COVER

CH E 511A
SEPARATION PROCESSES AND INTRODUCTION
TO PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY

A Compilation of Notes Presented to the

Faculty of the Department of Chemical Engineering

School of Engineering and Architecture

Saint Louis University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

by

2-3 M-F Class

1st Semester S.Y. 2015-2016

December 2015

ii
CONTRIBUTORS

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER ........................................................................................................................................................... i
Title Page...................................................................................................................................................... ii
CONTRIBUTORS ......................................................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................ iv
I. MOLECULAR DIFFUSION ......................................................................................................................... 1
A. EQUIMOLAR COUNTERDIFFUSION IN GASES .................................................................................. 1
B. UNICOMPONENT DIFFUSION IN GASES ........................................................................................... 5
C. EQUIMOLAR DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS ................................................................................................ 8
D. UNICOMPONENT DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS ...................................................................................... 11
E. DIFFUSION WITH CHANGE IN PATH LENGTH ............................................................................... 18
F. DIFFUSION THROUGH VARYING CROSS-SECTION......................................................................... 20
G. DIFFUSION THROUGH A CIRCULAR CONDUIT OF VARYING CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA ............ 22
II. MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT THROUGH KNOWN AREAS ............................................................ 26
III. HUMIDIFICATION ................................................................................................................................ 32
A. USE OF PSYCHROMETRIC CHART ................................................................................................... 32
B. ADIABATIC HUMIDIFICATION ......................................................................................................... 37
C. DEHUMIDIFICATION/AIR CONDITIONING ..................................................................................... 43
D. WATER COOLING .............................................................................................................................. 45
IV. DRYING OF SOLIDS .............................................................................................................................. 50
A. DRYING .............................................................................................................................................. 50
B. DRYING WITH HUMIDIFICATION .................................................................................................... 59
V. GAS ABSORPTION ................................................................................................................................. 62
VI. EVAPORATION ..................................................................................................................................... 82
A. SINGLE EFFECT ................................................................................................................................. 82
B. MULTIPLE EFFECT............................................................................................................................ 97
VII. VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIA ............................................................................................................ 108
VIII. DISTILLATION ................................................................................................................................. 113
A. FLASH DISTILLATION..................................................................................................................... 113
B. DIFFERENTIAL DISTILLATION ...................................................................................................... 124
C. RECTIFICATION ............................................................................................................................... 128
IX. SOLID-LIQUID EXTRACTION ............................................................................................................. 137

iv
 A. CONSTANT SOLVENT UNDERFLOW ............................................................................................ 137
B. CONSTANT SOLUTION UNDERFLOW............................................................................................ 141
C. VARIABLE UNDERFLOW ................................................................................................................ 144
X. LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION ............................................................................................................ 152
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 159

v
I. MOLECULAR DIFFUSION

A. EQUIMOLAR COUNTERDIFFUSION IN GASES

Problem 1.1
A mixture of helium and nitrogen gas is contained in a pipe at 298K at 1 atm total pressure which is
constant throughout. At one end of the pipe at point 1 and the partial pressure Pa,1 of He is 0.60 atm
and at the other end 0.2m, Pa,2=0.20 atm. Calculate the flux of the He. At steady state, Dab of the He-
N2 mixture is 0.687x10 -4 m2/s.

Solution:
−Dv
Ja = Na = (ρm)(ya2 − ya1)
BT

Pt 1atm kmol
ρm = RT = m³.atm
= 0.0409 m³
0.08205 (298 K)
kmol.K

Pa2 0.20 atm

Ya2= Pt
= 1atm
= 0.20

Pa1 0.60atm
Ya1= Pt
= 1atm
= 0.60

m2
0.687x10−4 kmol 𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
s
Na, He = Ja = 0.20 m
(0.0409 m3
) (0.20 − 0.60) = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟏𝟗𝟒𝐱𝟏𝟎 − 𝟔 𝐦².𝐬

1
Problem 1.2
Ammonia gas (A) is diffusing through a uniform tube 0.10m long containing N2 gas (B) at 1.0132x105
Pa and 298 K. The diagram is similar to the figure below. At point 1, Pa1 = 1.103x104 Pa and at point
2, Pa2= 0.507x104Pa. The diffusivity is 0.23x10-4 m2/s.

0.10 m

1 2

Solution:
−Dv
Ja = Na = (ρm)(ya2 − ya1)
BT
1.0132x105 Pa
Pt 1.01325x105 Pa kmol
ρm = RT = m³.atm
= 0.0409 m³
0.08205 (298 K)
kmol.K

Pa2 0.507x104 Pa
Ya2= Pt
= 1.0132x105 Pa
= 0.0500

Pa1 1.103x104 Pa
Ya1= Pt
= 1.0132x105 Pa = 0.1089

m2
−0.23x10−4 kmol 𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
s
Na, NH3 = Ja = 0.10 m
(0.0409 m3
) (0.1089 − 0.0500) = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟑𝟑𝟎𝐱𝟏𝟎 − 𝟕 𝐦².𝐬

2
Problem 1.3
Methane diffuses at steady state through a tube containing helium. At point 1 the partial pressure of
methane is pA1 = 55 kPa and at point 2, 0.03 m apart, pA2 = 15 KPa. The total pressure is 101.32 kPa,
and the temperature is 298 K. At this pressure and temperature, the value of diffusivity is 6.75x10-
5 m 2/sec.

(a) Calculate the flux of CH 4 at steady state for equimolar counter diffusion.
(b) Calculate the partial pressure at a point 0.02 m apart from point 1.

GIVEN:

Dv= 6.75x10 –5 m 2/sec

CH4 He Pt = 101.32 kPa
T= 298 K
PA1=55 kPa PA2=15 kPa

0.03 m

REQUIRED: a. NA b. PA at 0.02 m

SOLUTION:
a.) For steady state equimolar counter diffusion, molar flux is given by
Dv
NA = RTB (PA1 − PA2 )
T

6.75x10 –5
NA = 𝑘𝐽 (55 − 15)kPa
(8.314 )(298K)(0.03m)
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾

kmol
𝐍𝐀 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟑𝟑x𝟏𝟎-5 m2.sec

b.)
Dv
NA = RTB (PA1 − PA2 )
T

kmol 6.75x10 –5
3.633x10-5 = (8.314)(298)(0.03) (55 − PA )
m2 .sec

PA = 28.33 kPa

3
Problem 1.4
In a gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, steady state equimolar counter diffusion is occurring at a
total pressure of 100 kPa and temperature of 20C. If the partial pressures of oxygen at two planes
0.01 m apart, and perpendicular to the direction of diffusion are 15 kPa and 5 kPa, respectively, and
the mass diffusion flux of oxygen in the mixture is 1.6x10 –5 kmol/m 2.sec, calculate the molecular
diffusivity for the system.
GIVEN:

Pt = 100 kPa
H2 O2 T= 20C
NA= 1.6x10 –5 kmol/m 2.sec
PA1=15 kPa PA2=5 kPa

0.01 m

REQUIRED: DAB
SOLUTION:
𝐷𝑣
𝑁𝐴 = (𝑃 − 𝑃𝐴2 )
𝑅𝑇𝐵𝑇 𝐴1
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐷𝐴𝐵
1.6𝑥10 – 5 = (15 − 5)
𝑚 2. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (8.314 𝑘𝐽
) (20 + 273)𝐾(0.03𝑚)
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾

DAB = 3.898x10 –5 m 2/sec

4
B. UNICOMPONENT DIFFUSION IN GASES

Problem 1.5
An open circular tank 8 m in diameter contains n-propanol at 25OC exposed to the atmosphere in
such a manner that the 5 mm thick. The concentration of n-propanol beyond the stagnant film is
negligible. The vapor pressure of n-propanol at 25OC is 20 mmHg. If n-propanol is worth $ 1.20/L,
what is the value of the loss of n-propanol from this tank in dollars per day? S.G. of N-propanol is 0.80.
GIVEN:

PO propanol = 20 mmHg
Cost = $ 1.20/Liter
SG = 0.8
ID = 8 m
REQUIRED: cost of loss
SOLUTION:
𝑃𝐴 𝑃0𝐴 𝑋𝐴 (20 mmHg)(1)
𝒴𝐴1 = = = = 0.0232
𝑃𝑇 𝑃𝑇 760 mmHg
𝑃𝑇 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝜌𝑚= = = 0.0409
𝑅𝑇 𝑚3 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑚3
(0.08205 ) (25 + 273)𝐾
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
𝐷𝑣𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟,273𝐾,1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0.085 cm2 /s

𝑇 1.81 1 𝑐𝑚2 1𝑚 2 298𝐾 1.81 1

𝐷𝑣𝑇,𝑃 = 𝐷𝑣273𝐾,1𝑎𝑡𝑚 ( ) ( ) = 0.085 ( ) ( ) ( ) = 9.9608 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
273 𝑃 𝑠 100𝑐𝑚 273𝐾 1
𝒴𝑎2 = 0 (𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟)
𝐷𝑣 𝜌𝑚 1 − 𝒴𝐴2
𝑁𝐴,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 = ln
𝐵𝑇 1 − 𝒴𝐴1
𝑚2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
(9.9608 𝑥 10−6 𝑠 ) (0.0409 3 ) 1−0 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚
= ln = 2.1733 𝑥 10−6 2
5 1 − 0.02632 𝑚 𝑠
(1000 𝑚)

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝜋 2 2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 1000𝐿 𝐿
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = (2.1733 𝑥 10−6 2
) ( ∗ 8 𝑚 ) (60 ) ( )( 3
) = 0.008193
𝑚 𝑠 4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 800𝑘𝑔 1𝑚 𝑠

𝐿 $1.20 3600𝑠 24ℎ𝑟

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 0.008193 ∗ ∗ ∗ = $𝟖𝟒𝟗. 𝟒𝟓𝟒𝟖/𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝑠 𝐿 1ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

5
Problem 1.6
Ethanol vapor is being absorbed from a mixture of alcohol vapor and water vapor by means of a non-
volatile solvent in which alcohol is soluble but water is not. The temperature is 97°C, and the total
pressure is 760 mm Hg. The alcohol vapor can be considered to be diffusing through a film of alcohol-
water vapor mixture 0.1 mm thick. The mole percent of the alcohol in the vapor at the outside of the
film is 80 percent, and that on the inside, next to the solvent, is 10 percent. Calculate the rate of
diffusion of alcohol vapor in kg/hr if the area of the film is 10 m2.
GIVEN:
A= 10m2
@Pt. 2 %ethanol = 80% 𝒴𝐴1 = 0.80
@Pt. 1 %ethanol = 10% 𝒴𝐴2 = 0.10
PT= 1 atm
T=25OC Dv25C,1atm= 0.15 cm2/s
REQUIRED:
a.) NA
b.) ṁA if A=10m2
SOLUTION:
𝐷𝑣 𝜌𝑚 1 − 𝒴𝐴2
𝑁𝐴,𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 = ln
𝐵𝑇 1 − 𝒴𝐴1
𝑃𝑇 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝜌𝑚= = = 0.0329
𝑅𝑇 𝑚3 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑚3
(0.08205 ) (97 + 273)𝐾
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾

𝑇 1.81 1
𝐷𝑣𝑇,𝑃 = 𝐷𝑣97𝐶,1𝑎𝑡𝑚 ( ) ( )
273 𝑃
𝑐𝑚2 1𝑚 2 97 + 273𝐾 1.81 1
𝐷𝑣298𝐾,1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0.15 ( ) ( ) ( ) = 2.2192 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑠 100𝑐𝑚 25 + 273𝐾 1
𝑚2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐷𝑣 𝜌𝑚 1 − 𝒴𝐴2 (2.2192 𝑥 10−5 ) (0.0329 3 ) 1 − 0.10 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑠 𝑚
𝑁𝐴,𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 = ln = ln = 0.01302 2
𝐵𝑇 1 − 𝒴𝐴1 .1 1 − 0.80 𝑚 𝑠
(1000 𝑚)

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑔 3600 𝑠
ṁ𝑨 = (0.01302 2
) (10 𝑚2 ) (46 )( )
𝑚 𝑠 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 ℎ𝑟

ṁA = 21, 561.12 kg/hr

6
Problem 1.7
An Arnold cell is used to measure the diffusivity of acetone in air at 20°C and 100 kPa pressure. At
time= 0, the liquid acetone surface is 1.10 cm from the top of the tube and after 8 hours of operation,
the liquid surface drops to 2.05 cm. if the concentration of acetone in air that flows over the top of
the tube is zero, what is the diffusivity of acetone in air? At 20°C, the vapor pressure of acetone is 24
kPa and density is 790 kg/m3.
Given:

P°acetone= 24 kPa
ρ acetone= 790 kg/m3

Required: D acetone-air @ 20°C, 100 kPa

Solution:
(𝑧2 2 − 𝑧1 2 )(𝜌𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 )
𝐷𝑣 =
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐴2
2𝑡𝑓 𝜌𝑚 𝑀𝑊 ( 1 )
(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝐴 )𝐿
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑇 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ( )
101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜌𝑚 = = 3
𝑚 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑅𝑇 0.08205 (20+273) 𝐾
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾

𝜌𝑚 = 0.0411 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚3

𝑃𝐴1 = 𝑃°𝐴 𝑥𝐴 = 24 𝑘𝑃𝑎(1) = 24 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑃𝐴2 = 0 𝑘𝑃𝑎
(𝑃𝑇 −𝑃𝐴2 )−(𝑃𝑇 −𝑃𝐴1 ) (100−0)−(100−24)
(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝐴 )𝐿 = 𝑃𝑇 −𝑃𝐴
= 100−0 = 87.4518 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑙𝑛( 1) 𝑙𝑛( )
100−24
𝑃𝑇 −𝑃𝐴
2

𝑘𝑔
(0.02052−0.01102 )𝑚2 (790 3 )
𝑚
𝐷𝑣 = 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑔 24−0 3600𝑠
2(8ℎ)(0.0411 )(58 )( )( )
𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 87.4518 1ℎ

𝒎𝟐
𝑫𝒗 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒔

7
C. EQUIMOLAR DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS

Problem 1.8
Estimate the rate of mass transfer in the distillation of the system methanol(1)-ethanol (2) under
the following conditions:
GIVEN:
Temperature = 70𝑜 𝐶 Pressure = 101.325 kPa Composition in the vapour = 0.497
The Fick diffusion coefficient = 9.1𝑥10−6 𝑚⁄𝑠 Film thickness = 1mm

SOLUTION:
The first step is to calculate the molar density from the ideal gas law
𝑃
𝐶=
𝑅𝑇
101.325
𝐶= = 35.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄ 3
(8.3143)(343.15) 𝑚

The mass transfer coefficient is:

𝐷
𝑘=
𝐿
9.1𝑋10−6
𝑘= = 9.1𝑥10−3 𝑚⁄𝑠
1𝑋10−3
THE FILM THEORY

Composition profile in the vapour phase

during the distillation of methanol and
ethanol. Arrows indicate actual
directions of mass transfer.

It is common to assume equimolar

counterdiffusion in distillation.

𝑁 = 𝑐𝑘(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )

𝑁 = 35.5 (9.1𝑥10−3 )(0.497 − 0.567) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝒐𝒍⁄ 𝟐

𝒎 𝒔

8
Problem 1.9

Calculate the rate of diffusion of butanol at 20C under equimolar counter diffusion conditions
between two plates, 0.1 cm apart and perpendicular to the direction of diffusion. The concentrations
of butanol at the opposite sides are 10% and 4% butanol by weight, respectively. The diffusivity of
butanol in water solution is 5.9x10–6 cm2/sec. The densities of 10% and 4% butanol solutions at 20C
may be taken as 0.971 and 0.992 g/cc, respectively. Molecular weight of butanol (C4H9OH) is 74, and
that of water is 18.
GIVEN:
BT= 0.1 cm Dv= 5.9x10–6 cm2/sec
Point 1: 10 wt % butanol 𝜌10%= 0.971 g/cm3

Point 2: 4 wt % butanol 𝜌4% = 0.992 g/cm3

REQUIRED: NA
SOLUTION:
For steady state equimolar counter diffusion, N A = - N B = const

DAB DAB DAB

NA = (CA1 − CA2 ) = C(X A1 − X A2 ) = C (X − X A2 )
BT BT BT ave A1

(10/74) (4/74)
𝑋𝐴1 = = 0.0263 𝑋𝐴2 = = 0.0100
10 90 4 96
+
74 18 +
74 18

̅̅̅̅1 = (0.0263)(74)+(1-0.0263)(18)= 19.4728

𝑀
̅̅̅̅
𝑀2 = (0.0100)(74)+(1-0.0100)(18)= 18.5600

ρ ρ 0.971 .992
( 1 )+( 2 ) ( )+( ) mol
M1 M2 19.4728 18.5600
Cave = 2
Cave = 2
= 0.0517 cm3

DAB
NA= C (X − X A2 )
BT ave A1
cm2
5.9x10−6 s mol
NA= (0.0517 ) (0.0263 − 0.0100)
0.1 cm cm3

𝐦𝐨𝐥
NA= 4.9720x10-8𝐜𝐦𝟐−𝐬

9
Problem 1.10
In a liquid mixture of acetic acid and water, steady state equimolar counter diffusion is occurring at
a temperature of 20oC. If the concentrations of acetic acid at two planes 0.01 m apart and
perpendicular to the direction of diffusion are 15 wt% and 5 wt%, respectively, and the mass
diffusion flux of acetic acid in the mixture is 0.956x10-9 m2/s, calculate the molecular diffusivity for
the system. The densities of water at the said concentrations are 1013 kg/m 3 and 1004 kg/m3,
respectively.
GIVEN:
Acetic acid-water mixture @ 20oC
BT= 0.01 m Dv= 0.956x10–9 m2/sec
Point 1: 15 wt % acetic acid 𝜌15%= 1013 kg/m3

Point 2: 5 wt % acetic acid 𝜌5% = 1004 kg/m3

REQUIRED: NA
SOLUTION:
For steady state equimolar counter diffusion, N A = - N B = const
DAB DAB DAB
NA = (CA1 − CA2 ) = C(X A1 − X A2 ) = C (X − X A2 )
BT BT BT ave A1

(15/60) (5/60)
𝑋𝐴1 = = 0.0503 𝑋𝐴2 = = 0.0155
15 85 5 95
+
60 18 +
60 18
̅̅̅̅1 = (0.0503)(60)+(1-0.0503)(18)= 20.1126
𝑀
̅̅̅̅
𝑀2 = (0.0155)(60)+(1-0.0155)(18)= 18.6510

ρ ρ 1013 1004
(M1 ) + (M2 ) ( )+( ) kmol
Cave = 1 2
= 20.1126 18.6510 = 52.0987
2 2 m3

DAB
NA= C (X − X A2 )
BT ave A1

m2
0.956x10−9 s kmol
NA= (52.0987 ) (0.0503 − 0.0155)
0.01 m m3

𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
NA= 1.7333x10-7𝐦𝟐−𝐬
10
D. UNICOMPONENT DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS

Problem 1.11
An ethanol-water solution in the form of a stagnant film 2.0 mm thick at 293K is in contact at one
surface with an organic solvent in which ethanol is soluble and water is insoluble. In point 1, the
concentration of ethanol is 16.8 wt% and the solution density is 972.8 kg/m3. At point 2, the
concentration of ethanol is 6.8 wt% and the solution density is 988.1 kg/m3. The diffusivity of ethanol
is 0.740x10-9 m2/s. Calculate the steady-state flux of ethanol.
GIVEN:
Ethanol-water vapor

16.8 wt% EtOH

T=293 K 978.2 kg/m3
DV=0.74x10-9 cm2/s
BT=2 mm

6.8 wt% EtOH

998.1 kg/m3
Ethanol
Required: NA
Solution:
Unicomponent Diffusion
𝐷𝑣𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑒 1 − 𝑋𝑎1
𝑁𝐴 = [𝑙𝑛 ]
𝐵𝑇 1 − 𝑋𝑎2

𝜌 𝜌
(16.8/46) (6.8/46) ( 1 )+( 2 )
𝑀1 𝑀2
𝑋𝑎1 = 16.8 83.2 = 0.0732 𝑋𝑎2 = 6.8 93.2 = 0.0278 𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2
+ +
46 18 46 18

̅̅̅̅1 = (0.0732)(46)+(1-0.0732)(18)= 20.0496

𝑀
̅̅̅̅
𝑀2 = (0.0278)(46)+(1-0.0278)(18)= 18.7784

972.8 998.1
(20.0496) + (18.7784) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = 50.8356
2 𝑚3

𝑚2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
(0.740𝑥10−9 )(50.8356 3 ) 1−0.0732 𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑠 𝑚
𝑁𝐴 = 2 (𝑙𝑛 1−0.0278) = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟓𝟓𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎-7 𝒎𝟐−𝒔
( 𝑚)
1000

11
Problem 1.12
The solute HCl (A) is diffusing through a film of H2O (B) 2.00 mm thick at 283 K. The concentration
of HCl at point 1 at one boundary of the film is 12.0 wt % HCl (density=1060.7 kg/ m 3) and at the
other boundary at point 2 is 6.0 wt % HCl (density=1060.7 kg/ m3). The diffusion coefficient of HCl
in water is 2.5x10-9 m2 /s. Assuming steady-state and one boundary impermeable to water, calculate
the flux of HCl in kmol/m2-s.
GIVEN:
𝑘𝑔
𝜌12%= 1060.7 𝑚3 BT= 2 mm

𝑘𝑔 𝑚2
𝜌6%= 1030.3 𝑚3 Dv= 2.5 x 10-9 𝑠

REQUIRED: NA
SOLUTION:
𝐷𝑣𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑒 1 − 𝑋𝑎1
𝑁𝐴 = [𝑙𝑛 ]
𝐵𝑇 1 − 𝑋𝑎2
(12/36.45) (6/36.45)
𝑋𝑎1 = 12 88 = 0.0631 𝑋𝑎2 = 6 94 = 0.0306
+ +
36.45 18 36.45 18

𝜌 𝜌
( 1)+( 2)
𝑀1 𝑀2
𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2

̅̅̅̅1 = (0.12)(36.45)+(1-0.12)(18)= 20.2140

𝑀
̅̅̅̅
𝑀2 = (0.06)(36.45)+(1-0.06)(18)= 19.1070

1060.7 1030.3
(20.2140) + (19.1070) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = 53.1981
2 𝑚3

𝑚2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
(2.5𝑥10−9 𝑠 ) (53.1981 3 ) 1 − 0.0631
𝑚
𝑁𝐴 = (𝑙𝑛 )
2 1 − 0.0306
( 𝑚)
1000

𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒍
NA= 2.2676 x 10-6 𝒎𝟐−𝒔

12
Problem 1.13
Calculate the rate of diffusion of sugar through a stagnant film of coffee 0.10 cm thick when the
concentrations at 15% and 5%, respectively, on either side of the film. Assume the diffusivity of sugar
2
through coffee under the given conditions to be 0.70x10−5cms and the density of a 10% solution is
g
1.0139 .
cc.

