Contents

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Æ “The device used for comparing the unknown quantity
with the unit of measurement or standard quantity is
called a Measuring Instrument.”
OR
Æ “An instrument may be defined as a machine or system
which is designed to maintain functional relationship
between prescribed properties of physical variables &
could include means of communication to human
observer.”
OR
Æ Simply, it is an instrument which measures some
quantity and gives information.
 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical instruments may be divided into two categories,
that are;
Æ Absolute instruments,
Æ Secondary instruments.

Æ Absolute instruments gives the quantity to be

m e a s u r e d i n t e r m o f i n st r u m e n t co n s t a n t & i t s
deflection.

Æ In Secondary instruments the deflection gives the

magnitude of electrical quantity to be measured directly.
These instruments are required to be calibrated by
comparing with another standard instrument before
putting into use.
 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument

 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Æ Electrical measuring instruments may also be classified
according to the kind of quantity, kind of current,
principle of operation of moving system.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS
Secondary instruments can be classified into three types

Æ Indicating instruments

Æ Recording instruments

Æ Integrating instruments.
 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Indicating Instruments:
It indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the
time when it is being measured. The indications are
given by a pointer moving over a graduated dial.
Example:1. Ammeters
2. Voltmeters
3. Wattmeters
 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Recording Instruments:
The instruments which keep a continuous record of the
variations of the magnitude of an electrical quantity to be
observed over a defined period of time.
Example: Such an instrument is used by doctors to give
ECG of a patient.
 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Integrating Instruments:
The instruments which measure the total amount of
either quantity of electricity or electrical energy supplied
over a period of time. For example energy meters.
 ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
As defined above, indicating instruments are those
which indicate the value of quantity that is being
measured at the time at which it is measured. Such
instruments consist essentially of a pointer which moves
over a calibrated scale & which is attached to a moving
system pivoted in bearing. The moving system is
subjected to the following three torques:
1. A deflecting ( or operating) torque;
2. A controlling ( or restoring) torque;
3. A damping torque.
 DEFLECTING TORQUE

Æ The deflecting torque is produced by making one of the

magnetic, heating, chemical, electrostatic and
electromagnetic induction effect of current or voltage
and cause the moving system of the instrument to
move from its zero position.

Æ The method of producing this torque depends upon the

type of instrument.
 CONTROLLING TORQUE
Æ The magnitude of the moving system would be some what
indefinite under the influence of deflecting torque, unless the
controlling torque existed to oppose the deflecting torque.
Æ It increases with increase in deflection of moving system.
Æ Under the influence of controlling torque the pointer will return to
its zero position on removing the source producing the deflecting
torque.
Æ Without controlling torque the pointer will swing at its
maximum position & will not return to zero after removing the
source.
 CONTROLLING TORQUE
Æ Controlling torque is produced either
by spring or gravity control.
Spring Control:
Æ When the pointer is deflected one
spring unwinds itself while the other
is twisted. This twist in the spring
produces restoring (controlling)
torque, which is proportional to the
angle of deflection of the moving
systems.
 CONTROLLING TORQUE
Spring Control
 Gravity Control
Æ In gravity controlled instruments, a small adjustable weight is
attached to the spindle of the moving system such that the
deflecting torque produced by the instrument has to act
against the action of gravity.
Æ Thus a controlling torque is obtained. This weight is called the
control weight.
Æ Another adjustable weight is also attached is the moving
system for zero adjustment and balancing purpose. This
weight is called Balance weight.
Gravity Control
 DAMPING TORQUE
Æ We have already seen that the moving system of the instrument will
tend to move under the action of the deflecting torque.
Æ But on account of the control torque, it will try to occupy a position
of rest when the two torques are equal and opposite.
Æ However, due to inertia of the moving system, the pointer will not
come to rest immediately but oscillate about its final deflected
position as shown in figure and takes appreciable time to come to
steady state.
Æ To overcome this difficulty a damping torque is to be developed by
using a damping device attached to the moving system.
 DAMPING TORQUE

Æ The damping torque is proportional to the speed of rotation of the

moving system, that is
 DAMPING TORQUE
The damping torque is produced by the following methods:

Æ Air Friction Damping

Æ Fluid Friction Damping

Æ Eddy Current Damping

 AIR FRICTION DAMPING
The damping torque is produced by the following methods:
ØIn this method,one light aluminium vane is attached to the same
spindle that carries the pointer.The vane is permitted to swing in a closed
box.
ØAs the pointer moves,the vane swing in the box,compressing the air
infront of them.
ØThe pressure of compressed air in the vane provides the necessary
damping force to reduce the tendency Of the pointer to oscillate.
FLUID FRICTION DAMPING
ØIn this method, disc attaced to the spindle of the moving system are
kept immersed in a pot Containing oil of high viscosity.
ØAs the pointer moves, the friction between the oil and the vane
opposes the motion of the Pointer, thus necessary damping is
provided.
EDDY CURRENT DAMPING
 EDDY CURRENT DAMPING
• Eddy current damping is the most efficient form of
damping.
• The essential components in this type of damping
are a permanent magnet; and a light conducting
disc usually of aluminium.
• When a sheet of conducting material moves in a
magnetic field so as to cut through lines of force,
eddy currents are set up in it and a force exists
between these currents and the magnetic field,
which is always in the direction opposing the motion.
 DAMPING TORQUE
1. Under damped condition:
The response is oscillatory
2. Over damped condition:
The response is sluggish and it rises very slowly from
its zero position to final position.
3. Critically damped condition:
When the response settles quickly without any
oscillation, the system is said to be critically damped.
The damping torque is produced by the following methods:
1.Air Friction Damping 2.Fluid Friction Damping
3.Eddy Current Damping 4.Electromagnetic Damping
DAMPING TORQUE
 TYPES OF AMMETERS & VOLTMETERS
1) Moving Coil Type Meters
a) Permanent Magnet type(DC),
b) Electrodynamic or Dynamometer (AC & DC).
2) Moving Iron Type Meters (AC & DC);
a) Attraction type,
b) Repulsion type.
3) Hot Wire Type (AC & DC);
4) Induction Type (AC & DC);
a) Split phase,
b) Shaded Pole type.
5) Electrostatic Type for Voltmeters Only (high voltage AC
measurements as well as DC);
 Moving-Coil instrument

