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Oscilloscope Applications Guide Book 3rd Ed. - B&K (2001) WW PDF
Oscilloscope Applications Guide Book 3rd Ed. - B&K (2001) WW PDF
APPLICATIONS
GUIDEBOOK
Third Edition © 2001 B+K Precision Corp.
Oscilloscopes are often described as the most versatile piece of test equipment that a Technician or
Engineer can use.
The instrument provides an actual graph of voltage versus time on the screen. This type of graph is one of the
most versatile "tools" for testing, analyzing, and troubleshooting electrical and electronic equipment because it
allows you to actually measure instantaneous voltage levels and time periods of electrical signals. Additionally,
oscilloscopes allow observation of amplitude changes (glitches), waveform distortion, and phase changes.
Transducers can also be used adapt the oscilloscope to measure such things as mechanical stress, heat, gas
pressure, fluid pressure, light, weight, or just about anything else that a transducer can convert to an electrical
signal.
Although applications for oscilloscopes are virtually unlimited, here are just a few of the more common uses:
• FIELD ENGINEERING.
• RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT.
• SECONDARY AND POST SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
• ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT REPAIRS SHOPS.
• CONSUMER PRODUCTS REPAIR SHOPS.
• GOVERNMENT REPAIR FACILITIES.
In order to use an oscilloscope to its best advantage, the Technician and Engineer should have a basic under-
standing of how an oscilloscope works as well as a good understanding of the oscilloscope’s controls, features,
and operating modes. This guidebook is useful to those with little knowledge of oscilloscopes as well as the expe-
rienced technician or engineer who wishes to refresh their memory or explore new uses for oscilloscopes.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
COMMON OSCILLOSCOPE TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
OSCILLOSCOPE SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
CONTROLS AND INDICATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Basic Analog Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Advanced Analog Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Basic Analog Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Advanced Analog Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
HOW OSCILLOSCOPE WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Basic Analog Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Advanced Analog Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
OSCILLOSCOPE PROBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Basic Oscilloscope Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Delayed Sweep Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
DSO Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
The NTSC Color Video Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
All rights reserved. No part of this guidebook shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without permission from B+K PRECISION. While extensive precautions have been taken in the preparation of this
guidebook to assure accuracy, B+K PRECISION assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages
resulting from the use of the information contained herein.
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
1
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
represented by another horizontal division on the beam moves across one division of the CRT VERTICAL SENSITIVITY — The signal
the display (e.g. the rightmost division). in 0.1mS. Faster sweep speeds are required to level required to cause a single division of verti-
view higher frequency signals. If the frequency cal deflection. For example, for a vertical attenu-
PHOSPHOR — A coating on the inside of of the input signal remains constant and the ator setting of 5 mV/div, a 5 mV peak signal will
the CRT that emits visible light when struck with sweep speed is increased, the number of cycles produce a single division of vertical deflection.
an electron beam. Oscilloscope CRTs usually (or portion of the waveform) that are displayed
use a P31-type phosphor, which is a short-per- on the CRT will decrease (effectively magnifying VERTICAL ATTENUATOR — The preci-
sistence type; that is, the emitted light quenches the display). sion input circuit that controls the level of the
soon after the electron beam ceases or moves. input signal so that the signal provides an
SWEEP MAGNIFIER — Sometimes amount of vertical deflection that can be easily
POST-TRIGGER DATA — Data which referred to as sweep expander. This feature measured on the CRT screen. Usually this cir-
occurred after the event that caused a DSO to allows a portion of a displayed waveform to be cuit consists of calibrated steps in a 1-2-5
trigger. magnified (typically x10) without shortening the sequence (10 mV/div, 20 mV/div, 50 mV/div,
sweep time setting. This is an advantage over etc.), which allow the oscilloscope to display sig-
PRE-TRIGGER DATA — Data which simply increasing the sweep speed because nals with levels from many volts to only a few
occurred before the event that caused a DSO to doing so can result in the desired portion of the millivolts.
trigger. Modern DSOs allow the user to view waveform disappearing off the screen.
such data. Additionally, this feature increases the maximum VIDEO SYNC — Sometimes referred to as
sweep speed by the magnification factor (i.e. if TV sync. This feature allows vertical (TV V) or
REAL TIME SAMPLING — Method of the fastest sweep time/div setting of an oscillo- horizontal (TV H) video sync pulses to be
sampling used on a DSO, wherein the samples scope is 0.5 mS/div and x10 magnification is selected for triggering. Vertical sync pulses are
are taken at regular intervals that are deter- selected, the sweep speed is increased to 0.05 selected to view vertical fields or frames of
mined by the sweep time setting. The sampling mS/div). video and horizontal sync pulses are selected
process proceeds independently of the input. for viewing horizontal lines of video.
The sampling rate must be at least twice the fre- TIME BASE — The calibrated sweep genera-
quency of the input for meaningful waveform tor circuit within the oscilloscope which allows X-AXIS — The horizontal axis, when oscillo-
acquisition to occur. See "Equivalent Time measurement of signal time period and frequen- scope is not in sweep mode.
Sampling". cy. The time base is calibrated in time/div. In
other words, if the time base is 10 mS/div, it X-Y DISPLAY — Mode of operation which
RISE TIME — The time required for a signal would take 100 mS for the electron beam to displays a graph of two voltages. The Y axis is
to rise from 10% to 90% of its maximum ampli- sweep across all 10 of the CRT’s horizontal divi- the vertical axis and the X-axis is the horizontal
tude. Faster rise times cause steeper leading sions. axis.
edges of pulses, usually a desirable trait. The
rise time specification for an oscilloscope refers TRIGGER — In an analog oscilloscope, the Y-AXIS — The vertical axis.
to the minimum time that it takes the CRT beam event or signal that causes the CRT beam to
to rise from the 10% mark on the CRT graticule begin its sweep across the display. In a DSO, Y-AXIS OUTPUT — A sample of the verti-
to the 90% mark on the graticule. Oscilloscope the event around which the storage process is cal axis signal which is available at a rear panel
rise time specifications are directly related to referenced. Some DSOs place the trigger in the output jack.
bandwidth. center of the storage memory, so that there are
equal amounts of pre- and post-trigger data Z-AXIS — Also referred to as intensity modu-
SAMPLING — The process of digitizing on a stored. In both analog and digital scopes, great lation. This feature allows an external signal to
DSO. Every time the scope "samples" an input versatility is provided in setting the trigger control the intensity of the CRT beam.
waveform, it memorizes the voltage value at that source, level, and slope.
instant and converts it to a binary number which OSCILLOSCOPE SAFETY — The ac and
can be stored in memory. TV SYNC — see "Video Sync". dc resistance that a signal "sees" at the oscillo-
scope input. Typically, input impedance is
SAMPLING RATE — The rate at which VERTICAL MAGNIFICATION — A fea- expressed in terms of dc resistance (measured
sampling occurs in a DSO, usually expressed in ture on many oscilloscopes in which the vertical in megohms) and capacitance (measured in
samples per second. DSOs are typically rated input signal is amplified, or magnified. The typi- picofarads).
by their maximum sampling rate, usually cal magnification factor is 5 times. This increas-
expressed in megasamples per second. es sensitivity and makes the oscilloscope more
useful for measuring very low level signals.