GIVEN:
15% wt sugar cm2
Dv = 0.70x10−5 s

ρ10% wt = 1.439 g/cc
0.10 cm

 REQD:NA
5% wt coffee = stagnant

SOLUTION:
5⁄ 15⁄
𝑋𝐴2 = 342 = 0.00276 𝑋𝐴1 = 342 = 0.00920
5⁄ + 95⁄ 15⁄ + 85⁄
342 18 342 18
10⁄
𝑋10% = 342 = 0.00581
15⁄ + 90⁄
342 18

𝑀10% = (0.0581 )(342 ) + ( 1 − 0.00581 )( 18 )

𝑀10% = 19.8824 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
ρ10% 1.0139 g/cc
Cave = = = 0.05100 mol/cc
M10% 19.8824 g/mol

cm2 1𝑚 2
(0.70x10 − 5 s ) (100 𝑐𝑚) (51 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚3 ) 1 − 0.00276
NA = ln
0.10𝑥10 − 2 1 − 0.00920

𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝐍𝐀 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎 − 𝟕 𝒔
𝒎𝟐

13
Problem 1.14
Ammonia- water solution at 278 k and 4.0 mm thick is in contact at one surface with an organic liquid
at this interface. The concentration of ammonia in the organic phase is held constant and is such that
the equilibrium concentration of ammonia in water at this surface is 2% by wt. ammonia (density of
aqueous solution is 991.7 kg/m3.) and the concentration of ammonia in water at the other end of the
film 4 mm thick away is 10%(density of 961.7 kg/m3). Water and the organic are insoluble in each
other. The diffusion coefficient of NH3in water is 1.24x10-9m2/ s.
Given:
NH3-H2O
T= 278K 4mm

Ya1= 10% ( = 961.7 kg/m3 )

Ya2 = 2 % (  = 991.7 kg/m3 )

Required: a) calculate the flux of Na
b) calculate the flux of Nb

Solution:
10 2
17 17
xa1 = 10 90 = 0.1053 xa2 = 2 98 = 0.0212
+ +
17 18 17 18

MW1=( 0.1053x 17 ) + ( (1- 0.1053)x18 ) = 17. 8947 kg/kmol

MW2 = ( 0.0212x 17) + ( (1- 0.0212)x18 ) = 17.9778 kg/kmol

961.7 991.7
+ kmol
Cave = 17.8947 17.9778 = 54.4523
2 cm3

m2 kmol
(1.24x10−9 )(54.4523 3 ) 1−0.0212 𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
s m
Na = 4x10−3
ln 1−0.1053 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝟔𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐦𝟐 𝐬

b.) Nb = 0 since it was stated in the problem that the water and the organic liquid are insoluble

14
Problem 1.15

Calculate the rate of diffusion of butanol at 20C under unidirectional steady state conditions through
a 0.1 cm thick film of water when the concentrations of butanol at the opposite sides of the film are
10% and 4% butanol by weight, respectively. The diffusivity of butanol in water solution is 5.9x10–6
cm2/sec. The densities of 10% and 4% butanol solutions at 20C may be taken as 0.971 and 0.992
g/cc, respectively. Molecular weight of butanol (C4H9OH) is 74, and that of water is 18.

Solution:
Equation derived for diffusion in gases equally applies to diffusion in liquids with some modifications.
Mole fraction in liquid phases is normally written as xA = CA/C and the concentration term, C, is

replaced by average molar density,   .
 M  av
a) For steady state equimolar counter diffusion, N A = - N B = const

C A1  C A2   AB C x A1  x A2   DAB    x A1  x A 2 
D AB D
NA
z z z  M  av (1)
b) For steady state diffusion of A through non diffusive B, N A = constant and N B = 0

D AB   
NA   x A1  x A2 
z x B ,lm  M  av
(2)
where z = z2 – z1, the length of diffusion path; and

x B 2  x B1
x B ,lm 
x 
ln  B 2 
 x B1 
(3)

To calculate the rate of diffusion of A (butanol) under steady state unidirectional diffusion, use (2).

Conversions from weight fraction the mole fraction give the following:

x A1 
0.1 74   0.026 x A2 
0.04 74  0.010
0.1 74  0.9 18 and
0.04 74  0.96 18

Average molecular weight at 1 & 2 are given by the following:

15
 1 1
M1   19.47 kg kmol M2   18.56 kg kmol
0.1 74  0.9 18 and
0.04 74  0.96 18

   1 M 1   2 M 2  0.971 19.47  0.992 18.56

   
 M  av 2 2  0.0517 mol cm 3  51.7 k mol m3

(3) gives,

x B ,lm 
x B 2  x B1

1  x A2   1  x A1  1  0.01   1  0.026 
ln x B 2 x B1   1  x A2  
ln    1  0.01  0.016
ln     0.982
 1  x A1   1  0.026  0.0163

D AB    x A1  x A2 
Therefore N A   
2  M  avg x B , lm

5.9  10 6  10 4  51.7 0.026  0.010

 
0.1  10 2 0.982
kmol
NA = 4.97 ×10 -7
m 2 ×sec

16
Problem 1.16
Calculate the rate of diffusion of trichloroacetic acid across n a methanol solution 2mm thick at 20𝑜 𝐶
when the concentration of the acid on the methanol are 6% and 2% by weight of acid. The densities
of 6% and 2% acid solution are 1012 kg/𝑚3 and 1003 kg/𝑚3 respectively. The diffusivity at infinite
dilute of trichloroacetic acid in methanol at 20𝑜 𝐶 is 1.862 𝑥 10−9 𝑚2 /𝑠.
GIVEN:

T= 293 K Z=2 mm = 0.002 m 𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 1.862 𝑥 10−9 𝑚2 /𝑠.

𝑀𝐴 = 163.5 𝑀𝐵=32 Density of 6% acid= 1012 kg/𝑚3

Density of 2% acid = 1003 kg/𝑚3

SOLUTION:
0.06
163.5
For 6% acid, 𝑋𝐴1 = 0.06 0.94 = 0.01234 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
+
163.5 32

𝑋𝐵1 = (1 − 0.01234) = 0.9876 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

0.02
163.5
For 2% acid, 𝑋𝐴2 = 0.02 0.98 = 0.00397 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
+
163.5 32

𝑋𝐵1 = (1 − 0.00397) = 0.9876 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

0.9960 − 0.9876
𝑋𝐵𝑀 = = 0.9918
0.9960
𝑙𝑛
0.9876

for 6% acid, for 2% acid,

Where, M represents the molecular weight of

the mixture.
Substituting the values:

The rate of diffusion of trichloroacetic acid: 2.392 x 10-7 kmol m-2s-1

17
E. DIFFUSION WITH CHANGE IN PATH LENGTH

Problem 1. 17
A long glass capillary tube of diameter of 0.01 cm is in contact with H20 at one end and dry air at the
other. Water evaporates at the wet end within the capillary toward the dry end. How long will 1 gram
of H2O need to evaporate through this system? The vapor pressure of H2O is 17.5 mmHg at 20oC which
is the temperature of the system. Take the diffusivity of H2O-air at 20oC to be 0.2 m2/s and assume
the dry air pressure is 760 mmHg. Assume that distance from wet end interface within capillary tube
to dry end is always 10 cm.
Given:

T=20oC
P=760 mmHg
PoA=17.5 mmhg
DH2O-air=0.2 m2/s

Req’d: tf to evaporate 1g of H20

Sol’n:

PA1= PoA XA= 17.5 mmHg x 1=17.5 mmHg

PA2=0
1g H20
pA= =1273.2395g/cm3
((𝛑x0.012)/4)x10cm

760 mmHg
pM= 3 −atm mmHg
=.0416 kmol/m3
.08205m
kmol−K
x(20+273)Kx760 atm

17.5𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
YA1= =.023
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

𝟑 𝟑
((𝟏𝟎/𝟏𝟎𝟎)𝐦𝟐 −𝟎)(𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟑.𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟓 𝐠/𝐜𝐦3 𝐱(𝟏𝟎𝟎 )𝐱𝐦
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐠
tF= 𝟐 𝒌𝒈
= 1.8296x106 seconds
𝟐𝒙.𝟐𝒎𝒔 𝒙.𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟔𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝟏−𝟎
𝟑 𝒙𝟏𝟖𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒙𝒍𝒏(𝟏−.𝟎𝟐𝟑 )
𝒎

18
Problem 1.18

Calculate the time it will take to evaporate a 10 mm unknown liquid at 35oC (p=40 lb/ft3,MW=60
lb/lbmol) in a 5-m diameter circular tank. The pressure at 25oC is 180 mmHg,the pressure is
atmospheric and the diffusivity is equal to 0.0329 ft2/hr .The stagnant air film is 3 mm.

Given:

Ho=10 mm H H=0

Req’d: tF
Sol’n:
𝐷𝑣 𝑝𝑀 1−𝑌𝐴2
NA= 𝑙𝑛
𝐵𝑇 1−𝑌𝐴1

180𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
YA1= =.2368
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

𝑚̇
NA= 𝑀𝑤 𝑥𝐴1
𝐴

𝑑𝑉
But: 𝑚̇=pA X 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐻
- =𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1𝑎𝑡𝑚
pM= =2.55x10-3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚3
.08205𝑥(25+273)

𝑝 𝑑𝐻
𝐴𝑥 𝐷𝑣 𝑝𝑀 1−𝑌
𝑀𝑊𝐴
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐵𝑇
𝑙𝑛 1−𝑌𝐴2
𝐴1

𝒑𝑨 𝒙𝒁𝒙(𝑯𝒐−𝑯𝒇)
𝒕𝑭 = 𝟏−𝒀𝑨𝟐
= 𝟗. 𝟓 𝒉𝒓𝒔
𝑴𝑾𝑨 𝒙𝑫𝒗𝒙𝐩𝐌 𝐱𝒍𝒏
𝟏−𝒀𝑨𝟏

19
F. DIFFUSION THROUGH VARYING CROSS-SECTION

Problem 1.19
A sphere of naphthalene having a radius of 2.0 mm is suspended in a large volume of still air at 318K
and 1.01325 x105 Pa (1 atm). The surface temperature of the naphthalene can be assumed to be at
318K and its vapor pressure at 318K is 0.555 mmHg. The DAB of naphthalene in air at 318K is 6.92
x10-6 m2/s. Calculate the rate of evaporation of naphthalene from the surface.

Given:
r = 2mm P = 1 atm
DAB = 6.92 x10-6 m2/s T = 318K
P°A = 0.555 mmHg

Required: nA

Solution:
1 − 𝑌𝐴2
𝑛𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝜌𝑚 𝑙𝑛
1 − 𝑌𝐴1

𝑃 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝜌𝑚 = = 3 = 0.0383
𝑅𝑇 𝑚 . 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑚3
(0.08205 )(318𝐾)
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 . 𝐾

𝑃𝐴° (𝑋𝐴 ) 0.555 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 (1)

𝑌𝐴1 = = = 7.3026𝑥10−4
𝑃 760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1−0
𝑛𝐴 = 4𝜋(0.002𝑚)(6.92𝑥10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠)(0.0383 )𝑙𝑛
𝑚3 1 − 7.3026𝑥10−4

𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝒏𝑨 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
𝒔

20
Problem 1.20
Calculate the time required for the sublimation of 3 g of naphthalene from a naphthalene ball of mass
4 g kept suspended in a large volume of stagnant air at 45°C and 1.103 bar pressure. Diffusivity of
naphthalene in air under the given conditions is 6.92 x10-6 m2/s, its density is 1140 kg/m3, and its
sublimation pressure at 45°C is 0.8654 mmHg.

Given:
Initial mass of ball, m1 = 4 g MW = 128 g/mol
Final mass of ball, m2 = 1 g ρa = 1140 kg/m3
DAB = 6.92 x10-6 m2/s Vapor pressure of
P = 1.103 bar naphthalene = 0.8654 mmHg = 1.1538 x10-3 bar
T = 45°C = 318K

Required: tF
Solution:

𝜌𝑎 (𝑟22 − 𝑟12 )
𝑡𝐹 =
1 − 𝑌𝑎2
2𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝜌𝑚 𝑀𝑊𝑙𝑛
1 − 𝑌𝑎1 3 3𝑚1 3 3(0.004 𝑘𝑔)
𝑟1 = √ = √ = 0.0094 𝑚
4𝜋𝜌𝑎 𝑘𝑔
4𝜋(1140 3 )
𝑚
4
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = (𝑉𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 )(𝜌𝑎 ) = ( 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑎 )
3
𝑃 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝜌𝑚 = =
𝑅𝑇 𝑚3 . 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(0.08205 )(318𝐾)
3 3𝑚2 3 3(0.001 𝑘𝑔)
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 . 𝐾
𝑟2 = √ = √ = 0.0059 𝑚 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
4𝜋𝜌𝑎 𝑘𝑔 = 0.0383
4𝜋(1140 3 ) 𝑚3
𝑚

𝑃° 𝑎(𝑋𝑎) 1.1538 𝑥 10−3 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (1)

𝑌𝑎1 = = = 1.1390𝑥10−3
𝑃 1.013 𝑏𝑎𝑟

𝑘𝑔 2 2
1140
3 (0.0094𝑚 − 0.0059𝑚 ) 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑡𝐹 = 𝑚 ( )
−6
6.92 𝑥 10 𝑚 2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1−0 3600 𝑠
2( )(0.0383 3 )(128 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙)𝑙𝑛
𝑠 𝑚 1 − 1.1390𝑥10−3

𝐭 𝐅 = 𝟐𝟏𝟗. 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟔 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬

21
G. DIFFUSION THROUGH A CIRCULAR CONDUIT OF VARYING CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA

Problem 1.21
Ammonia gas (A) is diffusing at steady-state through N2 by equimolar counter-diffusion in a circular
conduit 1.22 m long at 25°C and a total pressure of 101.32 kPa absolute. The partial pressure of
ammonia at the left end is 25.33 kPa and 5.066 kPa at the other end. The conduit has a diameter of
0.0305 m at the left end and tapering uniformly to 0.0610 m at the right end. The diffusivity is 0.023
x 10-4 m2/s. Calculate the rate of diffusion of ammonia.

Given:
r1 r r2
PA,2 = 5.066 kPa
PA,1 = 25.33 kPa NA
d2 = 0.0610 m
d1 = 0.0305 m

Z
1 2
Z = 1.22 m
PT = 101.32 kPa
T = 25°C
Dv= 0.023 x 10-4 m2/s
Required:
Rate of Diffusion, Nammonia
Solution:
*Equimolar counter diffusion
𝜕𝑦𝐴
𝑁𝐴 = −𝑁𝐵 ; 𝐽𝐴 = −𝐽𝐵 𝑁𝐴 = −𝐷𝑉 𝜌𝑚 𝜕𝑏

But:
𝑛𝐴
𝜕𝑏 = 𝜕𝑧 𝑁𝐴 = 𝐴
; 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

Then:
𝜕𝑦𝐴 𝑛𝐴
−𝐷𝑉 𝜌𝑚 𝜕𝑏
= 𝜋𝑟 2

By similar triangles:

r1 r r1 r2

z z

22
𝑟 − 𝑟1 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
=
𝑧 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
r varies:
𝑟−𝑟1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑘 = 𝑧
𝑟 = 𝑘𝑧 + 𝑟1

𝜕𝑦𝐴 𝑛𝐴
−𝐷𝑉 𝜌𝑚 =
𝜕𝑏 𝜋(𝑘𝑧 + 𝑟1 )2
𝑦𝐴,2 𝑧1
𝜕𝑧
𝜋(−𝐷𝑣 𝜌𝑚 ) ∫ 𝜕𝑦𝐴 = 𝑛𝐴 ∫
𝑦𝐴,1 𝑧2 (𝑘𝑧 + 𝑟1 )2

𝑢 = 𝑘𝑧 + 𝑟1 ; 𝜕𝑢 = 𝑘𝜕𝑧
𝑛𝐴 1 1
𝜋(𝐷𝑣 𝜌𝑚 )(𝑦𝐴,1 − 𝑦𝐴,2 ) = ( − )
𝑘 𝑘𝑧2 + 𝑟1 𝑘𝑧1 + 𝑟1
𝝅𝒌𝑫𝒗 𝝆𝒎 (𝒚𝑨,𝟏 − 𝒚𝑨,𝟐 )
𝒏𝑨 =
(𝟏⁄𝒌𝒛 + 𝒓 ) − (𝟏⁄𝒌𝒛 + 𝒓 )
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

But:

𝑃𝑇 101.32 𝑘𝑃𝑎[1 𝑎𝑡𝑚⁄101.325𝑘𝑃𝑎]

𝜌𝑚 = =
𝑅𝑇 (0.08205 𝐿 ∙ 𝑎𝑡𝑚⁄
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑘 )(25 + 273)𝐾
𝜌𝑚 = 0.0409 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
𝑃𝐴,1 25.33 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑦𝐴,1 = = = 0.25
𝑃𝑇 101.32 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝐴,2 5.066 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑦𝐴,2 = = = 0.05
𝑃𝑇 101.32 𝑘𝑃𝑎
0.0610⁄ − 0.0305⁄ )𝑚
𝑟 − 𝑟1 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ( 2 2
𝑘= = =
𝑧 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 1.22 𝑚 − 0
𝑘 = 0.0125

mol 1000𝐿
𝜋(0.0125)(0.023 x 10−4 𝑚2 /s)(0.0409
) (0.05 − 0.25)
L [ 1 𝑚3 ]
𝑛𝐴 =
1 1
−
(0.0125)(1.22𝑚) + (0.0305⁄2)𝑚 (0.0125)(0) + (0.0305⁄2)𝑚

𝒏𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝟑𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒎𝒐𝒍/𝒔

23
Problem 1.22
Test tubes of tapered shape are sometimes used in the laboratories. Consider a 15 cm tall tapered
test tube, open at the top. Half of the tube (to a depth of 7.5 cm) is full of ethyl acetate (A) at 25°C.
The diameter of the test tube at the top is 20 mm and that at the bottom is 12 mm. Calculate the rate
of evaporation loss of the ester at the beginning. The ambient temperature is 25°C and the pressure
is 1.013 bar. The data for the ester are given as follows: MW= 88; ρ = 900 kg/m3; Vapor pressure at
25°C = 0.1264 bar; Dv = 8.66 x 10-6 m2/s.
Given:

d1 = 20 mm
z=0

MW = 88
ρ = 900 kg/m3
L = 15 cm

Dv = 8.66 x 10-6 m2/s

d P°A = 0.1264 bar; PA = P°AXA = (0.1264 bar) (1) = 0.1264 bar
PT = 1.013 bar
z = 7.5 cm

T = 25°C

2 cm

d2 = 12 mm

(neglect the curvature at the bottom of the tube)

