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Rectifiers, Clippers and Clampers

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Chapter 8: Rectifiers, Clippers and Clampers

8.1 Diode in Rectifier Circuits

Semiconductor diodes are active devices which are extremely important for various electrical and electronic
circuits. Diodes are active non-linear circuit elements with non-linear voltage-current characteristics. Diodes are
used in a wide variety of applications in communication systems (limiters, gates, clippers, mixers), computers
(clamps, clippers, logic gates), radar circuits (phase detectors, gain-control circuits, power detectors, parameter
amplifiers), radios (mixers, automatic gain control circuits, message detectors), and television (clamps, limiters,
phase detectors). The ability of diodes to allow the flow of current in only one direction is commonly exploited in
these applications. Rectifiers are mainly used in power supplies where an AC signal is to be converted to DC. The
DC voltage is obtained by passing the rectifier’s output through a filter to remove the ripple (ac components).
There are many possible ways to construct rectifier circuits using diodes. They are:

(a) The Half Wave Rectifier

(b) Full Wave Rectifier
o Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
o Bridge Rectifier

# Half-Wave Rectifier
The easiest rectifier to understand is the half wave rectifier. A simple half-wave rectifier using an ideal diode
and a load is shown in Figure 4.

Circuit Operation
Let’s look at the operation of this single diode rectifier when connected across an alternating voltage source vs.
Since the diode only conducts when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, current will flow only during
the positive half cycle of the input voltage.

Figure 4: Simple half-wave rectifier circuit Figure 5: Source and output voltages

The supply voltage is given by: 𝜗𝑠 = 𝜗𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡,

1
Where: 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋( ) is the angular frequency in rad/sec. We are interested in obtaining DC voltage across
𝑇
the “load resistance” RL.

During the positive half cycle of the source, the ideal diode is forward biased and operates as a closed switch. The
source voltage is directly connected across the load. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased
and acts as an open switch. The source voltage is disconnected from the load. As no current flows through the
load, the load voltage ‘vo’ is zero. Both the load voltage and current are of one polarity and hence said to be
rectified. The waveforms for source voltage ‘vS’ and output voltage ‘vo’ are shown in figure 5.

We notice that the output voltage varies between the peak voltage Vm and zero in each cycle. This variation is
called “ripple”, and the corresponding voltage is called the peak-to-peak ripple voltage, Vp-p.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
1. Average Value

1 2π 1 2π 1 π 2π
(a) Idc = ∫ i dθ
= ∫0 Im sinθ dθ = {∫0 Im sinθ dθ + ∫π 0 dθ}
2π 0 2π 2π
Im π Im Im
= (−cosθ)| = (1 + 1) =
2π 0 2π π

(b) 𝜗𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿

2. Root Mean Square Value

1 2π 2 1 2π 1 π
(a) Irms = √( ∫ i
2π 0
dθ) = √( ∫ Im 2 sin2 θ dθ)
2π 0
=√
2π
(∫0 Im 2 sin2 θ dθ)

I 2 𝜋 1−cos2θ Im 𝜋 Im 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝜋
= √ m ∫0 ( ) dθ = √{∫0 (1 − cos2θ)}𝑑𝜃 = √𝜃 | − |
2π 2 2√π 2√π 0 2 0
Im Im
= √𝜋 − 0 =
2√π 2

(b) 𝜗𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝐿

3. Peak Inverse Voltage

The maximum amount of reverse bias that a diode will be exposed to is called the peak inverse voltage or PIV.
For the half wave rectifier, the value of PIV is: 𝑉𝑚

The reasoning for the above equation is that when the diode is reverse biased, there is no voltage across the load.
Therefore, all of the secondary voltage (Vm) appears across the diode. The PIV is important because it determines
the minimum allowable value of reverse voltage for any diode used in the circuit.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
4. Regulation
The variation of DC output voltage as a function of DC load current is called regulation.
𝜗𝑁𝑜−𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝜗𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
% − 𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100%
𝜗𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜗𝑚
For Half-Wave (H/W) Rectifier: 𝜗𝑑𝑐 = − 𝑟𝑓 𝐼𝑑𝑐
𝜋

