CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION.

1.10 Introduction

Training is a key factor in enhancing the efficiency and expertise of the work force which
makes Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme an integral part of the requirement
according to National University Commission (NUC) directives and is jointly
sponsored by the Federal government via Industrial Training Fund which was established in
1971 in accordance with decree 43 to train indigenous man power to meet the need of
the nation in production of goods and services. The Student’s Industrial Work
Experience Scheme (SIWES) is that skilled training program aimed at exposing and
preparing undergraduate students for industrial working technologies and conditions so as to
create a harmony and bridge the gap between the theoretical knowledge and the industrial
experience and also in preparation for future employment. The SIWES program was
introduced by the Federal Government in 1974.

Industrial Training (IT) has been a mandatory requirement in University’s degree, and
attracts the highest credit unit. The need for the industrial training arises from the Federal
Government’s directive and the university’s policy on the subject:

“All students in higher institutions of learning must, of necessity undergo a

compulsory period of industrial training with reputable and accredited organization in
order to satisfy the university requirement”.

The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) is the Federal Government agency charged with the
responsibility of mediating between the tertiary institutions and the industries in order to
enable students to participate in industrial activities prior to their graduation.

The objective of this report is to give a detailed description of the six-month industrial
training experience, otherwise known as Student’s Industrial Work Experience Scheme
(SIWES) at the faculty of Agriculture Teaching and research farm Nnamdi Azikiwe
university Awka Campus from may to October 2018.

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1.1.1 Aims & Objectives of the SIWES Programme

The aims and objectives of the students Industrial work experience scheme as contained in
SIWES handbook, 2018 are as fellows;

 Provide an avenue for students in Nigerian Universities to acquire industrial skills

and experience in the course of study.
 Prepare students for the work situation they are likely to meet after graduation
 Expose students to the work methods and techniques in handling equipment and
machinery that may not be available in the universities.
 Make a transition from the university to the world of work easier and thus enhance
student’s contacts for later job placement.
 Provide students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real
work situation, thereby bridging the gap between work and actual practice.
 Enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entire educational process of
university graduates for employment in the industry.

1.1.2 Objectives of the Report.

The sole aim and primus objective of this report, in line with the tenant of the SIWES scheme
is to fully acquaint the SIWES coordinating unit of the department of Crop science and
horticulture coordinator with an elaborate, well detailed and extensive write up on my array
of activities, research/studies/project, seminars/lectures, field trips and other invaluable
industrial work experience that I gathered throughout the duration of my mandatory SIWES
programme in my place of primary industrial training attachment at the Faculty of
Agriculture Farm, Nnamdi Azikiwe university Awka Campus. Also this report work goes
further to serve as an expository into tales of my academic ingenuity, theoretical excellence
and industrial/practical dexterity in my place of work even as it goes on to further outline
some of the problem I encountered during the period in review, my advice to future IT
student plus other key points. Thus buttressing and concretely authenticating my claim of not
only participated in the industrial training exercise but also having participated effectively as
part of the fulfilment of the requirements of the course, (SIWES programme for crop science
and horticulture students).

2
1.1.3 The Role of Federal Government in SIWES Management.

The role of federal government in management of SIWES functions include;

a. Provisional of adequate fund of scheme.

b. It makes it mandatory for all ministries, companies and parastatals to offer
places for attachment to student and also, contribute funds for effective
management of SIWES function.

1.1.4 The Role of Industrial Training Fund (ITF)

The role of ITF includes.

a. Formation of guidelines and polices on SIWES.

b. Organization of orientation programmes for students prior to SIWES
Attachment.
c. Receive and process master and placement lists from institutions.
d. Provision of logistics and materials necessary for the effective management of
the scheme.
e. Provide insurance cover for students on SIWES attachment.
f. Supervise students on SIWES attachment.
g. Disburse supervisory and student Allowances.

1.1.5 The Role of Students

The role of students in SIWES functions includes:
a. Attend SIWES orientation programme organized by institution in conjunction with
ITF
b. Be obedient to constituted authorities.
c. Be regular and punctual to work.
d. Avoid change of place of SIWES attachment outsides the allowed time frame.
e. Complete, endorse and submit promptly all necessary document to the SIWES unit of
their respective institutions.
f. To be good ambassadors of their respective institutions by being honest, intelligent
and protect employers properties

3
g. To complete SPE-1 Form and get it endorsed by their employers who will forward
same to ITF.
h. To record all training activities and other assignment in the log-book and complete
ITF Form -8 to ensure proper assessments.

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 CHAPTER TWO:

OVERVIEW OF THE FOURTH YEAR PROGRAM.

2.10 Brief History of Fourth Year Programme in the Faculty of

Agriculture

The Fourth year farm practical programme of the Faculties of Agriculture in Nigerian
Universities began in 1977/78 academic year with the Faculty of Agriculture, University of
Nigeria being the first to adopt the programme in the nation. The programme was designed to
be an intensive practical training in all aspects of agricultural production encompassing the
requirements for the students Industrial Work Experience (SIWES) which all students in
professional courses in Nigerian Universities must do.

The practical year experience in farming is in line with the National University
Commissions’ requirements for the fourth year academic programme of students in the
faculty of Agriculture in Nigerian Universities. It is also in line with the Students’ industrial
Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) which is aimed at providing skilled training programme
that will expose and prepare students for industrial work situations they are likely to meet
after graduation.

This practical year in agriculture is a unique, comprehensive, and complete collection of

topics in diverse areas of agriculture. Like any other area in science, both the scope and depth
of our knowledge in agriculture are rapidly expanding. Agriculturists are continuously
making new discoveries.

The practical year in agriculture will no doubt enable the students become professionals who
would be able to face the challenges and risks encountered in real life situations and take the
right decisions that will enable them break-even despite the challenges. To gain the practical
experience needed for such decision making, students need to be exposed to full scale
cropping (from land preparation to crop maturity and harvest) practices, animal production

5
techniques and management of different species of farm animals, economics of farming and
agricultural extension practices. The Department of crop science and horticulture, Nnamdi
Azikiwe University Awka Campus began in 2010/2011 academic year and students practical
experience year was first done from October 2014 to October 2015. We happen to be the
third set of students to undertake the practical training in the teaching and research farm to
the faculty.

2.1.1 Faculty of Agriculture Nnamdi Azikiwe University Organogram.

Dean office
H O S Animal
science section

Head Of Departments H O S Crop science

section

Lab technicians H O S Soil science

section

H O S Agric
Sales manager
economics section

I T students H O S Fishery
section

Key;

HOS – Head Of Section

IT-industrial training

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 CHAPTER THREE:

CROP SCIENCE SECTION.

3.10 MAIZE PRODUCTION

Maize (Zea mays), called corn in some region of the world, it is a grass of tropical origin that
has become the major grain crop in the world in term of total production, with recent
production around 800million tons per year. Most maize grains produced is used as animal
feed. In less developed countries it is however, also a staple feed. Maize originated under
warm, seasonally dry conditions of Mesoamerica and was by human selection converted from
low-yielding progenitor species into its modern from, with a large rachis (cob) of the female
inflorescence bearing up to 100 seeds. Maize is a C4 plant and is very efficient in water use.
If subjected to water stress, however, especially during the mid-season pollination process,
yield can be much decreased. Crop management needs to be attuned to this moisture
sensitivity and planting date. Cultivar and husbandry should be designed to minimize the
chance of water storage in the mid-season period. As again crop with high yield potential,
maize and adequate nutrient supply, while the effect of weeds, insect and diseases especially
during the reproductive period, should be minimized. Tillage is often carried out before
planting but maize yields can be as high without tillage as they are with tillage in Northern
Nigeria. Minimum or no tillage helps to conserve water while maintaining good yields.
Planting rates needs to be matched to the capability of the soil and my range from less than
20,000 to more than 100,000 plants per hectare depending on available soil water and nutrient
i.e. in general, the nutrient/fertility status of the soil.

Maize (Zea mays) is the most important and most widely distributed cereal in the world after
wheat and rice. It is used for three main purposes:

a. As a staple food

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 b. As food for livestock
c. As a raw material for many industrial uses including bio-fuel production.

Maize is one of the major crop in Nigeria, occupying double the area of any other crop in the
country. In sub-humid and semi-arid regions in Africa and Latin America, maize is often
consumed green (boiled and roasted), boiled (dry) with beans and ground into flour, cooked
and eaten as thick porridge. In these countries, it is a staple crop and a major complement of
the diet base on the traditional root crops like cassava, sweet potatoes, and yam. In South-
East Asia, the importance of maize as a food crop is overruled by rice. Most of the maize
produced in Nigeria is concentrated in the North and middle belt, the largest area in Nigeria
where soils and climate are well suited to large-scale maize production due to high amounts
of sunlight available, low disease development and excellent soils. Maize was the staple food
for a number of civilizations in the Americas over several millennia proceeding the arrival of
Europeans in the late 15th century. From its origin some 7,000 years ago, in the sub-tropics of
central America probably in the region of the period-day border between Guatemala and
Mexico. Maize has spread across the globe, with production in nearly every temperate region
of the world and to a lesser extent in tropical and subtropical areas.

3.1.1 BOTANY

Maize (Zea mays) is a thick-stemmed annual grass, usually with a single stem, one to four
meter tall, with one or more trillers. It is monoecious and diclinous with male and female
inflorescences born separately on the same plant. Maize has a high photosynthesis efficiency
which is made possible by the specialized anatomical and biochemical features that enable a
so called C4 photosynthesis. This trait is shared by only a few other crops, including sorghum
and sugarcane. Legumes and most other grass crops have what is known as C3
photosynthesis which render them less responsive to high light and temperature, hence,
lower-yielding. Human interventure in the development of maize as a crop is aided by the
fact that maize is a monoecious crop with separate male (the tassel) and the female (the ear)
flower structures born on the same plant. Most unusually, the male and female flowers are
separated by a distance of one or more metres and pollen must travel this distance in order to
effect pollination. Pollen are dispersed by wind, making maize highly cross-pollinated. At the
same time, it is relatively easy to capture pollen from the tassel and to prevent pollination by

8
covering the extended pistils before they emerge. This aids in controlling pollination and
enables the making of planned crosses between or within plants.

plate1: Crop science maize farm. plate2: Checking of a diseased plant.

3.1.2 ECOLOGY AND GROWTH REQUIREMENTS

SOIL

Maize thrives well in most soils, as far as they are deep (more than one metre) and fertile, and
have a good water holding capacity. Maize grows best on sandy-clay loam, loamy and silty
clay soils. It is less adapted to compact clays and sands. The major soil factor is soil water
storage, and this is determined by soil texture and structure. Available soil moisture is a
major element of success in rain-fed maize production, particularly where the rains are not
uniformly distributed over the season. In this case, the plant has to rely on the moisture stored
in the root zone to overcome the temporary water deficit.

LAND PREPARATION

The land for maize production in the faculty of Agriculture, Unizik was cleared and harrowed
mechanically which adequately removes weeds and kept the soil loss for good seedbed.
Ridges were made by the students 6x2 metres and in between furrows.

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MANURING

The individual beds were manured by applying 25kg of poultry manure for the two beds.
After manuring and subsequent watering, the bed was allowed for 4-7 days before planting
for proper curring.

PLANTING

Early planting type is planted between March and April. Late maize planting is between July
and August or exactly in August. Maize can be planted any time depending on the rate of
rainfall in the area. The maize was planted in May and harvested in August by the students.
Two seeds were planted per hole.

WEEDING

Weeding of the maize farm was carried out 14-21 days after planting or as soon as necessary
to avoid the plant from competing with weeds for growth nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium and also for increase in yield. Weeding was done manually using hand
weeding, hoe and cutlass.

MULCHING

Mulching improves nutrient retention in the soil. It encourages favourable soil microbial
activity and worms. Mulching helps to retain moisture, prevent soil erosion, control weeds
and it adds nutrients to the soil. The bed was mulched using dry grasses.

MATURITY

Maize (Zea mays) matures 3-4 months or 90-120mdays after planting.

HARVESTING

Maize can be harvested either green or dry but mostly harvested green. It was harvested on a
small scale by the cobs.

3.2 RICE FARMING

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Rice is an increasingly important crop in Nigeria. It is relatively easy to produce and is grown
for sale and for home consumption. In some areas there is a long tradition of rice growing,
but for many, rice has been considered a luxury food for special occasions only. With the
increased availability of rice, it has become part of the everyday diet of many in Nigeria.

3.2.1 LAND PREPARATION

Before rice can be planted, the soil should be in the best physical condition for crop growth
and the soil surface is level. Land preparation involves plowing and harrowing to ‘till’ or dig-
up, mix and level the soil.

Tillage allows the seeds to be planted at the right depth, and also helps with weed control.
Farmers can till the land themselves using hoes and other equipment or they can be assisted
by draft animals, such as buffalo, or tractors and other machinery.

Next, the land is leveled to reduce the amount of water wasted by uneven pockets of too-deep
water or exposed soil. Effective land leveling allows the seedlings to become established
more easily, reduces the amount of effort required to manage the crop, and increases both
grain quality and yields.

3.2.2 PROPAGATION OF RICE.

Rice can be propagate using seed paddy rice the paddy rice is soak in water and stirred
vigorously till the healthy rice settles at the bottom of the bucket and the is then removed
(those that don't settle or floating paddy rice). The sorted paddy rice is taken to the nursery to
be broadcasted in order to emerge as seedling.

The two main practices of establishing rice plants are transplanting and direct seeding.

