Writing Mathematics With Style

An (algebraic) expression is any combination of numbers, variables,

exponents, mathematical symbols, and mathematical operations, but never
include equal signs or inequality signs!

An equation is a mathematical statement that two quantities are

equal. Therefore, an equation consists of two expressions separated by an
equal sign.

An inequality is a mathematical statement expressing an order

relationship. Therefore, an inequality consists of two (or more)
expressions separated by one of the inequality signs. If more than one
inequality sign are used, they must be in the same direction!

Classify the following as an expression, equation, inequality, or nonsense:

1) 2x 5 9) | 2x – 3 | > 1

2) 2x 5 = 1 10) a < b < c

3) y – z ≤ 9 11) 2 – 3(4 + x)2 – 3x(x – 3)

4) y – z + 9 12) 2 – 3(4 + x)2 = 3x(x – 3)

13) x2 = x + 6
1 2
5) x = y
14) x2 ≥ x + 6
1 2 15) x2 ≤ x + 6
6) x ≥ y
16) x2 ≤ x ≤ 6
7) 2 ≤ x ≥ 3
17) x2 ≥ x ≤ 6
8) 2 ≤ x + 3
 Simplifying Expressions:
You usually simplify expressions by performing a series of
mathematical operations to obtain another expression. To express the fact
that the new expression is equal to the old expression, use the equal sign
(=). Always arrange problems vertically, if possible. In the examples
below, start with the given expression, and simplify to the answer.
Example 1: Simplify: GivenExpression
GivenExpression = expression1 GivenExpression
= expression2 = expression1
= expression3 = expression2
= answer = expression3
= answer

Example 2: Simplify 16 + 8 ÷ 4 • 2 + 4
16 + 8 ÷ 4 • 2 + 4 = 16 + 2 • 2 + 4
= 16 + 4 + 4
= 20 + 4
= 24

Example 3: Simplify (x – y)(x + y – 2)

(x – y)(x + y – 2)
= x2 + xy – 2x – xy – y2 + 2y
= x2 – 2x – y2 + 2y

DO NOT:
1. Use bars under equations or expressions to show addition
or subtraction.
2. Place extraneous calculations or comments in the body of a
simplification or a solution.
 Solving Equations and Inequalities:
You usually solve equations and inequalities by performing a series
of mathematical operation to obtain another equation or inequality. To
express the fact that the new equation is implied by the old equation,
sometimes we use the implication sign ( ), although it is acceptable if
problems are arranged neatly. If possible, arrange problems vertically. In
the examples below, start with the given equation, and solve.

Example 1: Simplify: GivenEquation

Either form given below is acceptable.
GivenEquation GivenEquation
equation1 equation1
equation2 equation2
equation3 equation3
answer answer

Example 2: Solve 2x + 1 = 3x – 5
2x + 1 = 3x – 5
2x + 1 – 3x – 1 = 3x – 5 – 3x – 1
–x = –6
x = 6

Example 3: Solve 2x + 1 ≤ 3x – 5
2x + 1 ≤ 3x – 5
2x + 1 – 3x – 1 ≤ 3x – 5 – 3x – 1
–x ≤ –6
x ≥ 6
 Types of Numbers
Natural Numbers (Counting Numbers) N

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}

Whole Numbers W

W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}

Integers Z

Z = {..., –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...}

Rational Numbers Q

a
Q = { b | a, b, Z , b ≠ 0}

Irrational Numbers I

Numbers that can be written as an infinite nonrepeating decimal

Real Numbers R

Any number that is rational or irrational (R = Q ≈ I)

 Real Number Line
Visualize a line with equally spaced markers each of which is
associated with the integers. If the integers have their natural order, then
the real numbers can be visualized as points on the line.

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

We notice that

1. Every real number corresponds to a unique point on the line.

2. Every point on the line corresponds to a unique real number.

This is why the set of real numbers is sometimes referred to as the

real number line.

Absolute Value
 x if x ≥ 0

|x| = –x if x < 0

The absolute value of a real number is equal to its (positive) distance

to the origin!
 Rule for Order of Operations

(Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally)

1. Parentheses: Simplify all groupings first.

2. Exponents: Calculate exponential powers and radicals.

3. Multiplication and Division: Perform all multiplications and

divisions as they occur from left to right.

4. Addition and S ubtraction: Perform all additions and

subtractions as they occur from left to right.
Evaluate the following expressions and note the use of the equal signs
because we use mathematics writing style:

Ex 1: (4 – 6)2 + 6(–4) + 5 Ex 2: 6 + 24 ÷ 3 • 2 + 3 16

(4 – 6)2 + 6(–4) + 5 6 + 24 ÷ 3 • 2 + 3 16
(P) = (–2)2 + 6(–4) + 5 (E) = 6 + 24 ÷ 3 • 2 + 3 • 4
(E) = 4 + 6(–4) + 5 (D) = 6+8•2+3•4
(M) = 4 – 24 + 5 (M) = 6 + 16 + 3 • 4
(S) = –20 + 5 (M) = 6 + 16 + 12
(A) = –15 (A) = 22 + 12
(A) = 34

Ex 3: 2 [ 5 + 2 ( 6 + 3 – 4) ] Ex 4: 10 + 12 ÷ 4 + 2 • 3

2 [ 5 + 2 ( 6 + 3 – 4) ] 10 + 12 ÷ 4 + 2 • 3
= 2 [ 5 + 2 ( 9 – 4) ] = 10 + 3 + 2 • 3
= 2 [ 5 + 2 ( 5) ] = 10 + 3 + 6
= 2 [ 5 + 10 ] = 13 + 6
= 2 [ 15 ] = 19
= 30
 Types of Intervals
Interval Algebraic Interval
Notation Graph Notation Description

(a, b) a<x<b Open, finite

a b

[a, b] a≤x≤b Closed, finite

a b

[a, b) a≤x<b Half–open, finite

a b

(a, b] a<x≤b Half–open, finite

a b

(a, ∞) x>a Open, infinite

a

(–∞, b) x<b Open, infinite

b

[a, ∞) x≥a Closed, infinite

a

(–∞, b] x≤b Closed, infinite

b

If your answer is composed of two (or more) distinct intervals, then the
algebraic form of your answer must contains the conjunction 'OR'.
Example 1: Describe algebraically the following intervals:

a) –3 < x < 4
-3 4

b) x ≤ –1
-1

c) 2≤x<8
2 8

d) x>5
5

Example 2: Describe the region(s) containing the indicated sign(s):

Sign Graph Answer

+ 0 – 0 +
+ x < –4 or x > –1
-4 -1

– (*) + + 0 – 0 +
+, 0 2 < x ≤ 4 or x ≥ 5
2 4 5

– (*) + + 0 – 0 +
–, 0 x < 2 or 4 ≤ x ≤ 5
2 4 5

+ 0 – (*) + 0 –
– –2 < x < 0 or x > 2
-2 0 2
 Addition Property of Equality
For any real numbers a, b, and c,
if a = b, then a + c = b + c.
This means that you can always add the same quantity to both sides of an
equation. Because of the relation between addition and subtraction, you
also can always subtract the same quantity to both sides of an equation.

