INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution was a time when the manufacturing of goods moved from small shops and
homes to large factories. This shift brought about changes in culture as people moved from rural areas to
big cities in order to work. It also introduced new technologies, new types of transportation, and a
different way of life for many.
Where did the Industrial Revolution begin?
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 1700s. Many of the first innovations that
enabled the Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry. Making cloth moved from homes to large
factories. Britain also had plenty of coal and iron which was important to power and make machines for
the factories.
How long did it last?
The Industrial Revolution lasted for over 100 years. After beginning in Britain in the late 1700s it spread
to Europe and the United States. The Industrial Revolution can be divided into two phases:
 First Industrial Revolution - The first wave of the Industrial Revolution lasted from the late 1700s
to the mid-1800s. It industrialized the manufacture of textiles and began the move of production
from homes to factories. Steam power and the cotton gin played an important role in this period.
 Second Industrial Revolution - The next wave took place from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s.
During this phase large factories and companies began to use more technologies to mass produce
goods. Important innovations during this period include the use of electricity, the production line,
and the Bessemer steel process.
When did it start in the United States?
The early part of the Industrial Revolution in the United States took place in the northeast in the New
England region. Many historians place the start of the Industrial Revolution with the opening of Slater's
Mill in 1793 in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Samuel Slater had learned about textile mills growing up in
England and brought his knowledge to the United States. By the end of the 1800s, the United States had
become the most industrialized nation in the world.
Cultural Changes
The Industrial Revolution brought about many cultural changes. Before the revolution, most people lived
in the country and worked on farms. During the revolution, people moved to the cities to work in
factories. Cities grew and became overcrowded, unsanitary, and polluted. In many cities, poor workers
lived in crowded and unsafe buildings. This was a dramatic shift in the way of life for the average person.
Transportation
Transportation changed dramatically throughout the Industrial Revolution. Where before people traveled
by horse, walking, or boat; new ways of travel were introduced including railroads, steam boats, and
automobiles. This changed the way people and products were able to travel around the country and the
world.

Working Conditions
One drawback of the Industrial Revolution was poor working conditions for people in factories. There
were few laws to protect workers at the time and working conditions were often dangerous. People often
had to work long hours and child labor was a common practice. By the end of the 1900s, labor unions and
new laws began to create a safer working environment.
Facts About the Industrial Revolution
 Many early factories were powered by water so they had to be by a river that could turn the
waterwheel.
 A group of weavers in Britian who lost their jobs to large factories began to fight back by rioting
and destroying machinery. They became known as Luddites after one of their leaders Ned Ludd.
 Printers were able to use steam power to print newspapers and books cheaply. This helped more
people get the news and learn how to read.
 Some of the most important American inventions during the Industrial Revolution included the
telegraph, the sewing machine, telephone, cotton gin, the practical light bulb, and vulcanized
rubber.
 Manchester, England was the center of the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution. It
earned the nickname "Cottonopolis."
Economics in industrial revolution
NEW INNOVATIONS
The Industrial Revolution is a significant event in world history because it transformed European
and North American societies from being based on agriculture production to industrial
production.  This caused a mass migration of people from the rural countryside to the city-
centers as people moved in search of work in the newly developed factories of the time.
Before the start of the Industrial Revolution, the production of goods was done on a very small
scale.  Historians refer to this method of production as the ‘cottage industry’.  Simply put, the
cottage industry refers to a period of time in which goods for sale were produced on a small
scale, usually in a home.  In this system, people produced goods, such as wool, in their homes or
on their own farms and then sold it to local communities since long distance transportation was
uncommon.  This method of production was slow and inefficient and struggled to keep pace with
the growing demand caused by the increased population.  As a result, entrepreneurs and
inventors sought ways to increase production, which ultimately led to the creation of the factory
system.
