Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

DESIGN CRITERIA

1.1 WATER SUPPLY

Water supply design criteria include:

1. Unit Water demand factors

2. Water demand
3. Population projection
4. Design period
5. Water System Planning and Design Criteria
6. Overview of Water System Planning and Design Criteria
7. Fire Flow Requirements
8. Storage Criteria

1.2 Water Demands:

Water systems are required to supply flow at rates that fluctuate over a wide range from day-to-day and
hour-to-hour. Rates most important to planning, design and operation of a water system are annual
average day, maximum (peak) day, maximum (peak) hour, and maximum day plus fire flow.

1. Annual average day demand is the total volume of water delivered to the system in a given year
divided by the number of days in the year.
2. Maximum (peak) day demand is the largest quantity of water supplied to the system on any given
day of the year.
3. Maximum (peak) hour demand is the highest rate of flow for any hour in a year.
4. Maximum day plus fire flow considers the possibility of a fire event under maximum day demand
conditions.

1.3 Unit Water Demand Factor:

Water demand estimates are calculated by multiplying the acres of each land use by appropriate unit
water demand factors.

The source of land use designation

information can vary depending on
available data. Land use information
for design Zone included tentative
maps, Specific Plans, Community Plans
and General Plans. In areas where the
land use designation did not correspond
directly with the land uses categories
given in the Master Plan, a judgment
was made to classify the area in the
closest category. Table-1 provides a
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

listing of the land use categories and their corresponding unit water demand .Average daily per capita
water demands 80 gpd

1.4 Overview of Water System Planning and Design Criteria:

1. For this Master Plan, DOU’s planning and design criteria for waterworks facilities is
summarized as follows:
2. Water treatment facilities shall be adequate to provide the maximum day water demand.
3. Water booster pumping stations shall be adequate to pump the maximum day water
demand.
4. Pipelines are sized for the following:
5. The largest of maximum hour flow, maximum day flow plus fire flow, or replenishment flow.
Fire flow requirements are a primary factor affecting the sizing of piping in the water distribution
system (6-inch and 8-inch mains).
6. An allowable velocity of 5 ft/sec.
7. An allowable head loss of 2-5 feet/1,000 feet of pipeline.
8. Maximum water pressures at the service connections were 120 psi.
9. Minimum water pressures were 45 psi at the service connection at maximum day demand rates
and water storage tanks at 10 feet below overflow levels, and 20 psi at the service
connection based on the greater of maximum hour or maximum day plus fire flow demand
condition.
10. Pressure fluctuation was limited to 20-30 psi.
11. Pressure zone layout was based on the minimum pressure established by the highest
ground elevation that can be supplied, and the maximum pressure established by the
lowest ground elevation.
12. Pressure regulating valves were proposed with a minimum pressure differential of 10 psi
for small valves (6-inch and smaller) and 5 psi for large valves (8-inch and larger). The
maximum velocity allowed through the valve is typically 15-20 feet/sec.
13. Looping was considered to provide a higher level of reliability (i.e., if one source is out-of-service
to the area, supply can be provided from a second source).
14. Pipe materials generally accepted include ductile iron, steel, concrete, and polyvinyl
chloride (plastic or PVC). PVC is usually used for smaller diameter piping.

1.5 Fire Flow Requirements:

Fire flow requirements are typically dependent on the land use and vary by community.
Stafford County’s fire flow requirements are shown in Table 2.

1.6 Storage Criteria:

According to the VDH “Waterworks Regulations”, the minimum acceptable effective finished
water storage for domestic purposes must be greater than 200 gallons per equivalent residential
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

connection at minimum pressure (this essentially equates to one-half of the annual average day
demand). For this Master Plan, the volume of storage needed will be equal to one-half of the annual
average day demand.

1.7 Population Projection:

1. The growth rate of population will be at 40% increase in 10 years for urban areas.
2. The growth rate of population will be 30% increase in 10 years for semi urban / town committee.
3. The growth rate of population will be at 30% increase in 10 years for rural areas.
4. The above percentages will be amended on actual census reports when finalized by Government
of Pakistan from decade to decade. However from September 1998 the rate of increase will be
2.24% for rural and 3.31% for urban areas.