Examples: Solve the following:

x–4=9 w + 2 = –3
x–4+4=9+4 w + 2 – 2 = –3 – 2
x = 13 w = –5

Multiplication Property of Equality

For any real numbers a, b, and c, with c ≠ 0,
if a = b, then a • c = b • c.
This means that you can always multiply the same nonzero quantity to
both sides of an equation. Because of the relation between multiplication
and division, you also can always divide the same nonzero quantity to
both sides of an equation.

Examples: Solve the following:

x 4w = 8
3 = –5 4w 8
x 4 = 4
3 • 3 = 3 • (–5) w=2
x = –15
 Addition Property of Equations
You can always add or subtract the same quantity to both sides of an
equation without affecting the solution.

Example 1: Solve 3x – 4 = 2x + 3
We add the quantity (–2x + 4) to both sides of the equation :
3x – 4 = 2x + 3
3x – 4 – 2x + 4 = 2x + 3 – 2x + 4
x=

Multiplication Property
of Equations
You can always multiply or divide the same nonzero quantity to both
sides of an equation without affecting the solution.

Example 2: Solve –4x = 12

We divide both sides of the equation by –4.
–4x = 12
–4x 12
–4 = –4
x = –3
 Solving First Degree Equations in
One Variable (Be GLAD)
Remember: You can always simplify any side of the equation at any
time.

1. Simplify the expressions on both sides of the equation. You must

first eliminate all of the Grouping symbols and simplify if

necessary.

2. If there are fractions, you may multiply both sides of the equation

by the LCD. Simplify if necessary.

3. You want the variable terms on one side of the equation and the
constant terms on the other side. If this is not the case, you

should A dd or subtract to both sides of the equation a variable

term and/or a numerical value in order to get the variable terns
on one side and the constant values on the other side. Simplify
if necessary.

4. You want the variable term coefficient to be 1. If this is not the

case, you should D ivide both sides of the equation by the

variable term coefficient. Simplify if necessary.

5. Check your answer by substituting it into the original equation.

Note: Always make sure your final answer has the variable on the left
side of the equation!!!
Examples: Solve the following and use mathematics writing style:

Ex 1: 3x + 3 = x – 5 Ex 2: x – 5 = 3x – 8
x – 5 – 3x + 5 = 3x – 8 – 3x + 5
3x + 3 – x – 3 = x – 5 – x – 3
–2x = –3
2x = –8
–2x –3
2x –8 –2 = –2
2 = 2
x = 3/2
x = –4

Ex 3: 3(5y – 2) – 4y = –2(y + 3) 3z 1 z
Ex 4: 4 +2 =3+3
15y – 6 – 4y = –2y – 6 3z
 1 
 z
11y – 6 = –2y – 6 12 4 + 2 = 12 3 + 3

11y –6 + 2y +6 = –2y –6 + 2y +6 9z + 6 = 36 + 4z
13y = 0 9z + 6 – 4z –6 = 36 + 4z – 4z –6

13y 0 5z = 30
13 = 13
5z 30
y=0 z = 5
z=6
 Equations Involving Fractions
When we solve equations with fractions, we always assume that no
denominator is zero. Therefore, we can find the LCD and multiply both
sides by this nonzero factor. We must check to see that our solution does
not cause any denominator to be zero.

To solve equations with (simple) fractions:

Step 1: Identify all fractions in the equation and find the LCD.

Step 2: Multiply the both sides of the equation by the LCD.

Step 3: Solve the resulting equation.

Step 4: Check the answer into the original problem. (At least
check to make sure no denominator can be zero.)

WARNING:
You must know the difference between an expression and an
equation. When you solve an equation, you may multiply both sides by
the LCD and we get an equation without fractions. When you have an
expression with fractions, you must perform the indicated operation and /
or simplify. Nonsense like treating expressions like equations will not be
tolerated!!
Examples: Solve the following:

2 3
a) x–6 = x–8

2 3
(x – 6)(x – 8) x – 6 = (x – 6)(x – 8) x – 8

2(x – 8) = 3(x – 6)

2x – 16 = 3x – 18

–x = –2

x=2

z–4 1 2 4
b) z2 – 2z = z – z2 – z3 – 2z2

z–4 1 2 4
z(z – 2) = z – z2 – z2(z – 2)

z–4 1
 2 4 
z2(z 2
– 2) z(z – 2) = z (z – 2) z – z2 – z2(z – 2)

z(z – 4) = z(z – 2) – 2(z – 2) – 4

z2 – 4z = z2 – 2z – 2z + 4 – 4

z2 – 4z = z2 – 4z

0=0

all real numbers except 0, 2

 y–2 2
c) y–3 = 1 – y2 – 9

y–2 2
y – 3 = 1 – (y + 3)(y – 3)

y–2  2 
(y + 3)(y – 3) y – 3 = (y + 3)(y – 3) 1 – (y + 3)(y – 3)


(y + 3)(y – 2) = (y + 3)(y – 3) – 2

y2 + y – 6 = y2 – 9 – 2

y = –5

2 1 1
d) x2 – 4 = x2 + x2 – 2x

2 1 1
(x + 2)(x – 2) = x2 + x(x – 2)

2 1
 1 
x2(x 2
+ 2)(x – 2) (x + 2)(x – 2) = x (x + 2)(x – 2) x2 + x(x – 2)

2x2 = (x + 2)(x – 2) + x(x + 2)

2x2 = x2 – 4 + x2 + 2x

2x2 = 2x2 + 2x – 4

–x = –2

x=2

no solution
 Solving For a Term in a Formula
Solving for any term in a formula is similar

Remember: You can always simplify any side of the equation at any
time.

1. Simplify the expressions on both sides of the equation. You must

first eliminate all of the Grouping symbols and simplify if
necessary.

2. If there are fractions, you may multiply both sides of the equation
by the LCD. Simplify if necessary.

3. You want all of the terms with the desired variable on one side of
the equation and all other term on the other side. If this is not
the case, you should Add or subtract to both sides of the
equation various variable terms and/or a numerical value in
order to get desired variable terns on one side and everything
else on the other side. Simplify if necessary.

4. You want one variable term with a coefficient of 1. If this is not

the case, you might have to factor out the desired variable and
Divide both sides of the equation by the resulting coefficient.
Simplify if necessary.

