal master
consequent occupying the valley at acute angles. The drainage network of the upper Son and
Narmada rivers denotes the example of pinnate drainage pattern. This pattern resembles the
veins of a leaf.

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Herringbone Drainage Pattern:

Herringbone drainage pattern, also known as rib pattern (like the rib bones of
human beings), is developed in mountainous areas where broad valleys are flanked by
parallel ridges having steep hillside slopes.

The longitudinal consequent streams, as master streams, are developed in the

longitudinal parallel valleys while tributaries, as lateral consequents, after originating from
the hillslopes of the bordering parallel ridges join the longitudinal consequents almost at right
angle. The courses of the tributaries are straightened because of slope factor and little
distance between the ridges and the longitudinal consequents occupying the valleys and thus
the tributaries are not allowed to adapt sinuous course and join the longitudinal consequents
at acute angles .The term herringbone has been derived from the pattern of bones of herring
fish (mainly spine bones).

The upper Jhelum River in the Vale of Kashmir receives numerous tributaries
from both the sides and thus forms herringbone drainage pattern.

Parallel Drainage Pattern:

Parallel drainage pattern comprises numerous rivers which are parallel to each
other and follow the regional slope. This pattern is more frequently developed on uniformly
sloping and dipping rock beds such as cuestas or newly emerged coastal plains.

The western coastal plains of India represent several examples of parallel

drainage patterns where the streams after taking their sources from the western flanks of the
Western Ghats drain in straight courses towards west to empty into the Arabian Sea. Parallel
drainage pattern has also developed on the Eastern Coastal Plains of India. It may be pointed
out that a sub-parallel pattern is, therefore, essentially an „initial drainage pattern‟.

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River Capture

River capture is a natural process which is more active in the youthful stage of
the valley development because the streams are actively engaged in head-ward erosion and
valley lengthening but river capture also occurs during mature and senile stages of the valley
development through the process of lateral erosion and meander intersection.

The stronger and more powerful streams (in terms of channel gradient, stream
velocity and discharge and kinetic energy) capture the upper courses of weak and sluggish
streams. Below Figure depicts the stages of the capture of the Saraswati River by the
Yamuna River.

The diversion of the part of the course of a river by another river is called stream diversion or
stream capture or stream piracy. The river which captures the course of another river is called
the capturing or captor stream while the part of the stream which has been divested of its
course and water is called the captured stream.

Evidence of River Capture:

There are four major evidences of river capture viz.:

(i) Elbow of capture, (ii) Cols, or wind gaps, (iii) Water gaps and (iv) Misfit or underfit
streams and valleys.

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The elbow of capture denotes the point where the course of the captured
stream has been diverted to the course of the captor stream. Generally, the elbow of capture
denotes sharp turn in the course of a river almost at right angle. The water gap denotes the
deep and narrow valley in the form of a gorge formed by the captor stream through headward
erosion across the ridge. Wind gap is the dry portion of the beheaded stream just below the
elbow of capture .The wind gap is also called as col. The misfit or under-fit stream is the
lower course of the captured stream. It is called misfit because of the fact that the former
valley of the captured stream becomes too large and wide for the beheaded stream because of
substantial decrease in the volume of water due to diversion of its water to the captor stream.

Conditions for River Capture:

Though the river capture is a natural process, but it does not take place
in all circumstances rather it requires certain necessary conditions. In fact, the process of river
capture depends on channel gradient, depth of river valley, volume of water, velocity and dis-
charge, lithological characteristics and geological structures, stage of cycle of erosion or the
stage of river development.

A particular river of a locality having deeper valley, more volume of water,

steeper channel gradient and hence higher velocity and kinetic energy and flowing over less
resistant and softer rocks than the other river of that region resorts to more powerful
headward erosion than the latter, and thus may usurp the water and upper reaches of the
weaker river.

It may be, thus, inferred that river capture occurs under the following conditions:

Steep channel gradient,

Relatively narrow valley so that water may not spread in the otherwise wide and flat
valleys,
Higher volume of water so that velocity and discharge may be sufficiently high,
Soft rocks so that the river may resort to rapid rate of headward erosion,
Deeper valley than the valleys of other neighbouring rivers, and
Low sediment load so that the river may resort to active erosion etc.