The factory system is a term that historians use to refer to the development of centralized
factories or mills that produced goods on a mass scale.  Throughout the 1700s, inventors such
as Richard Arkwright, Eli Whitney, James Hargreaves, and Edmund Cartwright, developed
machines and techniques that helped improve production, especially in terms of the textile
industry.  The textile industry was based on the development of cloth and clothing, and was the
main industry that benefitted from the early developments of the Industrial Revolution.  For
example, some of the main textile related inventions of the Industrial Revolution included: power
loom, spinning jenny, flying shuttle, water frame and cotton gin.  Another important invention of
the Industrial Revolution was the steam engine.  The first steam engine was invented by Thomas
Newcomen in 1712, to help in removing water from mines.  However, James Watt later
improved the design of the steam engine and made it a significant new addition to industrial
production.
CAPITALISM
None of these technological and societal changes would have been possible without the
emergence and development of capitalism.  The European empires of the 16th through the 18th
centuries were empires that existed primarily to increase trade and the wealth of the European
nations.  During this time, powerful European nations such as Spain, Portugal, England and
France participated in intense economic and exploration based rivalries.  The Age of
Exploration shows this rivalry in the massive colonies that each European nation amassed, as
they competed with each other for territories in the New World.  At their height, these countries
controlled large sections of the world as part of their vast empires.
At the foundation of these rivalries existed the economic system of mercantilism, which was the
idea that colonies and trade should be strictly controlled to benefit the economy of the home
(European) nation.  Mercantilism was an economic system that was heavily regulated and
controlled by the government and allowed very little freedom for individual people.  This all
changed with the introduction of capitalistic beliefs and values in the late 1700s.
As the 18th century went along, some people began to reject the principles of mercantilism.  For
example, in 1776 Scottish economist Adam Smith published his famous written work “An
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” which is just often shortened to
“Wealth of Nations”.  The book challenged the idea that the government should control the
economy and instead proposed the idea of free trade and competition with a lesser role of the
government.  The ideas of this book would eventually lay the foundation for the principles of
capitalism, which is an economic system that supports the idea of free trade and choice as a way
of achieving prosperity.  The emergence of capitalism was vitally important to the start of
industrialization and the Industrial Revolution
Capitalism caused the Industrial Revolution because industrialization required significant work
and investment from individuals and not necessarily the government.  For example, in Britain,
where the Industrial Revolution began, wealthy entrepreneurs were important because they used
their wealth to create factories and mines.  This investment from individuals, whose actions were
guided by the profit motive, would not have been possible without the emergence of capitalism. 
Furthermore, as the Industrial Revolution began the individualistic principles of capitalism
helped create a climate wherein industrialization exploded, and eventually spread worldwide.
Capitalism was a central component of classical liberalism in the societies of the Industrial
Revolution.  Classical liberalism was an ideology that was based on economic individualism and
the principles of: economic freedom, private ownership, competition, self-interest and self-
reliance.  In general, all of these principles focused on little or no government intervention in the
economy and as much economic liberty for individuals as possible.  This contrasted with the
previously mentioned mercantilism, which favored heavy government regulation and
intervention.  The economic ideals of classical liberalism first emerged in the 18th and 19th
centuries and quickly shifted European society from left-sided mercantilism to right-sided
capitalism.
Classical liberal societies were also based on the economic principles of laissez-fair capitalism.
Often, laissez-faire capitalism is also referred to as free market capitalism or market capitalism. 
Simply put, laissez-faire translates to ‘leave us alone’ meaning that the government should
remain out of the economy and instead allow individuals to freely carry out their own economic
affairs. Historically, laissez-faire capitalism was most common during the 18th and 19th
centuries in the timeframe of the Industrial Revolution.  As such, England during the Industrial
Revolution is considered to be an example of a classical liberal society.  At the time, it was a
revolutionary idea, because in the previous centuries, mercantilism had been the dominant
economic system which was discussed previously.  However, prominent thinkers,
including Adam Smith, began to argue against mercantilism in favor of an economic system with
more freedom for individuals.  The development of capitalism as an economic system, sought to
reject the idea of government control of the economy and instead put the focus on individuals.