Note: Always make sure your final answer has the desired variable on the
left side of the equation!!!
Examples: Solve the following and use mathematics writing style:
h
Ex 1: Solve P = 2l + 2w for w Ex 4: Solve A = 2 (b + B) for B

P = 2l + 2w h
A = 2 (b + B)
P – 2l = 2w
2A
P – 2l h =b+B
2 =w
2A
P – 2l h –b=B
w= 2
2A
B= h –b
Ex 2: Solve A = P(1 + rt) for r
A = P(1 + rt) x+1
Ex 5: Solve y = x – 3 for x
A = P + Prt
A – P = Prt x+1
y=x–3
A–P
Pt = r y(x – 3) = x + 1
xy – 3y = x + 1
A–P
r = Pt
xy – x = 3y + 1
x(y – 1) = 3y + 1
Ex 3: Solve A = 2πrh + 2πr2 for h 3y + 1
x= y–1
A = 2πrh + 2πr2
2πrh = A – 2πr2

A – 2πr2
h = 2πr
 Solving Absolute Value Equations:

Always put the absolute value on a side by itself if

possible!!!

1. If | x | = c (c > 0), then x = c or x = –c

2. If | x | = 0 , then x = 0

3. If | x | = –c (c > 0), then there is no solution

If you have an absolute value on both sides:

4. If | x | = | c |, then x = c or x = –c

Note: Always make sure your final answer has the variable on the left
side of the equation!!!
Solve the following and use mathematics writing style:

Ex 1: | 2x – 5 | = –3 1
Ex 3: | 2 x – 1 | = 4
no solution
1 1
2 x–1=4 2 x – 1 = –4

1 1
Ex 2: | x + 4 | = 0 2 x=5 2 x = –3
x+4=0 x = 10 x = –6
x = –4 x = 10, –6

Ex 4: | x + 2 | = 3 Ex 5: | 2 – x | = 1 + x

x+2=3 x + 2 = –3 2 – x = 1 + x 2 – x = –(1 + x)

x=1 x = –5 –2x = –1 2 – x = –1 – x

x = 1, –5 x = 1/2 0 = –3
x = 1/2

Ex 7: | 3x + 1 | = | x – 1 |
Ex 6: | 2x + 1 | – 1 = 4
3x+1 = x–1 3x+1 = –(x–1)
| 2x + 1 | = 5
2x = –2 3x+1 = –x+1
2x + 1 = 5 2x + 1 = –5
x = –1 4x = 0
2x = 4 2x = –6
x=0
x=2 x = –3
x = –1, 0
x = 2, –3
 Solving Word Problems
( Super Solvers Use C.A.P.E.S.)
1. Read the problem carefully. (Reread it several times if necessary)

2. Categorize the problem type if possible. (Is it a problem of

numerical expression, distance–rate–time, cost–profit, or simple
interest type?)

3. Decide what is asked for, and A

ssign a variable to the unknown
quantity. Label the variable so you know exactly what it
represents.

4. Draw a Picture, diagram, or chart whenever possible!!

5. Form an E
quation (or inequality) that relates the information
provided.

6. Solve the equation (or inequality).

7. Check your solution with the wording of the problem to be sure
it makes sense.

distance–rate–time: distance = rate • time (d = r • t)

cost–profit: profit = revenue – cost (P = R – C)
simple interest: interest = principal * rate (i = p • r)
 Example: A grocery store bought ice cream for 59¢ a half gallon and
stored it in two freezers. During the night, one freezer "defrosted" and
ruined 14 half gallons. If the remaining ice cream is sold for 98¢ a half
gallon, how many half gallons did the store buy if it made a profit of
$42.44?

charge = price • quantity

bought .59 x

sold .98 x – 14

Example: Last summer, Ernie sold surfboards. One style sold for
$70 and the other sold for $50. He sold a total of 48 surfboards. How
many of each style did he sell if the receipts from each style were equal?

charge = price • quantity

one style 70 x

other style 50 48 – x
 Example: Sellit Realty Company gets a 6% fee for selling improved
properties and 10% for selling unimproved land. Last week, the total sales
were $220,000 and the total fees were $14,000. What were the sales from
each of the two types of properties?

fees = rate • sales

improved .06 x

unimproved .10 220000 – x

Example: Maria jogs to the country at a rate of 10 mph. She returns

along the same route at 6 mph. If the total trip took 1 hour 36 minutes,
how far did she jog?

distance = rate • time

going x 10

coming x 6
 Properties of Exponents
Property: Example:

b0 = 1 50 = 1

1 1 1
b–n = bn 3–2 = 32 = 9

bm • bn = bm + n 23 •25 = 28

bm m–n
59 2 = 25
b n = b 5 7 = 5

(bm)n = bm • n (23)4 = 212 = 4096

(a • b)n = an • bn (4x)3 = 43 • x3 = 64x3

a  n
  an 3 2
  32 9
b = bn 5 = 52 = 25

Some Additional Properties

 a  –n
  bn 1 n
a–n bm
b = an b –n = b b–m = an
Examples: Simplify the following using mathematics writing style:

 3 0 –5  –2 –2
x–5 • x9 z z  y 
a) x3 • x b)  k 
z z c)  –5
y 

x–5+9  3  –5
 z  = (y–2+5)–2
= x3+1 =  k+1
z 
= (y3)–2
x4 = (z2–k)–5
= x4 = y3•(–2)
= z–10+5k
= 1 = y–6
= z5k–10
1
= y6

 2 –1 –2
w w  (x–2y–3)4 (x4y–2)–2
d)  5 2
w w  e) (x3y–1)–3 (x–4y)4
 1 –2
w  x–8y–12 x–8y4
=  7
w  = x–9y3 x–16y4

= (w–6)–2 x–16y–8
= x–25y7
= w12
= x9y–15

x9
= y15
 Multiplying Polynomials
The product of two polynomials can be found by using some form of
the distributive property

a(b + c) = ab + ac.

Example: Multiply the given polynomials and simplify.

a) (x + 4)(2x – 3) b) (3x – 5)(x – 2)

= x(2x – 3) + 4(2x – 3) = 3x(x – 2) – 5(x – 2)
= 2x2 – 3x + 8x – 12 = 3x2 – 6x – 5x + 10
= 2x2 + 5x – 12 = 3x2 – 11x + 10

c) (2x – 3y)(x + 2y) d) (z – 1)(z – 2)

= 2x(x + 2y) – 3y(x + 2y) = z(z – 2) – 1(z – 2)
= 2x2 + 4xy – 3xy – 6y2 = z2 – 2z – z + 2
= 2x2 + xy – 6y2 = z2 – 3z + 2

e) (x + 2y – 3)(2x – y – 2)
= x(2x – y – 2) + 2y(2x – y – 2) – 3(2x – y – 2)
= 2x2 – xy – 2x + 4xy – 2y2 – 4y – 6x + 3y + 6
= 2x2 – 2y2 + 3xy – 8x – y + 6

f) (x + 2)(x2 – 2x + 4)
= x(x2 – 2x + 4) + 2(x2 – 2x + 4)
= x3 – 2x2 + 4x + 2x2 – 4x + 8
= x3 + 8
 Special Products of Polynomials

Take time and learn these formulas. You will need them later and you
will be tested on them!

