Introduction

Materials that sense the physical, chemical and biological environment by significantly
changing their properties discontinuously or in a controlled fashion of increasing interest a
great variety of uses, from the electronics industry, to medicine to space structures is one a
characteristic for Innovative and advanced new material. They are the materials which have
the capability to respond to changes in their condition or the environment to which they are
exposed, in a useful and usually repetitive manner. They are called by a Smart materials.

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are excellent candidates for control systems and are commonly
referred to as "smart" materials due to their ability to change shape with temperature. These
alloys can also generate significant amounts of strain (and stress) and are ideal for use in
actuators. This type of material is particularly appropriate for use in switches for electrical
actuation

INTRODUCTION OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are metals that "remember" their original shapes. SMAs are
useful for such things as actuators which are materials that "change shape, stiffness, position,
natural frequency, and other mechanical characteristics in response to temperature or
electromagnetic fields" (Rogers, 155). When an SMA is cold, or below its transformation
temperature, it has a very low yield strength and can be deformed quite easily into any new
shape--which it will retain. However, when the material is heated above its transformation
temperature it undergoes a change in crystal structure which causes it to return to its original
shape. If the SMA encounters any resistance during this transformation, it can generate
extremely large forces. This phenomenon provides a unique mechanism for remote actuation.
The potential uses for SMAs especially as actuators have broadened the spectrum of many
scientific fields. The study of the history and development of SMAs can provide an insight
into a material involved in cutting-edge technology.
History of the Shape Memory Alloy

Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) is materials which have the ability to remember its
shape even after large deformations. When the SMA is heated above its characteristic
transition temperature, it will return to its original shape. Below transformation temperature
SMA has very low yield strength and can be deformed easily into any new shape, which it
can retain. This special phenomenon makes the SMA often called as a smart material. Shape
memory effect firstly discovered in the 1930s, by A. Olander when he discovered the
pseudoelastic behavior of the Au-Cd alloy in 1932. Then, Greninger and Mooradian in 1938
observed the formation and disappearance of a martensitic phase by increasing and
decreasing the temperature of a Cu-Zn alloy. A decade later, the basic phenomenon of the
shape memory effect governed by thermoplastic behaviour of the martensite phase was
widely reported by Kurdjumov and Khandros in 1949 and also by Chang and Read (1951). In
the early 1960s, Buehler and his co-workers at the U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory
discovered the shape memory effect in an equiatomic alloy of nickel and titanium, which can
be considered a break through in the field of shape memory materials. This alloy then was
named as Nitinol (Nickel-Titanium Naval Ordnance Laboratory).
Since that time, intensive investigations have been made to reveal the mechanics of its
basic behaviour. The use of Nitinol as is fascinating because of its special functional
behaviour, which is completely new compared to the conventional metal alloys. (A. Falvo,
2005)

Characteristic
General principles
Shape memory metal alloy can exist in two different temperature dependent crystal
structures (phases) called martensite (lower temperature) and austenite (higher temperature or
parent phase). Several properties of austenite and martensite are notably different.
Martensite - Austenite phase transformation

Exactly what made these metals "remember" their original shapes was in question after the
discovery of the shape-memory effect. Dr. Frederick E. Wang, an expert in crystal physics,
pinpointed the structural changes at the atomic level which contributed to the unique
properties these metals have. (Kauffman and Mayo, 4) He found that NiTi had phase changes
while still a solid. These phase changes, known as martensite and austenite

NiTi shape memory alloys can exist in a two different temperature-dependent crystal
structures that are called martensite (which is lower temperature) and austenite (which is
higher temperature or parent phase). The process is crystallographic reversible and these two
phases have the same chemical composition but different crystallographic structures, and
thus, different thermal, mechanical and electrical properties. (S.M. Mahfuzur Rahman, K.
Kwang Ahn, 2008)

Under the transition temperature, NiTi is in the martensite phase. The transition temperature
varies for different compositions from about -50 ° C to 166 ° C (Jackson, Wagner, and
Wasilewski, 1). In the martensite phase, NiTi can be bent into various shapes. To fix the
"parent shape" (as it is called), the metal must be held in position and heated to about 500 °
C. The high temperature "causes the atoms to arrange themselves into the most compact and
regular pattern possible" resulting in a rigid cubic arrangement known as the austenite phase
(Kauffman and Mayo, 5-6). Above the transition temperature, NiTi reverts from the
martensite to the austenite phase which changes it back into its parent shape. This cycle can be
repeated millions of times (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 1).