5. Ripple Factor
It gives a measure of fluctuating ac-component in rectified output and is given by:

RMS Value of AC Component (𝐼𝑎𝑐 )𝑟𝑚𝑠

Ripple Factor (γ) = =
Average Value of Wave 𝐼𝑑𝑐

But, 𝐼𝑎𝑐 = 𝑖 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐 (where, i is the ac current signal mixed with dc component), then

1 2π 1 2π 2 2 )
(Iac )𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √( ∫ (𝑖 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐 )2 dθ) = √( ∫ (𝑖 − 2. 𝑖. 𝐼𝑑𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑𝑐 dθ)
2π 0 2π 0

1 2π 2 1 2𝜋
1 2 2𝜋 1 2
=√ ∫ 𝑖 dθ − 2. . 𝐼𝑑𝑐 ∫ 𝑖 dθ + . 𝐼𝑑𝑐 ∫ dθ = √(𝐼𝑟𝑛𝑠 2 − 2. 𝐼𝑑𝑐 . 𝐼𝑑𝑐 + . 𝐼𝑑𝑐 . 2𝜋)
2π 0 2π 0 2π 0 2π

⸫ (Iac )𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √(𝐼𝑟𝑛𝑠 2 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐

2
)

√(𝐼𝑟𝑛𝑠 2 −𝐼𝑑𝑐
2 )
(𝐼𝑟𝑛𝑠 2 −𝐼𝑑𝑐
2 )
𝐼 2
Now, the ripple factor is calculated as: (γ) = =√ 2 = √( 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) − 1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐

2
𝐼 /√2 1
For Half Wave Rectifier: (γ) = √( 𝑚 ) − 1 = √(𝜋 2 − 1) = 1.21
𝐼𝑚/𝜋 2

6. Efficiency
𝑑𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑑𝑐 2 𝑅𝐿 (𝐼𝑚 /𝜋)2 𝑅𝐿 0.406
Rectifier Efficiency: (𝜂) = =𝐼 2 = (𝐼 2 = 1+𝑟
𝑎𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑅𝐿 +𝑟𝑓 ) 𝑚 /2) (𝑅𝐿 +𝑟𝑓 ) 𝑓 /𝑅𝐿

For 𝑟𝑓 = 0; 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 40.6%

# The Center Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

It consists of two diodes and a resister as shown in Figure 12. The transformer has a center-tapped secondary
winding. This secondary winding has a lead attached to the center of the winding. The voltage from the center tap
to either end terminal on this winding is equal to one half of the total voltage measured end-to-end.

Circuit Operation
Figure 12 shows the operation during the positive half cycle of the full wave rectifier. Note that diode D1 is
forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. Note the direction of the current through the load.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
 Figure 12: Full-wave rectifier- Circuit operation during positive half cycle

During the negative half cycle, (figure 13) the polarity reverses. Diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is
reverse biased. Note that the direction of current through the load has not changed even though the secondary
voltage has changed polarity. Thus another positive half cycle is produced across the load.

Figure 13: Full-wave rectifier – circuit operation during negative half cycle

Figure 14: Average DC voltage for full wave rectifier

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
1. Average Value

1 2π 2 π 1 π
(a) Idc = ∫ i dθ = 2π ∫0 Im sinθ dθ = ∫0 Im sinθ dθ
2π 0 π
Im π Im 2.Im
= (−cosθ)| = (1 + 1) =
π 0 π π

2.Im
(b) 𝜗𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = . 𝑅𝐿
π

2. Root Mean Square Value

1 2π 2 2 π 1 π
(c) Irms = √( ∫ i
2π 0
dθ) = √( ∫ I 2 sin2 θ dθ)
2π 0 m
= √ (∫0 Im 2 sin2 θ dθ)
π