SWEEP — The motion of the CRT electron
beam from left to right that causes the trace to
appear. A sweep time of 0.1mS/div means that
2
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
Oscilloscope Safety
Review and follow the guidelines on this page to f. Use an isolation transformer 2. Keep the ventilation holes clear.
use your oscilloscope safely and responsibly. whenever the equipment’s power
plug is two-prong only. 3. Don’t apply excessive voltage to the scope’s
Preventing Electric Shock input jacks. Voltage limits are clearly
g. Have someone nearby, preferably stated in your operating manual and
1. Using an oscilloscope may often involve with CPR training. usually on the scope itself.
working inside equipment that contains high
voltage. Under such conditions, you should 2. Don’t operate the oscilloscope with the 4. Connect the ground clip of a scope probe
observe the following: cover removed. only to earth ground or isolated common in
the equipment under test.
a. Don’t expose high voltage needlessly. 3. Keep the scope grounded with the 3-wire
power plug. Don’t attempt to defeat the 5. Keep the scope away from:
b. Be familiar with the location of the high third prong or "float" the scope.
voltage points, and remember that high a. Direct sunlight.
voltage may appear at an unexpected Preventing Damage to the
point in effective equipment. Oscilloscope b. High temperature/humidity.
c. Use an insulated floor material or 1. Don’t leave the oscilloscope set at high c. Mechanical vibration.
insulated work surface. brightness for long intervals. A bright spot or
line left in one position can permanently d. Electrical noise and strong
d. Keep one hand in your pocket when burn the screen. magnetic fields.
using a scope probe.
3
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
1. CRT and Graticule. This is the area where Vertical Controls Ground: Opens signal path and grounds
the trace is displayed. The graticule is a grid, On dual-trace oscilloscopes, there are two each input to vertical amplifier. This provides a
generally 10 divisions wide and 8 divisions of items 7 through 11, one for each channel. zero-volt base line, the position of which can
high. Each division is usually one square be used as a reference when performing dc
centimeter, although this may vary on "mini" 7. Vertical Attenuator (Volts/Div) Control. measurements.
scopes. The graticule is used to make Vertical input attenuator. Provides step
voltage and time measurements from the adjustment of vertical sensitivity in a 1-2-5 DC: Direct coupling of input signal; both ac
waveform. It usually also has 10% and 90% sequence. When the variable control (item 8) and dc components of signal produce
marks, which are used for rise time is set to the calibrated position, vertical vertical deflection.
measurements. sensitivity is calibrated, i.e. it corresponds to
dial setting. In the X-Y mode of operation, 11. Vertical Position Control. Rotation adjusts
2. Intensity Control. Adjusts the intensity, the Volts/Div controls of the two channels vertical position of trace. This control usually
or brightness, of the trace. provide step adjustment of the sensitivity of includes a push-pull switch on either channel
the two axes, X and Y. 1 or channel 2 to invert the polarity of the
3. Trace Rotation Control. The earth’s signal (PULL INV).
magnetic field changes from one location to 8. Variable Attenuator. Rotation provides
the next which may affect the trace tilt. vernier (fine) adjustment of vertical 12. Vertical Mode Control. Selects display
Oscilloscopes have a trace rotation control sensitivity. This allows the waveform to be mode of operation (channel 1 displayed,
that can be used to compensate for the adjusted to an exact number of divisions, channel 2 displayed, dual-trace, etc.). May
earth’s magnetic field and adjust the trace to although vertical measurements are then also have additional functions as explained
a perfectly horizontal position. This control is uncalibrated. Many oscilloscopes have an below. Configuration of this control may vary
often a screwdriver-type adjustment. auxiliary push-pull function for this control, from unit to unit, but, generally, it is as
PULL X5 MAG, in which the vertical follows:
4. Focus Control. Adjusts trace focus. sensitivity is magnified by a factor of five Channel 1: Single channel display of the
times when the switch is pulled. Thus, 5 channel 1 signal.
5. Cal Terminal. Sometimes called "Probe mV/div sensitivity becomes 1 mV/div. Channel 2: Single channel display of the
channel 2 signal.
2 4 21 20 19 16 Dual: Dual channel display of channel 1 and
1 3 11 18 22 channel 2 signals. The two traces are
displayed in either alternate or chop mode,
as explained below.
Alt/Chop: Selects alternate or chopped
mode of dual-trace display.
15
4
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
In chop mode, the oscilloscope draws a small In X-Y operation, the CRT display becomes dc components. Not available on all scopes.
part of the channel 1 signal, then a small part of an electronic graph of two instantaneous
the channel 2 signal, and so on, continually voltages. One input channel is displayed on TV-H (HF): Used for triggering from video
switching back and forth until both sweeps are the X-axis, and the other on the Y-axis. horizontal sync pulses. Also sometimes
completed. The switching rate is very fast, and serves as low frequency reject coupling.
this "chopping" is not noticeable to the human Horizontal Controls —
eye when slow sweep speeds are selected. Triggering Group TV-V (LF): Used for triggering from video
vertical sync pulses. Also sometimes serves
Note: 17. External Trigger Input Jack. This input as high frequency reject coupling.
Some oscilloscopes automatically select chop or allows an external signal to be applied as
alternate display based on the setting of the the trigger source. LINE: Signal derived from input line voltage
time base control, enabling chopped display at (50/60 Hz) becomes trigger.
slower sweep speeds and alternating display at 18. Automatic-Normal Trigger Control:
faster speeds. Selects automatic triggering mode, wherein 21. Trigger Level / Slope Switch.
the scope generates a sweep (free runs) in Trigger Level Control: Determines the point on
Add: The channel 1 and channel 2 signals are the absence of an adequate trigger signal. It the waveform where the sweep is triggered.
algebraically combined, and the result is automatically reverts to triggered sweep Rotation in the (–) direction selects more
displayed on the CRT as a single trace. This operation when an adequate trigger signal negative point of triggering, and rotation in
combined signal then represents channel 1 is present. Auto triggering differs from the (+) direction selects more positive.
plus channel 2. If one channel is inverted, normal triggered operation in that in normal Note that rotation too far in either direction
say channel 2, the result is the algebraic operation, the sweep does not trigger when may inhibit triggering completely.
difference, channel 1 minus channel 2. a trigger signal is not present. Auto-
triggering is handy when first setting up the Trigger Slope Switch: Selects positive-going
Horizontal Controls — Sweep unit to observe a waveform. slope or negative-going slope as the
Group triggering point on the trigger waveform. In
19. Trigger Source Switch. Selects the source many scopes this control is implemented as
13. Time Base (Time/Div) Control. Provides of the sweep trigger. Some common trigger a push-pull action on the Triggering Level
step selection of sweep rate for the time sources are: control. Rear Panel Controls (not shown)
base. As with the vertical attenuator, steps Fuse Holder/Line Voltage Selector. Contains
are arranged in a 1-2-5 sequence. When Channel 1: The channel 1 input signal becomes fuse and selects line voltage. Sometimes a
the variable time base control (item 14) is the sweep trigger, regardless of the vertical separate control is used to select line
set to the calibrated position, sweep rate is mode control setting. voltage, or, in the case of a switching type
calibrated, i.e. it corresponds to dial setting. power supply, no selection is necessary.
Channel 2: The channel 2 input signal becomes
14. Variable Time Base Control. Rotation of the sweep trigger, regardless of the vertical
this control provides vernier (fine) adjust mode control setting.
ment of the sweep rate. This allows the
waveform to be adjusted to an exact num Alternate: The trigger source alternates
ber of divisions, although horizontal between the two traces in dual-trace
meas urements are then uncalibrated. operation.
15. Horizontal Position / X10 Magnification External: The signal connected to the external
Control. trigger input jack becomes the trigger signal.