Transplanting is the most popular plant establishment technique across Asia. Pre- germinated
seedlings are transferred from a seedbed to the wet field. It requires less seed and is an
effective method to control weeds, but requires more labor. Seedlings may be transplanted by
either machine or hand.

Direct seeding involves broadcasting dry seed or pre-germinated seeds and seedlings by hand
or planting them by machine. In rainfed and deepwater ecosystems, dry seed is manually
broadcast onto the soil surface and then incorporated either by ploughing or by harrowing

11
while the soil is still dry. In irrigated areas, seed is normally pre- germinated prior to
broadcasting.

PLATE3;Rice nursery. Plate4;Transplanting of rice seedling to the field.

3.2.3 WATER USE AND MANAGEMENT

Cultivated rice is extremely sensitive to water shortages. To ensure sufficient water, most rice
farmers aim to maintain flooded conditions in their field. This is especially true for lowland
rice. Good water management in lowland rice focuses on practices that conserve water while
ensuring sufficient water for the crop.

In rainfed environments when optimal amounts of water may not be available for rice
production, a suite of options are available to help farmers cope with different degrees and
forms of water scarcity. It includes sound land preparation and pre-planting activities
followed by techniques such as saturated soil culture, alternate wetting and drying, raised
beds, mulching, and use of aerobic rice that can cope with dryer conditions.

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Crop health

The rice plant has a wide array of ‘enemies’ in the field. These include rodents, harmful
insects, viruses, diseases, and weeds. Farmers manage weeds through water management and
land preparation, by hand weeding, and in some cases herbcide application. Understanding
the interactions among pests, natural enemies, host plants, other organisms, and the
environment allows farmers to determine what if any pest management may be necessary.

Avoiding conditions that allow pests to adapt and thrive in a particular ecosystem helps to
identify weak links in the pests' life cycle and therefore what factors can be manipulated to
manage them. Retaining natural ecosystems such that predators and natural enemies of pests
and diseases are kept in abundance can also help keep pest numbers down.

Harvesting is the process of collecting the mature rice crop from the field. Depending on the
variety, a rice crop usually reaches maturity at around 105–150 days after crop establishment.
Harvesting activities include cutting, stacking, handling, threshing, cleaning, and hauling.
Good harvesting methods help maximize grain yield and minimize grain damage and
deterioration.

3.2.4 HARVESTING OF RICE.

You can harvest your rice in the next 4 month when your rice turn from green to brown(straw
colour). Thresh carefully immediately after harvest to avoid losses. You can Use wacking
frames or mechanical devices. Thresh on a mat or tarpaulin over the concrete floor by beating
rice against the floor, or against a stick or drum.

Note 1* Do not thresh on a bare floor. Thresh carefully and avoid dehusking the grains.
Damaged grains become stained and coloured after parboiling and milling.

Note 2* After rice harvesting, you should grow leguminous plants like beans, peas, lentils,
soya etc and also plow rice residues into the soil; this serve as organic matters and helps in
maintaining the soil nutrients for another planting.

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3.3 CASSAVA PRODUCTION.

cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is cultivated mainly in the tropic and sub-tropic regions
of the world, over a wide range of environmental and soil conditions. It is very tolerant of
drought and heat stress and produces well on marginal soils. It is an important dietary staple
in many countries within the tropical regions of the world (Perez and Villamayor, 1984),
where it provides food for more than 800 million people (FAO, 2007). As a subsistence crop,
cassava is the third most important carbohydrate food source in the tropics after rice and
maize, providing more than 60% of the daily calorific needs of the populations in tropical
Africa and Central America (Nartey, 1978).

According to Alexandratos (1995), cassava plays an important role in alleviating food

problems, because it thrives and produces stable yields under conditions in which other crops
fail.Cassava is a versatile crop and can be processed into a wide range of products such as
starch, flour, tapioca, beverages and cassava chips for animal feed. Cassava is also gaining
prominence as an important crop for the emerging biofuel industry and, as corroborated by
Ziska et al. (2009), is a potential carbohydrate source for ethanol production. A well planned
strategy for the developmentand utilisation of cassava and cassava products can provide
incentives for farmers, crop vendors and food processors to increase their incomes. It can also
provide food security for households producing and consuming cassava and cassava products
(Plucknett et al., 1998).

Traditionally, cassava has been grown by farmers throughout the Bahama Islands and has
been of particular importance to small farmers of the central and southeastern islands, where
it is still cultivated. It is a crop that is generally grown on marginal lands with a minimum of
agricultural inputs (Hillocks et al., 2002). Once established, the cassava crop is given little
attention, but still is able to tolerate weed competition, as well as insect pests and diseases.
The potential exists for improving the productivity of cassava through better agronomic
practices, superior varieties and pest and disease management.

14
3.3.1 PREPARING THE SOIL FOR CASSAVA STEM PLANTING.

To develop well, cassava roots need soil that has been loosened by the hoe or plough. So till
deeply, to 20 or 25 centimetres, so that the roots can get well down.

After tilling, at the beginning of the rainy season, make mounds or ridges. This breaks up the
soil and it stores up water; the roots have plenty of loose earth in which to develop.

If fertilizers or manure are used, work them into the soil when it is tilled.

Sow them a little before the rains, and dig them in after 5 to 18 months of leafy growth.

How to Propagate Cassava.

Cassava is propagated by planting cassava stem.

The roots of cassava are not used for making a new plantation, and thus all the harvest can be
eaten or sold.

To make cuttings, choose stems 2 to 4 centimetres thick, from the strongest plants which are
not diseased and which have already produced tubers.

After the harvest, tie the selected stems in bundles. Wait at least 10 days before planting
them.

Keep the bundles in a cool, dry place until planting time.

But remember that the cuttings must not be made from the stems until you are ready to plant.

Cut each stem into pieces 20 to 30 centimetres long. There should be 4 to 6 growth buds on
each piece. Each stem can be made into 4 or 5 cuttings.

How to plant cassava

To plant cassava, push into the soil the end of the piece of stem that was nearer to the ground.

Plant the cuttings in mounds or ridges. Plant when the soil is quite wet, after the beginning of
the rainy season. Plant the cuttings either straight or slanting. Push them well into the earth,
leaving only 2 or 3 buds above ground.

15
Cassava cuttings may be planted straight or slating

Press the earth well down round the cuttings. Then the roots that develop will be well
nourished by the soil.

Usually the rows are 1 to 1.5 metres apart, and the plants 1 metre apart.

But the number of cuttings to the hectare varies with the region, soil and variety.

If cassava is planted at the right density, the yield is heavy; the roots occupy all the soil and
fewer weeds grow, so that fewer cultivations are needed.

Plate5;Ridge making process. Plate6;Cassava farm

3.3.2 CONTROL OF WEEDS

Weed when the cassava plants are 20 to 25 centimetres high, that is, 3 or 4 weeks after
planting.

Weed a second time 1 or 2 months after the first. Earth up the plants at the same time.

3.3.3 HARVESTING

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Depending on the variety, harvesting of cassava for food may begin from the seventh month
after planting the cuttings for early varieties, or after the tenth month for late varieties.

Before this, the tubers are too small. In addition, they still contain too much prussic acid.

At harvesting time, that is, between the sixth and the twelfth month, each fully grown tuber of
cassava may weigh 1 or 2 kilogrammes, depending on the variety.

In small family plantations you can harvest me tubers as you neeg the stems, begin by taking
the biggest tubers from each plant, leaving the smaller ones time to fatten up.

If you are selling to a factory, you must harvest all the cassava at the same time. The
production of roots and starch is highest 18 to 20 months after planting.

3.4 ARABLE AND VEGETABLE CROPS PRODUCTION REPORT

Crop production is an important aspect of Agriculture that cannot be ignored. It encompasses

a massive portion of agriculture and human life because man cannot survive without food.
Crop production involves different production practices, management practices, labor and to
some extent some amount of money. Each type of crop production require different
production practices, example in permanent crop production a nursery is required to raise the
plant seedlings before they are transplanted to the field while arable crop production may
require making of seed beds. The following are stages that are most likely followed in crop
production practices.

 Site selection
 Land Preparation ( Ploughing and harrowing)
 Mapping out the land
 Making of seed beds or Nursery construction
 Seed planting/ Trans-planting
 Special Practices if any
 Weeding
 Fertilizer application,
 Harvesting
 Storage and processing.

17
Aside for the above listed procedures for crop production, some crops may require a unique
operation that are only applicable to them alone and these practices can be referred to as
special practices. We official started the field work on the 18th of January 2018 with the
lecturer in charge Dr Ndukwe Okorie .O, who first of all welcomed us to the practical year.
We commenced the business of the day by and started by Dr. Ndukwe Okorie .O
commenting on the issue of attendance stating how compulsory it was. He pointed out the
issue of getting our IT forms and log book from SIWES office and also laid emphases on the
importance of recording all the activities carried out each day during the period of our
practical year. He further divided the course crop production into two groups which are;

 Arable crop production: This class deals with crop that complete its life cycle in 1yr
or 2yrs e.g. maize and rice e.t.c.
 Permanent crop production: This class deals with crops that exceeds 2yrs in its life
cycle completion e.g. plantain, citrus and oil palm etc. He made us to know the
meaning of Horticultural crops which he said were crops you can consume fresh e.g.
vegetables like tomatoes etc.

3.4.1 NURSERY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

On the 19th of January 2018 the students converged at the faculty, where Dr. Ndukwe
briefed us on the day’s activity before moving into the farm where considerations were made
for the best direction to erect the nursery house. It was agreed that the nursery house should
be erected along the farm in a longitudinal direction. The students were meant to know that a
nursery can be in pots or polyethene bags. He further distinguished between poly pots and
seed beds stating that in poly pots the roots of the seedlings are easier to manage when
transplanting to the field compared to seed beds whose seedling roots are difficult to manage.

TYPES OF NURSERY HOUSE

 Screen house: In this case you can cover part of the house with polyethene
 Green house: Here the environment is controlled. This kind of nursery house is either
automatically or manually operated.
 Ordinary nursery house: This is the conventional type constructed by using bamboo
and palm fronds.
IMPORTANCE OF NURSERY OPERATIONS

18
  It also enhances seedlings vigor in the field.
 It ensures uniformity of the seedlings in the field.

CONSTRUCTION OF NURSERY SHADE AND MAKING OF NURSERY BED

The construction of nursery shade and making of nursery bed was done on the 19th of
January 2018 according to departments. A total of four (4) nursery houses compartments
were built and were made simultaneously. Some of the materials used for the construction
included:

 Bamboo (gotten within the school premises for forming the skeleton of the house)
 Palm fronds (for roofing the house)
 Rope/twine (which served as nail for tying of the palm fronds and bamboo)
 Machete (for cutting the bamboo into sizes)
 Shovel and Hoe (for digging and making the bed)
 Rake (for smoothening and removing debris from the bed and its surrounding).
DIMENSION OF THE NURSERY

The measurements of the Nursery bed were taken by Dr. Ndukwe alongside with the students
to be 3meter long and 2.5meter wide with a furrow in between the two beds which was
0.5meter wide, making the exact measurement for each bed to be 3m x 1m with a furrow of
0.5m in between. The height of the shade above the ground was given as 2.0meter with a
0.5m length under the ground.

THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN CONSTRUCTING A NURSERY HOUSE

 Direction of the sun: It was said by Dr. Ndukwe that the nursery should be
constructed towards the East-West direction for maximum utilization of the sunlight.
 Height of the nursery: The height of the nursery house should be high enough to
avoid direct heat of sun light on the seedlings.
 The Topography of the area: The site for the construction of a nursery house must be
relatively plain to avoid flooding.
TREATMENT APPLICATION/ BROADCASTINGS OF SEEDS

19
On the 21st February 2018, the students converged at the faculty where Dr. Ndukwe took the
regular attendance before proceeding to the farm. In his words, watering of the soil before
broadcasting the seeds was necessary reason being that the seeds are too small and could be
easily washed away if watered after broadcasting. Sign posts were made for easy
identification of the different portions for the four (4) departments. He highlighted the
importance of curing of organic manure before using it because fresh organic manure could
scorch the roots of plants as a result of heat released during decomposition. So it would be
better to cure before use or fertigation practice should be adopted (i.e. soaking the poultry
manure in water for some time and apply as liquid manure).

The treatment used was poultry manure, in which three (3) buckets of dried poultry manure
was sprayed for each bed and later incorporated into the soil. The four (4) seedlings to be
raised was balloted by the course representatives of the four departments. And the result was;

 Soil Science- Green Amaranths Seeds

 Crop Science and Horticulture- Scent Leaf Seeds
 Animal Science- Curry Seeds
 Agricultural Economics and Extension- Eggplant Seeds.
Adequate watering was done followed by the broadcasting of the seeds on each bed as was
carried out by Dr. Ndukwe earlier with the assistance of the students. After that my
department made a time table for watery.

SPROUTING OF THE SEEDLING

On the 24th of February 2018, it was observed that 10-20% of the Eggplant seeds had
emerged with other seeds in other department. It took 3 days for the seeds to start emerging.
It was also observed that the green amaranths has the highest emergence rate.

MAPPING OUT OF INDIVIDUAL PLOT

The mapping of individual plot was done on 25th March, 2018. Dr. Ndukwe alone side Mr
Nwosu allocated a 4m x 1m plot with a furrow space of 0.5. Dr. Ndukwe laid emphases on
proper tillage of the soil because an untilled soil hinders the growth of the plant’s roots. The
opening of the water channel was a subject of concern to Dr Ndukwe as it would help prevent
flooding and permit easy water movement.

PLOT ALLOCATION/ BED MAKING

20
Dr Ndukwe allocated the four (4) plots to the students, a deadline was given for making the
four beds. Although two (4) beds was supposed to be made before the 19th of march.