I 2 𝜋 1−cos2θ Im 𝜋 Im 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝜋
= √ m ∫0 ( ) dθ = √{∫0 (1 − cos2θ)}𝑑𝜃 = √𝜃 | − |
π 2 √2π √2π 0 2 0
Im m I
= √𝜋 − 0 = √2
√2π

Im
(d) 𝜗𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝐿 = . 𝑅𝐿
√2

Though the ripple is still very large, the percentage ripple has come down from 314% (for the half-wave rectifier
in example 1) to 157%. This ripple can be reduced by adding a capacitor in the circuit, as we will see in the
next section.

3. Peak Inverse Voltage

When one of the diodes in a full-wave rectifier is reverse biased, the peak voltage across that diode will be
approximately equal to Vm. This point is illustrated in figure 13. With the polarities shown, D1 is conducting and
D2 is reverse biased. Thus the cathode of D1 will be at Vm. Since this point is connected directly to the cathode of
D2, its cathode will also be Vm. With –Vm applied to the anode of D2, the total voltage across the diode D2 is 2Vm.
Therefore, the maximum reverse voltage across either diode will be twice the peak load voltage.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
4. Regulation
The variation of DC output voltage as a function of DC load current is called regulation.
𝜗𝑁𝑜−𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝜗𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
% − 𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100%
𝜗𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
2𝜗𝑚
For Half-Wave (H/W) Rectifier: 𝜗𝑑𝑐 = − 𝑟𝑓 𝐼𝑑𝑐
𝜋

5. Ripple Factor
2 2
𝐼 𝐼𝑚/√2 1
The ripple factor is: (γ) = √( 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) − 1 = √( ) −1= √(𝜋 2 − 8) = 0.482
𝐼𝑑𝑐 2.𝐼𝑚/𝜋 2√2

6. Efficiency
𝑑𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑑𝑐 2 𝑅𝐿 (2.𝐼𝑚 /𝜋)2 𝑅𝐿 0.812
Rectifier Efficiency: (𝜂) = =𝐼 2 = 2 = 1+𝑟
𝑎𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑅𝐿 +𝑟𝑓 ) (𝐼𝑚 /√2) (𝑅𝐿 +𝑟𝑓 ) 𝑓 /𝑅𝐿

For rf = 0; 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 81.2%

# The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

In many power supply circuits, the bridge rectifier (Figure 17) is used. The bridge rectifier produces almost double
the output voltage as a full wave center-tapped transformer rectifier using the same secondary voltage. The
advantage of using this circuit is that no center-tapped transformer is required.

Basic Circuit Operation

During the positive half cycle (Figure 17) , both D3 and D1 are forward biased. At the same time, both D2 and
D4 are reverse biased. Note the direction of current flow through the load.

+ Vm
Figure 17: Operation during positive half cycle

During the negative half cycle (Figure 18) D2 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Again
note that current through the load is in the same direction although the secondary winding polarity has reversed.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
 Figure 18: Operation during negative half cycle

Calculation

1. Average Value (Idc) = 2Im/

2. Average Voltage (Vdc) = (2Im/).RL
3. RMS Current (Irms) = Im/2
4. RMS Voltage (Vrms) = (Im/2).RL
5. Ripple Factor (γ) = 0.482
6. Efficiency (η) = 81.2%
7. Regulation (Vdc) = 2Vm/ - Idc.Rf
8. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) = Vm
In order to understand the Peak Inverse Voltage across each diode, look at figure 19 below. It is a simplified
version of figure 17 showing the circuit conditions during the positive half cycle. The load and ground connections
are removed because we are concerned with the diode conditions only. In this circuit, diodes D1 and D3 are
forward biased and act like closed switches. They can be replaced with wires. Diodes D2 and D4 are reverse
biased and act like open switches.