Horizontal Position: Rotation controls 20. Trigger Coupling Switch. Selects the
horizontal position of trace. method by which the trigger signal is
coupled to the triggering circuits. Several
X10 Magnification: Selects ten times sweep common trigger coupling modes are:
magnification, i.e. if time base is set to 0.1
mS/div, selecting X10 magnification AC: Trigger signal is capacitively coupled;
increases this setting to 10nS/div. This is dc component is blocked.
useful for closer inspection of a specific part
of the waveform. DC: Trigger signal is direct-coupled. Used for
low-frequency (below 20Hz) triggering or to
16. X-Y Switch. Selects X-Y operating mode. stabilize triggering on a signal with ac and
5
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
Refer to Fig. 2. Higher-end analog oscilloscopes X-Y: Most delayed-sweep oscilloscopes locate 29. Component Test Jacks. Usually two
offer a host of features more advanced than the X-Y switch in this grouping of controls. banana jacks; provide input for component
those found on basic units. The most prominent This switch enables X-Y operating mode test function that produces a component
advanced features are increased bandwidth, as previously mentioned under item 16. "signature" on the CRT by applying an ac
delayed sweep, and component test. Others signal across a device. Rather than the
include variable holdoff, Z-axis (intensity) modu- 24. Main Time Base (Time/Div) Control. usual oscilloscope display of voltage
lation, bandwidth limiter, and scale illumination. Same as item 13. Provides step selection versus time, the display shows a graph of
of sweep rate for the main time base. voltage versus current. The signatures
22. Holdoff Control. Adjusts holdoff time, which thus produced are characteristic of the
is a period after each sweep is completed 25. Delayed Time Base (Time/Div) Control. device being tested — resistor, capacitor,
during which the next sweep is inhibited. Provides step selection of sweep rate for etc., and can be used to detect defective
Useful for stabilizing complex waveforms the delayed sweep. For meaningful results components.
that have several possible triggering points. with delayed sweep, this control should be
set to a faster sweep speed than the main 30. Component Test Switch. Turns
23. Sweep Mode Switch. Enables the various sweep time. component test mode on or off.
modes of delayed sweep operation.
26. Delayed Position Control. Adjusts the Additional Controls (not shown in the figure):
Main: Only the main sweep is displayed; starting point of the delayed sweep with
the delayed sweep is blanked. respect to the start of the main sweep. Bandwidth Limiter. Reduces the
Sometimes implemented as a rotational bandwidth of some high-frequency
Delay: Only the delayed sweep is control, sometimes as a press-and-hold models. Helps to eliminate radio-frequency
displayed. electronic switch. noise when making low-frequency
measurements.
MIX: The main and delayed sweep share a 27. Scale Illumination Control. On
single trace; the main sweep occupies the oscilloscopes that have a lighted graticule, Y-Axis Output Jack (on rear panel).
left portion of the display, while the delayed this control is provided to control the Output terminal where a sample of the
sweep occupies the right portion of the brightness of that illumination.( Not shown) channel 2 (may be channel 1 on some
display. The "Delay Time" control oscilloscopes) is available. Amplitude of
determines the starting point of the delayed 28. Beam Finder Switch. This function, found this signal is usually 50 mV/div of vertical
sweep, that is, the percentage of the display on some units, compresses the vertical deflection on the CRT, when terminated
that is main sweep and the percentage of and horizontal size of the trace and brings into 50 ohms. Useful for triggering
the display that is delayed sweep. The main it toward the center of the CRT. This is frequency counters from a low level signal.
sweep is often brighter than the delayed useful when setting up the oscilloscope
sweep due to the faster moving beam of the and the trace can’t be located because the Z-Axis Input Jack (on rear panel).
delayed sweep. Delayed sweep cannot be amplitude of the signal pushes the trace Sometimes called "External Blanking
slower than the main sweep. off the CRT (or the position controls have Input". Input jack for intensity modulation
been incorrectly adjusted). of the CRT electron beam.
22 23
26
26
30 29 28 24
6
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
7
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE
BASIC ANALOG OSCILLOSCOPES
This chapter provides a complete step-by-step channel 1. The exact same process can be Dual-Trace Display
procedure on oscilloscope operation. It begins used for a single-trace display on channel 2.
with basic scope operation and proceeds to The capability of an oscilloscope to display two
more advanced features. 1. Connect a signal to the channel 1 input jack. simultaneous waveforms, dual-trace mode, is a
This can be a point in a test circuit very useful feature. In observing simultaneous
Initial Startup Procedure connected via a scope probe, or the output waveforms on channels 1 and 2, the waveforms
of a function generator, via a BNC-to-BNC are usually related in frequency, or one of the
The first step in using any oscilloscope, from a cable. If probing in a test circuit, first connect waveforms is synchronized to the other,
simple dual-trace unit to the most sophisticated the probe’s ground clip to the chassis or although the basic frequencies are different. For
DSO, is turning it on and obtaining a trace. common of the equipment under test. Then example, Fig. 5 depicts the waveforms
1. The following basic controls should be connect the probe tip to the point of interest. associated with a simple flip-flop circuit, wherein
present in some form on any scope. Set the first trace shows the clock waveform and the
them as follows: Tips: second the output waveform. The scope clearly
shows that the output is a divide-by-two of the
a. Channel 1 input coupling switch Always use the probe ground clips attached to a clock, and that output changes always take
(AC-GND-DC switch): GND. circuit ground point near the point of measure- place on the negative-going edge of the clock.
ment. Do not rely solely on an external ground
b. Channel 1 vertical position control: wire in lieu of the probe ground clips, as To obtain a dual-trace display:
centered. undesired signals may be induced. 1. Connect probes to both the channel 1 and
channel 2 input jacks of the oscilloscope.
c. Horizontal position control: centered. The probes should be compensated.
Compensation matches the probe to the input of 2. Connect the ground clips of the probes to
d. Auto trigger control: auto triggering on. the scope. It should be adjusted initially, and the chassis or common of the circuit under
e. Vertical mode control: channel 1 then the same probe always used with the same observation. Connect the tips of the probes
(single trace). channel. The chapter on "Oscilloscope Probes" to the two circuit points of interest.
discusses compensation.
f. Intensity control: minimum intensity. 3. Locate the control that activates dual-trace
When using a signal generator whose output mode on your oscilloscope. Some scopes
g. TIMEJDIV control: 0.5 mS/Div. has fast edges such as square waves or pulses, simply have a position in the "Vertical Mode"
terminate the output into its characteristic switch labeled "Dual". However, many units
These settings prepare the unit for a single- impedance to minimize ringing. For example, a have two distinct positions called "Alt" and
trace display of a zero-volt base line, centered 50-ohm generator output should be terminated "Chop". These activate two different kinds of
vertically and horizontally. At this point, no signal into an external 50-ohm resistor and connected dual-trace sweep, as follows:
needs to be connected. to the scope with 50-ohm coaxial cable.
a. "Alt" stands for "alternate" sweep. The
Fig. 1 shows these control settings on a typical 2. Set the channel 1 input coupling switch oscilloscope first draws the complete
unit, a B+K Precision Model 2120B. to AC. sweep of the channel 1 signal, then
2. Plug the scope into ac power and turn the draws the complete sweep of the channel
Power switch on. Allow the unit a few 3. If no waveforms appear, increase the 2 signal, then repeats in an alternating
seconds to warm up. sensitivity by turning the channel 1 vertical manner. When fast sweep speeds are
attenuator (Volts/Div.) clockwise to a position selected, the two traces appear to the
3. Slowly bring the Intensity control up. You that gives 2 to 6 divisions vertical deflection. human eye as simultaneous. The fact
should see a horizontal trace somewhere that they really aren’t becomes more and
near the center of the screen. 4. The display on the screen may be more evident as sweep rate is
unsynchronized, that is, not locked in place. decreased.