(a) Austenite (b) Martensite lattice structures

(Source: A. Falvo, (2005))
Figure 2.2(1)

Figure 2.2(1) (a) and (b) shows the molecule structure of the austenite and martensite. The
martensite will transforms into austenite through either increasing in the temperature or by
removing the applied stress. This shows that mechanical loading and thermal loading have
opposite effects on NiTi alloys. When austenite is cooled, it begins to change into martensite.
The temperature at which this phenomenon starts is called martensite start temperature (Ms),
while the temperature at which martensite is again completely reverted is called martensite
finish temperature (Mf). When martensite is heated, it begins to change into austenite. The
temperature at which this phenomenon starts is called austenite start temperature (As), while
the temperature at which this phenomenon is complete is called austenite finish temperature
(Af). (J. R. Santiago,2002).
Figure 2.2(2) below shows the graph of the relationship between changes in length of the
SMA with the temperature.

Figure 2.2(2) SMA Length vs. Temperature Schematic.

(Source: J.R. Santiago, (2002))

Figure 2.2 Stress-Strain Characteristics of NiTi at Various Temperatures

The most common shape memory material is an alloy of nickel and titanium called NiTi. This
particular alloy has very good electrical and mechanical properties, long fatigue life, and high
corrosion resistance. As an actuator, it is capable of up to 5% strain recovery and 50,000 psi
restoration stress with many cycles. By example, a NiTi wire 0.020 inches in diameter can lift
as much as 16 pounds. NiTi also has the resistance properties which enable it to be actuated
electrically by joule heating. When an electric current is passed directly through the wire, it
can generate enough heat to cause the phase transformation. In most cases, the transition
temperature of the SMA is chosen such that room temperature is well below the
transformation point of the material. Only with the intentional addition of heat can the SMA
exhibit actuation. In essence, NiTi is an actuator, sensor, and heater all in one material.

Shape memory alloys, however, are not for all applications. One must take into account the
forces, displacements, temperature conditions, and cycle rates required of a particular
actuator. The advantages of NiTi become more pronounced as the size of the application
decreases. Large mechanisms may find solenoids, motors, and electromagnets more
appropriate. But in applications where such actuators cannot be used, shape memory alloys
provide an excellent alternative. There are few actuating mechanisms which produce more
useful work per unit volume than NiTi.

NiTi is available in the form of wire, rod and bar stock, and thin film. Examples of SMA
products developed by TiNi Alloy Company include silicon micro-machined gas flow micro
valves, non-explosive release devices, tactile feedback device (skin stimulators), and
aerospace latching mechanisms. If you are considering an application for shape memory
alloys, TiNi Alloy Company can assist you in the design, prototyping, and manufacture of
actuators and devices.

Physical Properties of NiTi

• Density: 6.45gms/cc

• Melting Temperature: 1240-1310° C

• Resistivity (hi-temp state): 82 uohm-cm

• Resistivity (lo-temp state): 76 uohm-cm

• Thermal Conductivity: 0.1 W/cm-° C

• Heat Capacity: 0.077 cal/gm-° C

• Latent Heat: 5.78 cal/gm; 24.2 J/gm

• Magnetic Susceptibility (hi-temp): 3.8 uemu/gm

• Magnetic Susceptibility (lo-temp): 2.5 uemu/gm

Mechanical Properties of NiTi

• Ultimate Tensile Strength: 754 - 960 MPa or 110 - 140 ksi

• Typical Elongation to Fracture: 15.5 percent

• Typical Yield Strength (hi-temp): 560 MPa, 80 ksi

• Typical Yield Strength (lo-temp): 100 MPa, 15 ksi

• Approximate Elastic Modulus (hi-tem): 75 GPa, 11 Mpsi

• Approximate Elastic Modulus (lo-temp): 28 GPa, 4 Mpsi

• Approximate Poisson's Ratio: 0.3

Actuation

• Energy Conversion Efficiency: 5%

• Work Output: ~1 Joule/gram

• Available Transformation Temperatures: -100 to +100° C

Manufacture
There are various ways to manufacture NiTi. Current techniques of producing nickel-titanium
alloys include vacuum melting techniques such as electron-beam melting, vacuum arc
melting or vacuum induction melting. "The cast ingot is press-forged and/or rotary forged
prior to rod and wire rolling. Hot working to this point is done at temperatures between 700 °
C and 900 ° C" (Stoeckel and Yu, 3).