Comparison Table
Full Wave Rectifier
Properties Half Wave Rectifier
Center Tap Bridge
No. of Diodes 1 2 4
Center Tap Necessity No Yes No
Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
Ripple Factor 1.21 0.482 0.482
Peak Inverse Voltage Vm 2Vm Vm
Output Frequency fi 2fi 2fi
RMS Current Im/2 Im/2 Im/2
Average Current Im/ 2Im/ 2Im/

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
# Half-wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter
The capacitor is the most basic filter type and is the most commonly used. The half-wave rectifier for power
supply application is shown below. A capacitor filter is connected in parallel with the load. The rectifier circuit
is supplied from a transformer.

Circuit Operation
The operation of this circuit during positive half cycle of the source voltage is shown in figure 8. During the
positive half cycle, diode D1 will conduct, and the capacitor charges rapidly. As the input starts to go negative,
D1 turns off, and the capacitor will slowly discharge through the load (figure 9). Using the previous half wave
rectifier as an example, figure 10 examines what is happening with our filter.

Figure 8: During Positive Half Cycle Figure 9: During Negative Half Cycle

(a) Unfiltered output from the half wave

rectifier.

(b) When the next pulse does arrive, it

charges the capacitor back to full
charge as shown on the right. The
thick line shows the charge –
discharge waveform at the capacitor.

(c) The load sees a reasonably constant

DC voltage now, with a ripple
voltage on top of it.
Figure 10

The operation can be analyzed in detail using figure 11.

Figure 11: Output voltage waveform of half-wave rectifier with capacitor filter

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
During each positive half cycle, the capacitor charges during the interval t1 to t2. During this interval, the diode
will be forward biased. Due to this charging, the voltage across the capacitor vo will be equal to the AC peak
voltage Vm on the secondary side of the transformer at t2 (assuming diode forward voltage drop is zero).

The capacitor will supply current to load resistor RL during time interval t2 to t3. During this interval, diode will
be reverse biased since the AC voltage is less than the output voltage vo. Due to the large energy stored in the
capacitor, the capacitor voltage will not reduce much during t2 to t3, and the voltage vo will remain close to the
peak value. As can be seen, addition of the capacitor results in much better quality output voltage.

# Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

Similar to the half-wave rectifier, smoothing is performed by a large value capacitor connected across the load
resistance to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier
is falling. The diagram below shows the unsmoothed varying DC (thin line) and the smoothed DC (thick line).
The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the
output.

Figure 16: Load voltage waveform for the full-wave rectifier with filter capacitor
Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value. However, smoothing
is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many
circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value
for the smoothing capacitor. In the full-wave circuit, the capacitor discharges for only a half-cycle before being
recharged. Hence the capacitance required is only half as much in the full-wave circuit as for the half-wave circuit.

# Diode Rectifier for Power Supply

The purpose of a power supply is to take electrical energy in one form and convert it into another. Most power
supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic
circuits and other devices such as computers, fax machines and telecommunication equipment. A power supply
can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. A transformer first steps
down high voltage AC to low voltage AC. A rectifier circuit is then used to convert AC to DC. This DC, however,
contains ripples, which can be smoothened by a filter circuit. Power supplies can be ‘regulated’ or ‘unregulated’.
A regulated power supply maintains a constant DC output voltage through ‘feedback action’. The output voltage
of an unregulated supply, on the other hand, will not remain constant. It will vary depending on varying operating
conditions, for example when the magnitude of input AC voltage changes.

Figure 7: Block diagram of a regulated power supply

Power supplies are designed to produce as little ripple voltage as possible, as the ripple can cause several
problems. For Example: in audio amplifiers, too much ripple shows up as an annoying 50 Hz or 100 Hz audible
hum. In video circuits, excessive ripple shows up as “hum” bars in the picture. In digital circuits it can cause
erroneous outputs from logic circuits.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
8.2 Filters
The filter circuit is necessary for smoothing of the voltage obtained by the rectifier. The obtained DC voltage
contains AC components. These AC components are called ripples. The filter circuit is needed to remove the
ripples from DC output voltage so that the output voltage across the load will be regulated.