4. You can adjust the trace sharpness with the You should be able to steady it using the
Focus control, and, if necessary, adjust the Trigger Level control. Use the sweep time b. "Chop" stands for "chopped" sweep. The
trace tilt with the Trace Rotation control. control (Time/Div.) to display the desired scope draws a small part of the channel
number of cycles. The "Triggering" and 1 signal, then a small part of the channel 2
Displaying a Signal "Time Base" sections of this chapter discuss signal, and so on, continually switching
these controls in more detail. back and forth until both sweeps are
This procedure displays a waveform on complete. When slow sweep speeds are
8
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE
Note:
9
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE
be related in some way to the displayed Oftentimes a scope’s seeming inability to trigger
waveform. Many times it is the waveform itself. is actually due to the operators having forgotten
Modern oscilloscopes provide versatility in Level and Slope Controls to select the appropriate signal as trigger.
selection of trigger signal, method of coupling
the trigger signal into the scope, and positioning A sweep trigger is developed when the trigger The Trigger Source selector is usually a
of the actual trigger point on the trigger signal source signal crosses a preset threshold level. multi-position switch. Among modern scopes
waveform. Every oscilloscope has a Trigger Level control common offerings are:
which shifts the threshold level "up" or "down"
Normal vs. Auto Triggering (i.e. positive or negative) on the trigger Channel 1: The channel 1 signal is connected
waveform. Refer to Fig. 6. The Level control to the triggering circuits. In many units this
Virtually all oscilloscopes provide these two adjusts the start of the sweep to almost any can be so even if the channel 1 signal is not
triggering modes; each works as follows: desired point on the waveform. When the displayed. Thus, you could use channel 1 to
control is centered, the threshold level is set at trigger a channel 2 display. If they are related
Normal: The sweep remains at rest until the the approximate average of the trigger signal. to each other in frequency, this will probably
trigger occurs. That trigger causes On sinewave signals, the phase at which sweep result in a stable display. Also, channel 1
one sweep to be generated, after begins is variable in this fashion. Note that if the could be used to trigger a dual-trace display
which the sweep again remains at Trigger Level control is rotated toward its of both channel 1 and channel 2. Again, if
rest until the next trigger. If an adequate extreme (+) or (–) setting, no sweep will be they are related, both traces will be stable.
trigger signal is not present, no trace is developed in the normal trigger mode because
displayed. the triggering threshold exceeds the peak Channel 2: Channel 2 is used for trigger, with
amplitude of the trigger signal. the same considerations as channel 1
Auto: The sweep generator continually gen above.
erates a sweep even if no trigger signal is The Trigger Slope switch, also present on every
present. However, it automatically reverts to scope, selects the slope of the trigger signal at Alternate: In dual-trace mode, the channel 1
triggered sweep operation in the presence of the threshold. Refer again to Fig. 6. If Trigger trace is triggered by channel 1 and the chan
a suitable trigger signal. Slope is set to the (+) position, sweep is devel- nel 2 trace by channel 2. In this situation,
oped from the trigger signal as it crosses the you should realize that, although both
Auto triggering is handy when first setting up the threshold level in a positive-going direction. In waveforms are shown as stable traces, you
scope to observe a waveform; it provides a the (–) position, sweep is developed as the cannot determine their phase or timing
sweep for waveform observation until other signal crosses the threshold in a negative-going relationship to each other. This is because
controls can be properly set. (Once the controls direction. they are not triggering from a common
are set, the scope is often switched to normal source.
triggering mode because that mode is generally On many units the Slope and Level functions
more sensitive.) Auto triggering must be used are combined into one control, usually a push- External: An external signal can be used as the
for dc measurements and signals of such low pull action (Slope) on a rotary knob (Level). trigger signal. This is usually applied to the
magnitude that they will not trigger the sweep. "External Trigger" jack. This is useful when
Trigger Source Selection you wish to use a signal other than those
Typically, in the normal triggering mode, signals displayed as the trigger, possibly because it
that produce even 1/2 division of vertical Oscilloscopes generally permit you to choose may be a more suitable source (e.g. more
deflection are adequate to produce a display. which signal is to be used as the trigger signal. amplitude, sharper edge).
10
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE
11
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE
a. Generally, the Vertical Position control of range of applications and measurements goes test cables. If necessary, shield the area
whichever channel is the Y-axis becomes up as the bandwidth does, and the availability of around the probe tip.Wideband
the vertical positioning control for X-Y advanced features also increases. Basic measurements become more difficult at 1
displays. oscilloscopes such as those discussed so far mV/div and 2 mV/div because of the inherent
b. Horizontal positioning is accomplished are generally 20 MHz or 30 MHz units. Higher thermal noise of electronic
by either the vertical control for the other bandwidths include 40 MHz, 60 MHz, 100 MHz, components. The trace may appear "fuzzy"
channel, or the Horizontal Position control and beyond. The features discussed in the next or wide and out of focus.
for the scope. section usually imply a minimum bandwidth of
40 MHz. • Noise that appears as peaks or spikes may
The "Applications" chapter discusses two be caused by electromagnetic pickup of
common uses of X-Y mode, phase Using an Oscilloscope with 1 millivolt external interference, such as automotive
measurements and frequency response Sensitivity ignition, computer clock pulses, etc. Such
measurements. noise may also cause erratic triggering. If
Many oscilloscopes have a X5 MAG (5 times possible, shield the unit under test from
Bandwidth magnification of the vertical input signal) feature. external interference.
With X5 magnification, the 10 mV/div attenuator
Bandwidth, or frequency response, is one of the setting becomes 2 mV/div sensitivity, and the 5 • Radio interference may be picked up in
most important characteristics of an oscillo- mV/div attenuator setting becomes 1 mV/div strong RF signal areas, such as a nearby
scope. It is often the determining factor in pre- sensitivity. At these high sensitivity settings, AM broadcast station, CB radios, or other
ferring one unit over another. special care must be taken for reliable low level transmitting devices. Unshielded probes and
measurements. Keep the following points in test cables can act as antennas to magnify
By convention, bandwidth, which is measured in mind when measuring very low level signals. this type of interference.
MHz, is the frequency at which signal amplitude
"rolls off" by 3 dB from its value at 1 kHz. For • Placement of the ground clip may become • Use the lowest sensitivity possible for the
example, assume that a 1 kHz signal produces critical if the signal ground circuitry carries measurement. Do not use 1 mV/div
a waveform six divisions high on a given appreciable current. Voltage differences of sensitivity if the measurement can be made
Volts/Div setting. If that signal is increased in several millivolts are common from one side at 5 mV/div sensitivity. Perhaps the probe
frequency (but input amplitude is kept constant), of a chassis to another. Attach the ground can be switched to X1 instead of using X5
the frequency at which the display is reduced to clip to a ground point nearest the point of MAG, however, be aware that the probe’s
4.24 divisions (–3 dB, or 70.7%) is the signal measurement (the probe tip). This bandwidth is sharply reduced at X1 and its
bandwidth of the scope. usually gives the smallest error. You may input impedance is much lower.
need to move the ground clip as you move
Bandwidth is important because it dictates the the probe to other points of measurement. • Thermal drift may be apparent at high
highest frequency at which accurate sensitivity if the test connections are across
measurements can be made with a given • It may be difficult to eliminate the pickup of a semi-conductor junction or two dissimilar
oscilloscope. As might be expected, the scope stray 60 Hz signals, especially in high metals. The trace may drift as the junction
buyer pays more for higher bandwidth. The impedance circuits. Be sure to use shielded temperature changes.
This section discusses advanced features previously, delayed sweep provides higher portion.
generally found on higher-bandwidth orders of magnification, many more degrees of
oscilloscopes, such as delayed sweep, variable magnification, and the means to observe both The delayed sweep (often referred to as the B
holdoff, etc. However, B+K Precision offers a the magnified and original waveforms sweep) begins immediately after the delay
deluxe 30 MHz oscilloscope with many of the simultaneously. period selected by the operator is over.
advanced features described here, including Adjustment range of the delay time is
delayed sweep, component test, Y-axis output, The feature is called "delayed sweep" because "continuous".
and Z-axis input. This scope is Model 2125A. the magnification is achieved by delaying the
beginning of the trace for a period determined Note:
Delayed Sweep by the operator. After this delay, the sweep then
runs at a speed which the operator sets via a To obtain meaningful results with delayed
The delayed sweep feature permits the operator second Time Base control, separate from the sweep, the delayed sweep must be set to a
to magnify a portion of the trace for closer main Time Base. By adjusting both the delay faster sweep speed than the main sweep. This
examination. While this can be done by using time and the sweep speed, the operator varies makes sense, since we are magnifying a portion
the horizontal magnifier as mentioned the position and the width of the magnified of the original waveform.