There is also a process of cold working of Ni-Ti alloys. The procedure is similar to titanium
wire fabrication. Carbide and diamond dies are used in the process to produce wires ranging
from 0.075mm to 1.25mm in diameter. (Stoeckel and Yu, 4) Cold working of NiTi causes
"marked changes in the mechanical and physical properties of the alloy" (Jackson, Wagner,
and Wasilewski, 21). These processes of the production of NiTi are described in greater detail
in Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski's report (15-22).

Properties

The properties of NiTi are particular to the exact composition of the metal and the way it was
processed. The physical properties of NiTi include a melting point around 1240 ° C to 1310 °
C, and a density of around 6.5 g/cm³ (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 23). Various other
physical properties tested at different temperatures with various compositions of elements
include electrical resistivity, thermoelectric power, Hall coefficient, velocity of sound,
damping, heat capacity, magnetic susceptibility, and thermal conductivity (Jackson, Wagner,
and Wasilewski, 23-55). Mechanical properties tested include hardness, impact toughness,
fatigue strength, and machinability (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 57-73).

The large force generated upon returning to its original shape is a very useful property. Other
useful properties of NiTi are its "excellent damping characteristics at temperatures below the
transition temperature range, its corrosion resistance, its nonmagnetic nature, its low density
and its high fatigue strength" (Jackson, Wagner, and Wasilewski, 77). NiTi is also to an
extent impact- and heat-resistant (Kauffman and Mayo, 4). These properties translate into
many uses for NiTi.

Other miscellaneous applications of shape memory alloys include use in household

appliances, in clothing, and in structures. A deep fryer utilizes the thermal sensitivity by
lowering the basket into the oil at the correct temperature. (Falcioni, 114) According to
Stoeckel and Yu, "one of the most unique and successful applications is the Ni-Ti underwire
brassiere" (11). These bras, which were engineered to be both comfortable and durable, are
already extremely successful in Japan (Stoeckel and Yu, 11). NiTi actuators as engine mounts
and suspensions can also control vibration. These actuators can helpful prevent the
destruction of such structures as buildings and bridges. (Rogers, 156)

Mechanical properties of Nitinol

A relatively large number of researchers have been interested in exploring the mechanical
characteristics of NiTi in its two phases. Researchers are interested in studying and specifying
the properties of NiTi materials under various types of thermo mechanical loadings. Several
experimental studies have been conducted to specify the mechanical properties of SMA. The
outcomes of experimental research in the past two decades assisted in developing a range for
the mechanical parameters that would be expected from NiTi in its austenite and martensite
phases. Table 2.3 presents a summary of the mechanical properties for NiTi. As explained in
the following, mechanical properties could be due to several factors such as alloys
composition, manufacturing process, strain rate and cyclic loading.

Table 2.3: Summary of NiTinol mechanical properties

Shape memory alloy material

There a numerous alloys that exhibit shape memory but overall there are two which are
commercially available due in part for their proven ability to excel in some design aspects
like maximum strain achievable, biocompatibility, lifespan and others.

Table 2.4 shows the different kinds of alloys and their commercial availability.

Table 2.4: Shape Memory Alloy materials.

(Source: J.R. Santiago, (2002)

Applications

Shape Memory Alloys Find a wide variety of uses in Aeronautical as well as Medical fields

Aircraft Manoeuvrability 
Aircraft manoeuvrability depends heavily on the movement of flaps found at the rear or
trailing edge of the wings. The efficiency and reliability of operating these flaps is of critical
importance.

Most aircraft in the air today operate these flaps using extensive hydraulic systems. These
hydraulic systems utilize large centralized pumps to maintain pressure, and hydraulic lines to
distribute the pressure to the flap actuators. In order to maintain reliability of operation,
multiple hydraulic lines must be run to each set of flaps. This complex system of pumps and
lines is often relatively difficult and costly to maintain.