Significance of Filter Circuit

Filter circuit is connected between the load and output of rectifier circuit. If this filter circuit is not connected
between the rectifier and load, the performance of the system will be poor because the output voltage will consist
of AC ripples. If the pulsating DC is used for charging of a battery, it will create issues because here the need is
to simply charge a battery. On the contrary, if this pulsating DC is used for radio or tape recorder it will create a
problem. Thus, it is crucial to use smooth and steady DC output voltage for such applications. And in order to
smooth the pulsating signal, we need a filter circuit.

Components involved in filter Circuit

A filter circuit comprises of generally inductor and capacitor. The inductor allows DC only to pass through it and
capacitor allows AC only to pass through it. Thus, a circuit formed by the combination of inductors and capacitors
can effectively filter the signal according to the application.

# Series Induction Filter

In series inductor filter the inductor is connected in series with the rectifier output and the load resistor. Thus, it
is called series inductor filter. The property of an inductor to block AC and provides zero resistance to DC is used
in filtering circuit. When the value of DC output from the rectifier is more than the average value then the rectifier
store the excess current in the form of magnetic energy.

Figure: Series Inductor Filter

When the value of DC from the rectifier is less than the average value then the inductor release the stored magnetic
energy in order to balance the effect of the low value of DC. In this way series inductor filter maintains the
regulated DC supply. Moreover, inductor blocks the AC ripples present in the output voltage of rectifier; thus,
smooth DC signal can be obtained.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
Mathematical Expression of Output DC Voltage and Ripple Factor
Let the voltage across load resistor RL be VL. Thus, the value of VL is given by the below equation.

Where Vdc is the DC output voltage output of full wave rectifier, and Rc is the resistance of inductor coil. The
value of resistance of inductor coil is much less than the value of resistance of load resistor. Expanding the term
of VL with the help of Fourier series we get the below equation.

The value of resistance of inductor coil or more precisely the value of reactance of inductor coil is much less than
the resistance of load resistor RL. Thus, the entire DC voltage will appear across the load resistor and the value
of DC voltage across RL will be equal to VLmax.

The reactance of inductor coil or choke coil increases with the increase of frequency thus at higher frequencies
the voltage will be negligible. Thus, the AC voltage is considered significant up to second harmonics only
i.e. VLmax.

Since, XL = 2L, because frequency is double in full wave rectifier as compared to half wave rectifier.

When the value of load resistance is infinite, then the output circuit will behave as an open circuit, in this case,
ripple factor can be given by the below equation.

The waveform of series inductor filter is given in the below diagram. It can be seen that waveforms without filter
consist of AC ripples while the waveform with filter is regulated.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
# Shunt Capacitor Filter
The Shunt capacitor filters comprise of capacitor along with the load resistor. In this, the capacitor is connected
in parallel with respect to the output of rectifier circuit and also in parallel with the load resistor. During
conduction, the capacitor starts charging and stores energy in the form of the electrostatic field. The capacitor will
charge to its peak value because the charging time constant is almost zero.

Figure: Shunt Capacitor Filter

During non-conduction, the capacitor will discharge through the load resistor. Thus, in this way, the capacitor will
maintain constant output voltage and provide the regulated output. The shunt capacitor filters use the property of
capacitor which blocks DC and provides low resistance to AC. Thus, AC ripples can bypass through the capacitor.

If the value of capacitance of the capacitor is high, then it will offer very low impedance to AC and extremely
high impedance to DC. Thus, the AC ripples in the DC output voltage gets bypassed through parallel capacitor
circuit, and DC voltage is obtained across the load resistor.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
Mathematical Expression of Ripple Factor

Let Vr be the ripple component of voltage, and Vdc is the DC value of Voltage and voltage across the load resistor
RL be VL max.