12
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE
13
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE
oscilloscope set at 5 mV/div sensitivity. With two DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPES (DSO)
divisions deflection on the CRT, the output of triggers on the event to be captured. This
Description
the Y-axis output (terminated into 1 megohm usually involves making the event occur a
input impedance of most counters) is 200 few times with the scope in analog mode.
The digital storage oscilloscope, or DSO, is a
millivolts peak-to-peak or 71 millivolts rms. This Using normal triggering is important because
recent major development in the oscilloscope
is plenty to drive the frequency counter solidly. even though the event may be too brief to
field. Instead of merely displaying a waveform
on the CRT as it occurs, as does a standard readily observe in analog mode, it will cause
Z-Axis Input one sweep to cross the screen in normal
analog oscilloscope, the DSO digitizes the
This feature is sometimes called intensity triggering mode. This is helpful in getting the
incoming signal, stores it in memory, then
modulation. When a signal is applied to the Trigger Level set correctly.
continuously displays the contents of the
rear-panel Z-Axis input jack, the electron beam
memory on the screen. This enables the
(which produces the scope display) varies in 2. Press the Storage switch to enter the storage
operator to capture and view one-time events,
intensity according to the amplitude of that input. mode.
including activity immediately before the event
Thus, the display can be intensity modulated in 3. Press the Single button, then the Reset
itself (pre-trigger capture). DSOs are also
a manner similar to a video or television display. (or Arm) button. The Ready indicator (or
excellent for displaying slow events that are
Usually, the front panel Intensity control can be Armed indicator) lights while waiting for the
difficult or impossible to view on standard
adjusted so that TTL levels at the Z-Axis jack trigger signal and goes off when the trigger of
analog oscilloscopes. DSOs can also store
turn the beam on and off completely. The the one-time event occurs.
repetitive waveforms in memory, as well as one-
polarity of the modulation depends on the 4. The one-time event that has been captured in
time or slow waveforms, and transfer them to a
particular model of scope. Some displays grow memory is displayed continuously until Reset
plotter for future reference.
brighter with a more positive voltage; others is pressed again to capture another one-time
require a more negative voltage for a brighter event or until the mode is changed.
Although DSOs vary widely in features and
display.
operation, most DSOs include the basic features
described in the following discussion, which is Pre-trigger and Post-trigger View
Beam Finder
based on B+K Precision Model 2522B. The
This convenience feature helps you to find a One of the big advantages of a DSO is its ability
Model 2522B is a "hybrid" unit that can operate
trace that may be off the area of the screen. to view occurrences before the trigger, or
in conventional analog mode or in digital storage
Beam Finder compresses the trace and "pulls" it pre-trigger view, as well as occurrences after the
mode. The hybrid approach is often an
into the CRT area, so that you may know in trigger, or post-trigger view. For example, not
advantage over full digital models in simplifying
which direction the trace is off screen, Don’t only can a voltage spike be observed, but
setup. The hybrid models can be adjusted in the
keep this momentary function on for too long, perhaps the activity that caused it. In a
familiar analog mode, then switched to digital
however; it also puts the trace at full intensity to conventional analog oscilloscope, the sweep
storage operation for the actual waveform
help you locate it.. begins at the trigger. Thus, only post-trigger
capture.
events can be viewed. In DSOs, waveform
Bandwidth Limiter recording does not begin with the occurrence of
Digitizing One-time Events
On higher-frequency scopes, this switch allows a trigger, it is continuous. Rather, the trigger
the bandwidth to be scaled down. For example, determines where the waveform recording
One of the most powerful features of a digital
a 100 MHz unit might offer a limiter that reduces stops. The operator can set the trigger to occur
storage oscilloscope is its ability to capture one-
it to 20 MHz. This feature is useful for filtering at the beginning of the memory (0% pre-trigger),
time events. To do this, single-sweep operation
out higher-frequency noise, such as radio at the middle of the memory (50% pre-trigger),
is employed, using the Single and Reset (or
frequency interference, when using the scope or at other points in the memory (25% and 75%
Arm) button. When the Reset button is pressed,
for lower-frequency measurements. pre-trigger with Model 2522B). Fig. 10a shows a
it readies the digital storage circuit to receive a
trigger signal—presumably the event to be waveform with 0% pre-trigger, and Fig. 10b
Scale Illumination shows the same waveform with 50% pre-trigger.
captured or some other time-related occurrence.
This is a control, placed near the scope display, Note that in Fig. 10b, observance of the time
When the event arrives, it is stored in memory
which causes the graticule to be illuminated for period immediately before the trigger is
and displayed.
visibility in dark environments. This is usually possible.
done with small light bulbs placed around the
Capture of one-time events is an ideal use for a
perimeter of the display. The control varies the
hybrid DSO. The triggering adjustments can be Digitizing Repetitive Events
intensity of the illumination. The graticule is
made in analog mode, and then the actual cap-
composed of a reflective substance that evens Though the capture of one-time events is
ture done in digital. The procedure is as follows:
out the illumination over the total area of the probably the most powerful aspect of a DSO,
grid many units can also digitize conventional
1. Set the scope to analog mode. Set the
Trigger Level control for normal (not auto) repetitive waveforms, such as those observed
triggering, and adjust the level so that the unit on a standard analog scope. To do this, a DSO
14
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE
15
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OPERATING AN OSCILLOSCOPE
plotter. First, the waveforms are frozen by appear to be of a lower frequency than that of sweep speed, or view the waveform in analog
pressing the Save All button. Then, an analog the input signal. Unless you have an idea what mode first.
plotter can be connected to the channel 1 the input signal is supposed to look like, you will Viewing of one-time events poses no problem
output, channel 2 output, and Pen Down output usually be unaware that aliasing is occurring. with aliasing because aliasing can occur only
jacks on the rear panel of the DSO. When with repetitive waveforms.
interconnected, plotting can begin by pressing To see an example of aliasing, connect a 10
the Plot button. The plot cycle is one screenful kHz signal to a DSO, set the Time/Div setting to Equivalent Time Sampling
on (pen down) and the next screenful off 50 mS/div, and put the scope in Refresh mode. On sweep speeds of 10 mS/div or greater, many
(pen up). The Pen Down indicator lights for the You should see about five divisions displayed. DSOs use a sampling method known as
entire pen-down period of the plot cycle. Now change the Time/Div setting to 20 mS/div, Equivalent Time Sampling. This method permits
and slightly alter the frequency of the input viewing of repetitive waveforms of frequencies
Unique Characteristics of DSOs signal. If you do this carefully, you should be higher than the scope’s sampling rate. When
able to obtain a display that shows just a few Equivalent Time Sampling is active, one sample
Digital storage oscilloscopes use a digital cycles at this low sweep speed. If you calculate is taken during each cycle. Of course, if that one
sampling technique to convert analog signals to the frequency now, it appears to be something sample is taken right at the trigger point on each
a series of digital words that can be stored in like 50 Hz or below, which is obviously incorrect. cycle, a flat trace would be produced. Therefore,
memory. Digital sampling has disadvantages as it is necessary to take each sample further (in
well as advantages, and it is important to be This occurs because the DSO is taking samples time) from the trigger point than the last sample.
aware of these unique characteristics of DSOs. too slowly to accurately render the waveform on This incremental delay is determined by the
Real Time Sampling and Aliasing the CRT, possibly one sample per cycle of the sweep Time/Div setting. To construct a complete
input signal. If the input frequency is set just waveform on the screen, the scope must sam-
The DSO uses a technique called Real Time right, the samples come at a slightly different ple as many cycles of the input signal as there
Sampling at sweep speeds slower than about point on each cycle, resulting in a waveform that are bytes in its memory.