Required:
Initial rate of vaporization loss, nethyl acetate @z=7.5cm

Solution:
*Diffusion of A through non-diffusing B

−𝐷𝑉 𝑃𝑇 𝜕𝑝𝐴
𝑁𝐴 =
𝑅𝑇(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑝𝐴 ) 𝜕𝑏

But:
𝜕𝑏 = 𝜕𝑧

24
 𝑛𝐴
𝑁𝐴 = ; 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴
𝑛𝐴
𝑁𝐴 =
𝜋𝑟 2

@r = r1
𝑟1 − 𝑟2
𝑟 = 𝑟1 − 𝑧
𝐿
Then:
−𝐷𝑉 𝑃𝑇 𝜕𝑝𝐴 𝑛𝐴
= 2
𝑅𝑇(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑝𝐴 ) 𝜕𝑧 𝜋𝑟
𝜋(−𝐷𝑣 𝑃𝑇 ) 𝑝𝐴 𝜕𝑝𝐴 𝑧
𝜕𝑧
∫ = 𝑛𝐴 ∫ 2
𝑅𝑇 0 (𝑃𝑇 − 𝑝𝐴 ) 𝑟 −𝑟
0 (𝑟1 − 1 𝐿 2 𝑧)

𝑟1 − 𝑟2 2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = (𝑟1 − 𝑧)
𝐿
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 = − (𝑟 − 𝑟2 )
𝐿 1
𝜋(𝐷𝑣 𝑃𝑇 ) 𝑃𝑇 𝜕𝑢
ln ( ) = −𝑛𝐴 𝐿 ∫ 2
𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑝𝐴 𝑢 𝑟1 − 𝑢2 𝑟2
𝜋(𝐷𝑣 𝑃𝑇 ) 𝑃𝑇 𝜕𝑢
ln ( ) = −𝑛𝐴 𝐿 ∫ 2
𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑝𝐴 𝑢 (𝑟1 − 𝑟2 )
𝜋(𝐷𝑣 𝑃𝑇 ) 𝑃𝑇 −𝑛𝐴 𝐿 𝜕𝑢
ln ( )= ∫ 2
𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑝𝐴 (𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ) 𝑢
𝜋(𝐷𝑣 𝑃𝑇 ) 𝑃𝑇 𝑛𝐴 𝐿
ln ( )=
𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑝𝐴 𝑢(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 )
𝝅(𝑫𝒗 𝑷𝑻 ) 𝑷𝑻 𝒓𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐
𝑹𝑻 𝐥𝐧 (𝑷𝑻 − 𝒑𝑨 ) (𝒓𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 ) (𝒓𝟏 − 𝑳 𝒛)
𝒏𝑨 =
𝑳
1.013
𝜋(8.66𝑥10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠) ( 𝑎𝑡𝑚) 1.013
𝑛𝐴 = { 1.01325 ln ( ) (0.02 − 0.012)𝑚 [0.02𝑚
3
(0.08205 𝑚 ∙ 𝑎𝑡𝑚⁄𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾 ) (25 + 273.15)𝐾 1.013 − 0.1264

0.02 − 0.012 1
−( ) (.075𝑚)]}
0.15 0.15 𝑚

𝒏𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒍/𝒔

25
II. MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT THROUGH KNOWN AREAS

Problem 2.1
WETTED WALL TOWER

Liquid Sh = 0.023Re0.81Sc0.44

Gas

A wetted wall column has an internal diameter of 2 inch and is to be supplied with water at the top
and is at supplied by air at the bottom. The air velocity is to be 8.3 ft/s and the average air
temperature is 15C at atmospheric condition. Estimate the mass transfer coefficient.

GIVEN:
Water

P=1atm
Air T=15C=59F

D= 2 in

REQUIRED: K
SOLUTION:

kDM
Sh = = 0.023 Re0.81Sc0.44
ρDv

DG DVρ μ
Re = = ; Sc =
μ μ ρDv

Vair = 8.3 ft / s
D = 2 / 12 ft

26
 1.75
 15  273.15  ft 2
DV  0.853    0.9367
 273.15  hr

Assume :airisideal


PM

1atm 29  0.0765 lb
RT  0.730259  460  ft 3

air  0.0185cp

Re  

DV  2 / 12ft  8.3ft / s  0.0765lb / ft
3

 8512.30695

  
0.0185 6.72x104 lb / ft.s 
Sc 
0.01856.72x10  lb / ft.s
4

 0.62457
 ft 2   1h 
 3

0.0765lb / ft  0.9367   
hr   3600s 


Sh  0.023 8512.30695 0.62457 

0.8 0.44
 28.5182

 2  lb 
k  ft  29 
 12  lbmol 
28.5182 
lb  ft 2 
0.0765 3  0.9367 
ft  hr 

lbmol
k = 0.4228
ft 2 .hr

27
Problem 2.2
FLOW PAST A SINGLE SPHERE

Sh = 2+0.6 Re1/2Sc1/3

Calculate the value of the mass transfer coefficient and the flux for a mass transfer from a sphere of
naphthalene to air at 45C and 1 atm abs flowing at a velocity of 0.305 m/s. The diameter of the
sphere is 25.4 mm. The diffusivity of naphthalene in air at 45C is 6.92x10-6m2/s and the vapor
pressure of solid naphthalene is 0.555 mm Hg.
REQUIRED: kY, NA
SOLUTION:

1 - y A2
N A = k y ln
1 - y A1
k y DM DVρ μ
Sh = Re = Sc =
ρDv μ ρDv

Assume : Air behaves as an ideal gas

ρ=
PM
=
1atm 29 kg
= 1.109 3
RT  m .atm 
3
m
 0.08205   45+273.15
 kmol.K 
μ air @45°C = 0.019cp

 25.4   m  kg 
 1000 m   0.305 s   1.1109 3 
Re =     = 452.9679
m
-3 kg
0.019x10
m.s
-3
0.019x10
Sc = = 2.4716

1.1109 6.92x10-6 

Sh = 2+0.6  Re  Sc 
1/2 1/3

Sh = 2+0.6  452.9679  2.4716  = 19.2654

1/2 1/3

28
  kg   m2 
19.2654  1.1109 3   6.92x10-6 
ShρDv  m  s  kmol
ky = = = 2.0106x10-4 2
DM  25.4   kg  m .s
 1000 m   29 kmol 
  

1 - y A2
N A = k y ln but y A2 = 0
1 - y A1
P°x 0.555
y A1 = = = 7.3026x10-4
PT 760
1 kmol
N A = 2.0106x10-4 ln = 1.4688x10-7 2
1 - 0.00073 m .s

29
Problem 2.3
FLOW PAST A BED OF SPHERES

Sh = 1.17 Re0.585Sc1/3
Air at 40C and 2.0 atm is passed through a shallow bed of naphthalene spheres 12mm in diameter
at a rate of 2m/s, based on the empty cross section of the bed. The vapor pressure of naphthalene is
0.35 mmHg. How many kilograms per hour of naphthalene will evaporate from 1m3 of bed, assuming
a bed porosity of 40%.

GIVEN:

D=12mm
P=0.35 mm =0.40
Hg

D of bed=26 mm

T=40C

Air

2m/s

REQUIRED: kg/hr from 1m3 of packed bed

SOLUTION:
4 3
εV = πr  no. of spheres 
3
3
4  6 
 3
0.6 1m = π   m   no. of spheres 
3  1000 
no. of spheres = 663,145.5962
2
 6 
  663145.5962 = 300m
2
A = 4π 
 1000 

DVρ
12x10 m   2 ms 
-3
 2.257340077

kg 
3
m 

Re = = = 2928.441181
μ kg
-3
0.0185x10
m.s

30
Assuming that air is an ideal gas

2 atm   29 kmol 
kg

ρ=
PM
=   kg
= 2.257340077 3
RT  m .atm 
3
m
 0.08205   40+273.15 K
 kmol.K 
μ = 0.0185 cp

1.75
 ft 2 cm2 / s   273.15+ 40   2 atm  cm2
DV =  0.199 x0.2581 2    1 atm  = 0.13047752
 hr ft / h   273.15    s

kg
0.0185x10-3
μ m.s - 0.628114819
Sc = =
ρDv kg
2.253740077 3
m

Sh = 1.17  2928.441181  0.628114819

0.585 1/3
= 106.868053
2
 kg   cm2   1 m 
 106.868053  2.257340077  0.3047752 
s   100 cm 
ShρDV  m3   kmol
kY = = = 0.021127361 2
DM  kg  m .s
12x10-3 m  29 
 kmol 

0.35 mm Hg
y A1 = = 2.302631579x10-4
2 760 mm Hg 
 1 - y A2  2  kg  kg  3600 s 
m = 0.02112731 ln
1 - y A1 

 300 m  29  
 kmol 
= 0.0423 
s  1 hr   = 152.3847
kg
hr


31
III. HUMIDIFICATION

A. USE OF PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

Problem 3.1
Given: T = 25°C Tw =20°C
Required: (a) RH, (b) Tdp, (c) HR, (d) v, (e) h

a) RH = 63%
b) Tdp = 17.6°C

c) HR = 12.6 g/kg dry air

d) v = 0.86 m3/kg dry air
e) H = 57.5 kJ/kg dry air

32
Problem 3.2
Two and a half cubic meters of lumber is being dried at 60°C dry bulb temperature and 52°C wet
bulb temperature.
a) Determine the humidity ratio at this given temperature.
b) If outside air is at 27°C dry bulb temperature and 80% relative humidity, determine the humidity
ratio at this given conditions
Solution:

Answer: a) 92 g/kg d.a

b) 18 g/kg d.a

33
Problem 3.3

An air-water system at 101.325 kPa has a dry bulb temperature of 238K and is 10% saturated with
vapor. Using the psychrometric chart, determine:

a.) ɣ c.) Cs e.) ɣs g.) % ɣ

b.) PH2O d.) Twb f.) P°H2O h.) Tdew

Solution:

a.) ɣ

10% RH

ɣ = 9.8x10-3 kg H2O/kg dry air

Tdb @ 131°F
𝑃𝐻2𝑂 18
b.) ɣ = 𝑃𝑇−𝑃𝐻2𝑂 (29)

𝑃
𝐻2𝑂 18
9.8x10-3 = 101.325−𝑃 (29) ; PH2O = 1.5749 kPa
𝐻2𝑂

c.) Cs = ɣCPA + CPB

𝑙𝑏 𝐻2𝑂 𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝑩𝑻𝑼
Cs = (9.8𝑥10−3 ) 𝑙𝑏 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (0.45) 𝑙𝑏 °𝐹 + 0.24 𝑙𝑏 °𝐹 = 0.2444 𝒍𝒃 𝒅.𝒂.°𝑭

d.) Twb

10% RH

Twb Twb = 26.5°C or 79.7 °F

Tdb = 131 °F

34
e.)

10% RH
𝒍𝒃 𝑯𝟐𝑶
100% ɣs = 0.11 𝒍𝒃 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒊𝒓

Tdb = 131°F

𝑃°𝐻2𝑂 18
f.) ɣs = ( )
𝑃𝑇−𝑃°𝐻2𝑂 29

𝑙𝑏 𝐻2𝑂 𝑃°𝐻2𝑂 18
0.11 𝑙𝑏 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
= ( )
101.325−𝑃°𝐻2𝑂 29

𝑷°𝑯𝟐𝑶 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂

ɣ
g.) % ɣ = ɣ𝑠x 100

9.8𝑥10−3
%ɣ= 0.11
𝑥100 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟎𝟗𝟏%

h.) Tdew

10% RH

100%

𝒍𝒃 𝑯𝟐𝑶
ɣ = 9.8 x10-3 𝒍𝒃 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒊𝒓

T dew T db = 131 °F

35
Problem 3.4

The wet bulb and dry bulb temperature of air are 313 K and 333 K, respectively. Determine:
a.) ɣ b.) ɣs c.) PH2O d.) P°H2O e.) %RH f.) Tdew
Solution:

a.)

Twb = 313 K

𝒌𝒈 𝑯𝟐𝑶
ɣ = 40x10-3 𝒌𝒈 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒊𝒓

Tdb = 333 K

b.) ɣs

19.8702 18
ɣs = 101.325−19.8702 (29)

𝒍𝒃 𝑯𝟐𝑶
ɣs = 0.1514 𝒍𝒃 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒊𝒓

c.) PH2O

𝑃𝐻2𝑂 18
40𝑥10−3 = ( ) ; 𝑃𝐻2𝑂 = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
101.325−𝑃𝐻2𝑂 29

d.) P°H2O

760 𝑚𝑚ℎ𝑔 1730.63

log (𝑃°𝐻2𝑂 𝑥 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎) = 8.07131 − 233.246+60°𝐶
; 𝑃°𝐻2𝑂 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟕𝟎𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂

e.) %RH

6.1345
%RH = 19.8702 𝑥 100 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟐𝟗%

f.) T dew

100% %RH

𝑘𝑔 𝐻2𝑂
Tdew ɣ = 40 𝑥 10 −3 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 Tdew = 37 °C

36
B. ADIABATIC HUMIDIFICATION

Problem 3.5
Previously dehumidified air containing 0% moisture at 60°C is let to be cooled in an adiabatic
saturator to 50°C. Compute for the absolute humidity and relative humidity at the exit point.
𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝑘𝐽
Assume: Cs = 1𝑙𝑏𝑚 °𝐹 ,ʎ@ 35° = 2400
𝑘𝑔

Given: Ts = 60°C RH%

ɣ

Required: RH and ɣ at exit point

Solution:
a.)
𝐵𝑇𝑈 1.8 °𝐹 2.205 𝑙𝑏𝑚 1..0544 𝑘𝐽
ɣ2− ɣ1 𝐶𝑠 ɣ2−0 (1 )( )( )( )
𝑙𝑏𝑚 °𝐹 1°𝐶 1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑇2−𝑇1
= ʎ𝑇2
; 50−60
= 𝑘𝐽
2400
𝑘𝑔

𝒌𝒈 𝑯𝟐𝑶
ɣ𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝑲 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒊𝒓
b.) %RH
𝑃𝐻2𝑂 18
0.0174 = ( ); 𝑃𝐻2𝑂 = 20.7244 𝑚𝑚ℎ𝑔
760−𝑃𝐻2𝑂 29

@T = 50°C ; P°H2O = 92.2999 mmHg (using Antoine’s Equation)

20.7244 𝑚𝑚ℎ𝑔
%𝑅𝐻 = 92.2999 𝑚𝑚ℎ𝑔
𝑥 100 = 22.4533 %

37
Problem 3.6
An adiabatic saturator is going to treat air having a temperature of 40°C and 20% relative humidity
and after which, the treated air will be treated to 70°C having a 60% relative humidity. Find the
entrance and exit absolute humidity for the whole process and the kilograms of water absorbed in
the saturation if given 100 kg/hr of entering dry air.
Given: Ti = 40°C Tf = 70°C
RHi = 20% RHf = 60%
Required: ɣ1, ɣ2, and water absorbed
Solution:
@Ti ; P°H2O = 55.1928 mmHg (using Antoine’s Equation)
PH2O =(0.20)( P°H2O) = (0.20)(55.1928) = 11.0386 mmHg
11.0386 18 𝒌𝒈 𝑯𝟐𝑶
ɣ1 = 760−11.0386 (29) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝒌𝒈 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒊𝒓

@Tf; P°H2O = 233.1733 mmHg

PH2O = (0.60)(233.1733) = 139.9040 mmHg
139.9040 18 𝒌𝒈 𝑯𝟐𝑶
ɣ2 = 760−139.9040 (29) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒊𝒓

H2O absorbed = m dry air (ɣ2 - ɣ1)

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2𝑂 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2𝑂
= (100 ℎ𝑟 )(0.1400 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
− 0.0091 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟)

𝒌𝒈 𝑯𝟐𝑶
= 13.09 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓

38
Problem 3.7
1000 cfm of air are to be cooled from 90°F to 72°F by the use of a horizontal spray type humidifier
employing a counter flow of air and water. The air has an initial humidity of 0.011 lb water vapor per
lb of dry air. The unevaporated water collects inside the apparatus to be recirculated to the spray
nozzles and makeup water at 70°F is fed to the pump. Calculate the following based on the data given
below:
a.) Cross section of spray chamber in ft2
b.) Lbs of water sprayed per hour
c.) Lbs of makeup water per hour
d.) Length of spray chamber in ft
e.) Humidity of air leaving
Data: assume the spray chamber operates adiabatically with normal barometric pressure when
spraying 1200 lb water per hour per ft2 of cross section, the overall coefficient of heat transfer is 90
BTU/hr°Fft3 of spray chamber. Air rate of 2400 lb/hft2
Given:
70°F
1200 lb/hft2 70°F

72°F 90°F
Air rate=2400 lb da/hft2 10000 ft3/min
Uga=90 BTU/hft3°F ϒ1=0.011 lb water/lb da
Req’d:
a.) S, ft2
b.) Lb water sprayed/h
c.) Lb make up water/h
d.) Z, ft
e.) ϒa

Sol’n:
𝑓𝑡3𝑎𝑡𝑚
1 0.011 (0.7302 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑅 )(90+460)𝑅
Vh= [29 + 18
] 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Vh= 14.0940 ft3/lb da
10000 𝑓𝑡3/𝑚𝑖𝑛
W= 14.0940 𝑓𝑡3/𝑙𝑏𝑑𝑎 W= 709.5218 lb da/min

a.) S, ft2

39
 𝑚𝑖𝑛
709.5218 𝑙𝑏𝑑𝑎/ min (60 )
ℎ𝑟
S= 2400 𝑙𝑏𝑑𝑎/ℎ𝑓𝑡2
S= 17.74 ft2

b.) Lb water sprayed/h

Lb water sprayed/h= 1200 lb water/hft2 (17.74 ft2)
Lb water sprayed/h= 21288 lb water/h

c.) Lb makeup water/h

Lb makeup water/h= W(ϒa – ϒb)

70°F
ϒa= 0.016

ϒ1= 0.011

72°F 90°F

ϒa= 0.016 lb water/lb da

Lb makeup water/h= 709.5218 lbda/min (60 min/hr) (0.016 – 0.011) lb water/lb da
Lb makeup water/h= 212.8565 lb water/hr

d.) Z, ft
Wcs(Tya – tyb)=Uga(Ty – Ts)lnSZ
(0.24+(0.45∗0.011))+(0.24+(0.45∗0.016))
Cs=
2

Cs= 0.2461 BTU/lb°F

(90−70)−(72−70)
(Ty – Ts)ln = 90−70 (Ty – Ts)ln = 7.8173
ln
72−70

709.5218∗0.2461∗(90−72)∗60
Z= 90∗7.8173∗17.74
Z= 15.1094 ft

40
 Problem 3.8
We wish to make our office building more comfortable by conditioning the air. We feel that the
scheme shown in the figure below is appropriate:
Air to building: 1x105 ft3/hr at 70°F, 50%RH
Recycle air: 5x104 ft3/hr at 70°F, 50%RH
Fresh air: 40°F, 10%RH
The humidifier will be designed so that the air leaving will be at 85%RH. Design coefficients
humidifier: hya= 80 BTU/ft3hr preheater: U= 20 BTU/ft3hr°F

Given:
50%RH
70°F
85%
Preheater Adiabatic humidifier heater Office building

1 2 3 4 5

5x104 ft3/hr, 70°F, 50%RH, hya= 80

BTU/ft3hr
Req’d:
a)Fresh air ft3/min b)Humidifier volume
Sol’n:
@ pt 5
𝑓𝑡3𝑎𝑡𝑚
1 0.008 (0.7302 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑅 )(70+460)𝑅
50%RH Vh= [29 + 18 ] 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

Vh= 13.5170 ft3/lb da

1𝑥105 𝑓𝑡3/ℎ𝑟
Mda entering building= 13.5170 𝑓𝑡3/𝑙𝑏𝑑𝑎
ϒ= 0.008
Mda entering building = 7398.0913 lb da/hr

70®F
5𝑥104 𝑓𝑡3/ℎ𝑟
Mda recycled air= 13.5170 𝑓𝑡3/𝑙𝑏𝑑𝑎

Mda fresh air= mdryair entering – mrecycled air

Mda fresh air= 7398.0913 – 3699.0456
Mda fresh air= 3699.0457 lb da/hr

41
 @ pt 1
𝑓𝑡3𝑎𝑡𝑚
1 0.005 (0.7302 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑅 )(40+460)𝑅
10%RH Vh= [29 + 18
] 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

Vh= 12.6 ft3/lb da

Fresh air= 12.6 ft3/lb da (3699.0457 lb da/hr)
(1hr/60min)
ϒ= 0.0005
Fresh air= 776.7996 ft3/min

40°F

85%RH SZ= volume humidifier

50%RH
Wcs(Tya – tyb)=Uga(Ty – Ts)lnSZ
(0.24+(0.45∗0.008))+(0.24+(0.45∗0.0065))
Cs= 2

Cs= 0.2433 BTU/lb°F

(70−52)−(55−52)
(Ty – Ts)ln =
ϒ= 0.008 70−52
ln
55−52

(Ty – Ts)ln = 8.3717

7398.0913∗0.2433∗(70−55)∗60
70°F SZ=
T4=55°F 80∗8.3717

SZ= 40.3136 ft3

42
C. DEHUMIDIFICATION/AIR CONDITIONING

Problem 3.9

2000 ft3 per hour of air at 110F, saturated with vapor, is to be dehumidified. Part of the air is sent
through a unit where it is cooled and some water condensed. The air leaves the unit saturated at
60F. It is then remixed with air which by-passed the unit. The final air contains 0.02 lb H2O/ lb d.a.
Determine the humidity of the original air. (b) The amount of water condensed in lbm/hr (c) lbs dry
air bypassed per lb of dry air sent to the dehumidifier.
GIVEN:
X

ADIABATIC
2000 cu.ft/hr =0.02 lb H2O/lb d.a
saturated SATURATOR

T=110F

REQUIRED:

a) 1 b) water condensed c) lb dry air/ lb dry air by passed to the dehumidifier

SOLUTION:
a) From the psychrometric chart
lb H2O lb H2O
Η1 = 0.059 Η2 = 0.0111
lb d.a lb d.a
b) TMB :
H2O condensed = md.a  Η1 - Η3 
For the original air :
ft 3 air 2000 ft 3 air
νH = 0.0252+0.0405  0.059   110+ 460  = 15.73 m d.a = = 127.18 lb d.a
lb d.a ft 3 air
15.73
lb d.a
lb H2O lb H2O
H2O condensed = 127.18 lb dry air 0.059 - 0.02 = 4.96
lb d.a lb d.a

Around the dehumidifier :

H2O condensed = md.a @ 2 Η1 - Η2 
lbs
md.a = 103.33
hr

md.a @x md.a @1 - md.a @2 127.18 -103.33 lb dry air by passed

= = = 0.2308
md.a @2 md.a @2 103.33 lb dry air fed to the dehumidifer

43
Problem 3.10

Moist warm air is to be cooled and dehumidified to a wet – bulb temperature of 30C using water of
25C in a dehumidification column. The air enters the tower with a dry – bulb temperature of 85C
and wet – bulb temperature of 45C at 4800 kg/m2h. The overall gas phase mass transfer coefficient
is estimated to be 2150 kg/m3h. The flow rate of water is 1.4 times the minimum. Calculate the height
of the tower.