Let the charging duration be T1, and discharging duration be T2. Then, total charge lost during non-conduction
or discharge will be given as:-

The value of charge Q = CVr

.
# Choke Filter (L-Section Filter)
Choke filter consists of an inductor connected in series with rectifier output circuit and a capacitor connected in
parallel with the load resistor. It is also called L-section filter because the inductor and capacitor are connected
in the shape of inverted L. The output pulsating DC voltage from a rectifier circuit passes through the inductor or
choke coil.

The inductor has low DC resistance and extremely high AC reactance. Thus, ripples get filtered through choke
coil. Some of the residual ripples if present in filtered signal from inductor coil will get bypassed through the
capacitor. The reason behind this is that capacitor allow AC and block DC.

Significance of Choke Filter

Choke filter came into existence due to shortcomings of the series inductor and shunt capacitor filter. A series
inductor filter filters the output current but reduces the output current (RMS value and Peak value) up to a large
extent. And the shunt capacitor filter performs filtering efficiently but increases the diode current. The excess of
current in a diode may lead to its destruction.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
Moreover, the ripple factor of series inductor filter is directly proportional to the load resistance it means as the
load resistance increases, ripple factor also starts increasing. And in the case of shunt capacitor, the ripple factor
is inversely proportional to the value of load resistance. It implies that in shunt capacitor filter the ripple factor
decreases with increase in load resistance and increases with the decrease in load resistance.

Thus, for better performance, we need a filter circuit in which ripple factor is low and do not vary with the variation
in load resistance. This can be achieved by using the combination of series inductor filter and shunt capacitor
filter. The voltage stabilization property of shunt capacitor filter and current smoothing property of series inductor
filter is utilized for the formation of choke filter or L-section filter. The combination of series inductor filter and
shunt capacitor filter is generally used for most of the applications. The combination results in two types, i.e. L-
section filter and Pi filter. In this article, we will discuss the working of L-section or choke filter and in next article,
we will discuss Pi filter in detail.

Working of Choke Filter (L-Section Filter)

When the pulsating DC signal from the output of the rectifier circuit is feed into choke filter, the AC ripples
present in the output DC voltage gets filtered by choke coil. The inductor has the property to block AC and pass
DC. This is because DC resistance of an inductor is low and AC impedance of inductor coil is high. Thus, the AC
ripples get blocked by inductor coil.

Although the inductor efficiently removes AC ripples, a small percentage of AC ripples is still present in the
filtered signal. These ripples are then removed by the capacitor connected in parallel to the load resistor. Now, the
DC output signal is free from AC components, and this regulated DC can be used in any application. If the inductor
of high inductive reactance (XL), greater than the capacitive reactance at ripple frequency is used than filtering
efficiency gets improved.

Characteristics of Choke Filter (L-Section Filter)

1. Regulation: The variation of DC output voltage from rectifier with respect to the DC flowing through load
resistor of the rectifier circuit is termed as regulation.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
 2. Ripple factor: This is one of the significant characteristics of the filter. A filter is considered efficient if it
can remove ripples effectively. The ripple factor is the ratio of the AC present in the output signal and the
DC. More the ripple factor poor will be the performance of the device.

The most effective way to minimize the ripple factor is to increase the value of inductive reactance. The
combined reactance of load resistor and capacitor can be minimized up to a large extent by using the
capacitor of low reactance so that the complete AC signal get bypassed through the capacitor and regulated
DC voltage can be obtained across the load resistor. In these conditions, the net impedance will be due to
inductor coil and that will be approximately 2ωL i.e. XL= 2ωL.

3. Critical Inductance: The value of inductance can be increased up to a limit and this value of inductance
is called critical inductance.

Advantages:
- It provides better voltage regulation.
- The ripple factor can be varied according to the need.