NURSERY OBSERVATIONS

o It was observed that the growth of the seedlings were not uniform
o It was observed that the leaves were turning white (necrosis) due to a reaction of a
defoliate insecticide that was sprayed by Mr. Nwosu Boniface the farm supervisor
o That some of the seeds did not germinate which Dr. Ndukwe said that it might be
because of seeds dormancy or in proper watering of the beds.
o It was observed that the scent leave planted by the department of Crop science and
Horticulture had the least emergence rate and performed relatively poor. Dr. Ndukwe
attributed this to poor watering of the bed and the use of in viable seeds.

LIMITATIONS

 Poor watering of the beds on the part of the students affected the proper growth of the
nursery crops.
 Poorly cured poultry manure caused root scorch on the tender crops.
RECOMMENDATIONS

 Planting of good and viable seeds.


 Proper curing of the poultry manure before use

Plate;7 Dr Ndukwu addressing the student. Plate8; Nursery bed for amaranth plant.

21
Plate9; potted Rough lemon seedling
3.5 GREEN VEGETABLE (Amaranthus hybridus).
DESCRIPTION

Amaranthus, collectively known as Amaranth and belonging to the family Amaranthaceae

can be cultivated as a leaf vegetable or as an ornamental plant. Amaranthus hybridusis an
annual herb with an upright, light green stem that grows to about 60-100cm in height.
Numerous branches emerge from the base and the leaves are ovate, 3-6cm long, 2-4cm wide,
with long petioles of about 5cm. The plant has terminal panicles with few branches, and
small green flowers with three stamens.

SITE SELECTION

After putting into consideration some of the factors affecting site selection and
accommodating some unavoidable limitations, the land in front of the faculty was selected for
transplanting the Amaranthus hybridus seedlings which is currently been used for vegetable
and horticultural farming practices under the department of crop science and horticulture.

LAND CLEARING

The land in general was cleared, ploughed and harrowed by a tractor contracted by the
faculty. Although, the plot allocated for Amaranthus hybridus cultivation was subsequently
cleared again with machetes and hoes by the students involved because some weeds were
observed to have started emerging.

SEEDLINGS BED MAKING

The bed was made on the 28th of February 2018 immediately after the plot was allocated.
The dimension for the bed was given as 4m x 1m with a 0.5m furrow channel. Dr. Ndukwe

22
instructed we till and pulverize the soil properly to facilitate easy penetration of root of crops
and also that the furrow channels should be properly opened and made uniformly to enhance
easy movement of water down the slope which would prevent water logging in some areas of
the farm. He also stated that a sign post which contained the student’s registration number
and department should be mounted at each bed to enable easy identification. The sign post
was mounted on the 2nd of march 2018.

TRANSPLANTING

The first rainfall took place on the 9th March 2018. The next day been 10st of March 2018,
the students converged at the faculty before moving into the farm where Dr Ndukwe
alongside Mr Boniface Nwaosu addressed us pertaining the need to have a complete 4m x 1m
well pulverized bed. The students were also enlighten us on how and when to transplant to
avoid inflicting transplanting shock on the seedlings. Transplanting was done on the 21st of
March 2016 at the cool of the evening to prevent Transplanting Shock. Before transplanting,
the border effect of 20 cm left, right, top and bottom was observed which avoided washing
down the nutrient away from the seedlings and preventing logging of the seedlings. Twenty
(20) seedlings were transplanted with a ball of earth, one seedling per a hole.

PLANTS POPULATION

A total of twenty (20) seedlings were transplanted by each student. The planting distance was
given as 60cm x 40cm between and along rows, making a population of 10 Amaranth stand
per row.

WATERING

Immediately after transplanting, we were advice to water the seedling sufficiently. Watering
was done on a daily bases during the period of inconsistent rainfall. But as the rain became
more consistent, watering was done 3-5 times a week morning and evening respectively

MULCHING

23
Mulching was done the second day after transplanting been the 29th of March 2018 and this
helped to conserve soil moisture thereby ensuring a relatively cooler soil temperature.

WEEDING

Slight weeding by hand picking the weeds were done on a weekly bases starting from the 5th
of April 2018 due to the presence of the mulch which help to minimize weed growth.

TREAMENT APPLICATION

Urea a single inorganic fertilizer which contains 46% nitrogen, useful for the vegetative
growth of the crop was applied on the 8th of April 2018 just immediately after the rain. The
fertilizer was applied using a match box as the yardstick for measuring out 50g/plant’s stand.
Application was done at the rate of 1kg per bed, so the 20 seedlings was given 50g of
fertilizer using ring method of fertilizer application.

HARVESTING

Harvesting was done individually. It was done mostly on Fridays so as to have a general
harvest and subsequent sales. The vegetable was harvested using a small kitchen knife.

PEST CONTROL EXPERIMENT

It was observed that certain leaf defoliators which included caterpillars, army worm,
grasshoppers, e.t.c were responsible for the defoliation of crop in a bid to solve this problem
organically, I had to research on the best way to curtail the excesses caused by this insects
and I came across Neem plant extract. I had to extract this neem sap locally by boiling,
macerating and sieving the sap which was applied twice a day for one weeks and at the
completion of the one weeks period, my Amaranthus hybridus and maize was rejuvenated
again.

OBSERVATIONS

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  It was observed that the inorganic manure boasted the vegetative growth 0f the
Amaranthus hybridus faster than organic manure.
 Proper harvesting of the leaves of the Amaranthus hybridus will stimulate it to
producing mores leaves.
 It was observed that after the seedlings were transplanting to the field, some leaves
faded away before it sprout out new leaves.
 It was observed that caterpillars were rapidly eating up the leaves.
 It was observed that Scorching due to inappropriate application of fertilizer.

LIMITATIONS

 Water logging of the soil as it approaches raining season

 I noticed the effect of leaf defoliators on some of my Amaranthus hybridus leaves
 No soil test was carried out.
RECOMMENDATIONS

 Regular harvesting of the leaves

 Use of Neem extract to prevent the leaf defoliators.
 Appropriate application of fertilizer should be done to avoid scorching of the roots
of the plants.
 Proper prior soil test should be carried out to enhance accurate application of
fertilizer.

3.6 CUCUMBER SECTION (Cucumis sativus)

Description

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is a widely cultivated plant in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae.
It is a creeping vine that bears cylindrical fruits that are used as culinary vegetables. The
cucumber is originally from South Asia, but now grows on most continents. The cucumber is
a creeping vine that roots in the ground and grows up trellises or other supporting frames,
wrapping around supports with thin, spiraling tendrils. The plant has large leaves that form a

25
canopy over the fruit. The fruit of the cucumber is roughly cylindrical, elongated with tapered
ends, and may be as large as 60cm in length and 10cm in diameter.

SITE SELECTION

After putting into consideration some of the factors affecting site selection and
accommodating some unavoidable limitations, the land in front of the faculty was selected
and found suitable for the production of the named crop.

LAND CLEARING

The land in general was cleared, ploughed and harrowed by a tractor contracted by the
faculty. Although, the plot allocated for Cucumis sativus cultivation was subsequently cleared
again with machetes and hoes by the students involved because some weeds were observed to
have started emerging.

SEED BED MAKING

The bed was made on the 18th of April 2018 immediately after the plot was allocated. The
dimension for the bed was given as 4m x 1m with a 0.5m furrow channel. Dr. Ndukwe
instructed we till and pulverize the soil properly to facilitate easy penetration of root of crops
and also that the furrow channels should be properly opened and made uniformly to enhance
easy movement of water down the slope which would prevent water logging in some areas of
the farm. He also stated that a sign post which contained the student’s registration number
and department should be mounted at each bed to enable easy identification.

PLANTING/ PLANTING POPULATION.

The cucumber seeds was planted on the fourth plot on the 26 th of April. Ten (10) seeds were
given by Mr Boniface Nwosu and they were planted two seeds per hole using the plant
spacing of 60cm by 40cm also observing an all-round 20cm border effect. The land was
pulverized prior to planting to aid easy passage of roots.

WEEDING

Slight weeding by hand picking the weeds were done on a weekly bases starting from the
4thh of may 2018 due to the presence of the mulch which help to minimize weed growth.

26
EMERGENCE

On the 9th of May exactly 5 days after planting, Emergence was noticed on ten spots.
Subsequent emergence were noticed on 11st and 12th of May in which 7 and 4 seedlings
emerged respectively, giving an emergence rate of 100% after the 12th day.

STAKING

Staking was done on the 26th of may 2018 with bamboo sticks and twine. Staking enhances
the growth and development of the Cucumber fruits by increasing the area of leaves available
for photosynthesis and also prevents the fruits from soil borne disease attack.

Flowering was noticed on this same day.

Plate10;Skaking of cucumber.

HARVESTING

Harvesting was done my manual hand picking of the matured fruits.

My first harvest was on the 5th of June 2018 a total of 3 fruits were harvested which gave a
total weight of 1.2kg.

Second harvest was on the 10th of June 2018 a total of 4 fruits were harvested which gave a
total of 1.2kg. Thereby bringing my harvest grand total to 7 Cucumber fruits, having a total
weight of 2.4kg. The harvested Cucumber fruits were sold collectively.

27
Figure11:Harvested cucumbers.

OBSERVATIONS

 It was observed that the Cucumber yield was relatively very poor due to the advent of
the rain
 It was observed that most of the Cucumber produced were spoilt as a result of the
heavy rains.
 It was observed that the staking of the plants facilitated rapid development in the plant
especially fruit wise.
 Stealing of the cucumber Fruits were observed on countless occasions.
 Insect pests were observed defoliating the leaves of the named crop.
LIMITATIONS

 There were no proper diversion channels in that plot

 Stealing of the Cucumber fruits hampered a bumper harvesting.
 Beetle and Lady Bird pest attack on the leaves of the crop.
RECOMMENDATIONS

 There should be proper sanitation at the cucumber farm and a good drainage pattern
should be adopted on the farm
 Security checks should be in place to forestall this menace.
 Late planting should be avoiding in other to achieve maximum productivity.
 Neem extract is recommended for controlling Insect (Beetles and Lady Birds) attacks.

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3.7 INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON PLANT DISEASE DIAGNOSIS

This first lecture on this aspect was held on the 8 th of December 2018 and this part of the
course was handled by Dr. Christian Iwuagwu. On that day, we were made to understand
what plant disease diagnosis entails. He (Dr. Christian) made it clear that the word diagnosis
means to probe into. He said that a person taking part in plant pathology or the plant
pathologist may be asked some questions like What is wrong with my plant? What can I do to
get rid of the problem? One might be poised to ask that who is a plant pathology?

Plant pathology: This is also called Phytopathology is the scientific study of diseases in
plants caused by pathogens (infectious organisms) and environmental conditions
(physiological factors). Like we learnt in the lecture,when the questions above arise,it may be
too late to help the plant in question.But proper diagnosis may be extremely important in
preventing the problem on other plants or preventing the problem in the future.

For a plant pathologist to be a very good diagnostician, he must have very good observation
skills and he or she needs to be a good detective.It is very important that he keep an open
mind until all the facts relating to the problem must have been collected. Diagnosis therefore
is one of the most important aspects of plant a pathologist training. Plant disease diagnosis as
explained in the lecture involves five major steps and they include

 Identification
 Recognizing healthy plant appearance
 Identifying characteristic symptoms
 Laboratory tests
 Incubation of plant materials

IDENTIFICATION

Here, like he explained, one has to know what is normal. Say a plant is diseased, you have to
note the name of the plant, both scientific and common name. One should not just rely on the
common name as different species of plant can have same common name. When a plant
pathologist can fully identify the plant specie affected, this can allow him to utilize the
various resources that contain the list of plant diseases that are associated with the specific

29
plant . These lists are very helpful in suggesting possible pathogenic agents. Our attention
was drawn to example of such list as found on the American phyto-pathological society
(APS) website, as part of its online resources.

In using this website, once you select a plant of interest, a list of bacteria, fungal, nematode,
parasitic plant and viral diseases that are associated with the specific plant will be shown.

RECOGNIZING HEALTHY PLANT APPEARANCE

The lecture on this aspect was held on the 9th of January 2018.This involves knowing what
is normal. Before one can say that a plant is diseased or sick, he or she must know what the
normal plant he is investigating look like. Each plant specie has a special growth habits,
colours and growth rates and so, if one do not know what to expect of the plant, he cannot
recognize when something is wrong. One has to ask some self examining questions like Does
the plant normally have new foliage that is yellow or red and becomes darker green as the
foliage ages?

There are many ornamental shrubs that have been developed and marketed for the ornamental
values of such slightly coloured new growth. These plants are highly prized for their
colouration. However, if an individual does not know that this colouration is a normal
appearance, he may think that the plant is diseased. It is therefore important to know what the
normal appearance of the plant is before you decide there is a problem. While determining
the normal appearance, one should remember that appearance can vary with cultivars. Some
plant cultivars have naturally yellow to pale green leaves which at first glance appear to have
symptoms of under fertilization, root stress or soil pH problem. Once the normal appearance
of the specific plant is determined, several comparisms can be made between the problem
plants and the healthy plants. Compare events such as overall size shape and colouration, leaf
shape, size and the distribution, root distribution and coloration and bark, stem or trunk
texture. It is also important to know normal events such as leaf drop that may occur in a
health plant. For example, some plants drop leaves in the dry season. The affected parts of the
plant should also be noted. You should be able to answer the following questions

 Are there some symptoms on the roots, leaves, stems, flowers, or fruits?
 Is the entire entire plant involved?