Given: TG1=85°C; TW1=45°C

From psychrometric chart, Y1=0.065kg moisture/kg dry air and H1=210kJ/kg dry air.


or, Y=0.047 and H1=[(1.005+1.88x0.047)x85+2500x0.047]kJ/kg =210.4 kJ/kg

Wet-bulb temperature of outlet air is 30°C. Y2 = 0.027 kg moisture/kg dry air and H2 = 98kJ/kg.
We have,
inlet water temperature, TL2=25°C
Locate top point Q(TL2, H2) (lower terminal of operating line) at Q(25,
98) on TL- H plane.
The enthalpy of feed moist air at the bottom point P (upper terminal) of the
dehumidification tower is 210 kJ/kg. But the temperature of the exit water is unknown.

Calculation of minimum water rate:

The equilibrium line is convexed downward. The “pinch point” is obtained by drawing the horizontal line
through H1= 210 kJ/kg to meet equilibrium line at P. Points Q and P/ are joined. Line QP/ is the operating
line for minimum water flow rate. The water temperature at P is TL1,max=45°C (TW1).

𝐺1
𝐺𝑠 =
1 + 𝑌1′
4800
𝐺𝑠 = 1+0.065 = 4507.04 kg/h.m2


Gs(H1’ – H2’) = Ls,min (TL1,max – TL2)(CwL)

4507.04(210-98) = Ls, min (45 – 25) (4.187)
Ls, min = 6028. 05 kg/h.m2

44
D. WATER COOLING

Problem 3.11
1000 gallon of water is to be cooled on a forced draft cooling tower from 1050F to 850F. The cooling
air has the following data:
Entering air: Outgoing air:
Tdry bulb=700F %RH=65% PT= 29.7 psia Tdry bulb=970F %RH=100%
The total volume of the tower is 2150 ft3.
Determine:
a) ft3 of air entering/min
b) ft3/min of the water evaporated
c) determine the overall heat transfer coefficient

Given:
VT = 2150ft3
Req’d:
a) Qdry air , ft3/min
b) QH2O
c) Uga

Sol’n:
a) mH2OCpH2O(Txa-Txb)= md.a(Ha-Hb)
mH20=1000gal/min(1ft3/7.481gal)(61.92lb/1ft3) =8,276.9683 lb/min
%RH= (PA /P0A) x 100
Antoine’s Equation:
Entering : Leaving:
1730.63 1730.63
logP0A = 8.07131-( 233.426+21.1111 ) logP0A = 8.07131-( 233.426+36.1111 )

P0A = 18.7147mmHg(14.7 psi/760mmHg) = P0A = 44.7261 mmHg (14.7 psi/760mmHg) =

0.3620 psi 0.8651 psi
For entering air:
PA =%RH x P0A PA = 0.65 x 0.3620 psi = 0.2353 psi

45
For leaving air:
PA =%RH x P0A PA = 1 x 0.8651 psi = 0.8651 psi
PA 18 0.8651 18
Ya=PT−PA ( 29) Ya=29.7−0.8651 ( 29) = 0.0186
0.2353 18
Yb=29.7−0.2353 ( 29) = 0.0050

Ha= [Cpg+Cpvλ](T-To)+λ0Y
Ha= [0.24 BTU/lb.0F + 0.45 BTU/lb.0F(0.0186)](97-32)0F+ (1075BTU/lb)(0.0186) = 36.1391
BTU/lb
Hb=[0.24 BTU/lb.0F + 0.45 BTU/lb.0F(0.0050)](97-32)0F+ (1075BTU/lb)(0.0186) = 14.5805
BTU/lb
(8,276.9683 lb/min)(1BTU/lb.0F)(105-85)0F= md.a(36.1391-14.5805) BTU/ lb
Md.a= 7,678.5768 lb/min
1 𝑌 𝑅𝑇 1 0.0050 0.7302 𝑥 (70+460)
VH = [29 + 18]( 𝑃 ) VH = [29 + 18
]( 1 )= 6.6583 ft3/lb d.a
29.7( )
14.7

Qdry air = VH x Md.a = 6.6583 ft3/lb d.a(7,678.5768 lb/min)

Qdry air = 51,126. 2679 ft3/min

b) €= Md.a(Ya-Yb) = 7,678.5768 lb/min(0.0186-0.0050) €=104.4286 lbH2O/min

QH2O= € x 1/ρ QH2O= 104.4286 lbH2O/min x 1ft3/61.92 lb

QH2O= 1.6865 ft3/min

C )MdaCsave(Tya-Tyb) = Uga(Tx-Ty)ln SZ
Cs=(Cpg+CpY)
Csa= 0.24 Btu/lb.0F + 0.45 Btu/lb.0F(0.0186) = 0.2484 Btu/lb.0F
Csb= 0.24 Btu/lb.0F + 0.45 Btu/lb.0F(0.0050) = 0.2423 Btu/lb.0F
0.2484+0.2423
Csave= 2
= 0.2454 Btu/lb.0F
(105−97)−(85−70)
(Tx-Ty)ln = (105−97) = 11.13570F
𝑙𝑛
(85−70)

7,678.5758(0.2454)(97−70)
Uga=
11.1357(2150)

Uga= 2.1250 BTU/ft3.min.0F

46
Problem 3.12
The following data were obtained from a test on a forced-draft cooling tower:
Water entering: 640 gal/min Humidity of the leaving air: 0.031 lbH20/ lb dry air
Temperature of entering water: 109.9 F Temperature of entering air: 83 F
Temperature of leaving water: 90.5F Temperature of leaving air: 95F
Humidity of the entering air: 0.012 lbH20/ lb dry air Volume of tower: 2200ft3
Find: a) the ft3 of the air entering the tower per minute b) the value of the coefficient Uga

Water H= 0.031
Q=640gal/min Tya= 95F
T= 109.9 F

Txa= 90.5F Air

H=0.012
Tyb= 83F
SOLUTION:
Heat loss by the water= Heat gained by the Mass rate of dry air=
5292.1267𝑙𝑏 1𝐵𝑇𝑈
air (
min
)(
𝑙𝑏
.𝐹)(109.9−90.5)
49.3239−25.2154
mwCPW(TXA-TXB) = md.a( Hya-Hyb)
=4258.5502 lb/min
mass rate of water= 640
gal/min(ft3/7.481gal)(61.86lb/ft3) Q= (13.9367)(4258.5502)

=5292.1267 lb/min =59350.1369 ft3/min

Hy= Hλ0 +( HCpa+ Cpb)(T-To) mdaCsave(Tya-Tyb)= Uga(Tx-Ty) SZ

(109.9−95)−(90.5−83)
Hya= (0.031)(1075.4) + (0.24 + (Tx-Ty)= 109.9−95
𝑙𝑛
0.45(0.031))(95-32) 90.5−83

=49.3239 BTU/lb d.a Csa= 0.24+ 0.45( 0.031) = 0.2540

Hyb= (0.012)(1075.4) + ( 0.24+ Csb= 0.24+ 0.45( 0.012) = 0.2454

0.45(0.012))(83-32)=25.4154 BTU/ lb d.a Csave=(0.254+0.2454)/2 = 0.2497 BTU/lb.F
1 1 0.7302(83+460) (4258.5502)(60)(0.2497)(95−83)
VH=( + (0.012))( ) Uga=
29 18 1 10.78𝑥 2200
=13.9367 ft3 air/lb d.a Uga= 32.5529 BTU/hr.ft2.F

47
Problem 3.13
Water is to be cooled in a packed tower from 330 to 295 K by means of air flowing countercurrently.
The liquid flows at the rate of 275 cm3/m2 s and the air at 0.7 m3/m2 s. The entering air has a
temperature of 295 K and a humidity of 20%. Calculate the required height of tower and the condition
of the air leaving at the top. The whole of the resistance to heat and mass transfer can be considered
as being within the gas phase and the product of the mass transfer coefficient and the transfer surface
per unit volume of column had may be taken as 0.2 s-1.
Solution:
Assuming, the latent heat of water at 273 K=
2495 kJ/kg
specific heat capacity of dry air = 1.003 kJ/kg K
specific heat capacity of water vapour =2.006
kJ/kg K
H inlet air= 1.003(295-273) + 0.003 (2495 +
2.006( 295-273))= 29.68 kJ/kg
In the inlet air, the humidity is 0.003 kg/kg dry
air or (0.003/18)/(1/29) =0.005 kmol/kmol dry
air.
Hence the flow of dry air = (1-0.005)0.70=0.697
m3/m2 s.
Density of air at 295 K=
(29/22.4)(273/295)=1.198 kg/m3.
and hence the mass flow of dry air=0.697 x 1.198= 0.835 kg/m2 s
and the mass flow of water =275x 10-6 m3/m2 s or (275x10-6 x1000)=0.275 kg/m2 s.

HG2= 78.5 kJ/kg is 300 K. From Fig. 13.5 the exit air therefore has a humidity of 0.02 kg/kg which
from Fig. 13.4 corresponds to a percentage humidity of 90%.
height of packing:
z= (0.573 X 0.835kg/m2.s)/( 0.2 x 1.98kg/m3) = 2 m

48
Problem 3.14
We must cool 2400 GPM of water from 1200F to 800F. A cooling tower at 700F and 1 atm, is to be
designed to operate with entering air of 40%RH.
a.) How many cfm of entering air must be supplied?
b.) How many gpm of make-up water must be supplied if windage loss is 95% of the amount
lost by evaporation?
Given:

Req’d:
a. Cfm of entering air
b. If 95% of evaporation is lost by windage; gpm of make-up
water needed?

Sol’n:
Assume Tya=1100F & Tyb=700F
a) mH2OCpH2O(Txa-Txb)= md.a(Ha-Hb)
mH20=2400gal/min(1ft3/7.481gal)(61.9092lb/1ft3) =20,688.8117 lb/min

Ha= [Cpg+Cpvλ](T-To)+λ0Y
Ha= [0.24 BTU/lb.0F + 0.45 BTU/lb.0F(0.0585)](110-32)0F+(1075BTU/lb)(0.0585)= 83.6609
BTU/lb
Hb=[0.24 BTU/lb.0F + 0.45 BTU/lb.0F(0.0063)](70-32)0F+ (1075BTU/lb)(0.0063) = 16.0002
BTU/lb
(20,688.8117 lb/min)(1BTU/lb.0F)(110-70)0F= md.a(83.6609-16.0002) BTU/ lb
Md.a= 12,230.9179 lb/min
1 𝑌 𝑅𝑇
VH = [29 + 18]( 𝑃 )
1 0.0063 0.7302 𝑥 (70+460)
VH = [29 + 18
]( 1
)= 13.4805 ft3/lb d.a
Qdry air = VH x Md.a = 13.4805 ft3/lb d.a(12,230.9179 lb/min)

Qdry air = 164,878.8888 ft3/min

b.)€= Md.a(Ya-Yb) = 12,230.9179 lb/min(0.0585-0.0063)

€=638.4539 lbH2O/min
QH2O= € x 1/ρ
QH2O= 638.4539 lbH2O/min x 1ft3/61.9092 lb x 7.481gal/1ft3 x 1.95

QH2O= 150.4418 ft3/min

49
IV. DRYING OF SOLIDS

A. DRYING

Problem 4.1

During an experiment conducted on the drying of copra, it was found out that copra dries at a rate
proportional to its free moisture content and losses 60% of its free moisture in 2 hours. How many
hours will it take to lose 90% under the same drying condition?

GIVEN:
First Condition: t = 2 hours

Let X1 = initial moisture content

0.40X1 = final moisture content

Second Condition: t = ?
0.10X1 = final moisture content

REQUIRED:
t for the 2nd condition

SOLUTION:
RαX
mS  dX 
-   = kX
A  dt 
First Condition :
mS 0.4X1 t=2 hrs
 
dX
- =k dt
A X1 X t=0
mS X1
ln = k  2
A 0.40X1
mS
= 2.1827
Ak

Second Condition :
mS 1
ln =t
Ak 0.10

t = 5.0259 hrs

50
Problem 4.2
A wet solid is dried from 25 to 10 per cent moisture under constant drying conditions in 15 ks
(4.17 h). If the critical and the equilibrium moisture contents are 15 and 5 per cent respectively,
how long will it take to dry the solid from 30 to 8 per cent moisture under the same conditions?

Solution:

For the first drying operation:

X1 = 0.25 kg/kg,w = 0.10 kg/kg,Xc = 0.15 kg/kg and X* = 0.05 kg/kg

Thus:
X1 = (X1 – X*) = (0.25 − 0.05) = 0.20 kg/kg
Xc = (Xc –X*) = (0.15 − 0.05) = 0.10 kg/kg
X2 = (X – X*) = (0.10 − 0.05) = 0.05 kg/kg

the total drying time is:

t = (ms/ARc)[(X1-Xc) + Xcln(Xc/X2)]

or:
15 = (ms/ARc)[(0.25 – 0.10) + 0.10ln(0.10/0.05)]
and:
ms/ARc = 68.3949 ks

For the second drying operation:

X1 = 0.30 kg/kg, X2 = 0.08 kg/kg, Xc = 0.15 kg/kg and X* = 0.05 kg/kg

Thus:
X1 = (X1 –X*) = (0.30 − 0.05) = 0.25 kg/kg
Xc = (Xc – X*) = (0.15 − 0.05) = 0.10 kg/kg
X2 = (X2 –X*) = (0.08 − 0.05) = 0.03 kg/kg

The total drying time is then:

t = (ms/ARc)[(X1-Xc) + Xcln(Xc/X2)]
t= 68.3949 ks[(0.25 – 0.10) + 0.10ln(0.10/0.03)]

t=18.4938 ks (5.1372 hrs)

51
Problem 4.3
A wet solid is to be dried from 36% to 8% in 5 hours under constant drying conditions. Critical
moisture is 14% and equilibrium moisture is 4%. All moisture contents are percentage on wet basis.
(a) How much longer (hours) would it take, under the same drying conditions, to dry from 8% to 5%
moisture?
(b) The solid is a 2-in thick slab, 1 ft square and dried from both sides. It has a density of 120lb dry
solid/ft3 wet solid. What is the drying rate at the instant the moisture content is 8%?
Given:
DRYER t= 5h
Dried solid Wet solid Xc = 0.14
8% 36 % moisture X* = 0.04
moisture All in wet basis

Required:
a) t to dry from 8% to 5%
b) drying rate if such measurements of slab is given
Solution:
a) Condition 1: 36% to 8%
0.36 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.14 0.04
X1 = − = 0.5208 X2= − = 0.0453 Xc= − = 0.1211
0.64 0.96 0.92 0.96 0.86 0.96

𝑚𝑠 0.1211 𝑚𝑠
5h = 𝐴𝑅𝑐 [(0.5208 − 0.1211) + 0.1211 𝑙𝑛 0.0453] 𝐴𝑅𝑐
= 9.6380

Condition 2: 36% to 5%
0.36 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.14 0.04
X1 = 0.64 − 0.96
= 0.5208 X2= 0.95 − 0.96
= 0.0110 Xc= 0.86 − 0.96
= 0.1211

0.1211
t= 9.6380 [(0.5208 − 0.1211) + 0.1211 𝑙𝑛 0.0110] t= 6.6520 hours

t= 6.6520 – 5 t= 1.1520 hours

𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑠
b) 𝐴𝑅𝑐
= 9.6380 𝑅𝑐 = 𝐴 (9.6380)

120𝑙𝑏 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 2

(1𝑓𝑡 𝑥 1𝑓𝑡 𝑥 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡3 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 12
𝑅𝑐 = (2𝑓𝑡 𝑥 1𝑓𝑡) (9.6380)

𝒍𝒃
𝑹𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟔 𝒇𝒕𝟐 ·𝒉𝒓

52
Problem 4.4
A porous solid is dried in a batch dryer under constant drying conditions. Six hours are required to
reduce the moisture content from 30 to 10 percent. The critical moisture content was found to be 16
percent and the equilibrium moisture of 2 percent. All moisture contents are on the dry basis.
Assuming that the rate of drying during the falling rate period is proportional to the free-moisture
content, how long should it take to dry a sample of the same solid from 35 to 6 percent under the
same drying conditions?

Given:
t= 6h
DRYER
Wet solid Xc = 0.16
Dried solid
30 % X* = 0.02
10 % moisture
moisture All in dry
basis
Required:
time to dry from 35% to 6%

Solution:
Condition 1: 30% to 10%
X1= 0.30 – 0.02 = 0.28 X2 = 0.10 – .02 = 0.08 Xc = 0.16 – 0.02 = 0.14
𝑅𝑐 𝑋𝑐
= in falling rate period
𝑅 𝑋

𝑚𝑠 0.14 𝑚𝑠
6h = [(0.28 − 0.14) + 0.14 𝑙𝑛 0.08] = 27.4793
𝐴𝑅𝑐 𝐴𝑅𝑐

Condition 2: 35% to 6%
X1= 0.35 – 0.02 = 0.33 X2 = 0.6 – .02 = 0.04 Xc = 0.16 – 0.02 = 0.14
0.14
t= 27.4793 [(. 33 − 0.14) + 0.14 𝑙𝑛 ]
0.04

t= 10.0406 hours

53
Problem 4.5

A batch of wet solid was dried on a tray dryer using constant drying conditions and a thickness of
material on the tray of 25.4 mm. Only the top surface was exposed. The drying rate during the
constant rate period was R = 2.05 kg H2O/ h – m2 ( 0.42 lb H2O/ h – ft2 ). The ratio Ls/A used was
24.4 kg dry solid/ m2 exposed surface ( 5 lbm dry solid/ft2 ). The initial free moisture was X1 = 0.55
and the critical moisture content Xc = 0.22 kg free moisture/ kg dry solid.

Calculate the time to dry a batch of this material from X1 = 0.45 to X2 = 0.3 using the same drying
conditions but a thickness of 50.8 mm, with drying from the top and bottom surface.