Many alternatives to the hydraulic systems are being explored by the aerospace industry.
Among the most promising alternatives are piezoelectric fibers, electrostrictive ceramics, and
shape memory alloys.
The flaps on a wing generally have the same layout shown on the left, with a large hydraulic
system attached to it at the point of the actuator connection. "Smart" wings, which incorporate
shape memory alloys, are typically like the wing this system is much more compact and efficient,
in that the shape memory wires only require an electric current for movement.
 Hinge less shape memory alloy Flap

The shape memory wire is used to manipulate a flexible wing surface. The wire on the bottom of
the wing is shortened through the shape memory effect, while the top wire is stretched bending
the edge downwards, the opposite occurs when the wing must be bent upwards. The shape
memory effect is induced in the wires simply by heating them with an electric current, which is
easily supplied through electrical wiring, eliminating the need for large hydraulic lines. By
removing the hydraulic system, aircraft weight, maintenance costs, and repair time are all
reduced.

 Medical Applications

The variety of forms and the properties of SMAs make them extremely useful for a range of medical
applications. For example, a wire that in its “deformed” shape has a small cross-section can be
introduced into a body cavity or an artery with reduced chance of causing trauma. Once in place and
after it is released from a constraining catheter the device is triggered by heat from the body and will
return to its original “memorised” shape.

Increasing a device’s volume by direct contact or remote heat input has allowed the development of
new techniques for keyhole or minimally invasive surgery. This includes instruments that have
dynamic properties, such as miniature forceps, clamps and manipulators. SMA-based devices that
can dilate, constrict, pull together, push apart and so on have enabled difficult or problematic tasks
in surgery to become quite feasible

1. Stents

The property of thermally induced elastic recovery can be used to change a small volume to a
larger one. An example of a device using this is a stent. A stent, either in conjunction with a dilation
balloon or simply by self-expansion, can dilate or support a blocked conduit in the human body.
Coronary artery disease, which is a major cause of death around the world, is caused by a plaque in-
growth developing on and within an artery’s inner wall. This reduces the cross-section of the artery
and consequently reduces blood flow to the heart muscle. A stent can be introduced in a
“deformed” shape, in other words with a smaller diameter. This is achieved by travelling through the
arteries with the stent contained in a catheter. When deployed, the stent expands to the
appropriate diameter with sufficient force to open the vessel lumen and reinstate blood flow.

2. Vena-cava Filters

Vena-cava filters have a relatively long record of successful in-vivo application. The filters are
constructed from Ni-Ti wires and are used in one of the outer heart chambers to trap blood clots,
which might be the cause of a fatality if allowed to travel freely around the blood circulation system.
The specially designed filters trap these small clots, preventing them from entering the pulmonary
system and causing a pulmonary embolism. The vena-cava filter is introduced in a compact
cylindrical form about 2.0-2.5mm in diameter. When released it forms an umbrella shape. The
construction is designed with a wire mesh spacing sufficiently small to trap clots. This is an example
of the use of superelastic properties, although there are also some thermally actuated vena cava
filters on the market.

3. Dental and Orthodontic Applications

Another commercially important application is the use of superelastic and thermal shape recovery
alloys for orthodontic applications. Archwires made of stainless steel have been employed as a
corrective measure for misaligned teeth for many years. Owing to the limited “stretch” and tensile
properties of these wires, considerable forces are applied to teeth, which can cause a great deal of
discomfort. When the teeth succumb to the corrective forces applied, the stainless steel wire has to
be re-tensioned. Visits may be needed to the orthodontist for re-tensioning every three to four
weeks in the initial stages of treatment.

Superelastic wires are now used for these corrective measures. Owing to their elastic properties and
extendibility, the level of discomfort can be reduced significantly as the SMA applies a continuous,
gentle pressure over a longer period. Visits to the orthodontist are reduced to perhaps three or four
per year.

 Bone Plates
 Bone plates are surgical tools, which are used to assist in the healing of broken and fractured
bones. The breaks are first set and then held in place using bone plates in situations where casts
cannot be applied to the injured area. Bone plates are often applied to fractures occurring to facial
areas such the nose, jaw or eye sockets. Repairs like this fall into an area of medicine known as
osteosynthesis.