SOCIALISM
However, by the mid-1800s the economics of the Industrial Revolution began to shift with the
emergence and development of socialism.  During the early 19th century many people began to
question whether or not laissez-faire capitalism was meeting the needs of all people in society. 
Laissez-faire capitalism was the dominant economic system in Europe at the time and, in
general, was based upon little or no government intervention in the economy. In fact, some
argued that laissez-faire capitalism was causing a wide income gap in society between business
owners and the working class.  Socialism developed as a response to how some felt about
laissez-faire capitalism and its apparent failings.  For example, early socialists argued that
laissez-faire capitalism led to several issues of the Industrial Revolution, including: child labor,
dangerous and dirty working conditions and a lack of basic workers’ rights.  Therefore, socialism
is a left-wing economic system that favors government intervention in the economy in order to
try to decrease the imbalances created by laissez-faire capitalism.  In general, socialism was
favored by working class people, as it sought to create a more equitable distribution of income.
With that said, historians acknowledge several different types of socialism that each formed over
different periods of time.  For instance, early socialist movements that developed in the
timeframe of the Industrial Revolution included Utopian
Socialism and Marxism, and Democratic Socialism. The central difference between these types
of socialism is the degree to which they support government intervention and what types of
political systems they are combined with.
A central figure of the development of these socialist ideologies, which transformed the
economies of the Industrial Revolution, was Karl Marx.  Marx is perhaps one of the most
influential philosophers of the last two centuries.  His writings inspired revolutions in several
countries and are still used today in support of worker’s rights and other socialist principles.  His
ideas are often associated with the timeframe of the Industrial Revolution since he witnessed and
expressed concern for the horrible working conditions of the period.  He is best known for
writing (along with Fredrich Engels) The Communist Manifesto.
Written at the end of 1847, The Communist Manifesto was a political pamphlet first published in
1848 under the title ‘Manifesto of the Communist Party’.  It was commissioned by the
Communist League, an international communist organization that operated in Europe.  Marx and
Engels were associated with the Communist League and wrote The Communist Manifesto in
order to clarify and articulate the ideas of the organization.  In the pamphlet, Marx and Engels set
forth the basic principles of Marxism that have gone on to influence many different thinkers and
ideologies around the world.
The basic ideas of The Communist Manifesto were centered on the nature of society and the
struggles between different classes. According to Marx and Engels, the only way to overthrow
capitalism was by means of a class struggle between the proletariat (industrial workers) and the
bourgeoisie (wealthy owners).  They argued that this workers revolution was necessary before
any significant changed could be made in society.  In general, they discussed the failings of
capitalism and sought to bring about a final revolution that would end the struggle between
classes.  For example, in The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels argued that a socialist
society formed by workers should involve a move towards the following: a shift from private
property to public property, factories controlled and owned by the proletariat, free public
education for all children.
Social effects of industrial revolutions
Factories, Mines, and Child Labor The Industrial Revolution created a great deal of change in
society. One major change was the shift from work being done at home by hand in cottage
industries to work being done in factories. There were harsh and unsafe working conditions
in these early factories. The machines posed a significant threat to workers’ lives. Even more
deadly was work performed in coal mines. Owners of mines and factories had considerable
control over the lives of laborers who worked long hours for low pay. An average worker
would work 14 hours a day, six days a week. Fearful of losing their jobs, workers would
typically not complain about the horrible conditions and low pay. Owners realized that they
could pay women and children less than men. Child labor increased because it kept the costs
of production low and the profits high. As a result, the working class lived in poverty, while
the bosses who made up the middle class grew wealthy.
 Labor Unions and Reforms During the 1800s, working people began to demand reforms.