Types of River Capture:

It is apparent from the above discussion that the process of river capture is
effected by erosion of different sorts viz., headward erosion (valley lengthening), vertical
erosion (valley deepening or downward cutting), lateral erosion (valley widening), and
intersection of meanders (lateral erosion). Headward and lateral erosion is the most powerful
geomorphological process of river capture. It may also be pointed out that headward erosion
is more effective in terms of river capture during juvenile stage (youthful stage) of river
development while lateral erosion becomes more operative during mature stage.

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The capture of the course of a particular river by the other river through the intersection of
meanders occurs mostly during late maturity and senile stage (old stage).

Thus, the forms of river capture may be grouped in 3 broad categories viz.:

(1) Capture through headward erosion,

(2) Capture through lateral erosion, and
(3) Capture through the intersection of meanders.

(1) River capture through headward erosion:

Most of the river captures occur due to headward erosion. In the initial stage
of their development most of the streams and their tributaries are engaged in active headward
erosion resulting into continuous creeping or shifting of water divides and lengthening of
their valley thalwegs. The nature and intensity of headward erosion of any stream largely
depends on the potential energy (height of the divide) and the steepness of the side slope of
the water divide.

Generally, the side slopes of the divide are unequal. The streams originating
from the steeper slopes of the divide having relatively softer rocks and more precipitation and
relatively short channel lengths degrade their valleys through the process of valley deepening
more powerfully and resort to headward erosion at more accelerated rate than those streams
which originate from the other side of the divide having less steep slope relatively resistant
rocks and low precipitation.

Consequently, the erosive power of the former becomes much more than the
latter. The powerful stream pushes the water divide backward towards the side of gentle slope
through active headward erosion. Prolonged headward erosion by more powerful stream
flowing on the steeper hillside of the divide results in the coalescence of the sources of both
the streams on opposite sides of the divides.

Since the valley floor of the stream of the steeper side of the divide is lower
than the valley floor of the stream of the gentler side of the divide and hence the former
captures the headwater of the latter.

The process of river capture may be explained with the help of an example. Consequent
streams originate on the slopes of any uplifted landmass. The most active and the longest
consequent is called the master consequent. „A‟ is the master consequent while „B‟ is the
other consequent stream shown in below figure.

„A‟ stream is flowing through steeper slope and channel gradient than B stream and
thus the former has deepened its valley much more than the latter, with the result the valley
floor of „A‟ stream is lower than the valley floor of B stream. It is, thus, apparent that „A‟
stream is more active than B stream. A few subsequent or lateral consequent streams emerge
from the ridge and join the longitudinal consequent A and B streams at almost right angles.

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For example, C and D are the tributaries of streams A and B respectively. These two
tributaries take their sources on both the slopes of the same ridge. The valley of C would be
also deeper than the valley of D stream because the valley of the master stream of C (A) is
deeper than the valley of the receiving stream of D (B). Thus, the headward erosion by C

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stream would be more active and vigorous than the headward erosion by D stream. The water
divide is gradually pushed back (towards the source of the stream D) because of more active
headward erosion by C stream. A time comes when the C stream cuts across the ridge and
extends its course through deep and narrow valley (gorge) and captures the course of D
stream (figure-2). Now the water of the upper course of the longitudinal consequent B stream
also flows into the master consequent „A‟ stream via the integrated D and C tributary streams.
Now the water of BEDC in the form of one channel drains into „A‟ stream. This example
illustrates the capture of two streams at two stages.

First, D stream, a tributary of B stream, was captured by C stream, a tributary

of A stream through active headward erosion. Secondly, the headwaters of B stream (from
the source to E point, the elbow of capture) were diverted towards „A‟ stream via D and C
streams due to fallout of the first stage. C-D streams now flow through deeply entrenched
narrow valley known as gorge (figure-2). This narrow passage through the ridge is called
water gap (WG in Fig.). B-E portion of the former B consequent stream has become captured
stream which turns at right angle forming an elbow of capture (E in fig.2). H-B portion of the
former B consequent has now become a beheaded stream, the upper part of which is called
wind gap (wg. in fig.2) because of dry bed of the river due to capture of the upper portion of
the river. The H-B portion of the former B consequent stream has now become misfit or
under fit river because now the existing H-B stream is unable to adjust itself in its former
valley because of marked reduction in the volume of water due to diversion of its headwaters
to A stream via D-C streams as a result of river capture.