Given:

R = 2.05 kg H2O/h-m2
Ls/A = 24.4 kg d.s/m2
X1= 0.45 kg free moisture/kg d.s
X1 = 0.55 kg free moisture/kg d.s
Xc = 0.22 kg free moisture/kg d.s
X2 = 0.3 kg free moisture/kg d.s

Required:

Time (t)

Solution:

Ls  XC 
t=  X1 - X2  + XCln 
A X2 
For Ls/A of 2nd condition:

Since
Ls VAρ V(m) V(m)
= = =
A A vol bA

54
So,

 Ls   Ls 
 A  = A 
 1  2
V(m) V(m)
=
25.4A 1 (50.8)A
2
V(m) V(m)
=
25.4A 25.4A

Therefore,

 Ls   Ls  kg d.s
 A  =  A  = 24.4 m2
 1  2

Ls
t=  X1 - X 2 
AR C
kg d.s
24.4
t= m2  0.45- 0.3 kg H2O
kg H2O kg d.s
2.05 2
h-m

t = 1.7854 hrs

55
Problem 4.6

A wet solid is to be dried in a tray under steady state conditions from a free moisture content of X1 =
0.4 kg H2O/ kg d.s to X2 = 0.02 kg H2O/ kg d.s. The dry solid weight is 99.8 kg dry solid and the top
surface area for drying is 4.645 m2. The drying rate curve can be represented by Fig. 9-.5-1b. (Refer
to Geankoplis for graph)

Calculate the time for drying, but use a straight line through the origin for the drying rate in the falling
rate period.

Given:

X1 = 0.4 Ms = 99.8 kg d.s

X2 = 0.02 A = 4.645 m2

Required:

T using straight line through the origin

Solution:

Using Fig 9-5-1b; Rc = 1.51 kg H2O/h-m2 Xc = 0.1950

mS
tC =  X1 - X C 
ARc
99.8
tC = 0.4 -0.1950
4.645 1.51

tC = 2.9169 hrs

mS X
tF = X Cln C
AR C X2
99.8 0.1950
tF = 0.1950 ln
4.645 1.51  0.02

tF = 6.3185 hrs

tT = tC + tF
t T = 2.9169+6.3185
tT = 9.2354 hrs

56
Problem 4.7
A wet solid of 28% moisture is to be dried to 0.5% moisture in a tray dryer. A laboratory test shows
that it requires 8 hours to reduce the moisture content of the same solid to 2%. The critical moisture
content is 6% and the equilibrium moisture is 0.2%. The falling rate of drying is linear in the free
moisture content. Calculate the drying time of the solid if the drying conditions similar to those in the
laboratory test are maintained. All moistures are expressed as per cent of ‘bone dry’ mass of the solid.
GIVEN:

Gas Out Gas In From xa to x2 = 0.02

t = 8 hrs,
DRYER
Wet Solid Dried Solid
xa = 0.28 xb = 0.005 xc = 0.06
x* = 0.002
*dry basis
REQUIRED: tdrying
SOLUTIONS:
𝑅𝑐 𝑋𝑐 𝑚𝑠 𝑥
At constant drying rate period: 𝑅
= 𝑋𝑖
and 𝑡𝑐 = 𝐴𝑅𝑐
[(𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑐 ) + 𝑥𝑐 ln (𝑥𝑐 )]
2

 From laboratory test drying:

x1= xa – x* = 0.28 – 0.002 = 0.278
x2 = xb – x* = 0.02 – 0.002 = 0.018
xc = xc – x* = 0.06 – 0.002 = 0.058
𝑚𝑠 0.058
8 ℎ𝑟𝑠 = [(0.278 − 0.058) + 0.058 ln ( )]
𝐴𝑅𝑐 0.018
𝑚𝑠
= 27.7909
𝐴𝑅𝑐
 For actual drying:
x1= xa – x* = 0.28 – 0.002 = 0.278
x2 = xb – x* = 0.005 – 0.002 = 0.003
xc = xc – x* = 0.06 – 0.002 = 0.058
0.058
𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 27.7909 [(0.278 − 0.058) + 0.058 ln ( )]
0.003
tdrying = 10.8881 hrs ≈ 𝟏𝟏 𝒉𝒓𝒔

57
Problem 4.8
A piece of canvass dries in the open air at a rate approximately proportional to its moisture content,
if a sheet hung to dry, the wind losses half of its free moisture content in an hour, when will it have
loss 99% of its moisture assuming that conditions remain constant.
GIVEN:

CANVASS:
AIR:
R∝x
t = 0.5 hr
x = 0.5
REQUIRED: t @ 99% moisture loss
SOLUTIONS:
From constant drying rate period:

−𝑀𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝑡 −𝑀𝑠 𝑥₂ 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
=kx ; ∫0 𝑑𝑡= ∫
𝐴𝑅 𝑥₁ 𝑥

𝑀𝑠
 Let k=
𝐴𝑅

 1st Condition:
t= 1 hour
x₂= 0.5x₁
0.5x₁
1hour=-k ln x₁

k=1.4427
 2nd Condition:
x₂=0.01x₁
0.01x₁
t= -1.4427 ln x₁

t = 6.6439 hrs ≈ 7 hrs

58
B. DRYING WITH HUMIDIFICATION

Problem 4.9
A dryer must remove 200 kg of H2O per hour from a certain wet material. Air at 22⁰C and 50%
relative humidity enters the dryer and leaves at 72⁰C and 80% humidity. What is the weight of the
bone dry air used per hour? The barometer read 103 kPa.

Given:

Moist air
T=72 ⁰C
T=22 ⁰C DRYER % ɣ = 80 %
% ɣ = 50 %

H2O removed
200 kg
PT = 103 kPa
Required: kg dry air

Solution:

1730.630 1730.630
log P° = 8.07131 − log P° = 8.07131 −
233.426 + 22 ⁰C 233.426 + 72 ⁰C
P° = 19.7626 mmHg ≈ 2.6348 kPa
P° = 254.1134 mmHg ≈ 33.8790 kPa
PH2 O
%γR = x 100 PH2 O
P°H2 O
80 % = x 100
33.8790
PH2 O
50 % = x 100
2.6348 PH2 O = 27.1032 kPa

PH2 O = 1.3174 kPa 27.1032 18

γ2 = x
103 − 27,1932 29
PH2 O 18
γ= x
PT − PH2 O 29 kg H2 O
γ2 = 0.2217
kg dry air
1.3174 18
γ1 = x
103 − 1.3174 29 H2 O removed = kg dry air (γ2 − γ1)
kg H2 O
γ1 = 0.008 200 = kg dry air (0.2217 − 0.008)
kg dry air
𝐤𝐠 𝐝𝐫𝐲 𝐚𝐢𝐫 = 𝟗𝟑𝟓. 𝟖𝟗𝟏𝟒 𝐤𝐠

59
Problem 4.10
One metric ton of slurry containing 10 % by weight of CaCO3 is to be filtered in a rotary drum vacuum
filter. The filter cake from the filter contains 60 % H2O. This cake is placed into a dryer and dried to a
moisture content of 9.09 kg H2O/ 100 kg CaCO3. If the humidity of the air entering the dryer is 0.0005
kg H2O/ kg dry air and the humidity of the air leaving is 0.0015 kg H2O/ kg dry air.
Calculate:

a. kg H2O removed by the filter

b. kg wet air entering the dryer

Given:

1 metric ton 60 % H2O Dried CaC03

slurry FILTER DRYER
9.09 kg H2 O
% CaC03 = 10 %
100 kg CaCO3

Wet air
H2O removed
0.0005 kg H2 O
γ=
Required: kg dry air
0.0015 kg H2 O
a. H2O removed γ=
kg dry air
b. Kg wet air

Solution:

Solid balance:
1000 kg (0.10) = 0.40 FC
FC = 250 kg

H2O balance:
0.90 (1000 kg) = H2O removed + 0.60 FC
0.90 (1000 kg) = H2O removed + 0.60 (250 kg)
H2O removed = 750 kg
90 60
Or H2O removed = 0.10 (1000) ( 10 − 40 ) = 750 kg

H2O balance around dryer:

9.09 kg H O
2
0.6 FC = H2O dryer + 100 kg CaCO x (0.10 x 1000kgCaCO3 )
3
9.09 kg H O
2
0.6 (250 kg) = H2O dryer + 100 kg CaCO x (0.10 x 1000kgCaCO3 )
3
H2O dryer = 140.91 kg

60
HUMIDIFIER:
kg H O
140.91 = wt dry air (0.0015-0.0005) kg dry2 air
Wt dry air = 140, 910 kg dry air
0.0005 kg H2 O
Wt H2O removed from the Humidifier = kg dry air
x 140, 910 kg dry air
Wt H2O removed from the Humidifier = 70.455 kg

Kg wet air = 140, 910 + 70.455

Kg wet air = 140, 980.455 kg

61
V. GAS ABSORPTION

Problem 5.1
A packed tower is to be designed for absorption of SO2 from air by contact with fresh water. The
entering gas has a mole fraction of SO2 of 0.10 and the exit gas must contain amole fraction of no
greater than 0.005. The water flow rate used is to be 1.5 times the minimum, and the inlet airflow
rate (on an SO2 free basis) is 500 kg m-1 h-1. The column is to be operated at 1 atm and 303 K.
Determine the minimum liquid flowrate, (Lm)min.
The following equilibrium data are available for SO2 absorption in water at this temperature:
PSO2 (mm Hg) Conc. (g SO2/100 g H2O)
0.6 0.02
1.7 0.05
4.7 0.10
11.8 0.20
19.7 0.30
36.0 0.50
52.0 0.70
79.0 1..00
There also exist mass transfer coefficient correlations for SO2 absorption in a column packed with
1-inch rings (at this temperature):
kxa = 0.6634L0.82 kya = 0.09944L.25 V.7
where V and L are the liquid and gas mass fluxes, respectively, in kg m-2h-1 and the units of kxa and
kya are kg-molm-3h-1 (mol fraction)-1.
Step 1: Plot the equilibrium curve (xi and yi) on the x-y graph. To do this, we need to get the
equilibrium data into mol fraction format:
𝑃𝑆𝑂2 0.6mmHg
𝑦= = = 7.89𝑥10−4
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 706𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

𝑐/𝑀𝑊𝑆𝑂2 0.02/64
𝑥= 𝑐 𝑐 =
0.02 100
𝑀𝑊𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑀𝑊𝐻2𝑜 64 + 18
thus,
P Y C X 11.8 0.0155 0.2 5.6E-04
0.6 0.0008 0.02 5.6E-05 19.7 0.0259 0.3 8.4E-04
1.7 0.0022 0.05 1.4E-04 36.0 0.0474 0.5 1.4E-03
4.7 0.0062 0.1 2.8E-04 52.0 0.0684 0.7 2.0E-03
8.1 0.0107 0.15 4.2E-04 79.0 0.1039 1 2.8E-03

62
Step 2: Determine the minimum liquid flowrate, (Lm)min:
Using the equation for the operating line of the absorption tower, we input the appropriate values
so that the bottom of the tower is at equilibrium conditions:

𝑦𝑡 𝑦𝑏 𝐿′ 𝑚 𝑥𝑏∗ 𝑥𝑡
=( )−( ′ ) ( ∗ − )
1 − 𝑦𝑡 1 − 𝑦𝑏 𝑉 𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑥𝑏 1 − 𝑥𝑡

yt = 0.005 (given in problem statement) xt = 0 (given)

yb = 0.1 (given) v’m = 500 kg m-2 h-1 = 17.2 kgmol m-2 h-1
x*b can be determined by either a) interpolating from table above, or b) taking the value off the
graph.
Interpolation:
(0.1 − .0684)
𝑥𝑏∗ = [ 𝑥(2.8𝑥10−3 − 2.0𝑥10−3 )] + 2.0𝑥10−3 = 2.71𝑥10−3
. 1039 − .6184

Solving, we calculate (L'm )min= 667 kg-mol m-2 h-1.

Thus, L'm = 1.5 x 667 = 1000 kg-mol m -2 h-1.

63
Problem 5.2
It is desired to recover 95% of the SO2 contained in waste flue gas with 5% SO2 and 95% air in a
packed tower having a cross-sectional of 0.093m2. The absorbing liquid is water and is allowed to
flow counter with the gas flow. How much minimum water rate(kg/hr) is needed? Assume 20°C
temperature and entering gas rate is 1.36kg/min.
Given:
La, Xa Va, Ya

Lb, Xb Vb=1.36 kg/min 5% SO2, 95% air

T=20°C
Required: L’min
Solution:
0.05(0.05)
Yb=0.5 𝑌𝑎 = 0.05(0.05)+0.95 = 0.0026
Xa=0 Xb=?
𝑃𝑎
𝑌𝑏 = ; 𝑃𝑎 = 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔(0.05) From table at SO2 at H20: @P=38mmHg, T=20°C
𝑃𝑡
0.698
0.698𝑔𝑆𝑂2 64
Pa=38mmHg 𝐶= ; 𝑋𝑏 = 0.698 100 = 0.00193
100𝑔𝐻20 +
64 18
𝑌𝑏 𝑌𝑎 𝑋𝑏 ∗ 𝑋𝑎
𝑉′ [ − ] = 𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 [ ∗
− ]
1 − 𝑌𝑏 1 − 𝑌𝑎 1 − 𝑋𝑏 1 − 𝑋𝑎

MWave = 0.05(64) + 0.95(29) = 30.75kg/kmol

𝑘𝑔 60𝑚𝑖𝑛
1.36 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑉 ′ = 0.95 ( 1ℎ𝑟 ) = 2.5210 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟
30.75
𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
𝐿′ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 65.2172 ℎ𝑟
𝑥18 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑳′𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟔 𝒉𝒓

64
Problem 5.3
A gas stream is 90 mole % N2 and 10 mole % CO2. We wish to absorb the CO2 into water. The inlet
water is pure and is at 5°C. Because of cooling coils, operation can be assumed to be isothermal.
Operation is at 10 atm. What is the minimum water rate required to absorb 92% of the CO2? Choose
a basis of 1 mole/hr of entering gas.
Equilibrium:
𝐻 876
𝑦= 𝑥= 𝑥 = 57.6𝑥
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 10
Change the equilibrium data to mole ratios with a table as shown below:
𝑥 𝑦
x X= y= 87.6x Y=
1−𝑥 1−𝑦
0 0 0 0
0.0001 0.0001 0.00876 0.00884
0.0004 0.0004 0.0350 0.0363
0.0006 0.0006 0.0526 0.0555
0.0008 0.0008 0.0701 0.0754
0.0010 0.0010 0.0876 0.0960
0.0012 0.0012 0.10512 0.1175
Note that x = X in this concentration range, but y≠Y. The inlet gas mole ratio is:
𝑦𝑁+1 0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁2
𝑌𝑁+1 = = = 0.1111 𝐺 = (1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ) (1 − 𝑦𝑁+1 ) = 0.9
1−𝑦𝑁+1 0.9 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁2 hr hr

Percent recovery analysis: 8% of CO2 exits.

(0.1𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛)(0.08 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑) = 0.008 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑂2 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Thus, Operating line:

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 0.008 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑂2 𝐿 𝐿
𝑌1 = = 𝑌𝑖+1 = 𝑋𝑖 + (𝑌𝑖 − 𝑋𝑜 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁2 0.9 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑁2 𝐺 𝐺
= 0.008888

Goes through point (Y1, Xo) = (0.008888, 0)

(L.G)min is found as the slope of the operating line from point (Y1, X0) to the intersection with the
equilibrium curve at YN+1.
𝐿
( ) = 89.905
𝐺 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
∴ 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (89.905)(0.9) = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟒
𝐡𝐫

65
Problem 5.4
A dry cleaning plant produces an air stream containing 2 mol% acetone. Regulations require that the
concentration of acetone be reduced below 0.1 mol% before this stream s released to the
environment. This is to be done by absorption with water in a countercurrent packed column. The
water enters the column already containing 0.5 mol% acetone. The equilibrium relationship for
acetone in air and water is given by y=0.1246x where x and y are the mole fractions of acetone in the
aqueous ad vapour phase respectively. Find the theoretical minimum flowrate required to achieve
this separation.
Solution:
Vb= 100 moles ya= 0.001 (1-ya)Va=(1-yb)Vb
Va= (1-0.02)(100)/(1-0.001)= 98.10 moles
We will initially assume that the minimum liquid flowrate occurs when the aqueous stream leaves
in equilibrium with the entering gas stream, which gives
xb=yb/m=0.02/0.1246=0.1605

Note that since xb > 0.10, this is a rich-phase problem and the operating line will be significantly
curved.

(1 − xb )(yb Vb − ya Va )
𝐿𝑎 =
(xb − xa )

(1 − 0.1605)(0.02x100 − 0.001x98.10)
La = = 10.27moles
0.1605 − 0.005

66
To find the operating line slope at the point (xb, yb)
𝐿 10.27
𝑑𝑥 ( 𝑎 )(1−𝑥𝑎 )(1−𝑦𝑎 ) ( )(1−0.005)(1−0.001)
𝑉𝑎 98.1
= 𝐿 = 2 = 0.142
𝑑𝑦 [( 𝑎 )(𝑥𝑏 −𝑥𝑎 )+(1−𝑥𝑏 )]^2 [(
10.27
)(0.1605−0.005)+(1−0.1605)]
𝑉𝑎 98.1

Since dy/dxǀb > m, this indicates that the operating line is crossing the equilibrium line from below,
so we have underestimated Lamin.

𝛼 = (1 − 𝑚𝑥𝑎 )2 = [1-0.1246(0.005)]^2 = 0.9988

𝛽 = 4𝑚 (𝑦𝑎 + 𝑥𝑎 ) − 2(𝑚 + 𝑦𝑎 )(𝑚𝑥𝑎 + 1)
= 4(0.1246)(0.001 + 0.005) − 2(0.1246 + 0.001)[0.1246(0.005) + 1] = −0.2484

𝛿 = (𝑚 − 𝑦𝑎 )2 = (0.1246 − 0.001)2 = 0.01528

−𝛽 − √𝛽 2 − 4𝛼𝛿 0.2483 − √(0.24842 ) − 4(0.9988)(0.01528)

𝐿𝑎.𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑎 ( ) = 98.10 ( )
2𝛼 2(0.9988)
= 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔
Therefore, the theoretical minimum liquid flowrate is 10.94 moles of water per 100 moles of entering
gas. Note that this is higher than the original estimate found by assuming that the liquid exits in
equilibrium with the entering gas. The magnitude of this error depends on the degree of curvature of
the operating line.

67
Problem 5.5
From 480 lb/hr of gas containing 2.0 mol% SO2 and 98% air, 98% is to be absorbed by water at 20oC
in a packed column operated at atmospheric pressure. Water is to be fed at a rate of 6800 lb/hr to
the tower whose cross sectional area is 288 in2 . Assume the temperature in the tower remains
constant at 200C. Determine the column height assuming Kga = 2.15 lb/hr.ft3.mmHg.
Given:

6800 lb/hr
A = 288 in2

480 lb/hr
2% SO2
98% air

Required: Zt
Solution:
0.02(0.02) From Table 2-134 at 20oC: C = 0.3288 g / 100g
ya = = 0.000408
0.02(0.02) + 0.98 H2O
0.3288
MW = 0.02(64) + 0.98(29) = 29.7 64
Xb* = 0.3288 100 = 9.2390x10-4
+
Yb Ya Xb 64 18
V’[1−Yb − 1−Ya] = L′ min [1−Xb − 0]
Pb = (9.2390x10-4)(760 mmHg) = 0.7022
1 lbmole 0.02 0.000408
480( )(0.98) [1−0.02 − 1−0.000408] = mmHg
29.7 lb
1 lbmole Xb 0.0353 g
680 18 lb [1−Xb − 0] C = 100g H2O

Xb = 8.3780x10-4 0.0353
64
Yb* = 0.0353 100 = 9.9271x10-5
nA +
8.3780x10-4 = 1
64 18
nA+6800( )
18 nA
S
= Gmy (Yb – Ya)
nA = 0.3168 lbmole/hr
0.3168 lbmole/hr
Pa = (0.02)(760mmHg) = 15.2 mmHg 1ft 2 = Gmy (0.02 – 4.08x10-4)
288𝑖𝑛2 ( )
12 in

lbmole
Gmy = 8.0849 hr.𝑓𝑡 2

lbmole
8.0849 0.02−0.000408
hr.𝑓𝑡2
ZT= lb x (0.02−9.927x10−5 )−(4.08𝑥10−4 )
= 0.0193 ft
2.15 (760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔)
hr.𝑓𝑡3 .𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 0.02−9.927𝑥10−5
ln( )
4.08x10−4

68
Problem 5.6
A packed tower is to be designed for absorption of SO2 from air by contact with fresh water. The
entering gas has a mole fraction of SO2 of 0.10 and the exit gas must contain amole fraction of no
greater then 0.005. The water flow rate used is to be 1.5 times the minimum, and the inlet airflow
rate (on an SO2 free basis) is 500 kg m-1 h-1. The column is to be operated at 1 atm and 303 K.
Determine the height of the packed bed section.
The following equilibrium data are available for SO2 absorption in water at this temperature:

PSO2 (mm Hg) Conc. (g SO2/100 g H2O)

0.6 0.02
1.7 0.05
4.7 0.10
11.8 0.20
19.7 0.30
36.0 0.50
52.0 0.70
79.0 1.00

We need to get the equilibrium data into mol fraction format:

𝑃𝑆𝑂2 0.6 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
Y= = = 7.89x10-4
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

0.02
64
= 0.02 100 = 5.625x10-5
+
64 18

Thus,

yt = 0.005 (given in problem statement)

xt = 0 (given)
yb = 0.1 (given)
V'm=500 kg m-2 h-1 = 17.2 kgmol m-2 h-1

69
xb* can be determined by either a) interpolating from table above, or b) taking the value off the
graph on the following page.