30
  Is only one limb or side of the plant involved?

Answers to these questions can assist in the identification of the problem.

IDENTIFY CHARACTERISTIC SYMPTOMS

Describing the characteristic symptoms exhibited by a specimen can be very difficult to do

accurately. Because of this, It is often difficult if not impossible to determine what is wrong
with a plant when a person is describing a symptom over the phone. As a test of this, one may
want to take a plant exhibiting symptoms and have three different individuals describe the
symptoms they observe on a shit of paper.

LABOURATORY TESTS

Sometimes, neither symptoms or signs provide enough specific or characteristic identification

to decide the cause of an infectious plant disease. In such cases, it may be necessary to bring
a sample to the laboratory for further test to isolate and identify the causal agent. This can be
time consuming and labour intensive processes that takes a specialized skill. Laboratory test
that was conducted is divided into three phases and these include

 Seed health and Viability test

 Isolation
 Microscopic identification

SEED HEALTH AND VIABILITY TEST

On the 6th of February 2018, we were introduced to the main practicals on PLANT
DISEASE DIAGNOSIS FOR SEED BORNE FUNGI. We carried out the seed health
and viability test using blotter paper method. This section is based on the work that was
done generally by group one were we made use of maize seeds.

31
Apparatus/materials used are

 Methylated spirit
 Absolute ethanol
 Cotton wool
 Beakers
 Measuring cylinder
 Blotter paper
 Syringes
 The different seeds to be plated
 PDA
 Stirring rods
 Lactic acid
 Distilled water
 Spirit lamp
 Slide and slide cover.
 Nose mask
 Hand gloves
 Petri dishes
 Aluminum Foil
 Inoculating needle
 Conical flask
 Autoclave

Some terminologies explained are

- Contamination: This is a situation were an organism begin to grow were it is not

intended to
- Specimen: this is a sample especially one used for diagnostic analysis
- Sterilize: To kill, deactivate (denature) or destroy all living, viable microorganism
and spores that would be on a surface in a fluid, or contained in a compound, such as
culture media etc.
STEP ONE

32
On the 21st of February 2018, we started the first step of the practical by first carrying out
surface sterilization on our working table using some quantity of methylated spirit soaked in
cotton wool and wipening the table with it .This is to ensure that if there is any form of
pathogen growing there, the methylated spirit will help to kill it.

STEP TWO

In our second step, we surface sterilize our seed in a sterilizing medium containing a mixture
of 90ml of sterile water and 10ml absolute alcohol. These two solutions were appropriately
mixed in a beaker. To get the appropriate measurements, I and my group made use of a
measuring cylinder to get the 90ml of the sterile water and a 5ml syringe to get twice the
ansolute ethanol. In our group, we were assigned to use bean seeds. The various step
followed in sterilization and plating include

 Selection of thirty six (36) healthy seeds into the prepared sterilizing media.
 Using a stirring rod to keep on stirring for five minutes.
 Sieving out the seeds and rinsing them out in a distilled water twice.
 Sterilizing the forceps to be used for picking the seeds by putting 5ml of ethanol into
the spirit lamp, lightening it up to give a blue flame thus serving as fuel. We put the
tip of the forcep into the blue flame until red hot then into a sterile water to cool.
 Getting our petri dishes, we arranged three layers of blotter paper into it .
 We used sterile water and syringe to wet the blotter paper before plating the maize
seeds.
 These seeds were arranged in rings of eight seeds in the first ring, three seeds in the
second ring, and one seed in the last making it a total of twelve seeds.
 After successful plating, the dishes were covered and a masking tape was used to
mask or cover the opening round the dish so as to prevent entry of micro-organisms
and air.
 The name of the seed plated and the date of plating is then written. This marks the
end of the practical for that day and the plated dishes were taken home for
observation.

OBSERVATIONS

33
In the different petri dishes, there were different recordings and observations on different
days and these includes

i. In plate one on day two, 9 seeds out of the 12 that were plated germinated and thus
the percentage germinated was determined by
i. % Germination = number of seeds germinated ×100
Number of seeds plated 1
9×100 =900
12 1 12
=75%
 On the third day, all the seeds were observed to have germinated and thus the
percentage germination on the third day was
o % germination=12 × 100 = 1200
12 1 12
=100%

Similarly, in the first plate, two seeds were infected out of the twelve seeds that germinated
and % infestation was determined by

 % infestation = number infected × 100

Total number of seeds 1

2×100 =200= 16.7%

12 1 12

Total number not infected was 10 and % non-infected was determined by

% non-infected = number not infected × 100

Total number plated 1
= 10 × 100 = 1000 = 83.33%
12 1 12

34
 PLATE 3

Here, non-germinated on the first day, 8 germinated out of twelve on the second day and the
percentage germination was calculated by

% germination = number of seeds germinated × 100

Number of seeds plated 1
= 8 × 100 = 800 = 66.7%
12 112

Number infected were four and so, % infected will be given by

% infected = number infected × 100

Total number plated 1
= 4 × 100 = 400 = 33.33%
12 112

% non-infected = number non infected × 100

Total number plated 1

% non-infected = 8 ×100 = 800 = 66.67%

12 1 12

STAGE TWO

ISOLATION (CULTURING)

The seeds were brought back after one week to the lab for isolation. This was done on the 6th
of march 2018 . In the preparation of the culture media, The lecturer in charge Dr. Christian
iwuagwu carefully showed us the various steps involved and these include

35
 i. First pour water into the autoclave to cover the ring inside that is acting as a boiler.
j. Potato dextrose agar which is the culture media to be used was weighed using an
electronic analytical weighing balance. Here, we weighed out 19grams for 500mls of
water though it was later rounded up to 20.08g but the normal measurement is 20.00g.
k. We measured out the PDA into a petri-dish on the weighing balance.
l. We poured the weighed media into the conical flask.
m. Using the measuring cylinder, we measured 500ml of distilled water to dissolve the
media and then shake evenly with the opening closed with my palm.
n. A stirring rod was used to stir very well for proper dissolution.
o. Using an aluminum foil, we made a cork by putting cotton wool into it and folding to
form a cork, then using a masking tape, we taped it round firmly to avoid spilling
while boiling.
p. The conical flask well corked was placed into the autoclave and heated up to
120degrees
q. When the media was ready I .

e up to 120 degrees, the knobs of the autoclave were closed to sterilize for 20 minutes.
After some time, a hissing sound was heard showing that it was ready.

r. The knobs were opened to release pressure and then the conical flask was removed
and kept in a safe place to cool for proper handling.
s. When it have been properly cooled, we dispensed about 10mls of the PDA into the
petri dishes and it was covered immediately.
t. Using a syringe, we took 2-3 drops of the lactic acid and put into each of the petri
dishes when the PDA is still molten.
u. We placed on the table and shake in an anti-clockwise direction for proper mixing of
the PDA and the lactic acid and allow it to GEL.
v. After gelling, we used an inoculating needle to collect a small SPEC of the tissue and
drop into each of the petri dishes. This was then covered.

NOTE: The act of transferring the tissues into the already gelled media is called inoculation
and this process was mearnt to be carried out in an inoculating chamber.

MICROSCOPIC IDENTIFICATION

36
This phase of the practical was carried out on the 27th of April 2018. A tomato that have
grown mould was used for this practical in order to determine the pathogen that must have
deteriorated it. The series of steps that were followed in other to achieve the desired goal are
as follows

1 WE got a slide and using a syringe, 1-2 drops of water was place on the slide.
2 A spec of the mould was obtained and teased on the slide containing the drops of
water.
3 A slide cover was used to cover the slide and then focused with the lowest
magnification ie ×4.
4 On increasing the magnification to 100, black spots that are dispersed will be
observed. These were identified to be micro-conidia of fusarium spp. This was
believed to be so because the spores are like rice seeds and the sporangia of this
fusarium is also like rice seed.

BENEFITS/CONCLUSION

The series of practicals that have been done under this course has really given me an in depth
knowledge on how I can really Identify a diseased plant. The lectures and instructions were
apt in many surpassing ways. The benefits are innumerable but I would like to mention just a
few which includes

 Today, I can confidently call myself a plant pathologist reason being that whatever
techniques involved in probing or rather trying to find what is wrong with a diseased
plant have been acquired.
 The various steps involved in culturing, determination of viability of seeds and
preparation of culture media have been carefully imbibed.
 Practical steps in microscopic identification, adjustment of the knobs in the
microscope for proper focus, materials to be used for these various processes are an
integral part of the lessons I learnt.

37
Plate12;A microscope

38
Plate13; Analytical weighing balance

Plate14;An Autoclave plate15;Dr Christian Iwuagwu preparing PDA.

39
 Plate16;potato dextrose agar. Plate17; Hand gloves

Plate18;Syringe,Blotted paper,and petri dish plate19; Face Mask.

3.8 HERBICIDE FORMULATION

SUMMARY OF THE LECTURE

This lecture was held on the 02/01/2018 by Mr. Uko Ibeabuchi, he explained with the extent
commercial agriculture has gone using crude methods like hand weeding which has become too
laborious, stressful, unreliable and uneconomical as even after weeding it takes no time for the
weeds to emerge again making it undependable. This particular problem had led to the discovery
of chemicals used in weed control and management which are generally referred to as Herbicides.
With the advent of herbicides, commercial agriculture has become an attractive venture because
large hectares of land can be sprayed within a short time thus saving time, money and labour.

Before applying herbicides, a few factors need to be considered:

1 Confirmation of the land size.

40
 2 The determination of the type of weeds presents (broad leaves or grasses).
3 Selection of the herbicides to use (Post-Emergence, Pre-Emergence, Contact, Systemic
etc.).
4 Calculation to determine the quantity of the herbicide to procure
Under Herbicide Formulation, five formulations were discussed which included:
 Water Soluble Concentrate (WSC)
 Emulsifiable Concentrate (EC)
 Wettable Powder (WP)
 Flowable Liquid or Sprayable Suspension
 Granules
Other terms associated with Herbicide Formulation include:
Surfactant: these are compounds that lower the surface tension between two liquids, between a
gas and a liquid or between a solid and a liquid.
Adjuvant: this is a substance that modifies the effect of chemicals.
MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR A SPRAYING OPERATION
 Knapsack sprayer: this is used for spraying of the chemicals. It is made up of:
 Cover
 Sieve- this is used to remove debris.
 Nozzle- this is used to dispersing the chemicals. It could be a fan, cone, flat,or flood jet
nozzle.
 Strap- this is used for carrying the knapsack sprayer firmly on the back while spraying.
 Container- this is a 13liter vessel where the chemical is poured into.
 Pump- this is used for applying pressure to aid spraying.
 Other parts of the knapsack sprayer includes: metal washer, pump handle retaining clip,
pump handle washer, washer, clip (double), lance, trigger/switch, hose and agitator.
 Eye goggles
 Nose mask
 Gloves
 Boot
 Overall
Two major calculations should be done before spraying. The first is the calculation of the
chemical needed for the area you want to spray and secondly, the quantity of the water
needed. It should be equally noted that herbicides should be used in large area of land and
not in small areas. The herbicide can be pre emergence ie to stop new weeds from

41
 growing, post emergence ie to kill the weeds that germinated, selective ie can be those
that kill grasses only leaving broad leaves or those that kill broadleaves, leaving grasses.
Assuming the land area to be sprayed is 3m by 3m and it is stipulated that a hectare of
land requires 2kg of active ingredient, to determine the quantity, we use the relation
That If 2kga.i/ha 10000m2
? 9m2
= 9×2 =18 = 0.0018 =0.002 which is equivalent to 2g
10000 10000
Therefore, the quantity needed for the small area is 2g.
The different uses of a knapsack sprayer were analysed and these includes
 It is used for applying water ie for irrigation
 It is used to apply liquid fertilizer

HERBICIDE CALIBRATION
In calibrating herbicides, two formulae are considered:
For areas greater than or equal to 1ha, we use
Q = R*A/C
For areas less than 1ha, we use
Q = 100(R*A)/C
Where; Q = Quantity of formulated product
A = Area of target
R = Rate of Application of Herbicide
C = Concentration of active ingredient
STEPS USED IN CALIBRATION
Some of the steps we followed during calibsration includes
 Pegging out a 100m area which maybe 10m by 10m or 4m by 25m.
 Adding water to the tank or the knapsack

42
 Moving at a pace comfortable to me and spraying the mapped out area using a moderate
pump pressure.
 Recording the time taken to spray the test plot.
 Repeating step 3 at least twice for reproducibility and recording the average time taken to
spray the test plot.
NOTE: The swath width (Area sprayed) should be constant.
 Filling the sprayer once again and this time spraying into a measuring jug using the same
operating conditions and time as used in step 3 and 4 above.

NOTE: The volume of solution that was collected was noted

Step 5 was repeated twice and the average volume collected was noted. This is the volume
rate of your knapsack sprayer.