4. Disadvantages:
- Bulky Size: These kinds of filters were popular in ancient time but it has become obsolete now due to bulky
size of inductors and capacitors.
- Not suitable for low voltage power Supplies: These are not suitable for low voltage power supplies. IC
regulators or active filters are used in such devices.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
# Pi Filter (Capacitor Input Filter)
Pi filter consists of a shunt capacitor at the input side, and it is followed by an L-section filter. The output from
the rectifier is directly given across capacitor. The pulsating DC output voltage is filtered first by the capacitor
connected at the input side and then by choke coil and then by another shunt capacitor. The construction
arrangement of all the components resembles the shape of Greek letter Pi (π). Thus it is called Pi filter. Besides,
the capacitor is present at the input side. Thus, it is also called capacitor input filter.

Significance of Capacitor input filter or Pi filter (π- filter):

The ultimate aim of a filter is to achieve ripple free DC voltage. The filters we have discussed in our previous
articles are also efficient in removing AC ripples from the output voltage of rectifier, but Pi filter is more efficient
in removing ripples as it consists of one more capacitor at the input side.

Figure: Capacitor Input Filter (Pi Filter)

Working of Pi Filter
The output voltage coming from rectifier also consist of AC components. Thus it is a crucial need to remove these
AC ripples to improve the performance of the device. The output from the rectifier is directly applied to the input
capacitor. The capacitor provides a low impedance to AC ripples present in the output voltage and high resistance
to DC voltage. Therefore, most of the AC ripples get bypassed through the capacitor in input stage only. The
residual AC components which are still present in filtered DC signal gets filtered when they pass through the
inductor coil and through the capacitor connected parallel across the load. In this way, the efficiency of filtering
increases multiple times. In the case of L-section filter, one inductor and capacitor were present so if some AC
ripples say 1% is left after filtering that can be removed in Pi-filter. Thus, Pi filter is considered more efficient.

Characteristics of Pi Filter
The Pi filter has the characteristics to generate a high output voltage at low current drains. In pi-filters, the major
filtering action is accomplished by the capacitor at input C1. The residual AC ripples are filtered by inductor coil
L and capacitor C2.

The high voltage is obtained at the output of Pi filter, the reason behind this high voltage output is that the entire
input voltage appears across the input capacitor C1. The voltage drop across choke coil and capacitor C2 is quite
small.
Thus, this is the advantage of Pi capacitor that it provides high voltage gain. But in addition to this high output
voltage, the voltage regulation of Pi filter is very poor. This is because the output voltage drops rapidly with the

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
increase in current flowing through the load. Apart from the above-mentioned disadvantage, its most crucial
advantage is low ripple factor.

Advantages
- High Output Voltage: If you are dealing with the application which requires high output voltage after filtering,
then this is the filter you should use. Pi filter’s significance is that it offers low voltage drop across choke coil
and capacitor C2 in order to main high output voltage across its output terminals.

- Low Ripple factor: Due to the involvement of 2 capacitors in addition with one inductor it provides improved
filtering action. This leads to decrement in ripple factor. A low ripple factor means the ratio of current due to
AC ripples and direct Current is low. Thus, a low ripples factor signifies regulated and ripple free DC voltage.

- High PIV: The peak inverse voltage in the case of Pi filters is more in comparison to L-section filter.

Disadvantages
- Poor Voltage Regulation: We have discussed above that the output voltage varies with the load current. Thus,
this capacitor is not suitable for varying loads. In an application where load current varies, pi filters are not
suitable. Thus, in such application, we can use L-section filters as its output voltage do not vary largely with
load current.

Applications
These are used in communication devices for retrieving the particular signal after modulation. In transmission,
the signal is modulated into multiples of high frequency. While on the receiver side, filters are used to demodulate
the particular range of frequency.

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
8.3 Diode Clipping and Clamping Circuits
As we know, diodes can be used as switches depending on the biasing type, reverse of forward. The clipping
circuit, also referred to as clipper, clips off some of the portions of the input signal and uses the clipped signal as
the output signal. The clamping circuit or clamper keeps the amplitude of the output signal same as that of the
input signal except that the D.C. level (offset) has been changed. The clamper through which the input waveform
shifts to positive direction is called positive clamper, otherwise, is called negative clamper.