By Interpolation:

Solving, we calculate (L'm )min= 667 kg-mol m-2 h-1. Thus L'm = 1.5 x 667 = 1000 kg-mol m -2 h-1.

Since the water enters the top completely free of SO2, then the mass flowrate of SO2 in the water
stream at the tower bottom = 122.6-5.5 = 117.1 kgmol m-2 h-1. Thus the total mass flowrate at the
bottom and top of the column are:

70
Thus the height of the absorption column is,
ZT = 0.188* 5.8 = 1.1 meters

71
Problem 5.7

We wish to scrub acetone from an air stream containing 0.020 mol fraction acetone. If we use a
countercurrent packed scrubber designed so that the exit gas does not exceed 0.0002 mol fraction
acetone, (a) how many transfer units are there, (b) what is height of one transfer unit, (c) what I s
the total height of the packing used? The data available are as follows: gas rate = 700 ft 3/hr-ft2 (at
STP); water rate = 1000 lb/hr-ft2 and Kya = 1.75 lbmol/ft3-hr-mol fraction difference; the
equilibrium relationship is y = 1.75x.

Given:

1000 lb/hr-ft2

STP

Kya = 1.75 lbmol/ft3-hr-mol fraction difference

y = 1.75x

700 ft3/hr-ft2

yb = 0.02

Required:
a) Noy
b) Hoy
c) ZT

Solution:
a) yb = 0.02
ya = 0.0002
ya* = 0

P 1atm lbmol
C= = = 0.002784
RT ft 3 - atm ft 3
0.7302  32 + 460  °R
lbmol - °R

72
 ft 3
 lbmol  lbmol
V = 700  0.002784  = 1.9488
hr - ft 2  ft 3  hr - ft 2
lb  lbmol  lbmol
2  = 55.5556
L = 1000
hr - ft  18 lb  hr - ft 2

 0.02 0.0002   xb 
1.9488  0.98   -  = 55.5556  
 0.98 0.9998  1- x b 
x b = 0.0006942
y b * = 1.75  0.0006942  = 0.001215
 yb - yb * -  ya - ya *  0.02 - 0.001215 -  0.0002 
Δy L = = = 0.004091
ln
yb - yb *
ln
 0.02 - 0.001215 
ya - ya *  0.0002 
yb - ya 0.02 - 0.0002
No y = = = 4.8399
DyL 0.004091

Gm,y 1.9488
b) Ho y = = = 1.1136 ft
Kya 1.75

c) ZT = Ho y No y = 1.1136ft  4.8399  = 5.3897 ft

73
Problem 5.8

We want to remove alcohol vapor from carbon dioxide using a packed column containing 2.54-cm
Raschig rings at 40°C. the vapor (0.10 mol fraction alcohol) needs to have 98 % recovery of alcohol.
The water used for absorption has 0.0001 mol fraction alcohol. The molar flux, Gm at the bottom is
0.0422 kmol/s-m2. The ratio of Lm to Gm is 1.5264. Equilibrium is given by y = 1.0682x. Values of Hy
and Hx are 0.54 and 0.30m, respectively. Calculate the total packing height.

Given:

xa = 0.0001

Hy = 0.54 m Lm/Gm = 1.5264

Hx = 0.30 m

98 % recovery
y = 1.0682x

0.0422 kmol/s-m2
yb = 0.1

Required: ZT

Solution:

Gm  1 
Hoy = Hy + m Hx = 0.54 + 1.0682   0.30  = 0.7499 m
Lm  1.5264 
y b = 0.10
x a = 0.0001
0.02 0.10 
ya = = 0.00222
0.02 0.10 +0.9
 0.1 0.00222   x 0.0001 
0.9  -  = 0.9999 1.5264   b - 
 0.9 0.99778   1 - x b 0.9999 
x b = 0.0604
y a * = 0.000107
y b * = 0.0645
0.10 - 0.00222
Noy = = 8.2631
0.00222- 0.000107  - 0.10 - 0.0645
0.00222- 0.000107
ln
0.10 - 0.0645
ZT = 0.7499  8.2631  = 6.1965 m

74
Problem 5.9
A paraffin hydrocarbon of molecular mass 114 kg/kmol at 373 K, is to be separated from a mixture
with a non-volatile organic compound of molecular mass 135 kg/kmol by stripping with steam. The
liquor contains 8 per cent of the paraffin by mass and this is to be reduced to 0.08 per cent by mole
using an upward flow of steam saturated at 373 K. If three times the minimum amount of steam is
used, how many theoretical stages will be required? The vapour pressure of the paraffin at 373 K is
115 kN/m2 and the process takes place at atmospheric pressure. It may be assumed that the system
obeys Raoult’s law.
GIVEN:

Non volatile organic

MW= 135 kg/kmol ya= 0.08 %

L’=1.3 Lmin
VP= 115 kN/m2 @ 373k, 1 atm

Paraffin Hydrocarbon
MW= 114 kg/kmol
yb= 8%wt.

REQUIRED: Number of theoretical plates, N

SOLUTION: Basis= 100 kmol paraffin hydrocarbon
8
𝑦𝑏 = 114 = 0.09336
8 92
114 + 135
Ya= 0.0008
Xa= 0
0.09336 0.0008 𝑥𝑏 ∗
100 [ − ] = 1.3𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 [ ]
1 − 0.09336 1 − 0.0008 1 − 𝑥𝑏 ∗
𝑥𝑏 ∗
7.8595 = 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 [ ] → 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
1 − 𝑥𝑏 ∗
0.09336 0.0008 𝑥𝑏
100 [ − ] = 𝐿′ [ ]
1 − 0.09336 1 − 0.0008 1 − 𝑥𝑏

75
 𝑥𝑏
10.2173 = 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 [ ] → 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
1 − 𝑥𝑏
𝑃𝑎°𝑥 115𝑥
𝑦= = = 1.1350𝑥
𝑃𝑇 101.325
0.09336
𝑥𝑏 ∗ = = 0.0823
1.1350
Equate 1=2
7.8595 10.2173
=
0.0823 𝑥𝑏
1 − 0.0823 1 − 𝑥𝑏
xb= 0.0645
ya*=0
yb*= 1.1350x = 1.1350(0.0645) = 0.0732
𝑦𝑎 − 𝑦𝑎 ∗
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [
𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑏 ∗]
𝑁=
𝑦𝑏 ∗ −𝑦𝑎 ∗
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [
𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎 ]
0.0008
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [
𝑁= 0.09336 − 0.0732] = 13.7569 = 𝟏𝟒 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
0.07321
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [0.09336 − 0.0008]

76
Problem 5.10
A mixture of sulfur dioxide and air is scrubbed in a plate column with fresh water at 20℃. If the sulfur
dioxide concentration is reduced from 5 per cent to 0.01 per cent, and the water and air rates are
0.65 and 0 .40 kg/m2s, respectively, how many theoretical plates are required? The equilibrium
relationship may be written as Y = X, where X is the mole ratio in the liquid phase.
GIVEN:

Water
0.65 kg/m2.s ya= 0.01% SO2

Sulfur Dioxide
0.40 kg/m2.s
5% SO2

Required: Number of theoretical plates, N

SOLUTION:
yb= 0.05
ya= 0.0001
xa= 0
1
𝑉′ = 0.40 ( ) = 0.0138 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
29
𝑉 ′ = 𝑉 (0.95)
0.0138
𝑉= = 0.0145 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
. 95
𝑁𝑎
= 𝐺𝑚′ 𝑦 (𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎)
𝑠
𝑁𝑎
= 0.0145 (0.05 − 0.0001)
𝑠

77
𝑁𝑎
= 7.2355 𝑥 10−4
𝑠
𝐶𝑎
0.0196 = 17
𝐶𝑎 100
17 + 18
Ca= 1.8881
Using Perry’s
Pa° = 121.0999 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑃𝑎°𝑥 121.0999𝑥
𝑦= = = 0.1593𝑥
𝑃𝑇 760
𝑦 = 0.1593𝑥
𝑦𝑏 ∗ = 0.1593 (0.0196) = 0.0031
𝑦𝑎∗ = 0.1593 (0) = 0
𝑦𝑎 − 𝑦𝑎 ∗
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [
𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑏 ∗]
𝑁=
𝑦𝑏 ∗ −𝑦𝑎 ∗
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [
𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎 ]
0.0001
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
𝑁= 0.05 − 0.0031 = 2.2135 = 2 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠
0.0031
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [
0.05 − 0.0001]

78
Problem 5.11
Sulfur dioxide is to be absorbed into water in a plate column. The feed gas(20%mol SO 2) is to be
scrubbed to 2mole% SO2 . Water flow rate is 6,000 kg/hr.m2. The inlet air flow rate is 150 kg
air/hr.m2. Tower temperature is 293 K. Find the number of theoretical plates.
Given:
𝑘𝑔
G = 6000 2%mole SO2
ℎ𝑟.𝑚2

a
T=293K
b

20%mole SO2
𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟
150 ℎ𝑟.𝑚2

Required: N plates
Solution:
Xa = 0 Ya = 0.02 Yb = 0.20
𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 0.2 0.02 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑋𝑏
150 ℎ𝑟.𝑚2 ( 29 𝑘𝑔
) ( 1−0.2 − 1−0.02 ) = 6000 ℎ𝑟.𝑚2 ( 18 𝑘𝑔
) (1−𝑋𝑏 – 0)

Xb = 0.0633
Ya* = 0 ; since Xa = 0
Pb = 0.0633(760 mmHg) = 48.108 mmHg
0.8431𝑔 𝑆𝑂2
From Table 2-134 @T=200C & Pb =48.108 mmHg; C = 100𝑔 𝐻2𝑂

0.8431
64
Yb* = 0.8431 100 = 2.3656x10-3
+
64 18

0.02−0
log( )
0.2−2.3656𝑥10−3
N= 2.3656𝑥10−3 −0
= 0.5288 = 1 plate
log( )
0.2− 0.02

79
Problem 5.12
It is desired to absorb 95% of acetone by water from a mixture of acetone and nitrogen containing
1.5% of the component in a countercurrent tray tower. Total gas input is 30 kmol/hr and water
enters the tower at a rate of 90 kmol/hr. The tower operates at 27ºC and 1 atm. The equilibrium
relation is Y=2.53X. Determine the number of ideal stages necessary for the separation using
Graphical method.
Given:
90 kmol/hr

y = 2.53x
T = 270C
95%recovery

30 kmole/hr

Required: N trays
Solution:
Basis: 1 hour GN+1=30 kmol
yN+1=0.015
L0=90 kmol
Moles acetone in = 30×0.015 moles=0.45 moles
Moles nitrogen in = (30-0.45) moles=29.55 moles
Moles acetone leaving (95% absorbed) = 0.45×(1-0.95) moles=0.0225 moles
Gs=29.55 moles
Ls=90 moles
α=2.53 [as, Y=2.53X]
0.0225
𝑌1 = 29.55 = 7.61 × 10−4

𝑌𝑁+1 = 0.015

80
𝐺𝑠 𝑌𝑁+1 − 𝑌1 = (𝑋𝑁 − 𝑋0)
29.55 × (0.015 − 7.61 × 10−4) = 90(𝑋𝑁 − 0)
XN=4.68×10-3
Construction of operating line PQ:
P(X0, Y1)=P(0, 7.61×10-4 )
Q(XN, YN+1)=Q(4.68×10-3 , 0.015)

Construction of equilibrium line (Y=2.53X):

X 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

Y 0 0.00253 0.00506 0.00759 0.01012 0.01265

Graphical Construction for determination of number of stages

From graphical construction (Figure 4.9), the number of triangles obtained is 8. Hence number of
ideal stages is 8.

81
VI. EVAPORATION

A. SINGLE EFFECT

Problem 6.1
A solution of organic colloids in water is to be concentrated from 8 to 45% solids in a single-effect
evaporator. Steam is available at a gauge pressure of 1.03 atm (120.5C). A pressure of 102 mm Hg
is to be maintained in the vapor space. The overall heat transfer coefficient can be taken as 2800
W/m2.C. the solution has a negligible elevation in boiling point and a negligible heat of dilution.
Calculate the steam consumption, the economy, the economy, and the heating surface required if the
feed is (a) 51.7C (b) 21.1C (c) 93.3C. The specific heat of the feed solution is 3.77 J/g.C and the
latent heat of vaporization may be taken equal to that of water. Radiation losses may be neglected.

GIVEN:

VAPOR

P = 102 mm Hg

STEAM
FEED
P = 1.03 atm gage
8% solids

Mf = 20000 kg/hr

CONDENSATE
U = 2800 W/m2.K

Cp = 3.77 J/g.C THICK LIQUOR

45% solids

REQUIRED:
a) Steam consumption, ms
b) Economy, mv/ms
c) Heating surface

82
SOLUTION:

q = ms λs = mf cpf  ΔT  + m v λ v
q = mf cpf  T - Tf  + m v λ v

 0.92 0.55 
m v = 0.08  20, 000   -  = 16444.444kg / hr
 0.08 0.45 
Flash evaporation = The introduction of feed to a temperature higher than the boiling point

From appendix 7
Btu J
λ v = λ =  P = 102 mm Hg = 1.973 psi  = 1022.54 = 2371965.587
lb kg

For steam
P = 1.03 +1.00 = 2.03 atm
λ s = 2.19x106 J / kg

kg  J  g 
q = 20000  3.77
hr 
1000   T - Tf  +16444.444
g.°C  kg 
kg
hr
2.37x10 6  EQUATION 1

TF (C) Q from EQN 1 Ms (kg/hr) Economy Area, m2

51.7 3.897x1010 17794.52 0.924 56.193

21.1 4.128 x1010 18849.32 0.872 59.524
93.3 3.584 x1010 16365.30 1.005 52.058

83
Problem 6.2
Tomato juice having a concentration of 12 wt% solids is being concentrated to 25% solids in a film
type evaporator. The maximum allowable temperature for the tomato juice is 135℉, which will be
the temperature of the product. The feed enters at 100ºF. Saturated steam at 25 psia is used for
heating. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 600 BTU⁄ and the area is ft 2 . The feed
h. ft 2 . ºF
capacity of the feed is estimated as 0.95 BTU⁄lbm. ℉. Neglect any boiling point rise if present.
Calculate the feed rate of tomato juice to the evaporator.
Given:

Vapor

FEED Steam ( satd )

Ps = 25 psi
4536 kg/hr
20% NaOH

concentrate
U = 600 BTU/ h.ft2.℉ 25% NaOH
A = 20 ft2 T = 135 ℉
Cpf = 0.95 BTU/ lbm℉

* neglect any BP

REQD:
a. mf

SOLN:

TMB: mf = mv + m
CMB: ( 0.12 )( mf ) = ( 0.25 )( mf – mv ) 1

Q = UA( Ts - T) but T = Tv
= UA( Ts – Tv ) = mfcpf( T- Tf ) + mvλv

STEAM:

Ps = 25 psia = 0.173214286 Mpa = 1292.517001 mmHg

Ts = 155.5 ℃ = 239.9 ℉
λs = 1985.261111 kJ/kg = 854.2808044 BTU/lbm

84
Hv = 51.7515
Hl = 16.0618

VAPOR: T = Tv
1730.63
by antoinnes equation logP = 8.07131 − 233.426+ ℃

Tv = 135℉ = 57.2222 ℃ = 330.2222 K

Pv = 130.8969 mmHg = 0.01745148676 Mpa
λv = 2400.16111 kJ/kg = 1032.81707 BTU/lbm
Hv = 47.5378
Hl = 4.3349
Q = ( 600 BTU/h.𝑓𝑡 2 . ℉ )( 20 𝑓𝑡 2 )( 239.9 – 135 ) ℉

Q = 1258800 BTU/hr

1258800 BTU/hr = mf( 0.95 BTU/lbm ℉ )( 135 – 100 ) ℉ + mv( 1032.81707 BTU/lbm ) 2

equate 1 and 2

mf = 2207.2018 lbm/hr

mv = 1147.7449 lbm/hr

85
Problem 6. 3
A plate evaporator is concentrating milk from 10% solids to 30% solids at a feed rate of 1500 kg h-1.
Heating is by steam at 200 kPa absolute and the evaporating temperature is 75°C. (a) Calculate the
number of plates needed if the area of heating surface on each plate is 0.44 m2 and the overall heat-
transfer coefficient 650 J m-2s-1 °C-1. (b) If the plates, after several hours running become fouled by a
film of thickness 0.1 mm, and of thermal conductivity 0.1 J m-1 s-1 °C-1, by how much would you expect
the capacity of the evaporator to be reduced?
Solution:
Mass balance kgh-1
Solids Liquid Total
Fresh milk 150 1350 1500
Concentrated milk 150 350 500
Evaporated water 1000
(a) Number of plates
Steam at 200kPa(abs.), condensing temperature 120oC, latent heat 2202 kJkg-1
Evaporating temperature 75oC, latent heat 2322 kJkg-1
Heating surface per plate is 0.44m2
U = 650 Jm-2s-1 oC-1
X = no. of plates

q = U A T = 650 A (120-75) Js-1 = 650 (A) (45) = 29.25 x 103 A Js-1

Heat to evaporate water = (1000 x 2322 x 103)/3600 = 6.45 x 105
A = (6.45 x 105)(29.25 x 103) = 22 m2
Each plate =0.44 m2
Number of plates =22/0.44 = 50 plates

(b) With a film on the plates:

(1/U2) = 1/U + x/k = 1/650 + 0.001/0.1 = 0.0015 + 0.01 = 0.0115
U2= 87
Therefore capacity of evaporator is reduced by (87)/ 650 = 0.134
Capacity of evaporator is reduced by 13.4%

86
Problem 6.4
A standard calandria type of evaporator with 100 tubes, each 1 m long, is used to evaporate fruit juice
with approximately the same thermal properties as water. The pressure in the evaporator is 80 kPa
absolute, and in the steam jacket 100 kPa absolute. Take the tube diameter as 5 cm. Estimate the rate
of evaporation in the first evaporator. Assume the juice enters at 18°C and the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 440 J m-2 s-1°C-1.
Given:
No. of tubes = 100 Length of tube = 1 metre Diameter of tube = 5cm = 0.05m
Area of tube = A Pressure in evaporator = 80kPa(abs) Temperature = 93.5oC
Latent heat 2274 kJkg-1 Specific heat of juice = 4.19kJkg-1oC-1
Pressure of steam = 100kPa(abs Temperature = 99.6oC Latent heat 2258kJkg-1
Solution:

A = DL = 3.14 x 0.05 x 1 = 0.157 m2

Total area for 100 tubes = 15.7 m2
Heat Balance
Heat taken in by juice per kg = 2274 x 103 + (93.5 –18) x 4.19 x103
= 2274 x 103 + 316 x103
= 2590 x 10 3 Jkg-1
Heat transferred from steam jacket

Q = UA  T = 440 x 15.7 x (93.5 - 18) = 5.216 x105Js-1

If Ju = wt of water evaporated from juice per hour
2590 x 103 Ju = 5.216 x105 x 3600
Ju = 725kgh-1

Rate of evaporation is 725 kgh-1

87
Problem 6.5

A single-effect evaporator is being used to concentrate a feed of 10000 lb/hr of a cane juice at 80F
and containing a sugar content of 15 Brix to 30Brix for use in food process. Saturated steam of
240F is available for heating. The vapor space in the evaporator will be at 1 atm abs pressure. The
overall heat transfer coefficient U = 350 BTU/hr.ft2.F and the heat capacity of the feed is 0.91
BTU/lbm.F. The boiling point rise can be estimated from the equation BPR (F) = 3.2x+11.2x2
where x is the fraction by wt of sugar in the solution. The heat of dilution can be estimated negligible.
Calculate the area required for the evaporator and the amount of steam used per hour.