RESULTS GOTTEN FROM THE PRACTICAL

Water was sprayed for four consecutive times and the result of what was obtained for the width
is as follows
Ist width 40.5cm
2nd width 40.2cm
3rd width 40.9cm
4th width 50.2cm
Average is = 40.5+40.2+ 40.9+50.2 = 171.8 = 42.95cm
Area rate is given by = Area covered
Time taken
But area covered is distance moved × width = 20m × 0.43m = 8.6m2
Time taken to attain 20m is 36s
Area rate = 8.6m2 = 0.24m2/s
36
Volume rate=volume = 324ml = 9ml/sec
Time taken 36sec
Delivery rate which is the quantity of water one dispense under the given area is given by
Delivery rate = volume rate = 9ml/sec
Area rate 0.24m2/sec
= 37.5ml/m2

43
The implication of this amswer is that for every 1m by 1m he dispenses 37.5mlm2
37.5mlm2 × 10000 m2
=375000ml which is equivalent to 375litres when converted.
To end the work for that day, each department were given a herbicide bottle to determine some
parameters. For us in crop science, we were to determine the active ingredient which was 276g of
paraquat dichloride ,also determine the type of herbicide, the weeds it is used to control in a
particular crop field, The quantity of the chemical needed in a hectare of land and the quantity of
water also needed.
In our case, The herbicide bottle was a non selective contact herbicide for control of grasses and
broad leaves. It can be used in rice, maize and sorghum farm at the rate of 5l /ha.
BENEFITS OF THE PRACTICAL
a. It increased my awareness on the safety tips when handling chemicals.
b. It increased my knowledge on weed management.
c. I can comfortably couple a knapsack sprayer.

Plate 20: Mr Uko demonstrating with the students on how to use a sprayer

3.9 POST HARVEST STORAGE

This section dwelt on the various storage methods for different crop produce using different
storage materials. This part of the course was handled by Mrs Mbadianya. In this section, we
are to store different produce following the instructions that were given as follows

44
To divide the class into 10 groups and each group is to store one of the following: Rice, maize,
cowpea, groundnut, cornflour, p;antain chips/soybean, beans and pigeon peas. These different
products are to be stored for a month in each of these containers
 Triple polythene bag
 Jute bag
 Metal container with a lid
 Plastic container with a lid. And the following questions are to be answered
 write the common name and the botanical name of the produce stored.
 To rank the containers in order of keeping quality of the produce.
 Give one andvantage and one disadvantage of the container in post harvest management
of crop produce.
 Explain why the best container was able to keep the produce better than others .
 Identify the key storage pest of your produce.
 Report your observations
Sequel to the information received with regard to the storage, the groups were organized
into ten as instructed and each produce assign to a group with each group having a group
leader.
For me, I was in group one .Being the group leader, I organized my colleagues and
sourced the rice which we were about to to and the different containers to be used in the
storage. These were stored on the 10th of april 2017.
After storing for a month, Answers to the above questions were proferred as follows
 The common name of the produce stored is rice. While its botanical name is
oryzae sativa.
 In order of keeping quality of the produce, It was observed that the following
occurred in a descending order Jute bag, plastic container, Metal tin ,Triple
polythene bag.
 Advantage of jute bag over
In jute bag, the problem of sweating of grains does not occur because the surface
of the bag is exposed to the atmosphere. Also, the bags identified as infected on
inspection can be removed and treated easily.
Disadvantage
This bag can be easily torned due to continous handling and re-uses leading to
losses of product during storage.
Advantage of plastic container

45
It is impervious to rodents like rats, roaches and also to light and moisture
Disadvantage
It absorbs the flavor and taste of the item stored in them over a long period of
time.
Advantage of tin
Does not absorb flavor and taste of items stored in the mand it also has high
durability and strength against plastic and other material containers.
Disadvantage
It corrodes due to oxidation when the metal is exposed to air and water leading to
deterioration and this affects stored produce negatively.
Advantage of triple polythene bag
Polythene are much less permeable to water vapor and gases and they are
chemically inactive with food.

Disadvantage
Due to moisture build of heat in bag, It facilitates the growth of organisms and
rice storage pest.
d)Jute bag was able to store the produce best because the problem of sweating of
grains never occurred in it due to the surface of the bag that is well aerated and
exposed to the atmosphere. Thus, conditions that can favour the growth of storage
pest like build up heat were not there and the pest infestation was at its barest
minimum.
e) The key storage pest was identified to be rice weevil known as Sitophilus
Oryzae.
f) In our observation, it was seen that the jute bag stored the produce best due to
the nature of its surface which allows aeration reducing built up heat. Weevils and
the degradation of the stored product was observed in the polythene bag
containing rice and it was seen that the degraded materials and a few weevils
floated on submerging just a hand ful of the produce in water.

CONCLUSION

46
 This practical on storage was really interesting .Though different products to be
stored will determine the best container to be used, The characteristics of the
material to be used for storage need careful examination before putting into
usage .This is so as to reduce the rate of pest infestation.

3.9.1 IDENTIFICATION AND COLLECTION OF PLANT PESTS

Introductory lecture to this part of the course was held on the 07th of March 2018.This part of
the course was handled by prof N.J okonkwo who started by telling us different pest that can
be found in the field and the different plants or crops that are susceptible to their attacks, he
went further to talk more on the forms in which these pest exist both in the dry season and the
rainy seasons.

Using the maize as an example, he said that in the dry seasons, many pests diapause. Like the
maize stem borer, They are on the dry stem now in an inactive form. On establishment of the
rains, the spores breaks, lay eggs and mate thyat same day and also burrow into the young
maize seedlings. These causes wilting on the plant even though there is water available in the
plant. These maize borers burrows into the young maize stalks and stays there for a longer
period of time. It was suggested and advised that after harvesting, the stalks should be
gathered and burnt as a way of eliminating this insect.

This was when he asked us to get the meaning of the word diapause.

47
What is diapausing in pests

When referencing animal dormancy, the word diapause is the delay in development in
response to regularly and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions.it is
considered to be a physiological state of dormancy with very specific initiating and inhibiting
conditions. Diapause is a mechanism used as a means to survive predictable, unfavourable
environmental conditions such as temperature extremes, drought or reduced availability.
Diapause is most often observed in arthropods especially insects.

Instructions were given before the end of that days lecture to get various insects, and these
includes

1) We were asked to get the twig of a cassava that has a bunchy top and place it in a plastic
bag were we would see some aphids or mealy bugs or lady birds in that colony. On
description, the mealy bugs are wooly in nature , They stay at a particular place sucking the
plants extracts. Mealy bugs produces their excreta which is honey dew which is as sweet as a
honey. The cassava mealy bug is known as Phenococcus manihoti

We were also asked to get ripe mangoes, cut them open after licking and get the mango seed
weevil which is known as Sternochetus mangiferae.It is an insect that have a sharp pointed
mouth and can occur inside the mango seed both in the larvae and adult stage. The last we
were asked to get was the mango mealy bug which is known as Dosicha mangiferae. This is
found under the mango leaf blade where it attaches itself sucking the sap while producing
honey dew. This dew is as sweet as a honey that one can find the ants moving up and down
the tree just to get the dew. Thus, most ants treasure this mealy bug that they can build their
colony where it is offering it protection while get the dew from them. On a mango leaf where
this is found, a whitish mass that is wooly in nature would be found.

48
Plate21:mosaic virus on cassava leaves.

Plate22: mealybug insect

CHAPTER FOUR

4.10 ANIMAL SCIENCE SECTION.

Brief overview of the Animal Science Section.

This section was relatively done in the class and no practical was conducted just theoretical
work. On 13/09/2018, our lecturer D. Mrs. Ebenebe explained the theoretical aspect of the
program with the intention of conducting the practical aspect which we never did.

According to her, the Animal are subgroups;

 Animal Health Practices.

 Animal Husbandry Techniques.

Under the Animal Health Practices, she made us to understand what the term Animal Disease
really means, some terminologies associated with the term Animal Disease, common signs

49
and symptoms of Animal Disease, most prevalent livestock disease, there causal organisms,
mode of transmission, symptoms and possible treatment of the highlighted diseases.

The practical aspect of the Animal Health Practices was to involve going for an excursion to
a well-established livestock farm and physically observing these disease conditions. Although
due to some unforeseen circumstances coupled with the limited time frame we weren't able to
fulfill the task.

The second aspect of this section called Animal Husbandry Techniques involves the art of
management ;( Feeding, Breeding, Housing, Health care of the farm animal for maximum
returns. This aspect would have exposed we the practical year students to some basic
livestock handling Techniques like; Egg Candling, Debeaking, Vent sexing, Methods of
vaccination, castration, Artificial Insemination, Milking, Various methods of livestock
Identification e.t.c. some of the above listed techniques were discussed in details theoretically
with the intention of conducting the practical which we never did. Currently, some form of
consideration are been made to compensate us by conducting a one week excursion to
Songhai Integrated farm at Benin Republic to see and observe some of the things we were
taught.

4.1.2 POULTRY FARMING.

Poultry farming is the process of raising domesticated birds such as chickens, ducks, turkeys
and geese for the purpose of farming meat or eggs for food. Poultry - mostly chickens - are
farmed in great numbers. Farmers raise more than 50 billion chickens annually as a source of
food, both for their meat and for their eggs. Chickens raised for eggs are usually called by
whom? layers while chickens raised for meat are often called broilers.

Poultry Farming in Nigeria is probably one of the most lucrative farming business you can do
in Nigeria especially when it is setup and managed properly. The farmers we currently have
are not producing enough poultry and will not be enough even in the next ten years! This
aspect of livestock farming presents one of the finest opportunity for entrepreneurs to make
good money within the shortest period of time possible. This is made possible by the quick
maturity of chicken. With over 160 Million consumers in the country who buys poultry
products on daily basis, the market is always here waiting to be tapped. The demand for eggs
is so high that people go about everyday looking for where to buy eggs for supply.

50
One of the factors that makes poultry farming business ideal is because chickens grows very
fast. Unlike goats that takes 2 to 3 years to mature, a chicken can be ready for the market
within 28 weeks from birth. That is why it is considered ideal business for loan takers who
may actually invest the loan and within 30 to 40 weeks, they may start paying back through
the money realized from sells. That is if everything goes well as planned.

Profit Potential in Poultry Farming Business

1. Chicken Reproduce Fast

Average healthy Layer lays egg almost everyday or at least 4 times in a week. Some Breeds
can lay as much as 325 eggs in a year and take 21 days to hatch. This means that technically a
Layer is capable of producing another chicken twice in three days.

So, if you have 500 healthy layers of good breeds (such as California white) they are capable
of reproducing a whooping 12,000 chicks within 40 days!

2. Chicken Grows Very Fast

Within 21 days, the egg is hatched and within 28 weeks, they are ready for the market. That
means a farmer may start making his money in just 34 weeks after successfully setting up his
farm and whatever returns he make could be doubled in a year based on this calculation.

3. Chicken Sells at Very Good Price

A fully grown healthy chicken sells between 2,000 to 2,500 naira in Nigeria. Therefore, if
you produce 12,000 chickens in your farm, you will be making N24 million by the time they
are completely sold.

4. Egg market in Large too – Apart from the chicken, the egg is another money of it’s own. A
crate of eggs sells for N500 – N550 for smaller eggs and N600 – N650 for bigger ones. Each
crate contains 30 eggs. Therefore, if you have 500 layers that produces 12,000 pullet in a
month and decides to sell all, you will be making N200,000 to N260,000 monthly.

As you can see, the profit in poultry farming in Nigeria is mouth watering and the turn over
time is fantastic. The big question now is how to get this business started

51
Plate23;Josph inspecting the birds

4.1.3 CASTRATION IN PIG.

Pork is the most widely consumed meat across the world and nearly 1 billion pigs are farmed
every year to satisfy demand. The top three pork producing regions are China, European
Union (EU) and the United States of America. The majority of male piglets born in these
countries are surgically castrated before they are a week old. It is widely accepted, due to
behavioural and physiological indicators, that castration is painful; however, castration is
largely performed without pain relief, that is, anaesthesia and analgesia are rarely used, which
is a welfare concern.

Castration of piglets occurs for management reasons (to reduce aggression, lessen unwanted
mounting behaviour, and prevent unplanned pregnancies) and to decrease the probability of
‘boar taint’. Boar taint is present in some carcases due to the presence of skatole (a strong-
smelling amine compound, produced during protein decomposition in the intestine) and
androstenone (a pheromone in boars) and may be perceived by some consumers as
unpleasant. Un-castrated, entire male pigs are most likely to be effected by boar taint
(although some female pigs are also effected) and animals reared in production systems that
slaughter animals at higher weights are also more likely to experience boar taint since older
animals may reach puberty before slaughter and there is some association between puberty
and taint.

What is castration?

52
Castration is the surgical removal of the testicles from boar piglets.

Why is it performed?

Removal of the testicles reduces the potential for odor and taint associated with male
hormones in boars after puberty.

How is castration performed?

Step 1: Make sure that you have the proper equipment

Scalpel handle and blade

Paper towel or other wipe

Container of disinfectant for equipment

Step 2: Piglet handling

Grab the piglet by the back legs

Hold the piglet in an upside down position

Push the testicles into the scrotum with your thumb and keep them there (see picture)

Step 3: Determine if both testicles are located in the scrotum

Look at the scrotum to see if 2 pecan-sized structures are seen

Feel the structures and decide if they are the same size and firmness

Make sure that both testicles are freely moveable within the scrotum

53
Step 4: Castration

Make an incision (cut) into the scrotum over each testicle (see picture)

Apply pressure behind each testicle with your fingers or instrument and push each testicle out
of the hole made with the blade

Grasp each testicle with your hand or instrument and pull it

Each testicle should be removed with all of its attached cord and discarded

The incisions are left open to heal and sprayed with iodine

CHAPTER FIVE:

SOIL SCIENCE SECTION.

5.10 Excursion to NIMET (Nigerian Meteorological Agency)

On the 10th of March, 2018 we the practical year students embarked on an excursion to
Enugu-Agidi here in Anambra state accompanied by our lecturer Dr. Mrs Onunwa Akudo.
We were warmly welcomed by the state manager Mr Audu who began by telling us the
meaning of NIMET (Nigerian Meteorological Agency) which is solely concerned with
Meteorological data collection and analysis as it plays a critical role in both the Aviation
sector and Agricultural sector. According to him, Nimet in conjunction with other

54
meteorological industry plays key role in warning the nation against natural disasters
associated with weather and climate.

