SCHOOL OF LAW

UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM AND ENERGY

STUDIES

PROJECT WORK – POLITICAL SCIENCE

TOPIC – WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Submitted by : Submitted to:

Name – Abhishant Kumar Mr. Sam Babu KC

Roll – R450217007

SAP ID – 500061867
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely thank my teachers , my colleagues as well as my seniors and peers to help

formulate this project. A significant contribution has been from the side of my
Colleagues or my college mates who helped me with the constructive research. I
would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the
possibility to complete this report.

A special gratitude I give to my Political Science Faculty, Prof. Sam Babu KC, whose
contribution in Providing fruitful suggestion and encouragement, helped me to
coordinate my project: Women Empowerment especially in writing this report.

Further I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of
the library, who gave me the permission to use all required equipment and the
necessary materials to complete the task. Special thanks go to my friends who helped
me to assemble my research materials and gave suggestion about various sources as
well as first hand information on the condition of women in their village as well as
urban areas.

Last but not the least; I would like to thank my parents or Peers who supported me
with all required resources. If provided in future more tasks, I would try to perform
with greatest of my ability and also with true dedication and responsibility.

Yours Sincerely

ABHISHANT KUMAR
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

2. TABLE OF CONTENTS

3. INTRODUCTION

4. STATUS OF WOMEN

4.1. PRE – VEDIC TIMES

4.2. VEDIC TIME

5. CAUSES FOR DECLINE IN STATUS

6. CONTEMPORARY STATE OF WOMEN

7. VULNERABILITY OF RURAL WOMEN

8. TRYST WITH WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

9. PRINCIPLES OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

10. NEED FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

11. CONCLUSION

12. HYPOTHESIS

INTRODUCTION
“There is no tool for development more effective than the empowerment of women”...no
other statement could have described the abilities of women more aptly. It was way back in
1930 when Mahatma Gandhi conveyed a profound message through his question: “Has she
not greater intuition, is she not more self-sacrificing, has she not greater powers of
endurance, has she not greater courage?” But as one of the proponents of gender equity,
India hasn’t been able to save itself from the disgrace of under-representation of women in
most decision-making bodies within and outside the government.

There is not much that women have not achieved – either in the traditional or in more modern
roles. As mothers, they have been bearing the responsibility of carrying, giving birth and
rearing the future citizens of the world with elan ever since time immemorial. As daughters,
sisters, and wives they have supported to man in various ways. In the more modern roles they
have been educators, managers, political leaders, et al. They have even dared to break the
gender barriers of late, and become mountaineers, pilots, also seen in the armed forces in
combat roles.1

However, this wasn’t always so for women. In ancient times woman was considered nothing
without a man – she could only be a daughter, wife or mother. She could not take the
leadership – always existing under the domination of the ‘man’ in her life – a father, son or
husband. She was not allowed decision making roles. This perception existed in even the
western societies where women’s suffrage was granted very late. In India also, almost a
century long struggle has brought women the property rights, voting rights, equality in civil
rights before the law in matters of marriage and employment. After independence of India,
the constitution makers and the national leaders recognized the equal social position of
women with men. Several measures were taken by the successive Governments to assign
equal status to women in the economic, political and social fields. More avenues were opened
to them to show their talents and have a sense of participation in national activities. The
passage of several Acts by the Parliament and introduction of various Schemes by the central
well as state governments during the last few decades have done much for women’s
emancipation both legally, politically and socially.

Education has empowered woman to a large extent and where women are educated,
empowerment has happened the fastest. It has enabled women to take decisions about
marriage, parenthood and careers. Education has also created awareness about opportunities
outside of marriage, giving her financial independence and reducing her dependence on ‘the
man in her life’ be it father or husband. She now no longer needs to tolerate domestic
violence or mental abuse at home. It has also enabled her to make her choice regarding
pregnancy and the right of abortion of an unwanted child. Health is another area where the
woman suffers. Most women have neither the time nor the mind set or facilities to go in for
health care. Rural women, specially, have no access to even such a basic health care facility
as a toilet in their homes. Women’s health is, therefore, a priority for government policies,

1
(See YOJANA VOL. 60 CHIEF EDITOR’S DESK)
with governments initiating programmes like ‘Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao’ and ‘Janani Shushu
Suraksha Karyakaram etc.

Social stigma related to single women whether widows, divorcees or unmarried women have
also been one of factors for the lowly status of women in India. A single woman is always
regarded as an object of ridicule, or as a social outcaste. All this however is now seeing a
change though slow. Today’s woman has truly come a long way from the ancient times. She
has broken the glass ceiling in many areas. Some of the most powerful people today are
women – to name a few, Arunadhati Bhattacharya, Indira Nooyi, Kiran Mazumdar Shawa
and Chanda Kochhar. Bhawana Kanth, Avani Chatuvedi and Mohana Singh were
commissioned in the Indian Air Force recently and for the first time in the history of
Independent India, an all-women contingent from the three forces — Army, Air Force and
Navy — marched down the majestic Rajpath during the Republic Day, 2015. That is what
woman power can achieve. These women symbolize Prime Ministers vision to think beyond
“women development,” and move towards “women-led development.” With women
population being around 50 per cent of the total population of the world, they have every
right to be treated equally with men in every sphere of life. The inclusion of “Women
Empowerment’ as one of the prime goals in the eight Millennium Development Goals
underscores the relevance of this fact. Swami Vivekananda’s quote that, “There is no chance
for the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is not possible for
a bird to fly on only one wing” beautifully sums up the essence of power of women in leading
not just their families but also the nation and the world.