GIVEN:
VAPOR

1 atm, 212F

FEED

15% solids

80F STEAM
Mf = 20000 kg/hr T=240F

CONDENSATE
U = 350
BTU/hr.ft2.F BPR (F) = 3.2x+11.2x2

Cp = 0.91 BTU/lbm.F THICK LIQUOR

30% solids

REQUIRED:
a) Area required for evaporator
b) Amount of steam/hr
SOLUTION:

lb  0.15 
hr  0.30 
m = 10000 = 5, 000 lb / hr

BPR = 3.2x + 11.2 x 2 where x = mass fraction

BPR = 3.2  0.3 + 11.2  0.3 = 1.968 °F
2

BPsolution = BPH O + BPR = 212 + 1.968 = 213.968°F

2

88
From App 7 : λ v @ 212°F = 970.3 Btu / lb

q = q F + q V = m Fcp F  T - TF  + m v H v
lb  Btu  Btu  lb 
q = 10000 
hr 
0.91 
lb.°F 
 213.968 - 80  °F + 970.3 
lb 
5000 
hr 
q = 6070608.8 BTU / hr

Q 6070608.8 BTU / hr
A= = = 666.2798 ft 2

 240 - 213.968 °F
UΔT BTU
350
hr.ft .°F
2

q = mλ s s

From App.7 : λ = 952.3 Btu / lb

s@240°F

q 6070608.8 BTU / hr
m = = = 6374.681 lb / hr
λ 952.3 BTU / lb
s

89
Problem 6.6
An evaporator is concentrating F (kg/h) at 311 K of a 20% by weight NaOH solution to 50%. The
saturated steam used for heating is at 399 K. The pressure in the vapor space of the evaporator is
13.3 kPa abs. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 1420 W/m2.K and the area is 86.40 m2. Calculate
the feed rate, F.
Given:

U = 1420 W/m2.K A = 86.40m2

Req’d: F(kg/h)
Sol’n:
0.8 0.5
mv = F(0.20)[ − ]
0.2 0.5
mv = 0.6F (eqn. 1)
@P=13.3kPa=0.0133MPa
Tv= 324.1308K
m=F-mv (eqn.2)
Q=mvHv+mH-mfHf=UA(Tf – Tsoln)
Fig.8.4-3

Hf =130 KJ/kg

Fig. 8.4-2

90
Tsoln = 940C
Fig.8.4-3

H=520KJ/kg
@P=0.0133MPa
Hy=46.7134KJ/mol(1mol/18g)(1000g/1kg)
Hy=2595.1889 KJ/kg
BPE=Tsoln-Tbp=940C-51.13080C=42.86920C
Hv=Hy-1.88BPE
Hv=2595.1889 KJ/kg+1.88(42.86920C)
Hv=2675.7830 KJ/kg
(1420W/m2.K)(86.40m2)(399.3-367)K(1KJ/kg)(3600s/h)=(0.6F)(2675.7830KJ/kg)+(F-
0.6F)[520KJ/kg – (Fx130KJ/kg)]

F = 8474.2599 kg/h

91
 Problem 6.7

A single effect evaporator is to concentrate 20,000 lbs/hr of 20% solution of NaOH to 50%. The
gauge pressure of the steam is to be 20psig. The absolute pressure in the evaporator space is to be
100 mmHg. The overall coefficient is estimated to be 250 BTU/ ft2.hr.℉. The feed temperature is
100 ℉. Calculate the amount of steam consumed, the economy and the heating surface.

Given:

Vapor, 100 mmHg

20000kg/hr

Feed Steam, 20 psig

20%NaOH

Concentrate, 50% NaOH

U= 250 BTU/ ft2.hr.℉

Required:

a) steam consumed, ms

b) economy, E

c) heating surface, A

Solution:

Q= ms𝜆s = mH+ mvHv – mfHf = UA(∆𝑇)

80 50
mv = 20, 000 lb/hr(0.2) [20 − 50]

mv = 12, 000 lb/hr

At 100 mmHg

TBP= 124.1225 F

Hy= 1116.6602 BTU/lb

At 20psig + 14.7 psi= 34.7 psi abs

92
𝜆s = 941.1742 BTU/lb

TS= 258.8068 F

𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑇𝑈
8000 (168 )+20000 (1144.9551 )
ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏 ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏
ms = 𝐵𝑇𝑈
941.1742
𝑙𝑏

ms =13, 388. 3878 lb/hr

𝒎𝒗 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
E=𝒎𝒔 =𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟖𝟖.𝟑𝟖𝟕𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟔𝟑

𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑇𝑈
13388.3875 (941.1742 )
ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏
A= 𝐵𝑇𝑈
250 (258.8068−187)𝐹
𝑓𝑡2.ℎ𝑟.𝐹

Area= 701.9282 ft2

BPE= 187- 124.1225= 62.8775 F

Hv= 1116.6602 + .45( 62.8775)

Hv = 1144.9551 BTU/lb

93
Problem 6.8
An evaporator is used to concentrate 4536 kg/hr of a 20% solution of NaOH in water entering at 60℃
to a product of 50% solids. The pressure of the saturated steam used is 172.4 kpa and the pressure
in the vapor space of the evaporator is 11.7 kpa. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 1560 W⁄ 2
m . K.
Calculate the steam used, the steam economy in kg vaporized / kg steam used, and the heating surface
area in m2 .

Given:

Vapor
P= 11.7 kpa

FEED Steam
Ps = 172.4 kpa
4536 kg/hr
20% NaOH

U = 1560 W/ m2 k concentrate
50% NaOH

REQD:

a. ms
b. economy
c. Area
with and without heat of dilution

SOLN:
a. without heat of dilution

@ Pv = 11.7 kpa
Tv = 321.7309 K
λv = 2387.3667 kj/kg

@ Ps = 172. 4 kpa
𝑇𝑠 = 388.5745 𝐾
𝜆𝑠 = 2216.6413 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

@ T = 60ºC = 333K
Cpf = 4.1889 kj/kg k
0.80 0.50
mv = (0.20)(4536 kg/hr)(0.20 − 0.50
)

𝐦𝐯 = 𝟐𝟕𝟐𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐡/𝐡𝐫

94
mf = mv + m ;
4536 = 2721.6 + m
m = 1814.4 kh/hr
Q = UA(Ts - T) = msλs = mvλv + mfCpf (T-Tf )
𝑘𝐽
(4536 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟) (4.1889 ) (321.7309 − 333)𝐾 + (2721.6 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟)(2387.3667 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑚𝑠 =
𝑘𝐽
2216.6431
𝑘𝑔
ms = 2834.6172 kg/hr

𝑚𝑣 2721.6
b.) 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑦 = 𝑚𝑠
= 2834.6172

economy = 0.9601

c.) Q = UA(Ts - T) = msλs

kg⁄ kJ
(2834.6172 hr)(2216.6431 ⁄kg)
A=
J
1 s⁄ 1 kJ
W
(1560 ⁄ )( 1W )( ⁄1000J )(3600 s⁄1 hr )(388.545 − 321.7309)K
k m2

𝐀 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝟑𝟖𝟎𝐦𝟐

B. with heat of dilution

mv = 2721.6000 kh/hr
m = 1814.4 kh/hr
Ts = 388.5745 K
λs = 2216.6413 kj/kg

Q = UA(Ts - T) = mvHv + mH – mfHf = msλs

@ Pv = 11.7 kpa
Tv = BP = 321.7309 K
Hy = 2590.9468 kJ/kg

@ 𝑇𝑣 = 𝐵𝑃 = 321.7309 𝐾 = 119. º𝐹

95
x = 0.50 NaOH
T = 192 ℉ = 361.8889 𝐾
Tf=140 ℉
[ x=0.20
] Hf = 90 BTU/ Lbm = 204.6577 kJ/kg

T=192 ℉
[ x=0.50
]H= 218 BTU/ Lbm = 506.6577 kJ/kg

Hv = Hy + 0.45BPE
BPE = T – Tv = 192 – 119.7156
BPE = 72.2844
Hv = 2590.9468 + (1.05 kJ/kg )( 72.2844 )
Hv = 2666.8454 kJ/kg
(2721.6)(2666.8454) + (1814.4)(506.6577) − (4536)(209.1508)
𝑚𝑠 =
2216.6432
ms = 3261.0833 kg/hr

2721.6
b.) economy = 3261.0833

𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐲=𝟎.𝟖𝟑𝟒𝟔

( 3261.0833 )( 2216.6432 )
c.) 𝐴 = 1 kJ
W
(1560 ⁄ 2 )( ⁄1000 J)(3600 s⁄1 hr)( 388.5745−361.8889 )K
m K

𝐀 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟐𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝐦𝟐

96
 B. MULTIPLE EFFECT

Problem 6.9
Estimate the requirements of steam and heat transfer surface and evaporating temperatures in each
effect, for a triple effect evaporator evaporating 500 kg/hr of a 10% solution to a 30% solution. Steam
is available at 200 kpa gauge and the pressure in the evaporator space in the final effect is 60 kpa abs.
Assume the overall heat transfer coefficients are 2270, 2000, and 1420 W/𝑚2 𝑘 respectively. Neglect
sensible heat transfer and BPE.
GIVEN:

Mass Vapor
Mass Vapor Mass Vapor
1
3 2
Feed
60 KPa abs 30%
500 kg/h
10% sol’n U2=2000 U1=2270 sol’n
U3=1420

200 KPa
gauge
Vapor

REQ’D: area, temperatures, 𝑚𝑠

SOL’N:

*Negligible BPE; heat dilution 2270 ((𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇1 ) = 2000 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) eq.1

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 2270 ((𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇1 ) = 1470 (𝑇2 − 𝑇3 ) eq.2
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴3 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟑𝟗𝟑. 𝟕𝟒𝟔𝟏 𝑲
𝑄1 = 𝑈1 𝐴∆𝑇1 ; ∆𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇1 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟑𝟕𝟖. 𝟖𝟖𝟗𝟑 𝑲
𝑄2 = 𝑈2 𝐴∆𝑇2 ; ∆𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3
𝑄3 = 𝑈3 𝐴∆𝑇3 ; ∆𝑇3 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 𝑚𝑠 𝜆𝑠 = 𝑚𝑉1 𝜆𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑉2 𝜆𝑉2 = 𝑚𝑉3 𝜆𝑉3
𝑚𝑠 𝜆𝑠 𝑚𝑠 𝜆𝑠 𝑚𝑠 𝜆𝑠
𝑈1 ∆𝑇1 = 𝑈2 ∆𝑇2 𝑚𝑉 = + +
𝜆𝑉1 𝜆𝑉2 𝜆𝑉3
𝑈1 ∆𝑇1 = 𝑈3 ∆𝑇3 𝑚𝑉1 𝜆𝑉1 𝑚𝑉1 (2706.8345)
333.3333 = +
𝜆𝑉1 2684.8959
@200 kpag = 301.325 kpa (abs)
𝑚𝑉 (2706.8345)
𝑇𝑠 = 1333.6858 °C + 1
𝐻𝐿 = 562.0499 KJ/kg 2652.8
𝐻𝑣 = 2724.8908 KJ/kg 𝑚𝑉1 = 164.3218 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝜆𝑠 = 2162. 8409 KJ/kg 𝒎𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒉𝒓
𝑚𝑠 𝜆𝑠 = UA (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇1 )
@ 60 KPa (abs) 110.0640 kg/hr(2162.8409 kJ/kg) = 2270 9
𝑇3 = 85.526 °𝐶 J/s 𝑚2 𝐾 (A) (1 kJ/1000 J) (3600 s/ 1 hr)
(133.6858 – 120.5961) K
97
𝜆𝑉3 = 2652.8409 KJ/kg A = 2.2254 𝒎𝟐
22709 (133.6858 – 120.5961) = 1470 (
@𝑇2 = 378.8893 K = 105.7393 °C 105.7393 - 𝑇3 )
𝐻𝑣 = 𝜆𝑉2 = 2684.8959 KJ/kg 𝑻𝟑 = 85.5260 °C

@𝑇1 = 393.7461 K = 120.5961 °C

𝐻𝑣 = 𝜆𝑉1 = 2706.8345 KJ/kg

98
 Problem 6.10
4 kg/s of a liquor with 10 percent solids is fed at 294 K to the first effect of a triple effect unit. Liquor
with 50 percent solids is to be withdrawn from the third effect, which is at a pressure of 13.3 KN/𝑚2 .
The liquor will be assumed to have a specific heat of 4.18 kJ/kg K and to have no B.P.R. Saturated dry
steam at 205 KN/𝑚2 is to be fed to the heating element of the first effect, and the condensate is
removed at the steam temperature in each effect. If three units are to have equal areas, it is required
to find the area, the temperature differences and the steam consumption. Assume heat transfer
coefficient of 3.10, 2.00 and 1.10 kW/𝑚2 K for the first, second, and third effects respectively.
GIVEN:

205 KN/m2

U2=1.10 U2=2.00 U1=3.10

50% solids Feed

13.3 4 kg/s
KN/m2 10% solids
294 K
Cp= 4.18 KJ/Kg K

REQ’D: area, ∆T, 𝑚𝑠

SOL’N:

@ 13.3 kN/𝑚2 BP = 325 K

∑∆T = 394 – 325 = 69 K
𝑈1 ∆𝑇1 = 𝑈2 ∆𝑇2 = 𝑈3 ∆𝑇3
Subs. 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , 𝑈3 and ∑∆T = 69 K,
∆T = 13 K, ∆T = 20 K, ∆T = 36 K

Since feed is cold, Assume ∆T @ ∆𝑇1 = 18 K, ∆𝑇2 = 17 K, ∆𝑇3 = 34K

For steam 1, 𝑇0 = 394 K and 𝜆0 = 2200 kJ/kg

99
 For steam 2, 𝑇1 = 376 K and 𝜆1 = 2249 kJ/kg
For steam 3, 𝑇2 = 359 K and 𝜆2 = 2293 kJ/kg
𝑇3 = 325 K and 𝜆3 = 2377 kJ/kg

Assume the condensate to leave @ steam temperature

Effect 1. 𝐷0 𝜆0 = W (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑓 ) + 𝐷1 𝜆1 or

2200 𝐷0 = 4 𝑥 4.18 (376 − 294) + 2249 𝐷1

Effect 2. 𝐷1 𝜆1 = (W - 𝐷1 )(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝐷2 𝜆2 or
2249 𝐷1 + (4 − 𝐷1 )4.18 (376 − 359) = 2293 𝐷2
Effect 3. 𝐷2 𝜆2 = (W - 𝐷1 − 𝐷2 )(𝑇2 − 𝑇3 ) = 𝐷3 𝜆3 or

2293 𝐷2 + (4 − 𝐷1 − 𝐷2 )4.18 (359 − 325) = 2377 𝐷3

𝐷1 + 𝐷2 + 𝐷3 = 3. 2 kg/s
𝐷1 = 1.991, 𝐷2 = 1.065, 𝐷3 = 1.144, 𝐷0 = 1. 635 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝐷0 𝜆0 1.635 𝑥 2200
𝐴1 = = = 𝟔𝟒. 𝟓 𝒎𝟑
𝑈1 ∆𝑇1 3.10 𝑥 18

𝐷1 𝜆1 1.991 𝑥 2249
𝐴2 = = = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟔 𝒎𝟑
𝑈2 ∆𝑇2 2.00 𝑥 17

𝐷 𝜆 1.085 𝑥 2293
𝐴3 = 𝑈 2∆𝑇2 = 1.10 𝑥 34
= 𝟔𝟓. 𝟑 𝒎𝟑
3 3

3.2
Economy = 1.635 = 𝟐. 𝟎

100
 Problem 6.11
Design: Glycerol solution is to be concentrated from 7Wt% to a final concentration of 80Wt% the
feed is available at 50993 Kg/Hr and 27°C. Steam is supplied at 103.66Kpa (Abs.) to the first effect
and a vacuum of 74.2(Abs.) mm of Hg is maintained in the last effect. Heat losses by radiation and by
entertainment are neglected. Condensate is assumed to enter each effect at its saturation
temperature.

Mass Vapor 3 Mass Vapor 1

Mass Vapor 2

Feed
50993 kg/h 80%wt
7% wt
27oC Steam
103.66 KPa
Vacuum 74.2 mm Hg abs (abs)

Glycerol in feed = 50993 × 0.07 = 3569.51 Kg/Hr

Feed rate WF = 50993/3600 = 14.16 Kg/Sec
Bottom outlet from third effect = 3569.51/(0.8×3600) = 1.24 Kg/Sec
Total evaporation =14.16 – 1.24 =12.9 Kg/Sec

Assuming equal evaporation in all the three effects

W1– Evaporation rate in first effect
W2- Evaporation rate in second effect
W3– Evaporation rate in the third effect

W1 = W2 = W3 = (12.9/3) = 4.3 Kg/sec

Outlet from first effect = WF - W1 = 14.16 – 4.3 = 9.86 Kg/sec

Outlet from second effect = WF – W1- W2 = 14.16 – 4.3 – 4.3 = 5.56 Kg/sec
Outlet from third effect = WF – W1 – W2 – W3 = 14.16 – 4.3 – 4.3 – 4.3 = 1.26 Kg/sec

101
Concentration of glycerol in outlet from first effect = (14.16 ×0.07 )/ 9.86 = 10 wt%
Concentration of glycerol in outlet from second effect = (14.16×.07)/5.56 = 0.178 = 17.8 wt%
Concentration of glycerol in outlet from third effect = (14.16×.07)/1.26 = 0.79 = 79 wt%
Saturation temperature of inlet steam TS = 100°C
Boiling point of water in the third effect = 12°C
Temperature difference =100 – 12 = 88°C

BOILING POINT RISE FOR GLYCEROL SOULTION

1) BPR for the third effect at 79 Wt% glycerol = 10.4°C
2) BPR for the second effect at 17.8 Wt% glycerol = 1.5°C
3) BPR for the first effect at 10 Wt% glycerol = 0.5°C
Sum of the BPR of the glycerol solution = 10.4 + 1.5 + 0.5 = 12.4°C
Effective temperature difference = 88 – 12.4 = 75.6°C

Now we assume that the amount of heat transfer from steam to the solution is the same in all the
three effects i.e. Q (heat transfer in the first effect) = Q (heat transfer in the second effect) = Q
(heat transfer in the third effect)

OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Since it is a vertical effect evaporator, the overall heat transfer coefficient can safely be assumed as
follows:
In the first effect U1 = 2325 W/m°C In the second effect U2 = 1275 W/m°C
In the third effect U3 = 1031 W/m°C
Now as we have assumed heat transfer rate’s to be equal, we have
Q1 = Q2 = Q3
(U1 × A1 × ∆t1 ) = (U2 × A2 × ∆t2 ) = (U3 × A3 × ∆t3 )
We design the triple effect evaporator such that the heating area in all the three effect is the same
A1 = A2 = A3 ∆t1 + ∆t2 + ∆t3 = 75.6°C
U1× ∆t1 = U2 × ∆t 2 = U3 × ∆t3 0.6 ∆t2 + ∆t2 + 0.6 ∆t2 = 75.6°C
∆t2 / ∆t1 = U1 / U2 = 2352 / 1275 = 1.8 ∆t2 = 32.3°C
∆t3 / ∆t 2 = U2 / U3 =1275 / 1031 = 0.6 ∆t1 = 21.54°C

102
∆t3 = 21.64°C
ACTUAL BOILING POINTS IN EACH EFFECT
First effect: T1 = TS - ∆t1 = 100 - 21.54 = 78.54°C
Second effect: T2 = T1 - (BPR)1 - ∆t2 = 78.5 - 0.5 - 32.3 = 45.7°C
Third effect: T3 = T2 - (BPR)2 - ∆t3 = 45.7 - 1.5 - 21.64 = 22.56°C

EFFECT 1 (oC) EFFECT 2 (oC) EFFECT 3 (oC) CONDENSER (oC)

Ts = 100 T1 = 78 T2 = 44.2 T3 = 12.16
T1= 78.5 T2 = 45.7 T3 = 22.56
HEAT BALANCE
FIRST EFFECT:
WS λS + WFHF = W1H1 + ( WF - W1 ) h1
latent heat of steam λS = 2257.86 KJ/ kg
HF – Enthalpy of feed at inlet temperature ( 27ºC) = Cpf × ( Tf - 0) = ( 0.576 × 4.18) × 27 = 65 KJ /
Kg
H1- Enthalpy of vapor leaving the first effect = H2S + (Cp)steam × (BPR1)superheat = 2640 +
(1.884 × 0.5) = 2487 KJ/ Kg
H2s- Enthalpy of steam at 78ºC = 2640 KJ / Kg
(Cp)steam at 78ºC = 1.884 KJ/ Kg
h1 - enthalpy of outlet from first effect at 78.5ºC = Cp1 × ( t1 – 0 ) = 0.65 × 4.18 × 78.5 = 213.28
KJ/Kg
WS × (2257.86) + (14.16 × 65) = ( W1 × 2487 ) + ( 14.16 – W1 ) × 213.28
WS × (2257.86) = 2273.7 × W1 + 2099.6

WS = W1 + 0.93 ------------------------(1)