The first visit to Nimet was to formally introduce ourselves to the agency as we would return
subsequently for their training. After the welcome address by Mr Audu, we were taken to the
agency to witness the facilities they have. Later on, our intent was made known to the
manager in which he consented to and we left. Getting back to school, we were divided into
groups in which each group was to visit the agency twice. The first visit was for training on
how the agency operates and how to use some of the equipment whereas the second visit was
for assessment of the participating students. After the group sharing process, I happen to find
my mname in group two (2).

On the 26th of June, 2018 my group went for our training. On getting to the agency, we were
welcomed by Mr Onwa Martin Chiagozie who happened to be a Met Technologist and our
trainer for the day. We started the day's work by visiting the enclosure which happened to be
a 20m X20m area that is protected with wire gauze net in which some of the Meteorological
equipment were either partly or wholly exposed to collect the atmospheric data. In the
enclosure, the first equipment we considered was the Stevenson Screen.

 The Stevenson Screen: This is a wooden box-like equipment, about 1.12m in height
that houses some sets of equipment amongst which are;
 The Dry bulb Thermometer: This is a thermometer that measures the atmospheric
temperature.
 The Wet bulb Thermometer: This is a thermometer that measures the temperature of
evaporation.
 The Minimum Thermometer: This thermometer measures the lowest temperature of
the day.
 The Maximum Thermometer: This thermometer measures the highest temperature of
the day.
 The Pitch Evaporimeter: This device measures the rate of evaporation. After
demonstrating to us how these devices operates, the Stevenson screen was closed and
we moved to the next equipment.
 The Rainguage: They were of two types the manual and the automated rainguage and
the both were used for the same purpose to measure the amount of rainfall in a day.
Unlike the manual rainguage, the automatic measures the amount of rainfall by using

55
 an automatically controlled pen to mark the amount of rainfall against a chart. Just
immediately after the rainguage was the soil thermometers section.
 Soil Thermometers: These are Thermometers inserted into the soil to measure the
temperature of the soil. On display were five (5) soil thermometers inserted at
different depth ranging from 5cm- 100cm.
 Cup- Counter Anemometer: This instrument is used to calculate the wind run i.e the
intensity of the wind that passes through the station at any particular time.
 Wind vane: This is an instrument used to tell us the direction of the wind's movement.
 Class A-Pan: This is also known as the Tank Evaporimeter and is used to measure the
amount of evaporation within a given time frame.
 Sunshine Recorder: This is an instrument that measures the intensity of the sun. It
uses three (3) cards namely Winter, Summer and Equinoctial cards. This cards has
specific time of the year we use them.

Thereafter we discussed on the clouds where we were made to understand that clouds were
divided into three (3) broad categories;

 High Clouds: Cirrus, Cirrostratus and Cirrocumulus.

 Medium Clouds: Altostratus, Nimbostratus and Altocumulus.
 Low Clouds: Stratus, Stratocumulus, Cumulus, and Cumulonimbus.

After this we were really exhausted then we moved into the building where he demonstrated
to us how to use the indoor Barometer and Humidity Slide rule respectively. After then,
attendance for the day was taken and we left to return the next week for the assessment/
examination of which we all did excellently well with the average score at 80%.

5.1.2 Introduction to soil.

Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and
gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of
the following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result
of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to
support rooted plants in a natural environment.

Soil is one of the three major natural resources, alongside air and water. It is one of
the marvelous products of nature and without which Theresa would be no life. Soil is a
product of the influence of the climate, relief (elevation, orientation, and slope of terrain),

56
organisms, and its parent materials (original minerals) interacting over time. Soil continually
undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes,
which include weathering with associated erosion.

There are three basic types of soil:

 Sand.
 Silt.
 Clay.

Most soils are composed of a combination of the different types. How they mix will
determine the texture of the soil, or, in other words, how the soil looks and feels. We depend
on soil to perform many functions. Healthy soil gives us clean air and water, bountiful crops
and forests, productive rangeland, diverse wildlife, and beautiful landscapes. In many ways
soils are "where the action is" especially with respect to the welfare of the human race. Soils,
interacting with climate, hydrology, and landform, provide most of the food-stuffs we eat.

Importance/ Functions of Soil

Soils perform Six key functions in the global ecosystem and they include;

 Medium for plant growth; As an anchor for plant roots and as a water holding tank
for needed moisture, soil provides a hospitable place for a plant to take root. Some of
the soil properties affecting plant growth include: soil texture (coarse of fine),
aggregate size, porosity, aeration (permeability), and water holding capacity. An
important function of soil is to store and supply nutrients to plants. The ability to
perform this function is referred to as soil fertility. The clay and organic matter (OM)
content of a soil directly influence its fertility. Greater clay and OM content will
generally lead to greater soil fertility.
 Regulator of Water Supplies; As rain or snow falls upon the land, the soil is there to
absorb and store the moisture for later use. This creates a pool of available water for
plants and soil organisms to live on between precipitation or irrigation events. Soil
can regulate the drainage, flow and storage of water and solutes, which includes
nitrogen, phosphorus, pesticides, and other nutrients and compounds dissolved in the
water. With proper functioning, soil partitions water for groundwater recharge and for
use by plants and soil animals.

57
  Biodiversity and Habitat; Soil supports the growth of a variety of plants, animals,
and soil microorganisms, usually by providing a diverse physical, chemical, and
biological habitat.
 Filtering and Buffering; Soil acts as a filter to protect the quality of water, air, and
other resources. Toxic compounds or excess nutrients can be degraded or otherwise
made unavailable to plants and animals.
 Recycler of raw materials; As a recycler of raw materials, soil performs one of its
greatest functions in the global ecosystem. Decomposition of dead plants, animals,
and organisms by soil flora and fauna (e.g., bacteria, fungi, and insects) transforms
their remains into simpler mineral forms, which are then utilized by other living
plants, animals, and microorganisms in their creation of new living tissues and soil
humus.
 Landscaping and engineering medium; Soils are the base material for roads,
homes, buildings, and other structures set upon them, but the physical properties of
different soil types are greatly variable. Landscaping applications range in scale from
bridge and roadway construction around highway interchanges to courtyards and
greenspaces around commercial sites to the grading and lawns of residential housing
developments. In all these instances, both the physical and ecological functions of
soils must be considered.

Need to Map Their Extent and Magnitude

There are several thousand different types of soil throughout the world. Soil mapping
involves locating and identifying the different soils that occur, collecting information about
their location, nature, properties and potential use, and recording this information on maps
and in supporting documents to show the spatial distribution of every soil. Mapping the
extent and magnitude of soil can be used to predict the occurrence of different kinds of soils
and their distribution in the landscape. Many countries place great importance in mapping
their soil resources, as this provides valuable information about the types of soil present, their
distribution, formation and indicates the type of crops that can thrive well alongside the
nature of construction that can be permitted on such soil. Soil maps are used by a wide range
of individuals, including farmers, town and country planners, conservationists, foresters,
teachers and students to name but a few.

58
Generally, soil maps are used to simply identify soils and their properties, but are sometimes
required for more specific purposes, such as determining the suitability of a soil for particular
crops, the land drainage capabilities of an area, the soil's nutrient status of the area, the ability
of the soil to hold architectural constructions etc.

5.1.1 Soil Survey

Soil survey is a branch of soil science which involves the identification of the
different types of soil in a given landscape and the location of their distribution to scale on a
map. In addition, soil survey provides information on the quality of the land in terms of their
response to management and manipulation.

Soil survey can also be said to be the process of classifying soil types and other soil
properties in a given area and geo-encoding such information. It applies the principles of soil
science, and draws heavily from geomorphology, theories of soil formation, physical
geography, and analysis of vegetation and land use patterns.

The components of Soil Survey include; Mapping of the soils, Characterization of the
mapping units, Classification of the mapping units, Correlation to other soil surveys, and
Interpretation of soil suitability for various land uses.

Information provided by Soil Survey may include; Properties of soil map units (color,
pH, slope, erosion hazard, permeability, structure, water availability, stoniness, salinity, depth
to bedrock, texture, horizon thickness, etc.), Position on the Landscape, Percent Area in the
Landscape and finally Capacities Yield for crop, pasture and vegetable Suitability for
silviculture, floriculture, recreation, wildlife and water infrastructure Engineering potentials
and hazard.

Types of Soil Survey

Soil survey have been distinguished on the basis of three criteria: -

Purpose of survey

Regularity of observation

Scale of mapping (intensity).

59
Based on the purpose of the survey; This tends to answer the question (What do you want
to do with the soil survey report?). There are two (2) types of surveys under this category: -

ii. Special Purpose Surveys.

iii. General Purpose Surveys.

A special purpose soil survey is done for specific purpose in mind, e.g. survey for irrigation
or survey for citrus plantation. In such survey, the properties (differentiating characteristics)
of the land which is important for the purpose are emphasized. Special purpose surveys are
usually done at large scale or semi-detailed. This has to be so because the area covered are
smaller and also the intensity of observation also need to be higher.

A general purpose soil survey is one that is done mainly to add to the already existing
inventory of soil information. This commonly found in the national survey of each country,
e.g. the USDA, FMAWR. The information may not be needed at the time of survey but such
a survey is done for record purpose. Such survey usually employs many differentiating
properties so that it may be found useful for several purposes that may arise in the future.

Based on regularity of observation; Three kinds of surveys have been distinguished under
this category and they include:

i. Free Survey
ii. Rigid Grid Survey
iii. Flexible Grid Survey

 Free Survey; This is a system of soil surveying in which there is no rigid pattern of
observation. The surveyor uses the field features such as change in vegetation,
topography, slope and even change in sound to movement to observe soil and to
locate soil boundaries. Usually there is a lot of remote sensing methodology involved
in free survey. And in most modern soil survey involving 5000 ha and above, this is
usually the type of survey methodology adopted. The advantage is that it is cheaper
because there is less number of observation points. However, because it depends

60
 largely on the experience of the surveyor, it can be very inaccurate with an amateur,
since boundary placement is more difficult.

 Rigid Grid Survey; Under this system, examinations of the soil are done at regular
and pre-determined intervals. It is normally used when detailed information is
required, e. g. mapping the soil of a research station or mapping for irrigation.
Usually, the points of observation are at the intersection of the two regularly placed
vertical and horizontal lines. It has an advantage in thickly forested area where
visibility of the terrain is poor. It is usually not used or recommended in large areas as
it is expensive and the accuracy may not deserve the extra cost. It is the best method
of survey for amateurs.

 Flexible Grid Survey; This method is a compromise between the free and rigid grid
methods of survey. In this system of survey, the number of observation is fixed but
the location of the observation points are not predetermined and can be fixed at will.

Based on the scale of mapping; There are seven kinds of surveys with respect to this group
they include,

ii. Compilation Survey

iii. Integrated Survey
iv. Exploratory Survey
v. Reconnaissance Survey
vi. Semi-detailed Survey
vii. Detailed Survey
viii. Intensive Survey

 Compilation: These are soil maps produced by abstraction from other soil surveys.
And where they exist they are filled by inferences. The scale is usually at 1: 100,000
or smaller. Many national soil maps of many countries are produced in this way.
 Integrated survey: This is also known as land system survey. It is based on mapping
the total physical environment and in fact land forms are mapping unit. Soils are
important but usually not a defining property of the mapping unit. The scale is 1:
250,000 or smaller.

61
  Exploratory survey: Exploratory surveys are not survey proper. They are usually rapid
road traverse made to provide modicum of information about the area that are
otherwise unknown. Scale of exploratory survey varies from 1: 2,000,000 to
1,500,000.
 Reconnaissance survey: These are mostly based on remote sensing especially Area
Photo Imagery (API). They are the smallest scale of survey where the whole area is
still covered. The scale is usually 1:250,000 although smaller scales have been used.
 Semi-Detailed survey: In a semi-detailed survey, we have a combination of remote
sensing and field work. Mapping units are usually soil association. Scale of mapping
varies from 150,000 to 100, 000.
 Detailed survey: Detailed surveys are executed through field examination with pre-
determined numbers of observation points and or spacing. These kinds of surveys are
usually employed for small area and for special purposes. Scale of observation varies
between 1: 10,000 and 1: 25,000. Mapping unit are usually soil series.
 Intensive survey: Here the number of observation and spacing of observation are pre-
determined. Mapping units are soil series and phase of soil series. Scale of mapping
varies from 1: 1,000 to 1: 10,000 or even larger. They are usually experimental station
surveys.

Factors to Consider When Preparing for A Soil Survey Exercise.

Before carrying out a Soil survey exercise, the Soil Surveyor should put into consideration
the following factors;

The purpose or objective of the survey exercise.

The cost of performing the survey exercise.

The Agricultural capacity of the field.

The general soil survey procedure.

The types and nature of the surveying tools.

The nature and size of the field.

The soil properties.

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The technic

Environmental and physical factor

5.1.2 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS).

GPS stands for Global Positioning System. This technology has advanced impressively in the
recent past and has various applications across a number of industries. One main area where
GPS has found importance is in the field of precision farming and agriculture. We take a look
at some of the most important uses of GPS in agriculture and how this has changed the way
farmers do business.

5.1.3APPLICATION OF GPS IN AGRICULTURE.

1. Soil sampling: GPS provides the necessary data to accurately determine soil variability
and to establish whether a given type of soil is ideal for the growth of a particular crop. Soil
sampling also helps in profiling of soils to distinguish between soils that are viable and those
that are not.