(F + S)(F – S) = F2 – S2 Difference of squares

(F + S)2 = F2 + 2FS + S2 Perfect square trinomial

(F – S)2 = F2 – 2FS + S2 Perfect square trinomial

(F + S)(F2 – FS + S2) = F3 + S3 Sum of cubes

(F – S)(F2 + FS + S2) = F3 – S3 Difference of cubes

 WARNING:
Unless x or y is zero, (x + y)2 does not equal x2 + y2!! For example
(3 + 4)2 = 72 = 49, but 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25. (Note that 25 is less than 49
by 2(3)(4) = 24, the missing middle term.)

x y

2 xy
x x

2
y xy y

Table to demonstrate that (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2

Nonsense like thinking that (x + y)2 equals x2 + y2 will not be

tolerated!!
We use the table below for reference to help with multiplication.

(F + S)(F – S) = F2 – S2 Difference of squares

(F + S)2 = F2 + 2FS + S2 Perfect square trinomial
(F – S)2 = F2 – 2FS + S2 Perfect square trinomial

Example: Perform the indicated products and simplify.

F) (x + 3y)(x – 3y) S) (2xy – 5z)(2xy + 5z)

= (F + S)(F – S) = (F – S)(F + S)
= F2 – S2 = F2 – S2
= x2 – 9y2 = 4x2y2 – 25z2

c) (6w2 + 7v5)(6w2 – 7v5) d) (x – 4)2

= (F + S)(F – S) = (F – S)2
= F2 – S2 = F2 – 2FS + S2
= 36w4 – 49v10 = x2 – 8x + 16

e) (4x – 3y)2 f) (7w + 5)2

= (F – S)2 = (F + S)2
= F2 – 2FS + S2 = F2 + 2FS + S2
= 16x2 – 24xy + 9y2 = 49w2 + 70w + 25

g) (x3 + 8y)2 h) (2x2z – 3y4)2

= (F + S)2 = (F – S)2
= F2 + 2FS + S2 = F2 – 2FS + S2
= x6 + 16x3y + 64y2 = 4x4z2 – 12x2y4z + 9y8
 Special Products:
Perfect Square Polynomials

Complete the table:

F S F2 2FS S2 (F + S)2 = F2 + 2FS + S2

x 3 (x + 3)2 = _______________

z 4 (z + 4)2 = _______________

w 5 (w + 5)2 = _______________

x –2 (x – 2)2 = _______________

y –1 (y – 1)2 = _______________

z –6 (z – 6)2 = _______________

2x 3y (2x + 3y)2 = _______________

3x –5y (3x – 5y)2 = _______________

4x –y (4x – y)2 = _______________

2x2 5yz3 (2x2 + 5yz3)2 = _______________

 Special Products:
Difference of Squares

Complete the table:

F S F2 S2 (F + S)(F – S) = F2 – S2

x 3 (x + 3)(x – 3) = _______________

z 4 (z + 4)(z – 4) = _______________

w 5 (w + 5)(w – 5) = _______________

x 2 (x – 2)(x + 2) = _______________

y 1 (y – 1)(y + 1) = _______________

z 6 (z – 6)(z + 6) = _______________

2x 3y (2x + 3y)(2x – 3y) = _______________

3x 5y (3x – 5y)(3x + 5y) = _______________

4x y2 (4x – y2)(4x + y2) = _______________

2x2 5yz3 (2x2+5yz3)(2x2–5yz3) = _______________

 FACTORING
Factoring is the inverse operation to multiplying polynomials.

Remember: In order to be good at factoring polynomials, you must be

good at multiplying polynomials. Make sure you are very good at
multiplying polynomials and using the special products.

Special Polynomial Factors

Common factor ax + ay = a(x + y)

 2
x + y2 does
 not factor
Sum/Diff. of squares  x2 – y2 =  (x – y)(x + y)

x3 + y3 (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2)

 
Sum/Diff. of cubes  x3 – y3 = (x – y)(x2 + xy + y2)

 2
x + 2xy + y2 
(x + y)2
Perfect square trinomial  x2 – 2xy + y2 =  (x – y)2
 Common Factors & Negative Exponents

Anytime you factor, remember to take out the common factor

first!! Also, the biggest factor uses the smallest exponent.

Examples: Factor the following and use mathematics writing style:

a) x2 + 5x b) 8z7 + 12z4
= x (x + 5) = 4z4 (2z3 + 3)

c) 12x3y2 – 32x2y3 + 20xy4 d) 9a9b4 – 12a8b6 – 6a7b8

= 4xy2 (3x2 – 8xy + 5y2) = 3a7b4 (3a2 – 4ab2 + 2b4)

e) x–5 + 5x–7 f) 8x–9 – 6x–8

= x–7 (x2 + 5) = 2x–9 (4 – 3x)

g) x–3y2 – x–4y6 h) 12a–6b–8 – 16a–8b–6

= x–4y2 (x – y4) = 4a–8b–8 (3a2 – 4b2)
 Sum / Difference of Squares & Cubes
You are required to determine at a quick glance any special product
polynomial.

F2 + S2 does not factor, F3 + S3 = (F + S)(F2 – FS + S2)

F2 – S2 = (F – S)(F + S) F3 – S3 = (F – S)(F2 + FS + S2)

Examples: Is the polynomial is the sum of squares, difference of squares,

difference of cubes, or the sum of cubes? If so, then factor it, if possible.

a) A2 + 64 s.s. does not factor

b) w2 – 25 d.s. (w – 5)(w + 5)

c) z2 – 8 no

d) z3 – 8 d.c (z – 2)(z2 + 2x + 4)

e) 4x2 – 9y4 d.s (2x – 3y2)(2x + 3y2)

f) z3 + 125 s.c. (z + 5)(z2 – 5z + 25)

g) B2 + 9 s.s. does not factor

h) c2 – 16 d.s. (c – 4)(c + 4)

i) c3 – 16 no

j) x2y6 – 81z10 d.s. (xy3 – 9z5)(xy3 + 9z5)

k) 8y3z6 + 27w3 s.c. (2yz2 + 3w)(4y2z4 – 6yz2w + 9w2)

 Perfect Square Trinomials

You are required to determine at a quick glance any special product

polynomial.

F2 + 2FS + S2 = (F + S)2
F2 – 2FS + S2 = (F – S)2

Examples: Is the polynomials a perfect square trinomial? If so, then

factor it.

x2 – x + 1 no

x2 – 2x + 1 yes (x – 1)2

x2 + 6x + 9 yes (x + 3)2

x2 – 4x – 4 no

x2 – 4x + 4 yes (x – 2)2

a2 – 10a + 25 yes (a – 5)2

9B2 – 12BC + 4C2 yes (3B – 2C)2

z2 + 13z + 36 no

25z2 + 60z + 36 yes (5z + 6)2

 Factoring By Grouping
Examples: Factor the following and use mathematics writing style:
a) ax + ay + bx + by b) ax + ay – x – y

= a(x + y) + b(x + y) = a(x + y) – 1(x + y)

= (a + b) (x + y) = (a – 1) (x + y)

c) x2 + 4xy – 2x – 8y d) xy – 3x – 4y + 12

= x(x + 4y) – 2(x + 4y) = x(y – 3) – 4(y – 3)

= (x – 2)(x + 4y) = (x – 4)(y – 3)

e) x3 – 4x2 + 3x – 12 f) 2x2 – 7xy + 6y2

= x2(x – 4) + 3(x – 4) = 2x2 – 4xy – 3xy + 6y2

= (x2 + 3)(x – 4) = 2x(x – 2y) – 3y(x – 2y)

= (2x – 3y)(x – 2y)
 Factoring Polynomials
Using The ac–Method
ax2 + bx + c
We assume that a, b, and c are integers.