1.8 Design Period:

Tube wells and treatment works 10 years

Pumping chambers (structures) 20 years

Machinery 10 years

Distribution system and rising main 20 years

By the help of questioner one can analyze the Peak hourly water demand. A specimen (Estimate Peak
Hourly Hot Water Demand) is shown below:
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

2 SEWERAGE SYSTEM
2.1 General description of the disposal system
The system shall consist of the necessary pipework from the residence to a septic tank. The septic tank
shall be constructed so as to allow the liquid fraction of the sewage to gravitate to a soak away. The soak
away will allow the liquid to seep into an area where final dispersion will be by way of
evapotranspiration.

2.2 Average Sewage Flow

Normally about 80 to 90 percent of the per capita consumption of water becomes wastewater,
considering 200 litre per capita water consumption and sewage flow of 80%, the per capita flow will be
160 litre/capita/day.

2.3 Peak Factor

Sewage flow does not remain uniform; it varies from time to time. Sewerage network will be
designed for the peak sewage flow.

The peak factor will be calculated as follows:

𝟓.𝟕𝟓
Peak factor =
𝑷𝟎.𝟐

 Where P = Population in thousands.

 The peak factor shall not be greater than 6 and not less than 2 in any case.

2.4 Flow Velocity

Minimum velocity in the sewer will be such that there should be no deposition in the sewer line.
Minimum self cleansing velocity is 0.6 m/sec. under flowing full condition. Preferably it is taken as 0.75
m/sec for the designing of the system. Maximum velocity will not be greater than 2.4 m/sec.

Following Manning's equation will be used to determine the velocity in the sewer lines:

V=1/n (R2/3 S1/2)

Where;
V=Flow velocity in m/sec.
R=Hydraulic Radius of pipe in meters
S=Slope of the pipe
n=Manning's Coefficient of Roughness of the pipe

2.5 Sewer Capacity

The full carrying capacity of the pipe will be calculated as follows:

Q = AV
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

Where;

Q=Flow in m³/sec.
A=Cross-Sectional Area in m²
V=Flow velocity in m/sec.

2.6 Sewer Slopes

The minimum slope for a section of sewer will generally be based on the minimum velocity
requirements.

2.7 Design Depth of Flow

Sewers will be designed to flow at 0.75 of full depth under peak flow conditions to provide
requisite air gap under which condition the sewer will flow up to 90% capacity at peak flow. Thus the
design flow will be calculated by multiplying peak flow with a factor of 1.12.

2.8 Determination of Pipe Sizes

Minimum sewer pipe size will be 200 mm except for house connections which will be 150 mm.
All other pipe sizes will be determined from design flow calculations and velocity criteria.

2.8.1 Pipe Materials

The type of pipes to be used for sewerage system depends upon the following factors:
• Corrosion resistance
• Capital cost
• Local availability
• Ease of installation
• Efficiency of joints
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

• Load sustaining ability

• Useful life

The pipe materials mainly include unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (UPVC), Vitrified Clay (VC),
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC), Asbestos Cement (AC) and High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) etc.
All of these pipes are technically acceptable for use in sanitary drainage system although each material
has its own particular merits for a given condition.

The market investigations carried out so far indicate that UPVC and HDPE pips are locally available. The
cost comparison of the two pipes indicates that rates of both pipes are competitive and either of the two
can be used. These two pipes are almost equally technically suitable but considering the growing trend of
using HDPE pipes, HDPE pipes will be used for sewer lines. For house connections UPVC pipes will be
used.

2.9 Depth of Cover to Sewers

In order to provide building connections, minimum earth cover over the pipes will be 1.0 m.

2.9.1.1 Bedding
Sand bedding will be used except where the pipes require additional support in the form of concrete
surround as appropriate.

2.9.1.2 Location of Sewers

 Sewers will be generally located keeping in view the natural ground slopes in order to minimize
the depth of excavation.
 Sewer will be positioned in accordance with the utility/service reservation requirements of the
local Municipality.

2.9.2 Sewer Alignment

Sewer lengths between manholes will be laid at a uniform gradient and diameter and straight in plan.