20 ms/div. Real Time Sampling simply means appears to be valid but in fact is not.
that samples of the input signal are taken at Only repetitive waveforms should be observed
equal spaces (e.g., every 0.25 mS when the 50 Aliasing can occur whenever at least two in this mode. Irregularities that are present on
mS/div range is selected). With Real Time samples per cycle are not taken (whenever the an otherwise repetitive waveform are not likely
Sampling, a phenomenon called "aliasing" can Time/Div setting is much too slow for the input to show up; with only one sample per cycle,
occur when the input signal is not sampled often signal). Whenever the frequency of the input glitches and other irregularities will most likely
enough. This causes the digitized signal to signal is unknown, always begin with the fastest be skipped over.
16
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
Vertical Circuitry
Refer to Fig. 12.
17
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
18
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
19
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
is marked with two dashed lines, labeled "10" ADVANCED ANALOG OSCILLOSCOPES
and "90" and points marked "0" and "100" are
also present. These four points are useful for Delayed Sweep
rise time and fall time measurements, since rise Other Features
time is defined as the time required for a signal Delayed sweep is a very important feature of
to rise from 10% to 90% of its maximum many advanced scopes. It allows a portion of Delay Line
amplitude. On almost all modern oscilloscopes, the trace to be magnified. The original trace is Many high bandwidth oscilloscopes have a
the graticule is etched directly onto the inside of sometimes referred to as the A sweep, and the delay line in the vertical amplifier. This delay line
the CRT. This eliminates parallax error that magnified trace as the B sweep. actually slows the signal down (by a fraction of a
might occur from viewing the CRT from a slight microsecond) so that the oscilloscope can start
angle. Fig. 17 shows a block diagram of the delayed the sweep before the vertical signal starts to
sweep circuit and a representation of the deflect the CRT’s electron beam. This allows the
process. The trigger starts the A sweep scope to display the signal, including the trigger
generator and several cycles of the square edge. It is generally needed only in cases where
wave input are displayed. The trigger is also the rise time (or fall time, if trigger occurs on a
applied through a variable delay network, the falling edge) of a very fast signal needs to be
Delay Position control, which is adjustable by observed. That is why only high bandwidth
the operator. In the Mix sweep mode, the scopes usually have delay lines; if the
delayed trigger starts the B sweep generator at bandwidth of the scope is not high enough to
a later point in time. The delay is typically view a very fast rise time, a delay line offers no
adjustable from one division to ten divisions on advantage.
the screen. When the B sweep starts, the
display is switched to view the faster B sweep Higher CRT Voltages
for the balance of the trace. Since the B sweep A typical 20 MHz or 30 MHz oscilloscope has a
is faster, that portion of the waveform is CRT acceleration voltage of 2000 volts. Higher
expanded. voltages deliver brighter traces and are
essential for wideband scopes. As the time that
When the Sweep Mode Switch is set to the it takes for the electron beam to sweep across
Delay position, only the faster B sweep is the CRT is decreased (higher bandwidth scopes
viewed. The starting point of the waveform is have higher maximum sweep rates), the voltage
still adjustable with the Delay Time control. must be increased in order for the trace to still
be easily visible. Some 100 MHz units employ
Variable Holdoff voltages as high as 15 kV or 20 kV.
20
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
21
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
22
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
23
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
OSCILLOSCOPE PROBES
The Need for Probes Since most oscilloscopes are supplied with divisions of vertical deflection). Most
While some signals can be measured directly probes, selecting the proper oscilloscope probe oscilloscopes are supplied with probes that have
into the oscilloscope’s input, this method loads is not something most electronic technicians a 10:1 attenuation ratio, and probes with
the circuit being measured with the oscillo- and engineers often think about. However, since attenuation ratios higher than 10:1 are available.
scope’s input resistance and capacitance. Under several different grades of oscilloscopes may be
certain conditions (such as where the signal used in the same area, it is important not to Proper Probe Compensation
being measured is across a very high interchange incompatible probes. It may seem (Refer to Fig. 20)
impedance, is of high frequency, or possesses that any probe rated at the oscilloscope’s band-
fast rise time), this occurrence would produce width or higher should be compatible. This is not A probe’s impedance can be optimized to that of
unwanted results and cause even an expensive, true, however, since the probe’s rise time and a scope input channel by adjusting the compen-
high precision oscilloscope to produce oscilloscope’s rise time are cascaded. In order sation trimmer found on the probe. Since the
inaccurate measurements. To prevent this, to find the approximate system rise time, the specific impedance characteristic of a scope
probes are usually used to connect signals to oscilloscope’s rise time and the probe’s rise time input channel varies from scope to scope, and
the oscilloscope’s inputs. Proper selection and must be calculated using the following formula: even from channel to channel on a single
compensation of oscilloscope probes plays a scope, it is very important to make sure that
very important role in allowing the oscilloscope Tsystem = (Tprobe)2 + (Tscope)2 probes are compensated for the specific
to operate at its listed specifications. oscilloscope and channel. Once a probe is
Therefore, if a probe with a rated rise time of 3.5 compensated, it should be continuously used
Probe Types nS were used with a 100 MHz oscilloscope (with with the same scope and same channel
Below are some typical probe types and their a rated rise time of 3.3 nS), the approximate compensated for. Each time a probe is
characteristics: system rise time would be 5 nS. That would connected to a different channel or oscilloscope,
produce a system bandwidth of only compensation should be adjusted as follows:
Probe Type Characteristics approximately 70 MHz. Thus, by using an
insufficient probe, you have just turned your 100 1. Connect the probe to the input jack. On
1:1 Low-bandwidth; full loading of MHz oscilloscope into a 70 MHz unit. This switchable X1/X10 probes, set the switch
measurement by scope’s input (usually 1 illustrates the importance of selecting a probe to X10.
megohm). Allows direct reading of with a bandwidth substantially higher than the
amplitude. rated bandwidth of the oscilloscope. As a rule, it 2. Touch the tip of the probe to the probe
is best to use the probe supplied with the adjust output (CAL terminal) on the
10:1 Improved bandwidth (typically 60 MHz to oscilloscope. However, this may not always be oscilloscope, and adjust the oscilloscope
150 MHz), increased input resistance and possible or practical. controls for 3 or 4 cycles of the waveform
lowered capacitance (usually 10 at 5 or 6 divisions of vertical amplitude.
megohms). Lowers circuit loading. Another important thing to consider when
Increases maximum measurable voltage selecting oscilloscope probes is the input 3. Adjust the compensation trimmer on the
by a factor of 10. Must account for impedance and attenuation factor of the probe. probe for the optimum square wave (see
attenuation factor of 10 when reading Since electrical signals should be measured Fig. 20 for illustration showing minimum
displayed amplitude (for example, 0.2 with a probe that has a much higher input overshoot, rounding off, and tilt).
V/div becomes 2 V/div). impedance than the impedance of the circuit
being measured, it is important to take probe
100:1 Very high bandwidth (up to 250 MHz), impedance into consideration. Typically, a 10
increased input resistance (typically 100 megohm probe should be sufficient for most
megohms) and lowered capacitance (vs. measurements. However, since some circuits
scope direct input). Greatly lowers circuit require even higher probe impedance, 100
loading. Increases maximum measurable megohm probes are optional accessories
input voltage by a factor of 100. Must offered by most Oscilloscope manufacturers. It
account for attenuation factor of 100 when is also important to use an attenuator probe
reading displayed amplitude (for example, when measuring signals that have too high of a
0.2 V/div becomes 20 V/div). level to measure on an oscilloscope. For
example, if you want to measure a 50 V
Probe Selection peak-to-peak signal, and the oscilloscope’s
The bandwidth rating of a probe should always highest input attenuator range is 5 V/div, it is
be higher than the bandwidth rating of the necessary to attenuate the signal before
oscilloscope. applying it to the oscilloscope input. Otherwise,
the 50 V signal would deflect off the display
(since 50 V at 5 V/div would produce 10 Fig. 20. Probe compensation
adjustment
24
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
APPLICATIONS
BASIC OSCILLOSCOPE APPLICATIONS
DC Voltage Measurements being measured is 5.0 divisions from the
reference level (ground potential). If the
Measurement of a Simple DC Voltage Volts/Div control is set to 0.1 V and a 10:1 probe
(Refer to Fig. 21) is used, the dc voltage level is calculated as
follows:
This technique is used to measure the level of a
simple dc voltage where no waveform is DC level = 5.0 (div) x 0.l (V/div) x 10=5.0 V.
present. This would result, for example, from
connecting the scope directly to the output of a Instantaneous DC Voltage
dc power supply. The example uses +5 volts dc, Measurements
which is a common supply voltage used in (Refer to Fig. 22)
digital circuits. Though this measurement can be
performed on either scope channel, this
example uses channel 1.