Currently osteotemy equipment is made primarily of titanium and stainless steel. The broken bones
are first surgically reset into their proper position. Then a plate is screwed onto the broken bones to
hold them in place, while the bone heals back together. This method has been proven both
successful and useful in treating all manner of breaks, however there are still some drawbacks. After
initially placing the plate on the break or fracture the bones are compressed together and held
under some slight pressure, which helps to speed up the healing process of the bone. Unfortunately,
after only a couple of days the tension provided by the steel plate is lost and the break or fracture is
no longer under compression, slowing the healing process.
 Bone plates can also be fabricated using shape memory alloys, in particular nickel titanium.
Using a bone plate made out of NiTi, which has a transformation temperature of around Af much
greater than 15 °C surgeons follow the same procedure as is used with conventional bone plates.
The NiTi plates are first cooled to well below their transformation temperature, then they are placed
on the set break just like titanium plates. However, when the body heats the plate up to body
temperature the NiTi attempts to contract applying sustained pressure on the break or fracture for
far longer than stainless steel or titanium. This steady pressure assists the healing process and
reduces recovery time. There are still some problems to consider before NiTi bone plates will
become commonplace. Designing plates to apply the appropriate amount of pressure to breaks and
fractures is the most important difficulty, which must be overcome.

Example of how even a badly fractured face can be reconstructed using bone plates

Robotic Muscles
There have been many attempts made to re-create human anatomy through mechanical means. The
human body however, is so complex that it is very difficult to duplicate even simple functions.
Robotics and electronics are making great strides in this field, of particular interest are limbs such
hands, arms, and legs.

Shape memory alloys mimic human muscles and tendons very well. SMA's are strong and compact
so that large groups of them can be used for robotic applications, and the motion with which they
contract and expand are very smooth creating a life-like movement unavailable in other systems.

Creating human motion using SMA wires is a complex task but a simple explanation is detailed here.
For example to create a single direction of movement (like the middle knuckle of your fingers) the
setup shown in Figure 1 could be used. The bias spring shown in the upper portion of the finger
would hold the finger straight, stretching the SMA wire, then the SMA wire on the bottom portion of
the finger can be heated which will cause it to shorten bending the joint downwards (as in Figure 1).
The heating takes place by running an electric current through the wire; the timing and magnitude of
this current can be controlled through a computer interface used to manipulate the joint.

There are still some challenges that must be overcome before robotic hands can become more
commonplace. The first is generating the computer software used to control the artificial muscle
systems within the robotic limbs. The second is creating large enough movements to emulate human
flexibility (i.e. being able to bend the joints as far as humans can). The third problem is reproducing
the speed and accuracy of human reflexes.

How Shape Memory Alloys Work

Figure 1: The Martensite and
Austenite phases
Texas A&M SMART Lab -
http://smart.tamu.edu/
The two unique properties described above are made
possible through a solid state phase change, that is a
molecular rearrangement, which occurs in the shape
memory alloy. Typically when one thinks of a phase
change a solid to liquid or liquid to gas change is the
first idea that comes to mind. A solid state phase
change is similar in that a molecular rearrangement is
occurring, but the molecules remain closely packed so
that the substance remains a solid. In most shape
memory alloys, a temperature change of only about
10°C is necessary to initiate this phase change. The
two phases, which occur in shape memory alloys,
are Martensite, andAustenite.

Martensite, is the relatively soft and easily deformed

 phase of shape memory alloys, which exists at lower
temperatures. The molecular structure in this phase is
twinned which is the configuration shown in the
middle of Figure 2. Upon deformation this phase takes
on the second form shown in Figure 2, on the right.
Austenite, the stronger phase of shape memory alloys,
occurs at higher temperatures. The shape of the
Austenite structure is cubic, the structure shown on
the left side of Figure 2. The un-deformed Martensite
phase is the same size and shape as the cubic
Austenite phase on a macroscopic scale, so that no
change in size or shape is visible in shape memory
alloys until the Martensite is deformed.