Step 1. Multiply a • c

Step 2. If you can, find two integers such that:

a. their product is ac
b. their sum is b

Step 3. If two integers don't exist, STOP because the problem cannot
be factored. Otherwise, move on to Step 4.

Step 4. Rewrite the middle term (bx) using the two integers from
Step 2 as coefficients.

Step 5. Factor by grouping (like when there are 4 terms).

Examples: Factor the following using the ac–method:

a) 4x2 – x – 18 b) 12x2 – 23x – 24

= 4x2 – 9x + 8x– 18 = 12x2 – 32x + 9x– 24

= x(4x – 9) + 2(4x – 9) = 4x(3x – 8) + 3(3x – 8)
= (x + 2)(4x – 9) = (4x + 3)(3x – 8)
 Factoring With Substitution
Examples: Factor the following and use mathematics writing style:

a) x2y6 – 81z10 b) x3 + 8
= F2 – S2 = F3 + S3
= (F – S)(F + S) = (F + S)(F2 – FS + S2)
= (xy3 – 9z5)(xy3 + 9z5) = (x + 2)(x2 – 2x + 4)

c) x2 – (y + 2)2 d) (x + 2y)2 – 25
= F2 – S2 = F2 – 25
= (F – S)(F + S) = (F – 5)(F + 5)
= [x – (y + 2)][x + (y + 2)] = [(x + 2y) – 5][(x + 2y) + 5]
= (x – y – 2)(x + y + 2) = (x + 2y – 5)(x + 2y + 5)

e) (2x – 5)2 – 2(2x – 5) – 8 f) (x – 3)2 – 9(y + 2)2

= F2 – 2F – 8 = F2 – 9S2
= (F – 4)(F + 2) = (F – 3S)(F + 3S)
= [(2x – 5) – 4][(2x – 5) + 2] = [(x–3) –3(y+2)][(x–3) +3(y+2)]
= [2x – 5 – 4][2x – 5 + 2] = [x –3 – 3y –6)][x –3 + 3y + 6]
= (2x – 9)(2x – 3) = (x – 3y – 9)(x + 3y + 3)
 Factoring Completely
You are always required to continue to factor until every expression can
be factored no further.

Steps For Factoring Polynomials

1. Always take out the greatest common factor first!!!
(This includes the case with negative exponents.)
2. See if you can use one of the special factors. Check how many
terms are present.
A. If there are 2 terms:
a. See if it is a difference of squares
b. See if it is a sum or difference of cubes
B. If there are 3 terms:
See if it is a perfect square trinomial
C. If there are 4 terms:
See if you can factor by grouping.
3. Try factoring by any other method you can.
(Trial and error, ac method, etc.)

Hint: Whenever you have to factor, DO NOT MULTIPLY out the terms
unless you absolutely have to !! Consider using a substitution.
Examples: Factor completely the following and use mathematics writing
style:

a) w–7 – 4w–9 b) 4 + 4z–1 + z–2

= w–9(w2 – 4) = z–2(4z2 + 4z + 1)
= w–9(w – 2)(w + 2) = z–2(2z + 1)2

c) (x2 – x)2 – 18(x2 – x) + 72

= F2 – 18F + 72 d) x8 – y8
= (F – 6)(F – 12) = (x4 – y4)(x4 + y4)
= (x2 – x – 6)(x2 – x – 12) = (x2 – y2)(x2 + y2)(x4 + y4)
= (x – 3)(x + 2)(x – 4)(x + 3) = (x–y)(x+y)(x2+y2)(x4+y4)

e) (x2 + 3x – 10)2 – (x – 2)2

= F2 – S2
= (F + S)(F – S)
= [(x2 + 3x – 10) + (x – 2)][(x2 + 3x – 10) – (x – 2)]
= [x2 + 3x – 10 + x – 2][x2 + 3x – 10 – x + 2]
= (x2 + 4x – 12)(x2 + 2x – 8)
= (x + 6)(x – 2)(x + 4)(x – 2)
= (x + 6)(x + 4)(x – 2)2
 Basic Properties
of Rational Expressions

A rational expression is any expression of the form

P
Q
where P and Q are polynomials and Q ≠ 0. In the following properties, no
denominator is allowed to be zero.

Basic Property: Example:

P R 2 6
Q = S if and only if P • S = Q • R 3 = 9

P P•R 3 3•4 12
Q = Q•R 5 = 5 • 4 = 20

P –P P –P 7 –7 7 –7
– Q = Q = –Q = – –Q – 4 = 4 = –4 = – –4

P –P P –P 5 –5 5 –5
–
Q = – Q = –Q = –Q –
8 = – 8 = –8 = –8
Notice that

–P
P = –1.

Since it is true that

x–a = – (–x + a)

= – (a – x),

It must also be true that

x–a
a – x = –1.

WARNING:
You must reduce only factors!! If the terms are not factors, they
cannot be factored out.

Nonsense like "canceling out" nonfactors will not be tolerated!!

2x + 8
2 = x+4

x2 – 9
x–3 = x+3
 Multiplication and Division of
Rational Expressions
To multiply two rational expression, multiply the numerators together
and multiply the denominators together.

P R P•R
Q • S = Q•S .

To divide two rational expressions, invert the one immediately after

the division sign, and do a rational expression multiplication.

P R P S P•S
Q ÷ S = Q • R = Q•R

Example: Perform the indicated operation and simplify:

x2 + 2x – 3 4x + 2 2x2 – 9x – 5
x2 – 3x – 10 ÷ x2 – x • x2 – 2x + 1

x2 + 2x – 3 x2 – x 2x2 – 9x – 5
= x2 – 3x – 10 • 4x + 2 • x2 – 2x + 1

(x + 3)(x – 1) x(x – 1) (2x + 1)(x – 5)

= (x – 5)(x + 2) • 2(2x + 1) • (x – 1)2

x(x + 3)
= 2(x + 2)
 Rule for Adding or Subtracting
Fractions with Equal Denominators
(RASFED)

To add or subtract two rational expressions whose denominators are

equal, simply add or subtract the numerators. Make sure you use
parentheses when appropriate!