25
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
APPLICATIONS
including its dc component. If an difference between any two points on a probe is used, the voltage is calculated as
inappropriate reference level position was waveform. follows:
selected in step 2, or an inappropriate
Volts/Div setting was made, the waveform 1. Connect the signal to be measured to the Voltage =
may not be visible at this point (deflected input connector, set the oscilloscope to 4.4 (div) x 20 (mV/div) x 10 = 880 mV.
completely off the screen). This is display the channel that you wish to use,
especially true when the dc component is and set the input coupling switch to the Add Mode Applications
large with respect to the waveform AC position. Set the Volts/Div and Differential Measurements
amplitude. If so, reset the Volts/Div Time/Div controls to obtain a normal (Refer to Figs. 24 and 25)
control and repeat steps 2 and 3 until the display of the waveform to be measured.
waveform and the zero reference are The variable input attenuator control must The oscilloscope’s "add" mode can be
both on the screen. be set to the calibrated position. conveniently used to measure a signal with a
reference point other than earth ground. For
4. Use the horizontal position control to 2. Using the vertical position control, adjust example, if you wanted to measure the signal
bring the portion of the waveform to be the waveform position such that one of present across R2 in Fig. 24, you would use the
measured to the center vertical the two points falls on a major horizontal following technique:
graduation line of the graticule scale. graduation line.
1. Connect the channel that can be inverted
5. Measure the vertical distance from the 3. Using the horizontal position control, to the desired reference point and
zero reference level to the point to be adjust the second point to coincide with connect the other channel to the desired
measured (at least 3 divisions desirable the center vertical graduation line. point of measurement.
for best accuracy). The reference level
can be rechecked by momentarily 4. Measure the vertical distance between 2. Select the subtract mode of operation by
returning the input coupling switch to the the two points (at least 3 divisions selecting the add mode and inverting the
ground position. desirable for best accuracy). Multiply the channel connected to the reference point.
number of divisions by the setting of the
6. Multiply the distance measured above by Volts/Div control. If a probe is used, 3. Adjust the Volts/Div controls for both
the Volts/Div setting and the probe further multiply this by the probe channels and adjust the Time/Div control
attenuation ratio as well. Voltages above attenuation ratio. to obtain a normal display of the
the reference level are positive and waveform to be measured. The variable
voltages below the reference level are The measurement is summarized by the input attenuator controls must both be set
negative. following equation: to the calibrated position to make voltage
measurements. Also, make sure that both
The measurement is summarized by the Voltage =Vert Div x Volts/Div x Probe. Volts/Div controls are set the same.
following equation:
For the example shown in Fig. 23, the two 4. Using the vertical position controls, adjust
Instantaneous DC level = points are separated by 4.4 divisions vertically. If the waveform position such that one of
Vert Div x Volts/Div x Probe. the Volts/Div control setting is 20 mV and a 10:1 two points fall on a major horizontal
graduation line.
For the example shown in Fig. 22, the point
being measured is 3.8 divisions from the 5. Using the horizontal position control,
reference level (ground potential). If the adjust the second point to coincide with
Volts/Div control is set to 0.2 V and a 10:1 probe the center vertical line.
is used. the dc voltage level is calculated as
follows: 6. Measure the vertical distance between
the two points (at least 3 divisions
Instantaneous DC level = desirable for best accuracy). Multiply the
3.8 (div) x 0.2 (V/div) x 10 = 7.6 V. number of divisions by the setting of
either Volts/Div control. If probes are
Peak-To-Peak Voltage used, further multiply this by the
Measurements attenuation ratio of either probe (make
(Refer to Fig. 23) sure that both probes are of the same
attenuation ratio).
This procedure may be used to measure peak-
to-peak voltages, or for measuring the voltage Fig. 23. Voltage measurement.
26
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
APPLICATIONS
Fig. 24. Voltage measurement with 2. Select the dual-trace and chop display
reference other than earth ground. modes and set the trigger source switch
to the channel that can be inverted.
The measurement is summarized by the Adjust the controls to display two signals.
following equation: Verify that one of the traces represents
the unwanted signal in reverse polarity. If
Voltage = not, reverse the polarity of that channel
Vert Div x Volts/Div x Probe. using the invert function.
For the example shown in Fig. 25, the two 3. Now set the oscilloscope for single-trace
points are separated by 4.5 divisions vertically. If display: Set the trigger source for the
the Volts/Div setting is 0.1 V and 10:1 probes channel that is connected to the
are used, the voltage is calculated as follows: undesired signal by itself and set the
scope for the add mode of operation.
Voltage = Adjust the Volts/Div and variable input Fig. 26. Eliminating an undesired
4.5 (div) x 0.1 (V/div) x 10 = 4.5 V attenuator controls for the channel that signal component
can be inverted so that the undesired
signal component is canceled as much as Note:
possible. The remaining signal should be
the signal you wish to observe alone, free Because the two outputs of a push-pull amplifier
of the unwanted signal. Such a result is are out of phase, they tend to subtract. It is
shown in the bottom waveform of Fig. 26. necessary to invert one channel to cause the
signals to add.
Push-Pull Amplifier Measurements
3. Adjust the Volts/Div and time base
The oscilloscope’s add mode can also be controls to obtain a normal display of the
conveniently used to make signal waveform to be measured. The variable
measurements and check for proper balance at input attenuator controls must both be set
the outputs of push-pull amplifiers. to the calibrated position to make voltage
measurements. Also, make sure that both
1. Connect one channel to one amplifier step input attenuator controls are at the
Fig. 25. Differential voltage output and the other channel to the other same settings.
measurement. amplifier output.
4. Make peak-to-peak signal measurements
2. Select the subtract mode of operation by by performing steps 4 through 6 of
Elimination of an Undesired Signal selecting the add mode and inverting one "Differential Voltage Measurements".
Component channel’s polarity.
(Refer to Fig. 26) 5. To check amplifier balance, return the
inverted channel to normal polarity and
Another application of the add mode is to cancel observe the display. If the amplifier is
out the effect of an undesired signal component per fectly balanced, the two outputs
which is superimposed on the signal you wish to should fully cancel each other. The
observe (for example, undesired 60 Hz hum
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OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
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Time Measurements
(Refer to Fig. 29)
For the example shown in Fig. 27, the horizontal = 2.5 x 104 The measurement is summarized by the
= 25 kHz following equation:
distance between the two points is 5.4 divisions.
If the Time/Div control setting is 0.2 mS and
Freq = No of Cycles (x 10 for X10 Mag)
magnification is not used, the time period is
Hor Div x Time / Div
calculated as follows:
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Pulse Width =
4.6 (div) x 0.2 (mS/div) x 1/10
= .092 mS or 92 mS.
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This procedure is useful in measuring the phase For the example shown in Fig. 35, the horizontal
difference of signals of the same frequency. distance is 1.7 divisions. Thus, the phase differ-
ence is calculated as follows:
1. Apply the two signals to the oscilloscope’s
input jacks and select the dual-trace Phase Difference = 1.7 x 45°/div = 76.5°
display mode (either alternate or chop
display mode). Method No. 2 Fig. 36. Measuring small phase
(Refer to Fig. 36) difference.