Women empowerment promotes equality between men and women. It has been an issue since
time immemorial. Men are known to be the alpha while women serve as supports. Because of
this connotation, women would like to ensure that they get the same benefits men receive. As
the popular point of view says, what men are capable of doing, women can equally do them,
too.

Everyone deserves to be given a chance to be able to prove their capabilities. Today, such
issue is slowly eradicated. THEREFORE , Women Empowerment as a rescue has been
campaigned to uplift women. Women empowerment, in general sense, to empower women to
be independent and to take their own decisions and live freely.

STATUS OF WOMEN

Pre-Vedic times
By the Vedic Age, we understand the period between the Rig Veda and the Vedangasutras—
and that is exactly the span of the Vedic period—then it covers about seventeen or eighteen
centuries. Obviously, the position of women did not remain the same during this period. In
the early parts of the Rig Veda we find women enjoying a measure of freedom as was to be
expected among a pastoral, nomadic people. Society's attitude to women is defined in the
various images that crop up in the hymns. For instance, Ushas, dawn, a beautiful, well
dressed woman, is described in an uninhibited manner, "Ushas, fresh and beautiful, clad in a
red apparel looks like a maid freshly washed and decked out with loving care by her mother."
She reveals her beauty just as the smiling bride does before her husband. She is also called a
shame less hussy. This, however, betrays society's disapproval of women's free movement.2

The Pre –Vedic as well as some early parts of vedic period were golden days for women
when they, like men participated in all the social fields and took active part in each and every
sphere of human life.1 In the society, the men and women stood on the same footing. There
was no discrimination between the men and the women. The women enjoyed full freedom
and equality with men during those periods.

We should make a mention of great women as Ghosa, Apala, Visvara, Lopamudra, Gargi,
Indrani and many others. Of course, during the period between 1 500 B.C. to 500 A.D., that is
the Post Vedic period, the womenfolk had to suffer a setback as Manu had laid down some
restrictions on the rights and privileges of women and as a result of this the status of women
received a blow and setback and they were confined to the four walls of the houses. In pre -
Vedic period, the society in India was matriarchal & women occupied the superior place as
compared to men. In Vedic age, women enjoyed equality in education & were not confined to
purdah. They were allowed to marry with the man of their choice. They took keen interest in
political matters but evidence of male domination cannot be brushed aside. Later on, the
condition of Indian women became worse. Hindu Dharma Shastras & customs had already
paved the way for the complete subordination of male dominated.3

VEDIC TIMES

Since we don't have any archaeological or historical evidence of the human activities in India
till about 300 B.C., we depend upon Vedic literature as a valid document of Indian social,
2
SUKUMARI BHATTACHARYA
The Position of Women in vedic society
Lecture delivered at the India International Centre on 12 September, 1992. In collaboration with Delhi
Brahmo Samaj.
3
EMPOWERING INDIAN WOMEN IN THE NEW WAKE OF GLOBALIZATION
Manas Chakrabarty Yang Lahmu Bhutia, The Indian Journal of Political Science Vol. LXVIII, No.
1 , Jan.-Mar.# 200
political and religious history. For convenience historians have divided the Vedic age into
two: The Early Vedic or kg Vedic age which begins from 1500 B.C. and the post-Vedic age
which extends from 1000 B.C. to 500 B.C. " It was during the Rig Vedic or Early Vedic age
that most of the hymns of the Rig Veda were composed. It was in the later Vedic period that
the Brahmanas, the three other Vedas and the Upanishads were composed".4

Though the early Vedic family was of the patriarchal type, women had some control

over the entire household. The Rig Veda reveals a stage where women enjoyed equal status
with men. ". . . a Rig Vedic hymn describes how a maiden could take a soma twig and offer
herself as a sacrifice to Indra. Vedic sacrifices were performed jointly by husband and wife".5
Patriarchy never denied women their rights and privileges. From 4th century B.C to 3rd
century B.C. girls were given education. But this was practically confined to the well-to-do
families.

There existed the initiation ceremony or Upanayana, for both girls and boys. According to
A.S. Altekar ". . . education was regarded as very essential to secure a suitable marriage."6 In
Rig Vedic society ". . . the practice of child marriage did not exist.''7So women got an
opportunity to acquire education. If they wanted to pursue knowledge without getting
married, they were allowed to do so, without any constraints. The educators wisely divided
women into two groups namely Brahmavadinis and Sadyodvahas. "The former were life-long
students of theology and philosophy, the latter used to prosecute their studies till their
marriage at the age of 15 or 16."8

Many educated women became teachers or Upadhyayinis. No wonder the age witnessed
many sagacious and capable women "like Visvavara, Apala and Ghosha even composed
mantras and rose to the rank of rishis."9 Lopamudra, one of the female preachers, is said to
have preached as many as 179 hymns of the first book of the Rig Veda along with sage
Agasthya. There were many women poets and philosophers during this period. This confirms
the fact that if given equal opportunities women can definitely prove that they are as capable
and as intelligent as men.