Workers joined together in voluntary labor associations called unions. A union represented
workers in a particular trade. Unions engaged in collective bargaining as well as negotiations
between workers and their employers. Unions would ask for better working conditions, fewer
hours, and higher pay. One of the greatest tools of labor unions was worker-organized
strikes, refusing to work if demands were not met. Unions also lobbied for laws to improve
the lives of workers, including women and children. By the 1830s and 1840s, the British and
U.S. governments began to pass laws protecting workers. The earliest laws focused on
helping child labors. Though it was a very slow process, eventually laws would help all
workers.
Positive Effects of the Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution had many positive
effects. Among those was an increase in wealth, the production of goods, and the standard of
living. People had access to healthier diets, better housing, and cheaper goods. In addition,
education increased during the Industrial Revolution. Due in part to the Edward Jenner’s
invention of the smallpox vaccine and Louis Pasteur’s discovery of bacteria, health care
increased, and people began to live longer. The middle and upper classes benefited
immediately from the Industrial Revolution. For workers, it took much longer. However
during the 1800s, workers formed labor unions and gained higher wages and better working
conditions. As a result, they began to see the benefits of the Industrial Revolution as well.
Changes for Women
The Industrial Revolution marked a dramatic change for women as many of them entered the
work force for the first time. Women had to compete with men for jobs. Female factory
workers often made only one-third as much as men. Women began leading reforms to change
this. As women became more involved in politics, some began to demand suffrage, the right
to vote. By 1918, Great Britian granted women over 30 the right to vote. The United States
granted women suffrage with the passing of the 19th amendment in 1920.
Impact of Industrial Revolution on Politics
Money talks, and the great wealth amassed by the industrialists changed the political landscape.
Whereas royals and aristocrats, with their vast holdings, controlled most of society's wealth
before the eighteenth century, by the nineteenth century, agriculture couldn't compete with
factories. As business owners exerted more power, their belief in liberalism began to prevail. In
England, for example, taxes on food that protected agricultural profits gradually fell in favor of
free trade as laws such as the Corn Law were repealed.
Industrialism also caused social dislocations. This caused social unrest and the rise of
revolutionary movements during the nineteenth century. Workers demanded universal suffrage
for males so that they could have a greater voice in politics, as well as a greater share of the
profits they were helping to produce. Crowding, lack of sanitation, and the rise of disease in big
cities led to social reforms, with governments taking on a greater role in regulating and
improving urban areas. Ultimately, to avoid revolution, most of the industrialized nations over
time developed a new relationship with workers that led to the rise of the welfare state
Early in the Industrial Revolution, the motive power of waterwheels and systems of pullies /
belts determined the location and size of factories. Later, the invention of the fractional
horsepower electric motor, and AC transmission lines gave more options to factory location
selection.
In both cases, new logistics pipelines were created to service the factories. Roads, canals, rivers,
and railroads were created to bring raw materials to factories and farmed foods to the cities, and
to distribute finished goods from factory to market.
These changes, together with the move of young men and women from farm to factory,
concentrated people in locations where daily news - including political speech and billboards,
then radio programs, offered politicians an efficient way to get their message to the masses.
However, the IR created new problems as well - labor relations, communicable disease
epidemics, student populations greater than the one room schoolhouse could serve, the creation
of a cash society (where many farm communities were still commodity barter driven), and the
popularity of banking for the masses.
Entire societal institutions were created to serve the needs of concentrated groups of workers.
Whereas previous political concerns divided city (largely mercantile, banking, law, and
university) and farm (or frontier) issues, now the city issues became fragmented as new segments
arose. Some politicians tried to unify these groups around common values and needs, while
others pitted one against another and promised each group an advantage if they were elected!
(Does this sound familiar).
Industrial revolutions don’t happen every day, but it’s been said that we are staring down a
fourth one — a 21stcentury technological revolution, of sorts — as network-aware devices
become a substantial part of many businesses 20 years into the 21st century.
The first industrial revolution took place from roughly 1760 to 1840. It was a formative time for
the United States, during which we saw many historical events that changed America.