There are two evidences which enable the investigators to identify the captured streams
in the field viz.:

(i) Elbow of capture and

(ii) Wind gap just to the downstream side of the elbow.

The erosional work of the beheaded stream becomes almost nil because of marked reduction
in the volume of water.

Sometimes, the valley of the beheaded stream becomes almost dry. On the other hand, the
captor streams (fig, C and A) resort to more vertical erosion resulting into accelerated rate of
valley deepening because of marked increase in the volume of water due to additional supply
of water of D stream and headwaters of B stream (B-E portion) because of river capture.

It may be pointed out that C and D tributary streams were formerly flowing in opposite
directions (fig. 1) but now the waters of D stream flow in the direction of C stream. Thus,
such streams of reversed flow direction are called inverted streams.

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Examples:

A group of geologists and geomorphologists believe that the present drainage system of the
Himalayas is the outcome of progressive river piracy during various stages of drainage
development. The Arun Kosi, a head tributary of the Kosi river, has captured the Phung Cho,
a southern tributary of the Tsangpo (the upper part of the Brahmaputra river is called
Tsangpo) river.

Two head-tributaries of the Ganga e.g. the Bhagirathi and the Vishnuganga have captured the
source tributaries of the Sutlej River. The water divide between the tributaries of Song River
(a tributary of the Ganga River) and Asan River (a tributary of the Yamuna River) is only a
few metres wide near Dehra Dun.

It is expected that the Song River may capture the Asan River and thus the upper course of
the Yamuna may be diverted to the Ganga via the Asan and the Song rivers.

(2) River capture through lateral erosion:

Lateral erosion and consequent valley widening becomes more active and
significant during mature stage of river development than vertical erosion and valley
deepening. The water divides between parallel streams developed on sedimentary rocks of
the coastal plains are gradually narrowed down due to lateral erosion and valley widening.

The streams having more volume and discharge of water and relatively
steeper channel gradient than the other streams resort to more lateral erosion due to which
smaller-parallel tributaries are consumed by the larger parallel streams. This process of river
capture is called stream abstraction or natural selection.

(3) River capture through the intersection of meanders:

The streams adopt highly sinuous and meandering courses during their late
mature and old stages of development because of the development of level to gentle slopes
(0° -5°) over major part of the area concerned. The meanders of two closely spaced streams
are gradually sharpened due to continuous lateral erosion and ultimately they intersect each
other and thus relatively more powerful stream captures the waters of the other stream.

The Belan river, a tributary of the Tons river (which is itself a tributary of the
Ganga river), has captured the lower course of its tributary, the Seoti river near Deoghat
(about 80 km south of Allahabad city) through meander intersection and now has pushed its
course through the course of the Seoti while its older course, now an example of a
palaeochannel, has become quite narrow due to sedimentation and anthropogenic processes
(cultivation). Due to this unique process of river capture the confluence of the Belan-Seoti
Rivers has been pushed about 6 km upstream. The older (palaeo) valley of the Belan now has
become misfit valley.

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Numerous cases of river capture have occurred in the Himalayan region. In

fact, the present drainage system of the Himalayas is, to greater extent, the result of
progressive stream piracy. The headward erosion has been the most active process of river
capture in the Himalayas and the Western Ghats.

The water divide between the headwaters of the Savitri river (draining into the
Arabian Sea) and the Krishna river (draining into to the Bay of Bengal) at the margin of the
Mahabaleshwar plateau (Maharashtra) is very narrow. The Krishna River may capture the
headwaters of the Savitri in near future. The process of river capture through lateral erosion
and intersection of meanders is more active in the coastal plains and the Great Northern
Plains (India).

Source: Physical Geography Savindra Singh, McKnight Physical Geography, Wikipedia, etc.

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