Majurndar points out that the Aryans never neglected or showed prejudice towards women as
far as their education was concerned. May be they were not conscious of the gender power-
politics and conflicts at that time, as society was not so complex and was at a developing
stage. Thus during the poetical period of the Vedas the Aryans, we can say, were concerned
about the rightness of the social order in which they lived. The fact that the education of their
women was not neglected itself shows the collective consciousness of a race which

4
D.N. Jha, Ancient India: An Introductory Outline (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1981), p.
11.
5
Altekar, Position of Women in Hindu Civilization (1938; New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass, 1959), p.
10.
6
Ibid., p. 10.
7
P.S. Joshi, Cultural History ofAncient India (New Delhi: S. Chand; 1978), p. 7. 32
8
A.S. Altekar, Position ofwornen in Hindu Civilization (1938; New Delhi: Motilal Banarassidass,
1959), p. 11.
9
R.C. Majumdar, Ancient India mew Delhi: Motilal Banarassidass, 1964), p. 44.
promulgated codes or laws which in turn contributed immensely to the creative force of the
people which is crystallized in their Vedas. According to Ray Choudhiri, the position of
women was much better in this period than the subsequent times. The period witnessed many
women scholars who were well versed in sacred texts. "These women not only composed
hymns but were also well-versed in sacred texts. Women also learn1 music and dancing." 10

Even in early Rig Vedic age the birth of a son was much more welcome than the birth of a
daughter. But the Rig Vedic society was free from social evils like female infanticide, sati
and childmarriage. As a sign of woman's social dignity widow remarriage was permitted in
Rig Vedic society, as evidenced in the funeral hymn in the Rig Veda: "the widow who lay on
the pyre by the side of her dead husband was asked to come to the world of the living."11

Girls normally married after puberty, as can be judged from the frequent mention of
unmarried ones such as "Ghosha" who grew up in the houses of their parents. Moreover, "the
data of the Rig Veda shows that the girls and boys of the Rig Vedic society had freedom to
choose their partners in life."12 lo In Rig Vedic times caste system was not all rigid. There
was no compartmentalization of society.

During this time intercaste marriages took place in society. People were given absolute
freedom to choose their caste. "In one case the father was a priest, the mother grinder of corn
and the son a physician, all three lived happily together."13 Rig Vedic women enjoyed
economic independence also to a certain extent. The women belonging to lower strata took
up spinning, weaving and needle work. Clothes were much more expensive in ancient India
than at present. Among other important occupations, the first place must be given to weaving
both in cotton and wool, which supplied clothes to people. "It is noteworthy as in later days,
both men and women were engaged in this work as well as in the subsidiary process of
dyeing and embroidery."14 In one of the hymns of Rig Veda, there is a simile in which night
and dawn are compared to two young women engaged in weaving.15

There are many passages in Rig Veda that throw light on the extent of freedom enjoyed by
women. They attended fairs and festivals and were free to move about with their husbands or
loved ones. They were allowed to attend Sabhas or assemblies of the learned ones, in the
company of their husbands or loved ones. "Like women at a gathering fair, the streams of oil
look on with gentle smile and recline to Agni."

In the family at least to a certain extent women enjoyed equal rights, as the Aryans believed
that ". . . the wife and the husband being the equal halves of one substance were regarded
equal in every respect and both took equal part in all duties, religious and social." l5 This is

10
Ray Choudhiri, Social Cyultural and Economic History ofAncient India (New Delhi: Surjeet
Publications, 1978), p. 37.
11
K.M. Kapadia, Marriage andFamily in India(1955; London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1966), p. 59.
12
'O P.S. Joshi,Cultural History ofAncient India (New Delhi: S.Chand, 1978), p. 6.
13
'I D.N. Jha, Ancient India: An Introductory Outline (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1981),
p. 17.
14
Majumdar, Ancient India (New Delhi: Motilal Banarassidass, 1964), p. 47.
15
Jain, Labour in Ancient India(New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1971), p. 83.
the very idea forcefully expressed in Book 5 hymn 6 verse 8 of Rig Veda. The degradation in
their status came in the post-Vedic period. The historians place a number of reasons for this
change. The most important social change that affected them was the caste system.

CAUSES FOR DECLINE IN STATUS

It is an old saying, “Where women are honoured, gods reside there.” She was known as
„Ardhangini’ – one half of husband‟s body. At the time of marriage, she as a bride was
entitled to procure certain solemn vows from the bridegroom before the ritual fire. No
religious ceremony by the husband could bear fruit without her participation. As a mother,
wife and sister she occupied an honoured place. She is the epitome of courage and boldness,
love and affection, sacrifice and suffering.

However during the course of history women lost their honoured place due to social,
economic and political factors. Evil customs like sati, Purdah, child marriage, enforced
widowhood, dowry system, crept in the society and this led to decline in women‟s status
inside and outside the home. During the last few years, sexual harassment at work place, eve
teasing, abduction and female foeticide has given an inclination of the horrible behaviour
patterns prevailing in the society. Majority of women live a life of dependency that does not
possess any self-identity. Struggle for equality, justice and parity between women and men
continues with more and more literature appearing on the subject on empowerment of
women.16

‘Matri Devo Bhavo’ (Mother of Goddess) is an old sentiment shared by the Indians. From
time immemorial, women have been considered as goddesses like Durga, Parvati, Kali,
Shakti,Vaishnomata, Bhairavi so on and so forth. Indians put them on the pedestal and offer
prayers and sacrifices. In contrast, more ‘goddesses’ are being killed in womb, burnt alive for
dowry, harassed in workplaces and streets, raped, abducted, exploited and discriminated.
Indian citizens venerate and salute this country as ‘Janani’ or mother. On one hand, they
worship this mother and on the other hand, they disregard their sisters, mothers and wives.

The religious traditions and social institutions have a deep bearing on the role and status of
women. A multitude of derogatory attributes have been ascribed to Hindu women by the
writers of the Smiritis. Like the Shudras, she is forbidden to study the Vedas or perform any
sacrifices. According to Manu, “In childhood a woman must be subject to her father, in youth
to her husband and when her lord is dead, to her sons. A woman must never be
independent.”17. She is viewed solely as mother and wife and never as a woman or a person,
and these roles were idealized. Practices like giving away of daughters in marriage and the
importance attached to sons for maintaining the continuity of the line have strengthened the

16
Socio-Economic Status of Women in India:A Review; Shodhganga
17
(Jain et al, 1997: 39)
patrilineal social structure of Hinduism. A widow is regarded as inauspicious. She cannot
participate in socialreligious ceremonies. Re-marriage was not permitted for high caste
widows. But the Hindu male is not subject to such restrictions18.