2. Weed location: Using linear sampling techniques, GPS can be used to single out weed
patches in vast areas of lands. Weed usually hinders the effective growth of a crop and
hampers the eventual yields over a given period of time.

3. Accurate planting: GPS also comes in handy when planning the planting of a given crop.
Each seed has specific spacing and depth required depending on the soil type. Using GPS, it
is easier to tell what spacing a given seed requires and to what depth the seed should be
planted in order to return maximum yields.

4. Determination of planting ratios: GPS can also be used in the determination of planting
ratios of seeds. Some seeds have specific spaces in between them while others may be
planted together with other seeds. GPS helps in determining the ratio of this type of planting.

5. Creation of yield maps: GPS plays an important role in the creation of yield maps for
specific types of crops. For instance, during harvests, GPS can be used to map out expected

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yields of a given crop from one piece of land based on the land characteristics and the seed
characteristics.

6. Harvesting: GPS plays an important role in the determination of what area of a farm is
ready to be harvested and how the harvesting will take place. The GPS will also give an
estimate of the size of the area being harvested and the expected returns from the area.

7. Locating a yield map: GPS can also be used to locate a yield map by mounting a GPS
receiver on a farm machinery and then collecting the data.

8. Environmental control: Applying herbicides or pesticides based on the capacity of each

square meter reduces the application amount of the pesticide being used. This allows the soil
to absorb all the pesticide hence reducing the chances of runoff.

9. Farm planning: GPS plays an important role in the planning of a farmland ready for
planting. GPS will give the overall size of the area and help in determining what crop will be
planted on what part of the farmland using various factors such as soil characteristics and
crop characteristics.

10. Field mapping: GPS gives an exact estimate of the field that is being prepared for
farming. Through this, experts can tell what part of the field will be used for farming
activities and what area will be used for other non-farming related activities.

Plate23:GPS device.

5.1.4 VETIVER GRASS

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Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanoides) is a densely tufted, perennial clump grass with stiff leaf bases
which overlap. It forms narrow, dense hedges when planted along the contours of sloping
land, slowing down run-off and helping the water soak into the soil rather than washing off
the slope. The stiff foliage also blocks the passage of soil and debris which gradually builds
up a soil terrace.

Vetiver is a live system, rather than engineered (bulldozers, graders, bunds, contour drains),
which grows with the deposition of sediment. In Fiji, vetiver hedges which have been in
position on 20 percent slopes for thirty years have built up terraces two metres high.
Experimental plots in Colombia showed significant soil loss reductions using vetiver hedges,
where in one year, soil losses were reduced to 1.4 tons per hectare compared to 143 tons per
hectare for a bare fallow control.

Best results arise from a two metre vertical interval between hedges, but this depends on the
degree of slope and the friability of the soil. On our friable soils in Hong Kong a double
staggered row had the best effect. The edges of unsealed roads and drainage ditches can also
be protected by vetiver.

Because of their basal density, vetiver hedges are far more effective in controlling erosion
than lemongrass or hedges of trees or shrubs such as Leucanea.

5.1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF VETIVER GRASS.

Widely adaptable

Vetiver is a native of northern India and southern China, growing where the annual rainfall is
more than 300mm, or 600mm where there is a six month dry season. It can also survive more
than a month of submergence. Its growth is limited by frost. Vetiver grows in soils from pH
4.5 in Ethiopia and China to pH 10.5 in India and in saline soils up to an electrical
conductivity of 4.0.

Minimal Space Requirements

Vetiver has an upright growth habit, although hedges perform best when kept 500mm high
and wide. This means that vetiver hedges can be introduced on farms with minimum changes

65
to the existing farm layout. Because vetiver roots grow vertically for at least three metres, not
only do they bind the soil, but they do not compete with neighbouring crops for water and
nutrients, unlike agroforestry alley cropping systems. Vetiver can be planted along the edge
of existing terraces to reinforce the banks against collapse. The oil in vetiver roots also
appears to be a deterrent to burrowing rats.

(Low Maintenance and Many Uses)

An annual trim is all that is needed to keep a vetiver hedge in good shape. It is important to
keep the grass from flowering otherwise the stem will die back, which inhibits tillering and
slows the growth of the clump (although the clump grows from the plant’s centre so there is
no disintegration). The cut material makes excellent thatch or mulch for trees. It may be used
as an animal feed supplement and can be fed with a high protein fodder such as Amaranthus,
while the Chinese feed it to grass carp. Vetiver also regrows rapidly after fire, although it is
very fire-resistant when green and may be used as fire breaks.

Ease of Propagation

Most varieties of vetiver are naturally sterile hybrids and do not set seed, nor does vetiver
produce stolons, so there is no danger of the grass spreading from where it is planted.
Propagation could not be simpler. Large clumps are split up to give around five to six slips
which may be planted bare rooted with a little slow release fertiliser in the same way as
forestry seedlings. If a nursery bed is sited on a sandy soil the digging up of the stock plants
will be easier. Gaps in an existing hedge may be filled by layering a flowering stem which
will root out from the nodes. The grass can also be propagated from nodal cuttings for
growing in polythene tubes as is done with forestry seedlings.

Plate24: vertiver grass farm. Plate25: Joseph at the vertiver grass farm.

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 CHAPTER SIX:

FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SECTION

6.10 Mixed fruit juice making from watermelon and pineapple in equal proportion.

On the 21/05/2018, Mr. Sylvester a lecturer with the department of Food science and
technology took us on a practical which was titled mixed fruit juice making from watermelon
and pineapple in equal proportion. The aim of the practical was to determine the organoleptic
variation with the inclusion of different concentration of sweetener. The practical was
reported as follows;

Practical title: Mixed fruit juice making from watermelon and pineapple in equal proportion.

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Aim of the practical: To determine the organoleptic variation with the inclusion of different
concentration of sweetener.

Equipment and Apparatus: A measuring Cylinder (500ml), A Knife, A Plastic Tray, Two
small bowls, A Kerosene stove, A thermometer, A cooking pot, An electric blender, A sieve
and the practical materials which include two big Pineapples and Watermelons and a packet
of Sugar.

Method/Procedure:

1) Wash your hands thoroughly before touching the items.

2) Wash the Watermelon and pineapple thoroughly.
3) Carefully peel off the bark of both the Pineapple and the Watermelon, making sure
you remove the eyes of the Pineapple as much as possible.
4) Cut the Pineapple and Watermelon into smaller pieces and endeavors to remove the
seeds in the Watermelon.
5) Blend the both fruits separately.
6) Sieve off the Fiber from the juice and measure the juice with the measuring cylinder.
7) Measure out 1500ml of both juice.
8) Mix the measured juice I.e 3000ml together in a bowl.
9) Divide the mixture into three bowls of 1000ml each.
10) To the first sample put two cubes of sugar and stir the solution thoroughly to ensure
that the sugar dissolves properly.
11) To the second sample put four cubes of sugar and stir.
12) To the third sample don't put any sugar.
13) Pasteurize the juice by heating it to 750C and maintaining it at this temperature for
about 5 minutes.
14) After Pasteurization, leave the solution to cool.
15) Then Perform the Organoleptic test.

Result:

a. Sample one tasted moderately good.

b. Sample two had a strong sugary taste.
c. Sample three had a neutral taste.

Conclusion:

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In conclusion, Sample One was most preferred, followed by Sample Three and Sample Two
was least preferred.

CHAPTER SEVEN:

FARM MECHANIZATION AND WORKSHOP PRACTICES SECTION.

7.10 SUMMARY OF THE FARM MECHANIZATION AND WORKSHOP

PRACTICE SECTION.

In this section, we were taken to the Agriculture and Bio resources Engineering Department
Workshop to observe some of their farm machineries and farming implements. On the
5/05/2018, we went to the workshop were we identified and classified farm tractors and other
machineries on display. Among the equipment and implements on display were the Disc
Harrow, Disc Plough, Ridger e.t.c. we were also taught the basics of driving a tractor and

69
how to attach different farming implements to a tractor. On the 5/05/2018, we were shown
the basic components of an internal combustion engine and the working principle.

On the 14/05/2018, we commenced the farm workshop practices with an introductory lecture
by Mr. Chris who made us to know what measurement was all about and the two basic
systems of measurement. Measurement conversions were discussed alongside the operation
of both Vernier caliper and My Screwguage.

On the 29/05/2018 we had another lecture on farm tools as part of the farm workshop
practice. We were made to understand that farm tools can be broadly divided into five (5)
classes namely,

 The Marking-Out tools.

 Cutting tools.
 Measuring tools.
 Driving tools.
 Work holding tools.

Various farm tools were on display with their respective uses emphasized.

The farm mechanization and workshop practices section was ended with a practical on the
measurement of grain size using a Vernier Caliper and from the result gotten, further
deductions such as sphericity of the grain, mean length, standard deviation, e.t.c were
computed.

7.1.2 HOW TO MOVING A TRACTOR

Tractors come in all sizes with different horsepower engines. Tractors make farming easier
and more efficient. You can attach a plow or blower and use your tractor to remove snow,
attach a bucket and move wood, stone or mulch, use the forks to lift large logs, small dead
trees and other heavy objects, and even use your tractor to mow your lawn. It's a versatile and
essential rural tool.

CHECKING THE TRACTOR BEFORE MOVING.

1. Look for tractor safety issues. Walk around your tractor doing an inspection before
climbing on. Loose wheel lugs, nuts or bolts may need periodic tightening.

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2. Check your tractor's tire pressure. Low pressure in one or more tires may cause instability
and create a safety hazard. If you're not driving your tractor every day, make it a routine to
give the tires a quick once-over so you know they're in good shape before you get way out in
a field.

3. Inspect your stabilizer chains to ensure they are properly secured. Do this when your
tractor attachments are behind the tractor.

4. Open the hood of your tractor. Check the cooling system, radiator and battery levels to
make sure they are in the proper range. Make sure you have enough oil and fuel to complete
the job or task at hand.

5. Be safe at all times. Wear good-quality boots with gripping soles, and keep any long hair
tied back. Avoid dangling jewelry that could become caught in moving machinery, and avoid
wearing loose or baggy clothing while operating a tractor. Always climb into the tractor using
the proper hand holds.

MOVING A TRACTOR

Steps on how to move a tractor.

1. Climb up into the tractor's seat. Familiarize yourself with the controls and find the clutch.
Set the seat so you can reach the steering wheel, throttle, and other controls easily with your
hands and feet.

Wear your seatbelt any time you're going to be around other vehicles. In the field, while it
may seem like common sense to buckle your safety belt, you'll find almost no farmers
strapping themselves in. More likely than an accident in your tractor will be the need to
quickly turn off the engine and hop out and do something that needs doing. The safety roll
bar will help to prevent serious injury. Practice good tractor safety and drive safely.

2. Press the clutch pedal down to the floor with your left foot. You want to be sure the
transmission is in neutral as you turn it over.

3. Engage the break with your right foot. Turn the key forward to start the engine. When it
turns over, drop the throttle slightly (without killing it) to let the engine warm up a little. If
you jump straight from turning it over to driving, you'll likely stall.

4. To drive, release the tractor's parking break. Continue holding the clutch to the tractor floor
and put the transmission into a first gear.

5. Slowly lift your foot off the clutch. Just as with any manual transmission, you want to be
slow and smooth as you let the clutch out. It's a lot easier since you don't have to be actively
pushing the gas. Keep the throttle at a low setting and take your foot off the brake.

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6. Maintain a uniformly slow speed. Tractors aren't made for going particularly fast, they're
made for durability and power. Don't push it. Go slowly, treating turns, curves, and hills with
special caution.

Especially if you're using attachments and other hardware, go extremely slowly and use
precaution when executing turns.

7. To stop the tractor, press the clutch to the floor completely. Switch the gears to neutral and
set the parking brake. Slow the throttle. Turn the tractor key to the off position to stop the
tractor engine.

7.1.3 GARRI PRODUCTION

Cassava is a major staple crop in Nigeria, as cassava itself and its product are found in the
daily meals of Nigerians. Currently, cassava crop is undergoing a transition from a mere
subsistent crop found on the field of peasants to a commercial crop that will be grown in
large quantities in plantations. This expansion of Cassava production is attributed to the
discovery of cassava as a cheap source of edible carbohydrate that could be processed into
different forms of human delicacies and animal feeds.

Furthermore, cassava could be source of raw materials for a number of industrial products
example include, the starch, flour and ethanol. Due to the comparative advantage of cassava
that could be grown in commercial quantity in most Agroecologies in Nigeria, the potential is
enormous for exploitation.

Cassava is a tuberous root that contains 60 to 70 percent moisture and has a shelf life of 2 to 3
days. Once harvested, it has to be either consumed immediately or processed into more stable
product forms. Cassava farmers are often unable to process harvested roots and have to sell
their crop at a very low price to middlemen who are willing and able to reach them.

However, with the help of several research and development over the years, the crop can be
processed into several secondary products of industrial market value.

These products include:

 Cassava chips,

 Cassava pellets,

 Cassava flour,

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  Cassava adhesives,

 Alcohol, and starch

Which are vital raw materials in the livestock feed, alcohol/ethanol, textile, confectionery,
wood, food and soft drinks industries. These products are also of high demand in the
international market.