Æ There are two types of moving coil instruments namely, permanent

magnet moving coil type which can only be used for direct
current, voltage measurements.

Æ The dynamometer type which can be used on either direct or

alternating current, voltage measurements.
 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL

Æ “The principle operation of PMMC is based upon the principle of

current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it is acted
upon by force which tends to move it.”
 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL
Advantages
Æ It has uniform scale
Æ It consumes low power
Æ High torque /weight ratio
Æ The effect of stray magnetic field (outside the magnet) is negligible .
Disadvantage
Æ It can be used only on DC
Æ The cost is high compared to moving iron instrument
Æ The field strength may be lost with time
 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL
Errors

Æ Weakening of permanent magnet due to ageing

Æ Friction Error
Æ Temperature error
Æ Stray magnetic field error
 DYNAMOMETER
Æ This instrument is suitable for the measurement of direct and
alternating current, voltage and power.
Æ The deflecting torque in dynamometer relies on the interaction of
magnetic field produced by a pair of fixed air cored coils and a
third air cored coil capable of angular movement and suspended
within the fixed coil.
DYNAMOMETER
Construction
• Fixed coil (F) is made in two
sections.

• In the space between two,

Moving coil (M) is placed.

• Moving coil is attached to

the spindle to which pointer
is attached.

• The pointer is allowed to

move over a calibrated scale
DYNAMOMETER
 Working
• The fixed coil and the moving coil carry
currents. Thus, two magnetic fields are
produced.
• Hence, an electromagnetic force tends to
act on the moving coil and makes it move.
• This makes the pointer gives a
proportionate deflection.
 Deflecting torque

As voltmeter: The two coils are electrically in series. Deflecting torque

is proportional to square of voltage to be measured. Hence used
for measuring ac and dc voltages.
As ammeter: The two coils are electrically in series. Deflecting torque
is proportional to square of current to be measured. Hence used
for measuring ac and dc currents.
As wattmeter: Fixed coils carry the system current. Moving coil
carries a current proportional to the system voltage. The
deflecting torque is proportional to V ICos φ i.e. Power to
be measured
Control torque : Spring control.

Damping torque : Air damping.

 Moving-iron instrument
Æ Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod
Æ Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and
also to magnetize the iron pieces.
Æ In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with
the same polarity.
Æ Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity)
Æ Damping torque is normally pneumatic (operated by air or gas under
pressure), the damping device consisting of an air chamber and a moving
vane attached to the instrument spindle.
Æ Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a
graduated scale.
 Moving Iron
Instrument

Attraction Repulsion
Type Type
 Moving-iron instrument
Æ An attraction type of
moving-iron instrument is
shown diagrammatically in
Figure. When current flows
in the solenoid, a pivoted
soft-iron disc is attracted
towards the solenoid and
th e m o ve m e n t ca u s e s a
pointer to move across a
scale.
 Moving-iron instrument
Æ Spring control or gravity
control
Æ Air friction Damping
 Moving-iron instrument
Æ In the repulsion type
moving-iron instrument
shown diagrammatically in
Figure, two pieces of iron
are placed inside the
solenoid, one being fixed,
and the other attached to
the sp in d le ca rryin g th e
pointer.
 Moving-iron instrument
Æ Tw o i r o n s l i e i n t h e
magnetic field produced by
the coil.
Æ Current in the coil induces
both vanes to become
magnetized and repulsion
between the similarly
magnetized vanes produces
a proportional rotation
 Moving-iron instrument
Æ Spring control or gravity control
Æ Air friction Damping
 Moving-iron instrument
The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the coil,
making the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity.
Moving-iron instrument
Moving-iron instrument
 Induction Type Instruments
Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter: Working

q Here we have assumed that the pressure coil is

highly inductive in nature and consists of very large
number of turns. The current flow in the pressure
coil is Ip which lags behind voltage by an angle of
90 degrees. This current produces flux F. F is
divided into two parts Fg and Fp.

q Fg:which moves on the small reluctance part across

the side gaps. And F p : It is responsible for the Shunt magnet
production of driving torque in the aluminium disc.

q It moves from high reluctance path and is in phase

with the current in the pressure coil. Fp is
alternating in nature and thus emf Ep and current Ip.

Series magnet
 Induction Type Instruments
Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter: Working

q The load current which is shown in the above

diagram is flowing through the current coil produces
flux in the aluminium disc, and due this alternating
flux there on the metallic disc, an eddy current is
produced which interacts with the flux Fp which
results in production of torque.

q As we have two poles, thus two torques are

produced which are opposite to each other. Hence
from the theory of induction meter that, the net
torque is the difference of the two torques.
• Driving torque

• Braking torque is proportional to disc speed.