CONTEMPORARY STATE OF WOMEN

"You can tell the condition of a Nation by looking at the status of its Women." Jawaharlal
Nehru, Leader of India's Independence movement, and India's first Prime Minister.

So, how is women's status in India? Today's India offers a lot of opportunities to women,
with women having a voice in everyday life, the business world as well as in political life.
Nevertheless India is still a male dominated society, where women are often seen as
subordinate and inferior to men. However, even though India is moving away from the male
dominated culture, discrimination is still highly visible in rural as well as in urban areas,
throughout all strata of society. While women are guaranteed equality under the constitution,
legal protection has a limited effect, where patriarchal traditions prevail.
India's Patriarchal Traditions

1. Dowry Tradition

A significant part of the victimization ladies emerges from India's endowment custom, where
the lady of the hour's family gives the prep's family cash as well as blessings. Endowments
were made illicit in India in 1961, however the law is practically difficult to uphold, and the
training continues for generally relational unions. Sadly, the evil endowment framework has
even spread to groups who customarily have not polished it, since settlement is now and
again utilized as a way to climb the social step, to accomplish financial security, and to gather
material riches. The model used to ascertain the settlement considers the husband's training
and future acquiring potential while the lady of the hour's instruction and winning potential
are just pertinent to her societal part of being a superior spouse and mother. The groom's
interest for a share can without much of a stretch surpass the yearly compensation of a regular
Indian family, and thus be financially unfortunate particularly in families with more than
maybe a couple little girls.

2. Women as a Liability

18
(ibid: 39).
The Indian constitution stipends ladies break even with rights to men, however solid man
centric conventions continue in various societal parts, with ladies' lives formed by traditions
that are hundreds of years old. Henceforth, in these strata little girls are regularly viewed as
an obligation, and molded to trust that they are second rate and subordinate to men, while
children may be adored and celebrated.
However, why would that be?
There are two or three reasons, why men may be respected an advantage for a family:
 Considered fit for gaining cash
 Carry on the family line
 Ready to accommodate their maturing guardians
 Bring a spouse (and with this an able household assistant) into the family
 Assume a critical part in death customs in Hindu religion, which guarantee, that the
spirit is discharged from the body and can go to paradise.
Then again, there are two or three reasons why ladies may be respected to a greater extent a
risk for a family:

 Not considered equipped for earning cash

 Seen as monetarily and emotionally reliant on men
 While they help with local obligations amid youth and youthfulness, they go to live
with their better half's family after marriage, which implies less help in the family unit
of their beginning family, and above all loss of cash because of the endowment
custom.
This may clarify why the introduction of a little girl may not generally be seen as similarly
euphoric as the introduction of a child, and why "May you be honored with a hundred
children" is a typical Hindu wedding favoring.

Discrimination Against Women

It ought to be noticed that in a vast and diverse nation like India - spreading over 3.29 million
sq. km, where social foundations, religions and conventions differ broadly - the stretch out of
oppression ladies likewise shifts starting with one societal stratum then onto the next and
from state to state - a few regions in India being truly more slanted to sexual orientation
inclination than others. There are even groups in India, for example, the Nairs of Kerala,
certain Maratha factions, and Bengali families, which show matriarchal propensities, with the
leader of the family being the most seasoned lady as opposed to the most seasoned man.
Nonetheless, numerous Indian ladies confront segregation all through all phases of their life,
starting at (or even earlier) birth, proceeding as a newborn child, kid, pre-adult and grown-up.
The stages can be isolated in following areas:
  Before Birth/As an Infant
 As a Child
 After Marriage
 As a Widow

In the Contemporary state, the Condition of women is worsen off as Despite several
Awareness and Campaigns, the Social Outlook still remains much same. Womens are still
victims of widespread illiteracy, segregation in the dark and dingy rooms in the name of
purdah, rigidity of fidelity and opposition to remarriage of widows turning many of them into
prostitutes, polygamy, female infanticide, violence and force to follow Sati, and the complete
denial of individuality.

Besides, the economic dependence, early tutelage of husbands and in-laws, heavy domestic
work-load which remained unpaid and unrecognized, absence of career and mobility, non-
recognition of their economic contribution, poor work conditions and wages, and
monotonous jobs which men generally refused to do was also responsible for their pitiable
conditions. At the socio-political plain, women suffered from the denial of freedom even in
their homes, repression and unnatural indoctrination, unequal and inferior status, rigid caste
hierarchy. Consequently, most women were reduced to dumb cattle and had lead to inhuman
beastly life.

Looking at current political scenario reveals the same, women are dominated by men. The
reason becomes the percentage of seats of women in cabinet i.e. 25%. With 6 out 23 women
cabinet ministers, It shows the real picture of state of women in India. Another Point to be
talked in present scenario is the Sexual harassment at workplaces.