2.9.2.1 Trench Widths

Trench widths for lying of pipes of various sizes in the network are shown in table:
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

2.9.3 Crossings of Other Utilities

Where the proposed sewers cross the existing utilities the sewer should be laid in such a
way so as to avoid interference with these utilities. Sewers will be laid below water pipes wherever
possible. If the water main underpasses any sewer line it will be protected by sleeving or concrete
encasement at the crossing to minimize the risk of contamination of water supply.

2.9.3.1 Manholes Location

Manholes will be located according to conventional sewer network design i.e. at starting points,
junctions between sewers (except building connections to sewers) and changes in direction and grade.
Based on sewer size, the spacing between manholes will be as follows:

• 200 diameter< 50 metres

• 300 to 600 diameters for 50 to 80 metres
• 700 to 1200 diameter for 80 to 100 metres

2.9.3.2 Manhole Dimensions

For sewer lines up to 700 mm diameter manholes will have a circular chamber of 1.2 metre
internal diameter. For large diameter pipes manhole chambers will be of 1.5 metre internal diameter.

2.9.3.3 Pipe Connections to Manholes

To allow for limited differential settlement between manholes and the connecting pipelines, there
will be a flexible pipe joint located at the external face of the manhole and a second flexible joint
approximately 750 mm from the face of the manhole.

2.9.3.4 Adjustment for Height of Manholes

Manholes will be constructed with a minimum of two and maximum of three courses of concrete
blocks between the manhole cover slab and manhole cover to allow for future adjustment of the top level
to suit changes in final road or ground level but manhole neck will not exceed 750 mm.

2.9.3.5 Change in Sewer Diameter at Manholes

To minimize the risk of blockage in sewers, the diameter of the outgoing sewer must not be less
than the diameter of the largest incoming sewer. The top of smaller sewers entering a manhole will
normally be at the same level as that of the outgoing sewer.

2.9.3.6 Slope of Channel within Manhole

All manhole invert levels used in the sewer calculations will be the centre of the manhole and all
distances and gradients will be calculated between centres of manholes. Where the incoming and
outgoing pipes are of the same gradient and diameter the pipe gradient will be continued through the
channel in manhole.

2.9.4 Drop Connection to Manhole

The drop connections to manholes will be provided if the difference in pipe invert elevation is
greater than 600 mm otherwise no drop connection will be provided.
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

2.9.4.1 Manhole Material

Manholes will be of reinforcement cement concrete.

2.9.5 Building Connections

Cleanouts will be used for single building connections and these will be constructed just outside
the boundary of each property served.

2.9.5.1 Inspection Chambers

Inspection chambers will be used for multiple building connections. Chambers will be
constructed just outside the boundary of each property served and will be sufficiently deep to allow
connection with the drain/sewer within the boundary at satisfactory gradients and to ensure that the
connection to the sewer will have a minimum cover of 1.0 m. The diameter of inspection chambers will
be 900 mm.

3 CONNECTION PIPE SIZE AND GRADE

Connection pipes will be 150 mm diameter or greater depending on the population of the
buildings and the available grade.

3.1 Connection to Sewer

 All connections to the main sewer made will be through Y r T fittings.
 Risers will be incorporated in the building connection where the depth of sewer exceeds 2.5
metres

3.1.1 Ventilation
 Ventilation of sewers is necessary to avoid the build-up of noxious gasses and to minimize septic
conditions.
 In developed areas sewers will naturally ventilate through the ventilation stacks provided as part
of each building sanitary system. Therefore, there is no need of additional ventilation stacks.

4 LAYOUT FOR SEWER:

4.1 Specimen:
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5 DRAINAGE SYSTEM
5.1 Capacity:
The capacity of storm water drainage is calculated according to Burkliziegler formula taking into
consideration, slope of calculated area, type of development and intensities of rainfall based on rational
assessment of the last 10 years covering 80% of rain storms.

This discharge is calculated as follows:

𝑺
Q = ARC × 4 ×√
𝑨

Where:

Q = Discharge in cusecs

A = Drainage area in acres

S = Average slope of the water shed in feet per thousand feet

C = Co-efficient of impermeability

R = Average intensity of rainfall in inches per hours.