P R P+R P R P–R
Q + Q = Q Q – Q = Q

Examples: Perform the indicated operation and simplify:

x 2 x2 4x – x2
a) x2 – 4 + x2 – 4 b) x2 – 4 – x2 – 4

x+2 x2 – (4x – x2)

= x2 – 4 = x2 – 4
x+2 x2 – 4x + x2
= (x + 2)(x – 2) = x2 – 4
1 2x2 – 4x
= x–2 = x2 – 4

2x(x – 2)
= (x + 2)(x – 2)

2x
= (x + 2)
 Finding the LCD
Step 1. Factor each denominator completely, including the prime
factors of any constant factor.

Step 2. Form the product of all the factors that appears in the
complete factorizations.

Step 3. The number of times any factors appears in the LCD is the
most number of times it appears in any one factorization.

Examples: Find the LCD for the given denominators:

a) Denominators are 24, 30, and 36

24 = 8 • 3= 23 • 3

30 = 6 • 5= 2•3•5

36 = 4 • 9= 22 • 32

LCD = 23 • 32 • 5 = 360

b) Denominators are x3 – x2 and x3 – x

x3 – x2 = x2(x – 1)

x3 – x = x(x2 – 1) = x(x + 1)(x – 1)

LCD = x2(x + 1)(x – 1)

 Rule for Adding or Subtracting
Fractions with Unequal Denominators
(FLEAS)

1. Factor the rational expression.

2. Find the Least Common Denominator (LCD).
3. E qualize each denominators by replacing each fraction with an
equivalent one whose denominator is the LCD.

4. Add or Subtract using RASFED.

Example:

1 2 3
2 – 3 + 4

6 8 9
= 12 – 12 + 12

6–8+9
= 12

7
= 12
Examples: Perform the indicated operation and simplify.

2 1 x+2 x2 + 2x
a) x2 – 1 – x2 + 2x + 1 b) x – 2 – x2 – 4

2 1 x+2 x2 + 2x
= (x + 1)(x – 1) – (x + 1)2 = x – 2 – (x + 2)(x – 2)

2(x + 1) x–1 (x + 2)2 x2 + 2x

= (x + 1)2(x – 1) – (x + 1)2(x – 1) = (x + 2)(x – 2) – (x + 2)(x – 2)

2(x + 1) – (x – 1) (x2 + 4x + 4) – (x2 + 2x)

= (x + 1)2(x – 1) = (x + 2)(x – 2)

2x + 2 – x + 1 x2 + 4x + 4 – x2 – 2x
= (x + 1)2(x – 1) = (x + 2)(x – 2)

x+3 2x + 4
= (x + 1)2(x – 1) = (x + 2)(x – 2)

2(x + 2)
= (x + 2)(x – 2)

2
= (x – 2)
 Complex Fractions
A simple fraction is any rational expression whose numerator and
denominator contain no rational expression.

A complex fraction is any rational expression whose numerator or

denominator contains a rational expression.

To simplify complex fractions:

Step 1: Identify all fractions in the numerator and denominator and
find the LCD.
Step 2: Multiply the numerator and denominator by the LCD.

Examples:
1 1 x+y
2–3 b) x–1 + y–1
a) 3 1
4–6
x+y
= 1 1
1
 1 x+y
12 2 – 3
= 3 1 xy (x + y)

12 4 – 6 = 1 1

xy x + y
6–4
= 9–2 xy (x + y)
= y+x
2 = xy
= 7
Example: Simplify the following:

1 1 1
9 – y2 x+h x–
a) 1 b) h
3–y

1

 1
x(x + h) + h – x
x


1  =
y2 9 – y2 x(x + h) h
=  1

y2 3 – y
x – (x + h)
= x(x + h) h
9y2 – 1
= 3y2 – y
x–x–h
= x(x + h) h
(3y + 1)(3y – 1)
= y(3y – 1)
–h
= x(x + h) h
3y + 1
= y
–1
= x(x + h)
 Rational Exponents

If a is a real number and n is a positive integer, we sometimes speak

of the nth root of a. If it exists, it should be some number b whose nth
power is equal to a. That is, we should have bn = a, and then it seems
reasonable to write b = a1/n.

If a is a positive real number and n is a positive integer, the principal

nth root of a is the positive real number whose nth power is equal to a. We
1
denote the principal nth root of a by using n as an exponent and we write

a1/n .

To avoid any ambiguity, use the principal nth root of a to calculate a1/n.

If a is any real number and n is a positive integer:

a>0 a<0 a=0

a1/n is a positive n odd n even a1/n = 0

real number

a1/n is a negative a1/n is not a

real number real number
 More Rational Exponents

If a is any real number, m any nonzero integer, and n a positive integer

such that a1/n is defined. Then we have

am/n = (a1/n)m = (am)1/n

To calculate am/n, you should take the root first!!

am/n = (a1/n)m .

Radicals
If a is a real number, and n is a positive integer such that a1/n is
defined, then we have
n
a= a1/n.

Thus we also have

 m n
n 
am/n =  a = am

Again, to calculate am/n, you should take the root first!!

 m
n 
am/n =  a .
Examples: Simplify the following expressions.
a) 161/2 b) 1251/3 c) 811/4
= 4 = 5 = 3

16 1/2 27 1/3  1  1/5

     
d) 25 e) 8 f) –32

4 3 1
= 5 = 2 = –2

g) 84/3 h) 8–2/3 i) (–4)–1/2

= (81/3)4 = (81/3)–2 not real
= 24 = 2–2
= 16 1
= 4

j) 25–3/2 k) –25–3/2 l) 3 • 16–5/4

= (251/2)–3 = –(251/2)–3 = 3 • (161/4)–5
= 5–3 = –5–3 = 3 • 2–5

1 1 1
= 125 = –125 = 3 • 32

3
= 32
Examples: Simplify the following expressions. Assume that all variables
are positive.
a) (2x1/3)3 b) y2/7 • y3/7 c) 4z1/2 • 3z1/3
= 23 (x1/3)3 = y(2/7 + 3/7) = 12z(1/2 + 1/3)
= 8x = y5/7 = 12z5/6

x2/3 (x1/4y1/2)3
d) x1/4 e) x1/2y–1/4
= x(2/3 – 1/4) x3/4y3/2
= x1/2y–1/4
= x5/12
= x(3/4 – 1/2)y(3/2 + 1/4)
= x1/4y7/4
 Properties of Radicals
Remember that if no index is shown, then it is by default 2. Thus
2
x means x . The properties of radicals come directly from the
definition and the properties of exponents. In particular, we have

Property Example
n n n 3 3 3
a•b = a • b 8x12 = 8 • x12 = 2x4

n n 4 4
a a 16 16 2
b = n 81 = 4
= 3
b 81

m 5
n mn 10
a = a x = x

Absolute Value Again

The absolute value can be defined in terms of the square root:

|x| = x2
 Simplifying Radicals
A radical expression is considered to be simplified when:

1. The radicand has no factors with an exponent

greater than or equal to the index of the radical,

3 3 3 3 3
x6y11 = x6y9y2 = x6y9 y2 = x2y3 y2

2. No radical contains a fraction,

3 3
3 3 12x2 12x2
2x4 = 8x6 = 2x2

3. No denominator contains a radical, and

2 2(1 + 3 x) 2(1 + 3 x)
1–3 x = (1 – 3 x)(1 + 3 x) = 1 – 9x

4. The index and the power of the radicand have no

common factor except 1.