VULNERABILITY OF RURAL WOMEN

The condition of women is more miserable in the rural India with respect to various socio-
economic aspects. The State of women in rural areas and the reasons for the deprivation is
given:

a) Poverty

Rural poverty is one of the important characteristics of India and nearly 45 percent of rural
people are below poverty line. Most of them are just surviving with dayto-day earnings. If we
take International poverty line (1994) into consideration in India there were 47 percent of the
population at below $ 1 a day category and 87.5 percent at below $ 2 at a day category
(Vijaya Kumar et al, 2002). Under such circumstances, within the family, the worst sufferers
are needless to say women and girl children. For this category of women, neither credit nor
skill training is accessible. Better health care and higher educational opportunities are far
reaching dreams for their children and there is no need to say about the status of girl child in
such families. She (girl child) is treated as a “silent lamb” born to suffer all evils in the male
dominated society. So far much has not been done for this vulnerable sub-culture of the
society.

b) Violence

Indian society has been bound by culture and tradition since ancient times. The patriarchal
system and the gender stereotypes in the family and society have always showed a preference
for the male child. Sons were regarded as a means of social security and women remained
under male domination. Due to her subordinated position, she has suffered years of
discrimination, exploitation and subjugation. She became the victim of several evils like child
marriage, sati, polygamy, Purdah system, female infanticide, forced pregnancy, rape etc. In
such incidents/recorded cases surprisingly mother-in-law are also taking active part
(forgetting the fact that they are also women and some time back they also played daughter-
in-law role). This discrimination and violence against women had an effect on the sex ratio in
India also (Table 2.1). The main causes of

violence are unequal power-relations, gender discrimination, patriarchy, and economic

dependence of women, dowry, low moral values, negative portrayal of women‟s image in
media, no participation in decision-making, gender stereotypes and a negative mindset. The
Hindustan Times, New Delhi (May 10, 2005) reported, „„Delhi is not only the rape capital of
India; it has now taken lead in all types of crimes against women. As against 135 cases
(number of atrocities against women at the hands of their husbands and relatives) reported in
2003, the figure jumped to 1211 in 2004.Crime records compiled for 35 mega cities in
December 2003 by National Crime Records Bureau, shows that Delhi accounts for 30.5
percent of the total crime against women”. If such is the magnitude of domestic violence
against women in Delhi, the capital city of India, it would not be surprising if the situation is
worse in other areas. Uttar Pradesh reported the highest cases of cruelty by husband and his
relatives against women (15%) in the year 2001 (see Status of violence against women in
India: Decadal trends 1991-2001, NIPCCD). The information Brochure published by
SWAYAN, an NGO, has shown that in 1994 there was a rape every 42 minutes, a
molestation every 22 minutes, a dowry death every 106 minutes and a criminal offence every
five minutes ─ all that does not include the innumerable cases that go unreported. Data of
2001 also reveals that every hour there is a case of one sexual harassment, one dowry death,
two rapes, four molestation and six cases of cruelty by husband and his relatives. Dr. Brenda
Gael Mcsweeney, UN Resident coordinator has rightly remarked ─ “we must ask ourselves
when the female half of the world is living with the daily threat of physical violence or
mental violence, are we truly free?”.

c) Economic Exploitation

On the world level, women and girls together carry two-third of the burden of the world‟s
work yet receive only a tenth of the world‟s income. They form 40 percent of the paid labour
force. Though women constitute half of the world‟s population yet they own less than one
percentage of the world‟s property19. According to UN Report (2005): „women constitute
half the world‟s population, perform nearly two-third of its work hours, receive one-tenths of
the world‟s income and own less than one-hundredth of the world‟s property‟.

The condition of women in India is more miserable in every field of social life. They are paid
half of three-quarters of the money while their male counterparts earn for the same job. In
India a predominantly agricultural country, women do more than half of the total agricultural
work. But their work is not valued. On an average, a woman works 15 to 16 hours a day
unpaid at home and underpaid outside.

According to National Committee of Women, the growth in the percentage of women labour
force in the organized sector is minimal in the last sixty years i.e. 3.44 percent in 1911 to
17.35 percent in 1971; besides, the work load either in the field or in the factories or offices,
the women have to do the household such as cooking, washing, cleaning up the house etc.
The younger women, besides all these, have to carry the burden of early pregnancy,
childbirth and breast-feeding. In terms of help offered to people for their various functions
women seem to receive the least attention from the society.

The status of women is intimately connected with their economic status, which in turn,
depends upon rights, roles and opportunity for the participation in economic activities. The
economic status of women is now accepted as an indicator of a society‟s stage of
development. However, all development does not result in improving women‟s economic
activities. Pattern of women‟s activities are affected by prevailing social ideology and are
also linked with the stage of economic development.

d) Educational Deprivation

In India the literacy rate of women is much lower than men because boys receive more
schooling than girls. T.P. Sechan says that there are parts of India where the literacy rate of
women today is as low as 3 percent. So stark is the gender inequality in India that it is one of
the 43 countries in the world where male literacy rate are at least 15 percent higher than
female rates. Educational deprivation is intimately associated with poverty. The UNICEF
Executive Director Mr. Carol Bellamy says; “No country has ever emerged from poverty
without giving priority to education.”20

However, modest improvement is gradually coming up in educational level of women. After

independence many steps have been taken to improve the lot of women. Many laws have also
been passed. A National Commission on Women was setup to act as a watchdog on the
matters concerning women in 1992. Many programmes in the areas of education, health and
employment have been initiated for development of women, rural as well as urban. As a
result, literacy rates are going up and fertility rates coming down. Universalisation of
education, elimination of drop- out from schools, promotion of Balwadi‟s and Crèches, Girls

19
(UNDP Human Development Report 1995)
20
Indian Currents, 13 June 2004).
Hostels, Technical Institutions for women and distinct emphasis on health, nutrition and
family welfare programmes etc. are some such initiatives.21

TRYST WITH WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Introduction
Given the fact that in our history there is sufficient evidence that women were excluded from
the formal education system, it is not surprising that their voices have not been reflected in
the written texts that stand as testimonies of our history. We do not argue, therefore, about the
general gender-biased nature of our history, but take that as a given.