Urbanization and the Emergence of the Developed World
As late as the 1730s, most of Europe and America was an agrarian society. People relied on
farming the land to make money, which they used to buy the things they needed. However, with
the introduction of the spinning loom, steam engine and other early machines, people
were increasingly able to do more with less.
This led to increased development. A machine could now accomplish the work of several
farmhands, so displaced workers went looking for work in the city. The jobs they found were
available at newly built factories, aiding in the advancement of industrial technology.
This process, called urbanization, led to the rapid development of dense cities in places like New
York, Philadelphia and London. Soon, these developed parts of the world began to look quite
different from places like Africa, which had not yet received the help of mechanized labor.
Rich from the rewards of industrialization, developed nations began investing in operations to
pull resources from underdeveloped parts of the world. It was the beginning of what would
become neo-colonialism, and while we now know the importance of international relations,
interactions with these countries were straightforward and exploitative.
The Role of Women
What were the political effects of the Industrial Revolution? We can’t properly answer that
without addressing the way women’s roles changed drastically during this time. Rather than
staying at home and caring for children, women began getting jobs in the burgeoning cities.
Women became nurses, teachers, sales associates and secretaries. They developed a stronger
sense of self-importance, and with the rise of the Women’s Suffrage movement, they began to
protest for the constitutional right to vote.
It was not — and still is not — a perfect transition. Women continued to be underpaid compared
to their male counterparts, and could not take on all jobs. Even so, the rise of women during this
time remains a critical turning point in the American story, and also for women’s rights around
the globe and the push toward true gender equality.
Interchangeable Parts
When you consider some of the most dramatic changes brought about during the Industrial
Revolution, it is impossible to discount the impact of interchangeable parts.
Today, when the fan belt in your car breaks, you can get online at Pep Boys, AutoZone or any
other significant parts distributor and find an exact replacement. However, in the 18th century, if
a gear from your loom broke, you had to visit a smith and have a new one custom-made. That
meant many unproductive days. That all changed with the introduction of interchangeable parts.
The idea of a uniform part that could be reused across a model line was a first, and it was a hit,
particularly in the weapons industry. This single change had a huge ripple effect. Assembly-line
workers replaced craftsmen who built weapons and machines of all sorts.
Labor Unions
Former farm hands who moved into the city banded together to form labor unions, with the
Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers (shoemakers) earning the title of the first sustained
trade union organization in 1794. Labor unions would go on to be a dominant force in American
business until the 1980s.
So how did the Industrial Revolution affect politics? In the history of the two-party system,
alignment with the blue-collar worker has been the goal of both Republican and Democratic
icons. With so many votes on the line, the unions made it essential for politicians to consider
workers in their policies.

So, in summary:
 Location changed
 Issues changed
 Communications changed
 Political strategy changed
The Rise of the Machines: Pros and Cons of the Industrial Revolution
Pro: Goods Became More Affordable and More Accessible
 Factories and the machines that they housed began to produce items faster and cheaper
than could be made by hand. As the supply of various items rose, their cost to the
consumer declined (see supply and demand). Shoes, clothing, household goods, tools,
 and other items that enhance people’s quality of life became more common and less
expensive. Foreign markets also were created for these goods, and the balance of trade
shifted in favor of the producer—which brought increased wealth to the companies that
produced these goods and added tax revenue to government coffers. However, it also
contributed to the wealth inequality between goods-producing and goods-consuming
countries.
 Pro: The Rapid Evolution of Labor-Saving Inventions
The rapid production of hand tools and other useful items led to the development of new
types of tools and vehicles to carry goods and people from one place to another. The
growth of road and rail transportation and the invention of the telegraph (and its
associated infrastructure of telegraph—and later telephone and fiber optic—lines) meant
that word of advances in manufacturing, agricultural harvesting, energy production, and
medical techniques could be communicated between interested parties quickly. Labor-
saving machines such as the spinning jenny (a multiple-spindle machine for spinning
wool or cotton) and other inventions, especially those driven by electricity (such as home
appliances and refrigeration) and fossil fuels (such as automobiles and other fuel-
powered vehicles), are also well-known products of the Industrial Revolution.