Figure: Ideal Diode – Switch Terminology

# Clipper Circuits
There are two types of clipper circuits, the series and parallel diode clipping circuits.

Series Diode Clipping Circuit

In these type of circuits, the diode is connected between the input and output voltage terminals as shown below.

Figure (a) Figure (b)

As Figure (a) reveals, the negative cycle of the input voltage can be clipped of by this type of series clippers.
Reverse of the diode pins yields to a positive cycle clipping circuit as shown in Figure (b). Previous circuits clip
the values larger or smaller than zero voltage. This voltage, technically called “threshold voltage” and can be
changed to a desired value by inserting a D.C. voltage source. This is achieved in two different ways.

Figure (c) Figure (d)

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
In the first type, the voltage source of Em ( positive or negative) is connected through output terminals as in Figure
(c). Depending on the diode connection (normal or reverse), the values smaller (Figure (c)) or greater (Figure
(d)) than Em is clipped and assigned as Em. Note that if Em is negative, (where the voltage source is reversely
connected) again the values smaller or larger than this negative value is clipped, do not get confused.

In the second type (Figure (e) and Figure (f)) of threshold series clipping, the voltage source is applied between
the input and output terminals, series with the diode. This time, the clipped values are assigned to zero and the net
output voltage equals to the difference between the input and threshold values.(If E m is negative, then E0 = E – Em
= E + |Em|)

Figure (e) Figure (f)

Parallel Diode Clipping Circuit

In this type of clippers, the diode is connected between output terminals. The on/off state of diode directly
affects the output voltage. These type of clippers may also have a non-zero threshold voltage by addition of a
voltage series with diode. Following figures illustrate the clipping process.

Figure: (g) Figure: (h)

Figure: Zero Threshold Parallel Clippers

Figure: (i)

Figure: (j)
Figure: Thresholded Parallel Clippers

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
# Clamper Circuits
Clamper Circuits, or briefly clampers are used to change the D.C. level of a signal to a desired value (Figure (k)).

Figure (k): Clamping Methods

Being different from clippers, clamping circuits uses a capacitor and a diode connection. When diode is in its on
state, the output voltage equals to diode drop voltage (ideally zero) plus the voltage source, if any. Now let us
examine the clamping process for the circuit in Figure (l).

Figure (l): Typical Clamping Circuit

As we know, this circuit, in fact, is a series R-C circuit. The resistance of diode ( several ohms above its drop
voltage) and the small capacitance yield to a small time-constant for this circuit. This means that the capacitor
will rapidly be charged if any input voltage, that is enough to switch on the diode, is applied. The diode will
conduct during the positive cycle of the input signal (Fig. 2.10) and output voltage will be ideally zero ( in practice
this voltage equals ~0.6 V).

Figure (m): Diode conducts during positive cycle Figure (n): Diode is switched off during negative cycle

Note that during positive cycle the capacitor is rapidly charged in inverse polarity with the input voltage. After
transition to negative cycle, the diode becomes to its off state. In this case, the output voltage equals to the sum
of the input voltage and the voltage across the terminals of the capacitor which have the same polarity with each
other.(Figure (o)), E0 = - ( |Ei |+ |Ec | ). The resulting signal after a complete cycle is shown below.

Figure (o)

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS
 By this process, the input signal is shifted to negative D.C. value (its maximum value is ideally zero) without any
change in its amplitude ideally. There exist again modified versions of this circuit in which a threshold value is
inserted for clamping. Following figures illustrate these modifications and resulting outputs.

Figure (p)

Figure (q)

Figure (r)

Figure (s)

Prepared by: Er. Shree Krishna Khadka

Lecturer: AITM, KIST, NCIT, MAMTS

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