There are records, however, of cases of ‘exceptional’ women, women who challenged the
norm of that time such as Rassundari Devi, a housewife in Bengal, when she wrote her
autobiography in Bengali in 1876 called Amar Jibon (My Life) (Tharu and Niranjana 1994).
Having never attended formal school, Rassundari was self-taught. Her book is a passionate
description of the deplorable condition of women at the time as well as a secret plea to
women to stand up from their seat of subservience to be critical of their own lives including
the prevalent social customs and practices.

In 1916, the Begum of Bhopal founded the All India Muslim Women’s Conference with
education of women as a prime agenda, apart from provisions of other remedial services for
women and changing oppressive practices such as polygamy (Liddle and Joshi 1986). We can
site many such instances or special cases where individual women have been leaders in a
struggle for women’s rights, but whose voices have been accounted for in the patriarchal
recording of history.

Women’s leadership in the nationalist phase however, emerged from a small section of the
urban, middle-class, who had their education in English and invariably was in some way
linked to movements or organisations in the west. The Women’s Indian Association, which
had links with the British women’s movement for suffrage, was started in 1917 by Margaret
Cousins, Dorothy Jinarjadasa and Annie Besant. The National Council of Women, a branch
of the International Council of Women, was founded by Lady Tata and Lady Aberdeen in
1925. In 1927, the All India Women’s Conference was set up by Margaret Cousins which
later merged with the Women’s Indian Association in the 1930s.

According to Geraldine Forbes (1982: 525), the ‘first wave’ of feminism in India was the
period between the years 1880–1940. At this time several organisations formed women’s
wings which not only took up the cause of women but gave women space and opportunity to
secure the desired changes. In 1904, a women’s wing was started in the National Social
Conference, which was later called the Indian Women’s Conference. The All India Women’s
Conference started branches in several smaller states in India, including Goa, where our case
study is based.

21
(See Socio-Economic Status of Women in India, Shodhganga)
In 1887, M.G. Ranade established the National Social Conference, which did have women’s
emancipation on its agenda, as he worked for the introduction of widow remarriage, for the
abolishment of child marriage and other issues like education for girls.

Although records of the independent initiative of Indian women during this phase are
sketchy, as already discussed earlier, we know that they did participate in the Swadeshi
Movement in the early 1900s and continued to play a crucial role in the struggle for
independence from British colonial power. During the years of Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership
in particular, women’s participation in the political struggle was encouraged22.

The accompanying quote from Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru's Discovery of India best shows the
part of ladies in the battle for Independence: Most of us menfolk were in jail. And afterward a
momentous thing happened. Our ladies went to the front and assumed responsibility of the
battle. Ladies had dependably been there, obviously, however now there was a torrential slide
of them, which took the British government as well as their own particular menfolk off guard.
Here were these ladies, ladies of the upper or white collar classes, having protected existences
in their homes, laborer ladies, average workers ladies, rich ladies, poor ladies, spilling out in
their several thousands in rebellion of government request and police lathi (2003: 29).

The liberal thoughts of the individual appropriate to opportunity and balance were especially
championed by Mahatma Gandhi and that established the frameworks of what later created
inside the ladies' development as independent ladies' associations cultivating comparable
points of self-assurance and autonomy. It was amid this period that we have clear records of
ladies' interest in battle, despite the fact that the adversary around then was expansionism and
not man centric society.

In the early years, in any case, Gandhi's meaning of ladies' inclination and part in the
flexibility battle was profound established in Hindu male controlled society. By the 1920s, be
that as it may, he started recognizing the critical part ladies could play in the battle for
flexibility, and called ladies to take an interest in the common noncompliance development.
Ladies' interest was not without confinements, as legislative issues managed general society
life making it 'unsatisfactory' for ladies.

Radha Kumar (1993) has arranged an astounding documentation of ladies' political support
through inclusion in the 'Rights Movement' amid this period to the 1990s in her book The
History of Doing. What is promptly striking to any peruser is the way that names of model
ladies pioneers of our past and their particular associations and encounters are reported to
represent the noteworthy pretended by ladies in the patriot and hostile to provincial battle.

Ladies reprimanded their rejection in the salt satyagraha drove by Gandhi (on the same page.)
which accordingly prompted Gandhi's reexamination of his view against ladies' interest in
1930. About the common insubordination development Gandhi composed 'the ladies in India
tore down the purdah and approached to work for the country. They saw that the nation

22
Kumara 1993
requested something more than their taking care of their homes … '23. A portion of the names
of ladies who were engaged with satyagrahas against pilgrim run the show

along these lines were Sarojini Naidu, Lado Rani Zutshi, Rani Gudiallo, Kamala Nehru,
Hansa Mehta, Anantikabai Gokhale, Satyavati, Parvathibai, Rukmini Lakshmipaty, Lilavati
Munshi, Durgabai Deshmukh and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya - to give some examples as a
huge number of ladies participated in the assembling and offering of salt everywhere
throughout the nation. This is recognized as the defining moment for ladies' investment in
battle.

Discussing the episode (of April 6, 1930), Radha Kumar (1993: 78) says 'On that noteworthy
day a large number of ladies walked down to the ocean like glad warriors. Yet, rather than
weapons, they bore pitchers of dirt, metal and copper; and, rather than regalia, the
straightforward cotton saris of town India'. The change and patriot developments in India saw
the development of progressivism and from multiple points of view denoted the start of
thoughts of individual opportunity and balance.

Of the considerable number of pioneers and reformers, Gandhi was most compelling in his
conviction that ladies ought to and have the privilege to distinction and the opportunity from
infringement of their own respect. Ladies' associations, for example, Desh Sevika Sangh,
Nari Satyagraha Samiti, Mahila Rashtriya Sangh, Ladies Picketing Board, Stri Swarajya
Sangh and Swayam Sevika Sangh started mushrooming as of now to arrange the mass
blacklist of outside fabric and alcohol (in the same place.: 79).