2. Select the signal which is leading in phase
as the trigger source and use the Volts/Div The above procedure allows 45° per division, Relative Measurements
and variable input attenuator controls to which may not give the desired resolution for If the amplitude and period of some reference
adjust the two waveforms so they are small phase differences. signal are known, an unknown signal may be
equal in amplitude. measured for amplitude and period without the
If greater accuracy is required, the Time/Div variable input attenuator and variable time base
3. Use the vertical position controls to position control setting may be changed to expand the controls set to the calibrated position. The
the waveforms in the vertical center of the display as shown in Fig. 35, but the variable measurement is made in units relative to the
display. Use the Time/Div and variable time time base control setting must not be touched. If reference signal.
base controls to adjust the display so that necessary, the trigger level may be readjusted.
one cycle of the reference signal occupies For this type of operation, the relationship of Relative Voltage Measurements
8 divisions horizontally (see Fig. 35). The one division to 45° no longer holds. Instead, the (Refer to Fig. 37)
trigger level and horizontal position controls following equation must be used:
are also useful in achieving this display. 1. Apply the reference signal to the input jack
The display should be as shown in Fig. 35, Phase Difference = and adjust the oscilloscope for a normal
where one division now represents 45° in Hor Div x 45º/Div x A waveform display. Adjust the Volts/Div and
phase. B variable input attenuator controls so that
the amplitude of the reference signal
4. Measure the horizontal distance between where: occupies a fixed number of divisions. After
corresponding points on the two A = New step main time base control setting. adjusting, be sure not to disturb the
waveforms. Multiply the distance (in B = Original step main time base control variable input attenuator control setting.
divisions) times 45° per division to obtain setting.
the phase difference. 2. Calculate the vertical calibration
A simpler method of obtaining more accuracy coefficient as follows:
quickly is to simply use X10 magnification for a
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Sweep Coifficent =
1.75 kHz-1 = 1.143
5 (div) x 0.1 (ms/div)
Unknown Period =
7 (div) x 0.2 (mS/div) x
1.143 (sweep coef)
= l.6 ms.
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Refer to Fig. 39 for an analysis of waveforms amplitude to zero amplitude. Therefore, a X-Y Mode Applications
likely to appear during square wave testing of reduction in amplitude alone of the high Phase Measurements
amplifiers. Distortion can be classified into three frequency components should produce a (Refer to Fig. 40)
distinct categories: rounding at all four points of one square
wave cycle as shown in Fig. 39C.
• The first is frequency distortion and refers to
the change from normal amplitude of a D. If the combination of elements in the
complex waveform. In other words, the amplifier circuitry were such as to only shift
introduction in an amplifier circuit of resonant the phase of the low frequency
networks or selective filters created by a components of the square wave, a display
combination of reactive components will similar to Fig. 39D would be obtained.
create peaks or dips in an otherwise flat
frequency response curve. E. Since a reduction in amplitude of the low
frequency components is usually caused
• The second is non-linear distortion and by reactive components, a shift in the
refers to a change in waveshape produced by phase of the low frequency components
Fig. 40. Typical X-Y phase measurement
displays
the application of the waveshape to would be likely to occur in addition to the
non-linear components or elements. attenuation of low frequency components.
This would cause a display similar to A dual-trace method of phase measurement
• The third is delay or phase distortion, which is Fig. 39E. was previously described. A second method of
distortion produced by a shift in phase phase measurement requires calculations based
between one or more components of a F. If the combination of elements in the on the Lissajous patterns obtained using X-Y
complex waveform. amplifier circuitry were such as to decrease operation. Distortion due to non-linear
the high frequency components of the amplification can also be displayed.
In actual practice, a reduction in amplitude of a square wave and cause phase shift to the
square wave component (sinusoidal harmonic) low frequency components, a display A sine wave is applied to the audio circuit being
is usually caused by a frequency-selective similar to Fig. 39F would be obtained. tested. The same sine wave is also applied to
network which includes capacitance, the vertical input of the oscilloscope, and the
inductance, or both. The presence of C or L G.If the combination of elements in the output of the tested circuit is applied to the
introduces a difference in phase angle between amplifier circuitry were such as to attenuate horizontal input of the oscilloscope. The amount
components, creating phase distortion or delay and shift the phase of the high frequency of phase difference between the two signals can
distortion. Therefore, in square wave testing of components of the square wave, a display be calculated from the resulting waveform.
practical circuitry, we will usually find that the similar to Fig. 39G would be obtained.
distorted wave includes a combination of 1. Using an audio generator with a pure
amplitude and phase distortion clues. The H. If the amplifier circuitry boosted the high sinusoidal signal, apply a sine wave test
different waveforms in Fig. 39 sum up the clues frequency components of the square wave signal at the desired test frequency to the
as follows: but the network in the amplifier were audio network being tested.
damped, a display similar to Fig. 39H
A. If the combination of elements in the would be obtained. Lighter damping would 2. Set the signal generator output for the
amplifier circuitry were such as to only cause more oscillation (the sinusoidal normal operating level of the circuit being
depress the low frequency components of shape at the beginning of the leveling off tested. If desired, the circuit’s output may
the square wave, a display similar to Fig. period) and heavy damping would first be observed on the oscilloscope with
39A would be obtained. decrease oscillation. normal sweep operation. If the test circuit
B. If the opposite condition were the case and is over driven, the sine wave display on the
the amplifier circuitry boosted only low I. If the combination of elements in the oscilloscope is clipped and the signal level
frequency components of the square wave, amplifier circuitry were such as to shift only must be reduced.
a display similar to Fig. 39B would be the phase of the low frequency
obtained. components of the square wave, but power 3. Connect channel 1 to the input and
supply filtering were also poor (thus channel 2 to the output of the test circuit.
C. The short rise time which occurs at the introducing line voltage hum) a display Set channel 1 and 2 Volts/Div and variable
beginning of the half-cycle is created by similar Fig. 39I would be obtained. input attenuator controls for exactly the
the in-phase sum of all the medium and same amplitude waveforms on the display
high frequency sine wave components. in normal sweep operation.
The same holds true for the rapid droop at
the end of the half cycle from maximum 4. Select X-Y operation.
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OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
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5. If necessary, repeat step 3, readjusting the line is at a 45° angle. A 90° phase shift of the circuit under test and the output of
channel 1 and 2 gain controls for a suitable produces a circular oscilloscope pattern. Phase the test circuit to Y axis input (vertical axis)
viewing size. Some typical results are shift of less (or more) than 90° produces an of the oscilloscope. A demodulator probe
shown in Fig. 40. elliptical oscilloscope pattern. The amount of will give a "text book" frequency response
phase shift can be calculated from the display as shown in Fig. 43, but a standard
oscilloscope trace as shown in Fig. 41. probe can be used which will result in an
envelope display.
Frequency Response Measurements
(Refer to Figs. 42 and 43) 2. Connect the sweep ramp voltage of the
sweep generator to the X axis input of the
A sweep generator and the X-Y mode of the oscilloscope.
oscilloscope maybe used to measure the audio
or rf frequency response of an active or passive 3. Set the oscilloscope for X-Y operation and
device, such as an amplifier, band pass filter, adjust the channel 1 and 2 controls for a
coupling network, etc. suitable viewing size.
Fig. 42. Frequency response Fig. 43. Frequency response test set-up.
measurement.
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DSO APPLICATIONS
The displays of Fig. 48 depict several examples
of waveforms that were captured using the
storage facilities of a digital storage oscilloscope
(DSO).
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OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
APPLICATIONS
THE NTSC COLOR VIDEO SIGNAL
History
Horizontal Sync
(See Fig. 49)
40
OSCILLOSCOPE GUIDE
APPLICATIONS
Vertical Sync
(See Fig. 50)
41