 Pro: The Rapid Evolution of Medicine
The Industrial Revolution was the engine behind various advances
in medicine. Industrialization allowed medical instruments (such as
scalpels, microscope lenses, test tubes, and other equipment) to be produced more
quickly. Using machine manufacturing, refinements to these instruments could more
efficiently roll out to the physicians that needed them. As communication between
physicians in different areas improved, the details behind new cures and treatments for
disease could be dispersed quickly, resulting in better care.
 Pro: Enhanced Wealth and Quality of Life of the Average Person
Mass production lowered the costs of much-needed tools, clothes, and other household
items for the common (that is, nonaristocratic) people, which allowed them to
save money for other things and build personal wealth. In addition, as new manufacturing
machines were invented and new factories were built, new employment opportunities
arose. No longer was the average person so closely tied to land-related concerns (such as
 being dependent upon the wages farm labor could provide or the plant and animal
products farms could produce).
 Pro: The Rise of Specialist Professions
As industrialization progressed, more and more rural folk flocked to the cities in search
of better pay in the factories. To increase the factories’ overall efficiency and to take
advantage of new opportunities in the market, factory workers were trained to perform
specialized tasks. Factory owners divided their workers into different groups, each group
focusing on a specific task. Some groups secured and transported to the factories raw
materials (namely iron, coal, and steel) used in mass production of goods, while other
groups operated different machines. Some groups of workers fixed machines when they
broke down, while others were charged with making improvements to them and overall
factory operation.
 Con: Overcrowding of Cities and Industrial Towns
The promise of better wages attracted migrants to cities and industrial towns that were ill-
prepared to handle them. Although initial housing shortages in many areas eventually
gave way to construction booms and the development of modern buildings,
cramped shantytowns made up of shacks and other forms of poor-quality housing
appeared first. Local sewerage and sanitation systems were overwhelmed by the sudden
influx of people, and drinking water was often contaminated.
 Con: Pollution and Other Environmental Ills
With relatively few exceptions, the world’s modern environmental problems began or
were greatly exacerbated by the Industrial Revolution. To fuel the factories and to sustain
the output of each and every type of manufactured good, natural resources (water, trees,
soil, rocks and minerals, wild and domesticated animals, etc.) were transformed, which
reduced the planet’s stock of valuable natural capital. The global challenges of
widespread water and air pollution, reductions in biodiversity, destruction of wildlife
habitat, and even global warming can be traced back to this moment in human history.
The more countries industrialize in pursuit of their own wealth, the greater this ecological
transformation becomes. For example, atmospheric carbon dioxide, a primary driver of
global warming, existed in concentrations of 275 to 290 parts per million by volume
(ppmv) before 1750 and increased to more than 400 ppmv by 2017. In addition, human
 beings use more than 40% of Earth’s land-based net primary production, a measure of the
rate at which plants convert solar energy into food and growth.
 Con: Poor Working Conditions
When factories sprung up in the cities and industrial towns, their owners prized
production and profit over all else. Worker safety and wages were less important. Factory
workers earned greater wages compared with agricultural workers, but this often came at
the expense of time and less than ideal working conditions. Factory workers often labored
14–16 hours per day six days per week. Men’s meager wages were often more than twice
those of women. The wages earned by children who worked to supplement family
income were even lower. The various machines in the factory were often dirty, expelling
smoke and soot, and unsafe, both of which contributed to accidents that resulted in
worker injuries and deaths.
 Con: The Rise in Unhealthy Habits
As more cheap labor-saving devices become available, people performed less strenuous
physical activity. While grueling farm-related labor was made far easier, and in many
cases far safer, by replacing animal power and human power with tractors and other
specialized vehicles to till the soil and plant and harvest crops, other vehicles, such as
trains and automobiles, effectively reduced the amount of healthy exercise people partook
in each day.