The system of peacefulness as of now turned into the standard dissent strategy as the
legislature proceeded with lathi charges and mass captures. At the point when ladies were
imprisoned, sentiments of solidarity created between ladies satyagrahis of various classes,
etymological and station foundations.

In 1954, Gandhi expounded on ladies' support in satyagraha along these lines: 'It is offered
her to instruct the specialty of peace to the warring scene craving that nectar. She can turn
into the pioneer in satyagraha which does not require the discovering that books give but
rather requires the forceful heart that originates from anguish and confidence'24. In any case,
the challenge that ladies partook in was not generally peaceful25. It must be said here that,
despite the fact that the thoughts of individual opportunity proliferated by the change and
patriot developments was acknowledged by ladies in their own and authoritative lives, they
met with protection from society and even their own families26.

The early twenty century saw rise of the National Movement under the leadership of
Mahatma Gandhi who was in favour of removing all the disabilities of women. At the same
time, Raja Ram Mohan Rai, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and various other social reformers

23
(Gandhi 1954: 18)
24
(Gandhi 1954: 27)
25
(Kumar 1993: 86)
26
(Gandhi and Shah 1992: 308)
laid stress on women’s education, prevention of child marriage, withdrawals of evil practice
of sati, removal of polygamy etc.

The National Movement and various reform movements paved the way for their liberations
from the social evils and religious taboos. In this context, we may write about the Act of Sati
(abolish) 1829, Hindu Widow Remarriage Act’ 1856, the Child Restriction Act, 1929,
Women Property Right Act, 1937 etc. After independence of India, the constitution makers
and the national leaders recognized the equal social position of women with men. The Hindu
Marriage Act, 1955 has determined the age for marriage, provided for monogamy and
guardianship of the mother and permitted the dissolution of marriage under specific
circumstances.

Under the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956, an unmarried women, widow or
divorce of sound mind can also take child in adoption. Similarly, the Dowry Prohibition Act
of 1961 says that any person who gives, takes, or abets the giving or taking of dowry shall be
punished with imprisonment, which may extend to six months or fine up to Rs.5000/ or with
both. The Constitution of India guarantees equality of sexes and in fact grants special favors
to women. These can be found in three articles of the constitution.

Article 14 says that the government shall not deny to any person equality before law or equal
protection of the law. Article 15 declares that government shall not discriminate against any
citizen on the ground of sex. Article 15 (3) makes a special provision enabling the state to
make affirmative discriminations in favor of women. Article 42 directs the state to make
provision for ensuring just and human conditions of work and maternity relief. Above all, the
constitution regards a fundamental duty on every citizen through Articles 15 (A), (E) to
renounce the practices derogatory to the dignity of women.

PRINCIPLES OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Empowering women to participate fully in economic life across all sectors and throughout all
levels of economic activity is essential to:

 Build strong economies;

 Establish more stable and just societies;
 Achieve internationally agreed goals for development, sustainability and human
rights;
 Improve quality of life for women, men, families and communities; and
 Propel businesses’ operations and goals.

yet, ensuring the inclusion of women’s talents, skills, experience and energies requires
intentional actions and deliberate policies. the Women’s empowerment Principles, a
partnership initiative of UN Women and UN global compact (UNgc), provide a set of
considerations to help the private sector focus on key elements integral to promoting gender
equality in the workplace, marketplace and community. enhancing openness and inclusion
throughout corporate policies and operations requires techniques, tools and practices that
bring results.

The Women’s empowerment Principles, forged through an international multi-stakeholder

consultative process, provide a “gender lens” through which business can survey and analyze
current practices, benchmarks and reporting practices. informed by real-life business
practices, the Principles help companies tailor existing policies Introduction and programmes
—or establish needed new ones— to realize women’s empowerment.

The Principles also reflect the interests of governments and civil society and support
interactions among stakeholders as achieving gender equality requires the participation of all
actors. as a leader in gender equality, UN Women brings decades of experience to this
partnership effort with the UN global compact, the world’s largest corporate citizenship
initiative with more than 8,000 business participants and other stakeholders involved in more
than 135 countries. in an increasingly globalized and interconnected world, utilizing all social
and economic assets is crucial for success.

yet, despite progress, women continue to confront discrimination, marginalization and

exclusion, even though equality between men and women stands as a universal international
precept—a fundamental and inviolable human right. Nearly all countries have affirmed this
value through their recognition of the standards contained in international human rights
treaties, which articulate for states a broad range of civil, political, economic, social and
cultural rights.

Distinctive documents highlight a spectrum of state responsibilities and human rights

protections for women, indigenous peoples, children, workers and people with disabilities.
additionally, internationally agreed on documents such as the Beijing Platform for action
adopted by all 189 countries at the UN Fourth World conference on Women in 1995 and the
millennium Declaration adopted by 189 countries in 2000, contribute to the overarching
human rights framework.1 these international standards illuminate our common aspiration for
a life where the doors of opportunity are open to all. Where people can live free from
violence, exercise legal redress and expect states to live up to their obligations to respect and
protect the human rights of women, men and children and provide appropriate government
services such as education and health. these conventions inform national law and help shape
common values adopted by institutions throughout the world. business leaders, working in
close association with their peers, with governments, nongovernmental organizations and the
United Nations, seek to apply these international standards that uphold an individual’s rights
through their specifically designed policies and programmes.