Value of “R” depends upon the time of concentration i.e. T, which is the time taken for water to flow
from omits of the area under consideration to a specific point of the sewer. This also includes time of
entry whose usual values are as below:

• Large mansions is very large plots 2 min

• Semi detached houses 1 min
• Closely built area 1½ min
•
According to Punjab Engineering Congress paper No. 295 (1952) on analysis of heavy rainfall in short
periods at Lahore by R. S.M. Naqvi.

This formula is applicable only to maximum intensity of rainfalls and is limited to a

duration of 45 minutes, Where T = Duration of heavy rainfall in minutes.

For other cases the following value of “R” may be adopted.

R = 30/T + 10
When T = 5 to 30 minutes (Time of concentration)

R = 40/T + 20
When T = 20 to 100 minutes.

Where time of concentration cannot be calculated, the following formula is used for finding out the
discharge:

Q = 6.5 × R × A × C
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

Where

Q = Discharge in cubic ft/min

R = Average intensity of rainfall in inches/hours.

A = Drainage area in acres

C = Co-efficient of impermeability

The percents of imperviousness of various types of surfaces very commonly used are those of Kuichiling
which are shown below: “Vide page 344 of book Water Supply & Sewerage by E.W. Steel, 1947”

Co-efficient of
Type of Surface
impermeability

Water tight of roof surface 0.70 – 0.95

Asphalted pavements in good order 0.35-0.90

Stone, brick and wood-block pavement with tightly cemented

0.75-0.85
joints

Same with un cemented joints 0.70-0.80

Inferior block pavement with un cemented joints 0.70-0.80

Atomized roadways 0.25-0.00

Gravels roadways & walks 0.15-0.30

Parks, gardens, lawns, meadows, depending and surface slope and

0.05-0.25
character of sub-soil.

The percent of imperviousness for the whole area is then arrived at after estimating on ascertaining the
proportions of the various surfaces to the whole area.
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

Following figures which are usually adopted may serve as good guide:

Surface Co-efficient

Most densely built up area 0.70 - 0.90

Adjacent well built up sections 0.50 - 0.70

Residential areas with detached houses 0.25 – 0.50

Sub urban sections with few buildings 0.10 – 0.25

6 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL

6.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS:
6.2 Property Boundary
The buffer zone between the discharged MSW and the property boundary should be at least 50 meters of
which the 15 meters closest to the property boundary must be reserved for natural or landscaped screening
(berms or vegetative screens).

6.2.1 Other Facilities

The distance between the discharged MSW and the nearest residence, water supply well, water supply
intake, hotel, restaurant, food processing facility, school, church or Public Park is to be a minimum of 300
meters

6.3 Airports
The distance between an airport utilized by commercial aircraft and a landfill containing food wastes
which may attract birds is to be a minimum of 8.0 kilometers, unless bird control measures acceptable to
Transport Canada and approved by the Manager are instituted or the potential for birds causing hazard to
aircraft is minimal.

6.4 Surface Water

The distance between the discharged MSW and the nearest surface water is to be a minimum of 100
meters. Greater or lesser separation distances may be approved by the Manager where justified by hydro
geological investigations or by provision of surface water diversion works to reroute the watercourse of
concern.

6.5 Floodplain
Landfills proposed for locations within the 200 year floodplain and the associated floodway are not to be
sited without adequate protection to prevent washouts. Designs for flood protection will be referred by the
Manager to the Water Management Branch of the Water Management Division of the Ministry of
Environment for comment. The Manager retains the final authority for approval.
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

6.6 Unstable Areas

Landfills are not to be located within 100 meters of an unstable area.

7 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SOLID WASTE

The following clauses have been written to give guidance in designing MSW landfills.

7.1 Landfill Design Approach

Landfills are to be designed to minimize environmental impact and risk and to ensure compliance with the
Performance Criteria. In order to do this, the design must be based on a sound knowledge of the
environmental setting including climate, surface and subsurface drainage, geology, groundwater, ecology
as well as economic and social factors and must be carried out by qualified professionals.

The design criteria listed below identify two types of landfills: "natural control landfills" which utilize the
attributes of the site's natural setting (e.g. low permeability soils) to control emissions such as leachate or
landfill gas and "engineered landfills" which use engineered systems (e.g. leachate and gas collection
systems) to compensate for inadequacies in the natural abilities of the site to restrict off-site
environmental impacts.