Figure 2: Microscopic and Macroscopic Views of the Two Phases of Shape Memory Alloys

Oulu University - http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514252217/html/x317.html

The temperatures at which each of these phases begin and finish forming are represented by
the following variables: Ms, Mf, As, Af. The amount of loading placed on a piece of shape
memory alloy increases the values of these four variables as shown in Figure 3. The initial
values of these four variables are also dramatically affected by the composition of the wire
(i.e. what amounts of each element are present).

Figure 3: The Dependency of Phase Change Temperature on Loading

 Texas A&M SMART Lab - http://smart.tamu.edu/

Shape Memory Effect

Figure 4: Microscopic Diagram of the Shape Memory Effect

Oulu University - http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514252217/html/x317.html

The shape memory effect is observed when the temperature of a piece of shape memory alloy
is cooled to below the temperature Mf. At this stage the alloy is completely composed of
Martensite which can be easily deformed. After distorting the SMA the original shape can be
 recovered simply by heating the wire above the temperature Af. The heat transferred to the
wire is the power driving the molecular rearrangement of the alloy, similar to heat melting ice
into water, but the alloy remains solid. The deformed Martensite is now transformed to the
cubic Austenite phase, which is configured in the original shape of the wire.

The Shape memory effect is currently being implemented in:

 Coffepots
 The space shuttle
 Thermostats
 Vascular Stents
 Hydraulic Fittings (for Airplanes)

Pseudo-elasticity

Figure 5: Load Diagram of the pseudo-elastic effect Occurring

Pseudo-elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when the alloy is completely composed of
Austenite (temperature is greater than Af). Unlike the shape memory effect, pseudo-elasticity
occurs without a change in temperature. The load on the shape memory alloy is increased
until the Austenite becomes transformed into Martensite simply due to the loading; this
process is shown in Figure 5. The loading is absorbed by the softer Martensite, but as soon as
the loading is decreased the Martensite begins to transform back to Austenite since the
temperature of the wire is still above Af, and the wire springs back to its original shape.

Some examples of applications in which pseudo-elasticity is used are:

 Eyeglass Frames
 Bra Underwires
 Medical Tools
 Cellular Phone Antennae
 Orthodontic Arches
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Some of the main advantages of shape memory alloys include:

 Bio-compatibility
 Diverse Fields of Application
 Good Mechanical Properties (strong, corrosion resistant)

There are still some difficulties with shape memory alloys that must be overcome before they
can live up to their full potential. These alloys are still relatively expensive to manufacture
and machine compared to other materials such as steel and aluminum. Most SMA's have poor
fatigue properties; this means that while under the same loading conditions (i.e. twisting,
bending, compressing) a steel component may survive for more than one hundred times more
cycles than an SMA element. 
courtesy:cs.ualberta.ca/~database/MEMS/sma_mems/sma.html

shape memory alloy (SMA).

Examples of this type of alloy are nickel-titanium

copper-zinc-aluminium and copper-aluminium-nickel.

When a smart alloy is bent or twisted (called deforming)

it keeps its new shape until it is heated.
When the temperature is raised above a certain level
the alloy returns to its original shape.

Some of the main advantages of shape memory alloys include:

 Bio-compatibility
 Diverse Fields of Application
 Good Mechanical Properties (strong, corrosion resistant)

The use of NiTi as a biomaterial has severable possible advantages.Its shape memory property
and super elasticity are unique characteristics and totally new in the medical field. The possibility
to make self-locking, self expanding and self- compressing thermally activated implants is
fascinating. As far as special properties and good bio compatibility are concerned, it is evident
that NiTi has a potential to be a clinical success in several applications in future.

There are still some difficulties with shape memory alloys that must be overcome before they
can live up to their full potential. These alloys are still relatively expensive to manufacture and
machine compared to other materials such as steel and aluminum. Most SMA's have poor
fatigue properties; this means that while under the same loading conditions (i.e. twisting,
bending, compressing) a steel component may survive for more than one hundred times more
cycles than an SMA element.
Conclusion
The many uses and applications of shape memory alloys ensure a bright future for these
metals. Research is currently carried out at many robotics departments and materials science
departments. With the innovative ideas for applications of SMAs and the number of products
on the market using SMAs continually growing, advances in the field of shape memory
alloys for use in many different fields of study seem very promising.