Their corporate commitment, reflected through the company’s mission statement and
supported through public reporting on policies and practices, attests to the growing
realization of how important these values are to business and their communities.3 While
much has been accomplished through the integration of principles and actions on corporate
responsibility, diversity and inclusion, the full participation of women throughout the private
sector – from the ceo’s office
to the factory floor to the supply chain – remains unfulfilled. current research demonstrating
that gender diversity helps business perform better signals that self interest and common
interest can come together. UN Women, the UN global compact, other leading UN agencies,
the World bank and the World economic Forum, reinforce these findings.4 governments also
recognize that women’s inclusion drives development, and acknowledge that achieving the
millennium Development goals and national economic and development plans requires
rapidly moving towards gender equality.

In a globally interdependent political, social and economic environment, partnerships play an

increasingly vital role to:

 Create a vibrant business environment involving a broad spectrum of actors,

collaborators, contributors and innovators to open opportunities for women and men;
and
 Enable the active and interactive participation of governments, international financial
institutions, the private sector, investors, nongovernmental organizations, academia
and professional organizations to work together.27

NEED FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The requirement for Women empowerment is felt as a result of the status they have in the
public arena since the start. There is a need to rethink the status of ladies in the society. A
change can be brought through the constitution and steady legislations. The Constitution of
India gives a ladies status equivalent to men. There have been endeavours to hold seats for
ladies in political bodies. This is no uncertainty a positive development. Ladies can decide for
themselves and take right choices. However just taking into account reservation of ladies in
Panchayat and authoritative bodies without enabling ladies exclusively misses the mark
regarding real liberation.

Ladies have been avoided from focuses of energy because of precise intrigue by man centric
idea most basic in India Khap Panchayat that has consigned ladies to an assigned and kept
space. A reorientation of our states of mind towards ladies must be precisely guided for their
genuine liberation from the male centric mastery.

27
PRINCIPLES EMPOWERMENT EQUALITY MEANS BUSINESS WOMEN’S
UNITED NATIONS GLOBAL COMPACT UN WOMEN
Second Edition 2011 (United Nations Entity for Gender equality and Empowerment of women)
The devastated and uneducated status of most ladies in the public arena is because of their
failure to accomplish adequate levels of monetary power. To manage any level of
strengthening ladies must be instructed to know about their rights and benefits in an advanced
society. It is just when they wind up noticeably mindful of their status in the public arena that
they will have the capacity to take full preferred standpoint of the concessions offered to
them as a restorative measure.

Ladies strengthening needs in the first place ladies' dynamic investment. Unless ladies divert
from the shackles that overlook their ability, expertise and soul ladies through training and
financial confidence, can't be engaged. Unless they are enabled to take a definitive part in the
social, political and financial existence of the nation the very advancement of the nation will
be cut sided.

A host of studies suggest that putting earnings in women’s hands is the intelligent thing to do
to speed up development and the process of overcoming poverty. Women usually reinvest a
much higher portion in their families and communities than men, spreading wealth beyond
themselves. This could be one reason why countries with greater gender equality tend to have
lower poverty rates.

For example, studies show that when income is in the hands of the mother, the survival
probability of a child increases by about 20 percent in Brazil, and in Kenya, a child will be
about 17 percent taller, because mothers will invest more of their income in health and
nutrition. In sub-Saharan Africa, agricultural productivity could be raised by as much as 20
percent by allocating a bigger share of agricultural input to women.

This time of economic crisis poses particular risks for women and girls: When economies
start to crumble, women are often the first to suffer. The jobs and incomes lost
disproportionately affect women; mothers can no longer find credit through micro-finance
institutions and are pushed from the informal sector into subsistence work; girls are more
likely to be withdrawn from school to lend a hand at finding more resources for the
household; and when families have to tighten their belts, girls are more likely to be become
malnourished.

The World Bank identified 33 developing countries where women and girls in poor
households are particularly vulnerable to the effects of the global economic and food crises.
Fifteen of these, mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa, are likely to see a particularly dangerous mix
for women and girls, with slowing economic growth, fewer girls in school, and higher levels
of infant and child mortality. The World Bank now projects an additional 200,000 to 400,000
infant deaths per year between 2009 and 2015 if the crisis persists.

It is imperative to continue to protect girls and women through this crisis to avoid a reversal
of the past decades' gains and build the human capital of the next generation. But women in
developing countries are not only vulnerable or victims: if provided opportunity, they can be
important agents of change and recovery. Investing in women is a smart way to mitigate the
negative effects of the crisis and help rebuild the economies of the world:
In its response to the crisis, the World Bank is looking to safeguard long-term investments in
the social sectors so that gains in schooling, health and social protection are not reversed
while also supporting women’s earnings through better access to agricultural inputs and
credit lines amongst a host of measures.28

CONCLUSION

The survey of the status of women in India recounts the narrative of a fall in the status of
women to an appallingly low position from a generally high status and honorability of the
Vedic circumstances. The fall in status has prompted a financial and religio-social hardship of
ladies. From the womb to tomb ladies are casualties of viciousness and hardships. The
helplessness of ladies in rustic India is more terrible off. Obviously, there are sure activities
in the nation, particularly after the Independence towards raising the status of ladies. Be that
as it may, there are miles to go keeping in mind the end goal to achieve the objective of
sexual orientation fairness.

Aside from this general state of sexual orientation imbalances, the circumstance appears to be
more hopeless if there should arise an occurrence of Dalit ladies. They are casualties of a
twofold hardship. One, on the gender front, and the other on the caste front. The Final
assessment from this examination demonstrates that women, from later vedic ages have quite
recently been debased, from having equivalent or above to much lower status.

(END)

28
Why is women’s economic empowerment important for development? (Worldbank)