9 3
x6 = x2
Examples: Simplify the following expressions. Assume that all variables
are positive.

a) 98 3 4 5
b) 56 c) 243 d) 4x
= 49 • 2
3 4
= 8•7 = 81 • 3 5x
= 49 2 = 4x2
3 3 4 4
= 7 2 = 8 7 = 81 3
5x
= 2x
3 4
= 2 7 = 3 3

4 16x 3 4 3x5
e) f) h)
9y 3
32x 8y7

4 16x•9y3 4
3 3x5 • 2y
= 81y4 3 2x2 =
= • 8y7 • 2y
3 3
32x 2x2
4 4 6x5y
2 9xy3 =
= 3y 3 16y8
3 2x2
= 3
64x3 4
x 6xy
= 2y2
3
3 2x2
3
4
= 4x
g) x

12
= x
Examples: Simplify the following expressions. Assume that all variables
are positive.

a) 2 10 – 6 10 b) 32x + 18x c) 12 + 18 + 27

= –4 10 = 16•2x + 9•2x
= 4•3 + 9•2
= 4 2x + 3 2x
+ 9•3
= 7 2x
= 2 3 +3 2 +3 3

= 5 3 +3 2

d) 5 + 45 – 15 e) 8x – 3 2x + 18x

= 5 + 9•5 – 15 = 4•2x – 3 2x + 9•2x

= 5 + 3 5 – 15 = 2 2x – 3 2x + 3 2x

= 4 5 – 15 = 2 2x

3 3 4 4 5 5
f) 5x – 40x g) x7 + x 81x3 h) x5y10z + 4xy2 z
3 3 4 4 5 5
= 5x – 8•5x = x4•x3 +x 81•x3 = xy2 z + 4xy2 z
3 3 4 4 5
= 5x – 2 5x = x x3 + 3x x3 = 5xy2 z
3 4
= – 5x = 4x x3
i) ( 7 – 2)( 7 + 3) j) ( 6 – 2 5 )( 6 + 5 )

= ( 7 )2 + 3 7 – 2 7 – 6 = 6 + 30 – 2 30 – 2•5

= 7+ 7 –6 = 6 – 30 – 10

= 1+ 7 = –4 – 30

k) ( 2 + 5)( 2 – 5) l) ( 3 + 2 )2

= ( 2 )2 – (5)2 = 3+2 3 2 +2
= 2 – 25 = 3+2 6 +2
= –23 = 5+2 6

m) (3 + 2 )2 n) ( 6 + 2 )2

= 32 + 2•3 2 + 2 = ( 6 )2 + 2 6 2 + ( 2 )2
= 9+6 2 +2 = 6 + 2 12 + 2

= 11 + 6 2 = 6 + 2•2 3 + 2

= 8+4 3
 2 31
o) 4–3 2 p) 6+ 5

2(4 + 3 2) 31(6 – 5)
= (4 – 3 2)(4 + 3 2) = (6 + 5)(6 – 5)

2(4 + 3 2) 31(6 – 5)
= 16 – 9•2 = 36 – 5

2(4 + 3 2) 31(6 – 5)
= 16 – 18 = 31

2(4 + 3 2) = 6– 5
= –2

= –(4 + 3 2 )

1 2+ 5
q) 2 7 – 3 2 r) 3– 5

1(2 7 + 3 2) (2 + 5)(3 + 5)
= (2 7 – 3 2)(2 7 + 3 2) = (3 – 5)(3 + 5)

2 7+3 2 6+5 5+5

= 4•7 – 9•2 = 9–5

2 7+3 2 11 + 5 5
= 28 – 18 = 4

2 7+3 2
= 10
 4 2 x–5
s) 2 2+3 t) x– 5

4 2(2 2 – 3) (x – 5)( x + 5)
= = ( x – 5)( x + 5)
(2 2 + 3)(2 2 – 3)

8•2 – 12 2 (x – 5)( x + 5)
= 4•2 – 9 = x–5

16 – 12 2 = x + 5
= 8–9

16 – 12 2
= –1

= –16 + 12 2
 Graphing Equations

Caution: We use parentheses to represent both an ordered pair

and an open interval. The context of the discussion should clarify whether
points in the plane or intervals is needed. You must know the difference
between the two concepts!
y
5.00

-5.00 5.00 x

-5.00
!x= 1.00
!y= 1.00
Notice that:

1. Every pair of real number corresponds to a unique point in the

plane and every point in the plane corresponds to a unique pair of
real numbers.

2. The plane is divided into four regions called quadrants.

y
5.00

-5.00 5.00 x

-5.00
!x= 1.00
!y= 1.00
 Graphing Linear Equations In Two Variables
1. Calculate any three points that satisfy the equation.

2. Plot these points in the graph.

3. If a straight line passes through these points, draw the line. If not,
go back to step 1.

Example: Graph the lines

a) x + y = 2 b) 2x – 3y = 6
c) y = 4 d) x = –3
y
5.00

-5.00 5.00 x

-5.00
!x= 1.00
!y= 1.00
Example: Graph the following (nonlinear) equations:

a) y = x2 b) y = x2 – 4
y y
5.00 5.00

-5.00 5.00 x -5.00 5.00 x

-5.00 -5.00
!x= 1.00 !x= 1.00
!y= 1.00 !y= 1.00

c) y = | x | d) y = | x | + 1
y y
5.00 5.00

-5.00 5.00 x -5.00 5.00 x

-5.00 -5.00
!x= 1.00 !x= 1.00
!y= 1.00 !y= 1.00
 Introduction to Functions

A relation is a correspondence between two sets that assigns to

each element of the first set an element of the second set.
For us, we will consider a relation to be a set of ordered
pairs.

The domain, D, of a relation is the set of all first components in

the relation.

The range, R, of a relation is the set of all second components in

the relation.

Example: Find the domain and range for each of the following relations.

1. r = {(2, 3), (4, –3), (–1, 1), (4, 0), (–3, 9)}

Solution: D = {–3, –1, 2, 4} (all of the x–coordinates)

R = {–3, 0, 1, 3, 9} (all of the y–coordinates)

2. r = {(1, 2), (3, 1), (2, –2), (–5, 1)}

Solution: D = {–5, 1, 2, 3} (all of the x–coordinates)

R = {–2, 1, 2} (all of the y–coordinates)
 A function is a relation in which each domain element has only
one corresponding range element.

Example: Determine whether or not each of the following relations is a

function.

1. r = {(2, 3), (4, –3), (–1, 1), (4, 0), (–3, 9)}

2. r = {(1, 2), (3, 1), (2, –2), (–5, 1)}

3. r = {(2, 3), (1, 6), (2, 5), (0, –1)}

4. r = {(–1, 1), (1, 5), (0, 3)}

Example: Determine whether or not each of the following relations is a

function.