GARI PROCESSING

Gari is dry, crispy, creamy-white and granular. It is estimated that 70% of the cassava
produced in Nigeria is processed into gari. As a result, gari is the most commonly traded
cassava product. The gari prices, therefore, are a reliable indication of the demand and supply
of cassava. Other relevant processed cassava foods in the traditional (food) market include
fufu, lafun and abacha (Onabalu, 2001)

Traditional methods of processing cassava roots can result in poor quality products that
contain unacceptable levels of cyanide, as well as being contaminated by foreign matter and
disease-causing agents[ii]. If people eat these kinds of products, they can suffer from acute
cyanide poisoning, goiter, and a nerve-damaging disorder that makes them unsteady and
unable to walk properly.

Proper processing converts fresh cassava roots into safer and more marketable products by:

• Reducing cyanide levels in the processed products

• Prolonging shelf life

• Reducing post-harvest losses of fresh cassava roots

• Avoiding contamination of the products and the environment

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In Nigeria, mechanized cassava processing is still on the developmental stage and the
potential is very high.

PRODUCTION PROCESS

The basic processes involved in the production of Garri from cassava are:

1. Sorting: After harvest, some roots may be damaged or rotten. These are sorted to select the
wholesome roots for processing; only healthy roots (without rot or other damage) should be
processed.

2. Peeling and washing: Freshly harvested cassava roots are covered with soil and dirt and.
The roots are peeled to remove the outer brown skin and inner thick cream layer and washed
to remove stains and dirt. The water source should be checked regularly to ensure it is not
dirty or contaminated.

3. Grating: As part of the process to remove the cyanide and make the root safe to eat, the
peeled cassava are grated into a mash or pulp. Mechanized graters are needed to produce a
sufficient quantity of cassava mash to meet market demands and standards.

4. De- watering and fermenting: This completes the process of removing cyanide from the
cassava mash. The water content in the mash is reduced using hydraulic press. The bags are
then left to drain and ferment for a few days.

5. Granulating: The cake is mechanically reduced in size to produce fine granules of greater
surface area – known as grits.

6. Roasting: The grits are then roasted or fryed in a hot frying tray or pan to form the final dry
and crispy product. Gari is normally white or cream, but will be yellow when made from
yellow cassava roots or when fried with palm oil. It is important to make sure the taste and
smell is acceptable to local consumers. Yellow cassava roots and palm oil are rich in vitamin
A and therefore make nutritious gari. The roasted gari are spread on a raised platform in the
open air to cool and dry.

7. Sieving: The Gari is sieved to separate coarse particles, with a standard size sieve to
produce fine granules. A grinder is used to break the large granules into smaller ones. The

8. Packaging: The gari are weighed and then packed for marketing.

Machinery and Equipment.

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The major equipment for production of Gari are: Garifier, Grater, Hydraulic press,
Granulator, Cone Blender, Vibro Sifter, Hammer mill with cyclone, Packaging Machine and
weighing Machine.

Plate 26: bags of peeled cassava tuber. Grinding machine, bagged processed gari..

CHAPTER EIGHT:

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & EXTENSION SECTION.

8.10 Excursion to MASDEVAN farm.

On the 9th of March 2018 at exactly 10:20am, we the B agric students of the Faculty of
Agriculture Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. Embarked on a 30 minutes journey for an

75
excursion at Masdevan farm which is located at Urum Town in Awka North L.G.A. Anambra
State.

We were warmely received by Rev. Fr Sebastian Anokwulu who welcomed us in his

restaurant where he introduced us to the place and highlighed the mission and vision of the
establishment. He was so personate about what you can produce and not how many
certificates you have aquired.

Amongst his introductory speach was the full meaning of the acronym MASDEVAN which
he said was Mariah Stella De Evangelicione, Also called Mary Star. The farm is owned by
the catholic dioceses of Awka and its set to produce quality and affordable agricultural
produce for its members to elevate hunger and starvation. The farm is in partnership with
Songhai and has a Songhai design. Just like Songhai, it also practice a zero emission and zero
waste program in which every bye product or waste material in a particular section serves as
raw material for another section.

Masdevan farm is an integrated farm which has a capacity training center and produces
certified graduates who can manage any farm in Nigeria.

Rev. Fr Sebastian also pointed out that not like other farms that are just into the production
i.e primary stage of the value addition process, Masdevan farm has evolved to the tertiary
stage. According to him,

5 Primary (Production Level): At this stage, a farm is just concern with the production. The
disadvantage of this system is that the farm is at the expense of the processors who buys
this products. The processors indirectly determines the price at which the farm must sell
the products to avoid wastage due to spoilage if not sold within the point of harvest. This
system implies that the farm becomes a one season production farm as off season
production is not guaranteed.

6 Secondary (Processing Level): At this stage, a farm produces and to some extent
processes the products. At this stage, maximization of profit can be achieved and all year
round availability of the products can be ensured.

7 Tertiary (Service Delivery): At this stage, a farm produces, processes, and markets the
products directly to the final consumer of the product. At this level, maximum profit is
achieved and maintained. He gave us the illustration of a fish farm that produces 1kg of

76
 fish for 800 naira, after the fish has gone through the processing and value addition chain,
it gets to the final consumer who buys it for 2000 naira. Pointing out the huge profit
difference of the secondary and Tertiary stage compared to the Primary stage.

OIL PALM PROCESSING UNIT.

This section was where Masdevan process their oil palm into various products ranging from
palm oil, palm kernel, palm kernel oil to palm kernel cake for livestock feed formulation.
Rev fr Sebastian pointed out the fact that Masdevan just recently established their oil
palm plantation and as such currently depends on local farmers for raw materials (palm
heads). According to him, freshly harvested palm heads are bought from the local farmers
and processed. Amongst the machines we saw are,

 Palm Bunch Stripper: This is a rotating drum equipped with rotary beater bars that
detach the fruit from the bunch, leaving the spikelet on the stem. This machines main
function is to separate the palm fruits from them stem.

 Palm Fruit Winnower: After the separation of the fruits from the bunch, some debris are
still found to be on the fruits so this machine helps to eliminate such materials which can
hamper with the quality of oil produced.

 Boilers and Distillers: These machines performs the function of heat treatment. Their
effect is so significant as they helps destroy oil-splitting enzymes and arrests hydrolysis
and autoxidation, helps to solidify proteins in which the oil- bearing cells are
microscopically dispersed, helps weaken the pulp structure, softening it and making it
easier to detach the fibrous material and its contents during the digestion process.The
moisture introduced by the steam acts chemically to break down gums and resins.

 Digester: This machine performs the duty of maceration. It ruptures oil-bearing cells to
allow oil flow. Rev Fr. Sebastian made us know that Masdevan's Digester was made in
Nigeria and could macerate about 5 tons of palm fruits in 2 hours.

 Mash Presser: This machine releases fluid palm oil using applied pressure on ruptured
cellular contents.

 Fiber-Nut Separator: This machine separates the de-oiled fibers from the palm nuts

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 Palm- Nut Cracker: This machine helps to break open the palm nut to expose the palm
kernel.

 Palm kernel Crusher: This machine crushes the palm kernel to extract the oil.

 Product Storage Unit: This is the storage center for all the palm product of Masdevan
Farm.

FEED MILL PRODUCTION UNIT.

According to Rev Fr. Sebastian, the fact that Masdevan is a purely organic farm made it
imperative for them to produce their feeds themselves. According to him, already processed
feeds contains a high level of hormones and growth boosters which they use to fattening the
animals. He made us know that the farm source the raw materials for feed formulation from
the northern part of Nigeria and with the help of their feed mill, formulates feeds for their
livestocks. Amongst machines seen in the feed mill are; The Crumbler, The Extruder, The
Hammer Mill, The Mixer and The Pelleting Mill.

TRAINING CENTER.

Rev. Fr. Sebastian also made us understand that Masdevan farm also runs an agricultural
training school where the students are taught everything that would make them become a
balanced and well informed farm managers in the future. According to him a token fee of
30,000 Naira is paid which would cover for feeding, housing and tuition fees for the program
which would run for about 6 month and certificates would be awarded to participants.

VALUE ADDITION UNIT.

This unit tends to transform the product into one that can be directly consumed by the
individual. The key aspects of this unit are;

 Smoking kiln: This is a processing unit where some products especially from the
livestock section are dried by smoking over an oven. This is most suitable for catfish and
pork.

 Restaurant/ Bar: This is where majority of the farm products are transformed into its
edible form. At this point the farm product for example Chicken can either be boiled,
fried, roastede.t.c. To improve its organoleptic properties.

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 CROPS UNIT.
 Moringa section: The leaves serves as antibiotics which helps fights bacterial infection
and also serves to build up the immunity of the when compounded in the feed of the
animals. According to him, the animals don't have to be sick if placed on moringa
treatment.

 Water Hyacinth section: This is also known as the Bio- Filtering Sewage. It's a deep
concreted pit, connected to it are pipes collecting waste waters from all the livestock
enterprises except for the poultry enterprise and also the septic tank of the students hostel.
On the surface of this collected waste water is a thick vegetation of water Hyacinth
planted by just dropping about 4-5 stands in the pit and in no due time, the entire pit
surface is covered by water hyacinth. According to him, water hyacinth has the ability to
reduce the odour produced from this different enterprises by feeding on the micro-
organisms responsible for the unpleasant smell. It's from this reservoir that the farm
sources its liquid fertilizer which is commonly used during the dry season.

 Bitter leave section: According to him, the bitter leaves cultivated were for consumption
and sales.

 Maize section: Due to the availability of liquid fertilizer, Masdevan farm produces Maize
all year round.

 Cucumber section: The Cucumber section was really a beauty to behold. Rev. Fr.
Sebastian started by admonishing us not to fold our hand and be waiting for white collar
job that maynot come forth. He suprised us by telling us how we can start up a Cucumber
farm with 1500 Naira and make it in no due time if only we are determined. According to
him, Masdevan farm planted the Regular Monalisa Cucumber specie which produces a
minimum of six fruits per stand. The Cucumber bed was completely mulched with plastic
mulch which helps in water management and weed control. According to him under each
bed are two perforated pipes which runs along the bed to the central control tap. For
watering, the central control tap is opened for at least 5 minutes depending on the nature
of dryness, after then its turn off. The fertility of the bed is monitored by the Cucumber
production rate. When the soil starts lacking nutrients, a partial fertilization is carried out
by mixing liquid fertilizer and water in a watering can and applying from one corner of

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 the bed. But if the plant becomes too weak, complete incorporation of the liquid fertilizer
becomes necessary. He pointed out that the triangular staking pattern was the best.

 Paw- Paw section: Rev. Fr. Sebastian took us to the Paw- Paw Plantation were he
emphasized the need for complete mulching of the soil with fine grass as it ensures
continuous movement of beneficial microorganisms which helps to forestall pest
infestation as it would help prevent the spread of the pest.

 Organic compost section: We were told that this is the place the farm derives its organic
fertilizer from. All the plant wastes, weeding’se.t.c. are gathered at the organic compost
section and allowed to decompose to form compost.

LIVESTOCK UNIT.
Fishery section: According to Rev. Fr. Sebastian the fish pond is a typical Dripping pond.
The advantage of that dripping pond is that the fishes are in a continuous fresh oxygen
supply. But because of the epileptic power supply, the cost of pumping water becomes
inevitable. As the water drips into the pond, excess are channelled into the water hyacinth
chamber and subsequently used as a source of liquid fertilizer. He made us to know that the
pond water is changed every two days.

Plate 27;Cross section of a fish pond.

Piggery section: We stated out by identifying the breed stocks were he pointed out the two
males used for breeding. They were about 10-20 breeding sows. The variety was large white
and landrace. The females are taken to the males for mating and after mating, taken back into
their compartment were they can farrow and wean their piglets. After weaning, the piglets are

80
taken into the Grower section. In the grower you see various stages and ages of piglets and
it's from here the farm sells to other individuals. According to him, the liter number ranges
from 7-14. Also he said due to the balanced nature of the feed fed to the pigs, when
slaughtered, it's usually difficulty to see a thick layer of fat in them.

Plate28;piggery pen.

Maggotory: This is also known as poultry sewage decomposer pit. According to him all the
poultry wastes are channelled into the pit and allowed to decompose openly. Because poultry
doesn’t urinate, they have a large quantity of uric acid in the feaces and as such water
hyacinth cannot survive in the water and that implies that the fuction of odour reduction is
truncated. This is the site for maggot harvest which is used to complement the fish feeds.

Poultry: The poultry section of Masdevan is absolutely fascinating with a wide species of
birds ranging from Quails, Turkeys, Broilers, Layers and Cockerels. This different birds were
managed using different management systems ranging from semi free range system to
intensive system.

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Plate29; Battery cage system.

The Layers sections: They are two buildings with well-designed battery cage system. One
housed about 16 months old, while the other 8 months. He made us to understand that his
birds lays at about 70% production rate. The layer sections was said to house about 5000
birds.

The Brooder house: This is a house were the newly hatched chicks are tendered before been
taken to the main poultry house. According to him, the birds are brooded for about 4-6
months before been taken into the battery cage for laying.

The Semi-Free Range section: This is an enclosure where the birds are allowed to move
around and exercise them. The major species of poultry kept here is the local chicken and
local turkey.

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 GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The one year practical experience in the faculty of agriculture (Department of crop science
and horticulture) is an eye opener to all that it takes to be practically exposed in all fields of
agriculture namely:

 Animal production and management

 Animal health and diseases diagnosis
 Crop production techniques
 Crop protection and weed management
 Agricultural extension practices
 Agricultural meteorology
 Land use planning
 Soil fertility determination and water management
 Nursery Planting
 Food processing and storage
 Marketing and products

RECOMMENDATIONS

I recommend that more fund should be channel into agriculture so that it can enable the
school acquire more machinery and implement that will make farming attractive to the
students and not using the ancient way of farming.

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