Some landfills will not fall into these precise types but will contain components of each. The design
criteria listed below are not necessarily the best achievable technology for every landfill site and merely
following the criteria does not absolve the designers from taking full responsibility and liability for their
design.

7.1.1 Natural Control Landfills

The following criteria apply to "natural control" landfills which do not rely on leachate containment /
collection / disposal systems:

 The bottom-most solid waste cell is to be 1.2 meters above the seasonal high water table. Greater
or lesser separation depths may be approved based on soil permeability and the leachate
renovation capability of the soil.
 There is to be at least a 2 meters thick layer of low permeability soil with a hydraulic conductivity
of 1 x 10-6 cm/s or less (i.e. silt or clay), below each of the bottom-most waste cells. Lesser
thicknesses or no layer of low permeability soil may be approved based on the potential for
leachate generation and the unsaturated depth, permeability and leachate renovation capability of
the existing soil.

7.1.2 Engineered Landfills

The following criteria apply to "engineered" landfills which have leachate containment / collection /
disposal systems:

 The minimum liner specification for leachate containment systems is a 1 meter thick, compacted
soil liner with a hydraulic conductivity of 1 x 10-7 cm/s or less. Minimum bottom slopes of the
liner are to be 2 percent on controlling slopes and 0.5 percent on the remaining slopes. Natural,
in- situ, low permeability soils, geomembranes, or composite liners (consisting of a
geomembranes and a soil layer) which provide the same level of leachate containment are
Environmental Engineering – II Assignment No: 05

acceptable equivalents. Liners with higher hydraulic conductivities may be approved depending
on the leachate generation potential and the unsaturated depth, permeability and leachate
renovation capability of the existing soil.
 Minimum specifications for leachate collection systems are a 0.3 meter thick sand drainage layer
having a hydraulic conductivity of 1 x 10-2 cm/s or greater. Synthetic drainage nets which
provide an equivalent hydraulic conductivity are an acceptable alternative.
 If there is any concern for the precipitation of leachate constituents causing a plugging problem,
the leachate collection system is to be designed to prevent such precipitation from occurring. The
drainage layer is to be designed with appropriate grades and collection piping so that the leachate
hydraulic head on the liner does not exceed 0.3 meter at any time.

7.2 Water
The disposal of municipal solid waste into water is unacceptable. Surface water diversion to restrict storm
water runoff from contacting the wastes is required.

7.3 Final Cover

Final cover for landfill sites is to consist of a minimum of 1 meter of low permeability (<1 x 10 - 5 cm/s)
compacted soil plus a minimum of 0.15 meter of topsoil with approved vegetation established. The depth
of the topsoil layer should be related to the type of vegetation proposed (i.e. rooting depth). Soils of
higher permeability may be approved based on leachate generation potential at the landfill site. Final
cover is to be constructed with slopes between 4% and 33% with appropriate run-on/run-off drainage
controls and erosion controls. An assessment of the need for gas collection and recovery systems shall be
made so that, in the event such systems are required, cover can be appropriately designed and constructed.
Final cover is to be installed within 90 days of landfill closure or on any areas of the landfill which will
not receive any more refuse within the next year. Completed portions of the landfill are to progressively
receive final cover during the active life of the landfill.

Additional layers of natural materials including earth and aggregate and/or synthetic materials may be
necessary for inclusion in the final cover design due to site specific conditions and the presence of
management systems for leachate and landfill gas.

7.4 Access Road

An appropriately constructed and maintained access road to and a road system within the landfill site
capable of supporting all vehicles hauling waste are required during the operating life of the landfill.

7.5 Fencing and Access

Fencing is required around the perimeter of the landfill. The type and extent of fencing will depend on the
existing natural vegetation and topographic features and is to be approved by the Manager. All access
points are to have locking gates.

8 REFRENCES
 Lecture notes by ‘Dr. Naeem Ejaz’ UET Taxila
 TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM 10 (Summary of Water Planning and Design Criteria)
 UNDP-World Bank (Water and Sanitation Program)