1. y = 2x + 1

2. x = y2

x
3. y = x + 3
 A function is a relation in which each domain element has only
one corresponding range element.

It then follows that a function is a relation in which no two ordered pairs

have the same first element. Graphically, this means that if two or more
points in a relation have a common vertical line passing through them,
then the relation is not a function.

Vertical Line Test: If any vertical line intersects a graph of a

relation in more than one point, then the relation is not a function.

Example: Which of the following graphs is the graph of a function?

y y
5.00 5.00

-5.00 5.00 x -5.00 5.00 x

a) b)

-5.00 -5.00
!x= 1.00 !x= 1.00
!y= 1.00 !y= 1.00

y y
5.00 5.00

-5.00 5.00 x -5.00 5.00 x

c) d)

-5.00 -5.00
!x= 1.00 !x= 1.00
!y= 1.00 !y= 1.00
 Function Notation
Sometimes we describe functions in terms of a formula. To do this,
we need three things:

1) The name of the function f

2) The “dummy” or “place holder” variable x

3) The formula that describes the function 2x + 1

For example, we could have the function defined by f(x) = 2x + 1. Then

we can calculate other values as follows.

f(x) = 2x + 1
f(3) = 2(3) + 1 = 7
f(–7) = 2(–7) + 1 = –13

Please don’t confuse the notation f(x) with multiplication!

1
Example: Let f(x) = x2 – 2x and g(x) = x . Calculate the following:

a) f(4) b) g(6)

c) f(–3) d) g(0.25)

e) f(2) f) g(0)
 Slopes
The slope m of the line passes through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given
y2 – y1
by m = x – x .
2 1

Example: Find the slope of the line passing though the given points:

a) (–1, 2) and (3, 5) b) (0, 1) and (2, 6)

5–2 6–1
m = 3 – (–1) m = 2–0
3 5
= 4 = 2

c) (5, 1) and (1, 3) d) (2, –3) and (–1, –9)

3–1 –9 – (–3)
m = 1–5 m = –1 – 2
2 –6
= –4 = –3
1 = 2
= –2

e) (1, 3) and (4, 6) f) (3, 6) and (1, 6) g) (–3, 2) and (–3, 5)

6–3 6–6 5–2

m = 4–1 m = 1–3 m = –3 – (–3)
3 0 3
= 3 = –2 = 0
= 1 = 0 slope undefined
 Various Linear Equations

Standard Form
An equation that can be written in the form

Ax + By = C, (A, B not both zero)

is a linear equation in the variables x and y. This form is called the standard form.

Intercepts: The x–intercept is the point (if any) where the line crosses the x–
axis; and the y–intercept is the point (if any) where the line crosses the y–axis.

To find the x–intercept, let y = 0 and solve the equation for x.

To find the y–intercept, let x = 0 and solve the equation for y.

Point–Slope Form
The equation of the line passing through the point (x1, y1) with slope m is
given by

y – y1 = m(x – x1),

and we call this the point–slope form of the equation of the line. Since we need
point information and slope information, this is the form used most often to find the
equation.
 Slope–Intercept Form
The equation of the line with slope m and y–intercept b is given by

y = mx + b,

and we call this the slope–intercept form of the equation of the line.
Given the equation of a line, if we can write the equation of the line into
this form (by solving for y), we can determine the slope and the y–
intercept of the line.

Horizontal Line Form

The equation of the horizontal line that passes through the point (a, b)
is given by

y = b.

Vertical Line Form

The equation of the vertical line that passes through the point (a, b) is
given by

x = a.
Examples: Find the slope and the y–intercept of each of the following
lines:

a) –2x + 3y = 6 b) y = –3x + 2

3y = 2x + 6 slope –3
2 y–intercept 2
y=3 x+2

slope 2/3
y–intercept 2

c) 5x – 4y = 20 d) 3y + 6 = 0

–4y = –5x + 20 3y = –6
5 y = –2
y=4 x–5
slope 0
slope 5/4 y–intercept –2
y–intercept –5

e) y = 6 f) x = 3

slope 0 slope undefined

y–intercept 6 no y–intercept
 Finding Equations Of Lines
To find the equation of any line, you always need two types of information:
slope information and point information.

Point information includes:

any point the line passes through
y–intercept of the line
x–intercept of the line

Slope information includes:

slope of line
two points the line passes through
knowing line is horizontal or vertical
any parallel or perpendicular line

The basic equations of the line we use are listed:

1. Point–Slope y – y1 = m(x – x1)

2. Slope–Intercept y = mx + b

3. Horizontal line y=b

4. Vertical line x=a

Helpful information to remember:

y2 – y1
a. The slope of the line passing through two points is m = x – x .
2 1
b. Slopes of parallel lines are equal.
c. Slopes of perpendicular lines are negative reciprocals.
Examples: Find the equation of the line: (Put answers in slope–intercept form if
possible)

a) through (2, 3) with slope –1/2

b) through (–4, –1) with slope 2
1
y – (3) = – 2 (x – 2) y – (–1) = 2(x – (–4))
1 y + 1 = 2(x + 4)
y–3=–2 x+1 y + 1 = 2x + 8

1 y = 2x + 7
y=–2 x+4

c) through (–1, 2) and (4, –2) d) through (6, –2) and (2, 0)

–2 – 2 0 – (–2)
m = 4 – (–1) m = 2–6
4 1
= –5 = –2

4 1
y – 2 = – 5 (x – (–1)) y – 0 = – 2 (x – 2)
4
y – 2 = – 5 (x + 1) 1
4 4 y=–2 x+1
y–2=–5 x–5

4 6
y=–5x+5

e) through (2, 3) and horizontal f) through (–2, 6) and vertical

y=3 x = –2
g) with slope 3 and y–intercept 5 h) with slope 2 and x–intercept 7

y = 3x + 5 y – 0 = 2(x – 7)

y = 2x – 14

i) through (2, 3) parallel to j) through (0, 0) perpendicular to

5x + 3y = 1 2x + y = 1

find slope: 5x + 3y = 1 find slope: 2x + y = 1

y = –5/3 x + 1/3 y = –2x + 1

m = –5/3 1
m= 2
5
y – 3 = – 3 (x – 2) 1
5 10 y – 0 = 2 (x – 0)
y–3=–3 x+ 3
1
5 19 y= 2 x
y=–3 x+ 3

k) through (–1, –2) parallel to l) through (3, 0) perpendicular to

x+y=6 x + 2y = 3

find slope: x + y = 6 find slope: x + 2y = 3

y = –x + 6 y = –1/2 x + 3/2

m = –1 m=2

y – (–2) = –1(x – (–1)) y – 0 = 2(x – 3)

y + 2 = –1(x + 1)
y + 2 = –x – 1 y = 2x – 6
y = –x – 3