SECOND EFFECT:
W1 λ1 + ( WF – W1 ) h1 = W2 H2 + ( WF – W1 – W2 ) h2
Latent heat of steam at 78ºC λ1 = H1 - h2S = 2487 - 325 = 2162 KJ /Kg
H3S – Enthalpy of steam vapor at 44.2ºC = 2580 KJ /Kg
H2 - Enthalpy of vapor leaving the second effect = H3S + ( Cp)steam ×(BPR2)supreheat = 2580 +
( 1.884 × 1.5 ) = 2583 KJ/Kg
h2-Enthalpy of outlet from the second effect at 45.7ºC = Cp2 × ( t2 - 0 ) = 0.6 × 4.18 × 45.7

103
= 114.62 KJ /Kg
W1 × 2162 + ( 14.16 – W1 ) × 213.28 = (W2 × 2583 ) + ( 14.16 – W1 – W2 )×114.62
2063.34 × W1 = 1397 + 2468.38 × W2
W1 + 0.667 = 1.196 × W2 -------------------(2)
THIRD EFFECT:
W2 λ2+ (WF – W1 –W2 ) × h2 = W3 H3 + (WF – W1 - W2 - W3 ) ×h3
Latent heat of steam at 44.2ºC λ2 = H2 - h3S = 2583 - 190 = 2393 KJ / Kg
H4S -Enthalpy of steam vapor at 12 .16ºC = 2523 KJ/Kg
H3 -Enthalpy of vapor leaving the third effect = H4S + (Cp)steam × (BPR3)ssuperheat = 2523 +
(1.884 ×10.4 ) = 2543 KJ/ Kg
h3 – Enthalpy of outlet from third effect at 22.56ºC = Cp3 ×( t3 - 0)
= 0.57 ×4.18 ×22.56
= 53.75 KJ /Kg
W2 ×2393 + (14.16 – W1 – W2 ) × 114.62 = W3 × 2543 + ( 14.16 – W1 – W2 – W3 ) × 53.75
2332.13 ×W2 - 60.87 = 2489.25 × W3 + 861.92
W2 + 0.370 = 1.067 × W3 + 0.026 × W1 --------------------(3)
W1 + W2 + W3 = 12.9 Kg/ Sec -------------------------(4)

Solving equations' (1),(2),(3) and (4), we get:

WS = 5.153 Kg/sec Q2 = W1λ1= 9130.13 KJ/sec
W1 = 4.223 Kg/sec But Q2 = U2A2∆t2
W2 = 4.089 Kg/sec Therefore A2 =
(9130.13×103)/(32.3×1275) = 228 m2
W3 = 4.588 Kg/sec
Now,
Q3 = W2λ2 = 9784.98 KJ/sec
Q1 = WSλS =11634.75 KJ/sec
But Q3 = U3A3∆t3
But
Therefore A3 =
Q1=U1A1∆t1
(9784.98×103)/(21.64×1031) = 235 m2
Therefore A1=
(11634.75×103)/(21.54×2325) = 232.32 m2

104
Problem 6.12
Triple-effect forward-feed evaporator is being used to evaporate a sugar solution containing 10
wt% solids to a concentrated solution of 50 %.The boiling- point rise of the solutions (independent
of pressure) can be estimated from (BPR ºC = 1.78x + 6.22 x2 ),where x is wt fraction of sugar in
solution. Saturated steam at 205.5 kPa and 121.1ºC saturation temperature is being used.
The pressure in the vapor space of the third effect is 13.4 kPa . The feed rate is 22 680 kg/h at 26.7
ºC . The heat capacity of the liquid solutions is cP = 4.19 –2.35x kJ/kg.K. The heat of solution is
considered to be negligible. The coefficients of heat transfer have been estimated as U1 = 3123, U2
= 1987, and U3 = 1136 W/m2.K . If each effect has the same surface area, calculate the area, the
steam rate used, and the steam economy.
GIVEN:

REQ’D: area, economy, 𝑚𝑠

SOL’N: Fx F = 22 680 (0.1) = L3 (0.5) + (V1 + V2 +
V3) (0)
From steam table at P3 = 13.4 kPa,
L3 = 4536 kg/h
Tsat = 51.67 ºC.
Total vaporized = (V1+ V2 + V3) = 18 144
Using the BPR equation for third effect with
kg/h
xL= 0.5,44
BPR3 = 1.78 (0.5) + 6.22 (0.52) =2.45 ºC.
Assuming equal amount vaporized in each
T3 = 51.67 + 2.45 = 54.12 ºC effect,

(BPR=T–Ts) V1 = V2 = V3 = 18 144 / 3 = 6048 kg/h

Making an overall and a solids balance. Making a total material balance on effects 1,
2, and 3, solving
F = 22 680 = L3 + (V1+ V2 + V3)

105
F = 22680 = V1 + L1 = 6048 + L1, L1 = 16632 BPR2 = 1.78(0.214) + 6.22(0.214)2 = 0.65ºC.
kg/hr
BPR3 = 1.78(0.5) + 6.22(0.5)2 = 2.45ºC.
L1 = 16632 = V2 + L2 = 6048 + L2, L2 = 10584
then,
kg/hr
Σ∆T available = TS1 - T3(sat) –(BPR1 + BPR2 +
L2 = 10584 = V3 + L3 = 6048 + L3, L3 = 4536
BPR3)
kg/hr
= 121.1 –51.67 – (0.36+0.65+2.45) =
65.97ºC
Making a solids balance on each effecy, and
solving for x,
1/𝑈1
22680(0.1) = L1x1 = 16632(x1) x1 = 0.136 ∆𝑇1 = Σ∆𝑇
1 1 1
16632(0.136) = L2x2 = 10584(x2) x2 = 0.214 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 + 𝑈3
1/3123
10584(0.214) = L3x3 = 4536(x3) x3 = 0.5 =
1 1 1
(check) 3123 + 1987 + 1136
∆T1 = 12.40 ºC

The BPR in each effect is calculated as ∆T2 = 19.50 ºC

follows:
∆T3 = 34.07 ºC
BPR1 = 1.78x1 + 6.22x12
= 1.78(0.136) +
6.22(0.136)2 = 0.36ºC.

106
107
VII. VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIA

Problem 7.1
Given that the Henry's Law constant for carbon dioxide in water at 25°C is 1.6 x 105 kPa (mole
fraction)-1, calculate the percentage solubility by weight of carbon dioxide in water under these
conditions and at a partial pressure of carbon dioxide of 200 kPa above the water.
Solution:
From Henry's Law p = Hx
200 = 1.6 x 105x
x = 0.00125
𝑊𝑡𝐶𝑂2
44
0.00125 = 𝑊𝑡𝐶𝑂2 𝑊𝑡𝐻2𝑂
+
44 18

𝑊𝑡𝐻2𝑂
1
= 1 + 18
0.00125 𝑊𝑡𝐶𝑂2
44
𝑊𝑡𝐶𝑂2
= 0.0031
𝑊𝑡𝐻20

108
Problem 7.2
Methanol and ethanol form an ideal solution. Compute vapor-liquid equilibrium data. The following
pure component vapor pressure data is given:

Vapor pressure, mm Hg 200 400 760 1520

Temperature oC for ethanol 48.4 62.5 78.4 97.5
Temperature oC for methanol 34.8 49.9 64.7 84

What value of relative volatility will you recommend for this system?
Solution:
(ln 760 - ln PA) / (ln 760 - ln 1520) = (1/337.7 - 1/T) / (1/337.7 - 1/357)
Interpolating equation for ethanol: (using the data for T of 62.5 and 78.4oC)
(ln 400 - ln PB) / (ln 400 - ln 760) = (1/335.5 - 1/T) / (1/335.5 - 1/351.4)
The vapor pressure data for various pressures are calculated using the above equations and
tabulated as follows:

T, Kelvin PA, mm Hg PB, mm Hg xA yA α

337.7 760 439 1 1 1.73
341 860 503 0.720 0.815 1.71
344 961 568 0.489 0.618 1.69
347 1072 640 0.278 0.392 1.68
348.5 1131 679 0.179 0.267 1.67
351.4 1253 760 0 0 1.65
Ave 1.69
Using these vapor pressure - temperature data, and from the relation:
xA = (Pt - PB)/(PA - PB) and yA = PAxA/Pt
and Relative volatility, α = PA/PB,
The recommended relative volatility for the system is 1.69.

109
Problem 7.3
For each of the conditions of temperature and pressure listed below for water, state whether the
water is a solid, liquid, saturated mixture, or superheated vapor. If it is a saturated mixture,
calculate the quality.

Solution:
Using the steam table,

For State 4,
Using interpolation at 245.6 kpa, VL = 1.0664 x 10-3 m3/kg and VG = 0.7319 m3/kg
(1.0664 x 10-3 m3/kg)(1-x) + 0.7319 m3/kg(x) = 0.505 kg/m3
X = 0.69

110
Problem 7.4
Determine the % error if the Antoine equation is used to estimate the normal boiling point of
benzene. From literature value, the normal boiling point of benzene is 353.26 K.
Solution:
For benzene, values of the constants for the Antoine equation are:
A = 15.9008 B = 2788.51 C = -52.36
Using the Antoine Equation,

Solving for temperature, T = 353.3 K

The percent error is,

111
Problem 7.5
Suppose that a liquid mixture of 4.0% n-hexane (A) in n-octane (B) is vaporized. What is the
composition of the first vapor formed if the total pressure is 1.00 atm? Values of the Antoine
constants for n-octane are: A = 15.9798 B = 3127.60 C = – 63.63
Solution:
Assuming the vapor behaves ideally, the composition of the vapor is determined using the Raoult’s
law:

Upon formation of the first vapor, the composition of the liquid is essentially the same as the initial
composition. Hence, xA = 0.040 and xB = 1 – xA =0.960. The vapor pressures of A and B are calculated
using the Antoine equation:
For n-hexane: For n-octane:

Since vaporization temperature is not given, the next step in the calculation is to determine its
value.
For the vapor mixture, PT = PA + PB. Using Raoult’s Law, PT = P*AxA + P*BxB = 1.00 atm = 760
mmHg.
Using the expressions for the vapor pressures as defined by the Antoine equation:

Solving for temperature, T = 393.59 K

For T = 393.59 K, the vapor pressures of n-hexane and n-octane are: P*A = 3019.92 mm Hg P*B =
665.86 mm Hg and the composition of the first vapor formed is:

112
 VIII. DISTILLATION

A. FLASH DISTILLATION

Problem 8.1
If a 20% mole benzene in toluene mixture is the feed to an equilibrium still and if the vapor and liquid
streams are withdrawn in a ratio of 2 mole vapor to 1 mole liquid, what is the composition of the
vapor and liquid. At what temperature is the still?

GIVEN:

VAPOR

REQUIRED:
a) composition of liquid and vapor
V/L=2 b) temperature
FEED

xf = 0.2

LIQUID

SOLUTION:
a)

YD=0.27 1- f 2 2
Slope = - but f = =
f 2+1 3
2
1-
-1 Δy
Slope = - 3 = =
2 2 Δx
3

Xb=0.14 XF=0.20

113
b)
T

T=105.1C
xB

xB yD

114
Problem 8.2
If a mixture of water and 0.30 mole fraction of ethanol is the feed to an equilibrium still, and if the
vapor stream contains 0.42mole fraction ethanol, what is the composition of the liquid and what is
the ratio of the vapor to the liquid?

GIVEN:
VAPOR

yd=0.42

FEED

xf = 0.34

LIQUID

REQUIRED: a) xb b) V/L

SOLUTION:
a) b)
Basis : 100 moles of feed
TMB : 100 = V + L
CMB : 100  0.30  = 0.42V +0.08L
YD=0.42
V = 64.7059 moles
L = 35.2941 moles

Xb=0.08 V 64.7059
= = 1.8333
L 35.2941

115
Problem 8.3
A feed of 60% mol hexane and 40% octane is fed to a pipe still through a flash disengaging chamber.
The vapor & liquid leaving the chamber are assumed to be in equilibrium. If the fraction of the feed
converted to vapor is 0.5, find the composition of the top and bottom products. Equilibrium data for
this system is given below.

Mol fraction of hexane in the liquid 1.0 0.69 0.40 0.192 0.045 0
Mol fraction of hexane in the vapor 1.0 0.932 0.78 0.538 0.1775 0

GIVEN:

VAPOR

F=0.50

FEED

60% Hexane

40% Octane

LIQUID

REQUIRED: Composition of V & L

SOLUTION:
From the plotted points in the graph
x b = 0.41
y D = 0.79

Composition
V : 79% mol hexane L: 41% mol hexane
21% mol octane 59% mol octane

116
Problem 8.4
A mixture of 100 mol containing 60% mol n-pentane and 40% mol n-heptane is vaporized at 101.32
kPa abs pressure until 40 mol of vapor and 60 mol of liquid in equilibrium with each other are
produced. This occurs in a single-stage system and the vapor and the liquid are kept in contact with
each other until the vaporization is complete. Calculate the composition of the vapor and the liquid.
Equilibrium data:
Mol fraction of hexane in the 1.0 0.867 0.594 0.398 0.254 0.145 0.054 0
liquid
Mol fraction of hexane in the 1.0 0.984 0.925 0.836 0.701 0.521 0.271 0
vapor

GIVEN:
VAPOR

F=0.40

FEED
PT=101.32 kPa
60% Pentane

40% Heptane

LIQUID

L=60mol

REQUIRED: Vapor and Liquid Composition

SOLUTION:
From the plotted points in the graph
x b = 0.34
y D = 0.788

Composition
V: 78.8% mol pentane L: 34% mol pentane
20.2% mol heptane 56% mol heptane

117
Problem 8.5

An equimolar mixture of benzene and toluene is subjected to flash distillation at 100 kN/m 2 in the
separator. Using the equilibrium data given in Figure 11.9, determine the composition of the liquid
and vapour leaving the separator when the feed is 25% vaporized. For this condition, determine the
temperature of the exit liquid stream the boiling point diagram in Figure 11.10 may be used.

Solution:

The fractional vaporisation = V/F = f

The slope of equation is:

𝐹−𝑉 1−𝑓
−( ) = −( )
𝑉 𝑓

When f = 0.25, the slope of equation is therefore:

1−0.25
−( 0.25
) = −3.0

Figure 11.9 Figure 11.10

Equilibrium Curve for benzene–toluene Boiling point diagram for benzene–toluene

From Figure 11.9 x = 0.42 From Figure 11.10 the liquid temperature
when
y = 0.63 x = 0.42 is seen to be  366.5 K.

118
Problem 8.6

Flash distillation is used to evaporate half of a 40 mole% benzene–toluene mixture.

a) What is the composition of the resulting distillate and residue?
b) By changing the amount of evaporated mixture, what is the maximum possible benzene content
of the distillate?
c) By changing the amount of evaporated mixture, what is the maximum possible toluene content of
the residue?
Given:

0.40 =

Solution
a) Component balance: F  xF = L  x + V  y
Since 50% of the feed is evaporated: 0.5  F = L = V
Let’s substitute it into the component balance equation:

F  xF = L  x + V  y = 0.5  F  x + 0.5  F  y and xF  0.5x  0.5y

By taking into account that xF = 0.4, we end up in an equation of a linear:

0.4  xF  0.5x  0.5y  0.8  x  y  y  0.8 x .

The vapor and liquid products of a flash distillation are in equilibrium, thus the liquid composition x
and vapour composition y values correspond to the coordinates of one single point of the equilibrium
curve.

Fig. 2.Determination of the vapor and liquid

composition at an equilibrium curve

From the diagram:

y  0.51 , and x  0.29.

119
 Fig. 3. Possible working intervals of a flash distillation

b) Maximum possible benzene content of the distillate can be achieved if minimum amount of vapor
is evaporated.

The ymax value from Fig. 3.

ymax  0.62.

c) By changing the amount of evaporated mixture, what is the maximum possible toluene content
of the residue?

Maximum toluene content is obtained in the liquid product when almost the total feed is
evaporated.

The xmin value can be read from Fig. 3: xmin  0.22,

thus maximum possible toluene content in the residue is: 1-0.22 = 0.78

120
Problem 8.7

A feed mixture containing 50 mole% Hexane and 50 mole% Octane is fed into a pipe still through a
pressure reducing valve and flashed into a chamber. The fraction of feed converted to vapor is 0.6.
Find the composition of the distillate and residue.
X 0 4.5 19.2 40 69 100
y 0 17.8 53.8 78 93.2 100
x, y are mole percent of Hexane in liquid and vapor stream respectively
Solution:

0.5 (hexane) =

f = 0.6
Draw the equilibrium curve and diagonal. From the feed point draw a line with a slope of:

1−𝑓 1 − 0.6
−( ) = −( ) = 0.6667
𝑓 0.6

From the graph, we get

xW = 0.275 (hexane in residue)

yD = 0.65 (hexane in distillate)

121
Problem 8.8

A liquid mixture containing 70 mol% n-heptane and 30 mol % n-octane at 30C is to be continuously
flashed at the standard atmospheric pressure and 60 mol% of the feed is vaporized. What will be the
compositions of vapor and liquid and the temperature of the separator for an equilibrium stage?

Solution: Solution Basis = 100 moles of liquid feed (F)

100 moles =
0.70 =

V = 0.6(100) = 60 moles
f = V/F = 60/100 = 0.6

We want to fine the equilibrium composition of liquid and liquid; y & x

1−0.6 0.7
The operating line: y = −( )x + ( )  y = −0.6667x + 1.1667
0.6 0.6

122
From the intersection of the operating line & the equilibrium curve as shown in the graph:

Equilibrium mol fraction of n-heptane in

liquid, x = 0.61

vapor, y = 0.78

From this graph the temperature of the separator at equilibrium ≈ 378C

123
B. DIFFERENTIAL DISTILLATION

Problem 8.9
One hundred kmols of an equimolar mixture of ethanol and water is charged to a still pot where
differential distillation is carried out until 40 kmols are distilled.
a) What is the average composition of the total vapor distilled and the composition of the liquid if the
relative volatility is assumed constant at 10.4?
b) If the vaporization is done in an equilibrium distillation unit and 40 kmols are distilled, what is the
composition of the vapor distilled and the liquid left?

GIVEN:
V=40 kmols

=10.4

100 N
km
ols

50 kmols NA NB
50 kmols

REQUIRED:

a) composition of vapor and liquid using =10.4

b) composition of vapor and liquid using V=40 kmols
SOLUTION:
a) Differential Distillation
n 1  xa 1 - xa 
ln = ln - α ln  n = 100 - 40 = 60 kmols
no α - 1  x oa 1 - x oa 
60 1  xa 1 - xa 
ln =  ln - ln
100 10.4 - 1  0.5 1 - 0.5 

x a = 0.2561

1
n  n  αab nA
or b =  a  where n B = n - n A ; x A =
nob  noa  n
1
 60 - n a   n a  10.4
 = 
 50   50 
na = 15.36326197

124
 na 15.3626197
xa = = = 0.2561
n 60
n -n 50 -15.36326197
y a = oa a = = 0.8659
V 40

b) FLASH DISTILLATION
40
f= = 0.40
100
1-f 1 - 0.4 Δy
m=- =- = -1.5
f 0.4 Δx

x B = 0.42
y D = 0.62

125
Problem 8.10
A liquid mixture of 65% by mole benzene and 35% toluene is distilled with the vapor continuously
withdrawn as it is formed. Assuming the relative volatility is constant at 2.94.
a) What is the composition of the liquid after 25% of the liquid has been vaporized?
b) How much of the original liquid must be vaporized to have a composition of 35% mol benzene in
the residue?

GIVEN:

=2.94

No N

NA NB

65% C6H6 35% C7H8

REQUIRED:
a) xB if f=0.25 b) % vaporized
SOLUTION: Basis: 100 moles of original solution
a)
V = 0.25 100  = 25 moles
N = 100 - 25 = 75 moles

75 1  xA 1- x 
ln = ln - 2.94 ln
100 2.94 -1  0.65 0.35 
x A = 0.5904

b)
n 1  0.35 1 - 0.35 
ln = ln - 2.94 ln
100 2.94 -1  0.65 0.35 
n = 28.4443 moles
V = 100 - 28.4443 = 71.5557 moles

71.5557
% vaporized = 100 = 71.5557%
100

126
Problem 8.11
A rectification column is fed with 100 kmol/hr of an Equimolar mixture of benzene and toluene at
101.32 kPa abs. The feed is liquid at the boiling point. The distillate is to contain 90 mol% benzene
and the bottomes 10 mol% benzene. The reflux ratio is 4.52:1. Calculate the kmol/hr of distillate,
kmol/hr of bottoms and the number of theoretical trays using McCabe-Thiele method.
GIVEN:

FEED DISTILLATE
100 KMOLS 90% benzene
50%
Benzene

50% Toluene

Saturated
liquid
BOTTOMS

10% benzene

REQUIRED:
a) D & B
b) No. of plates

SOLUTION: Basis: 1 hour operation

TMB : 100 = D+ B
CMB :
C6H6 : 0.5 100  = 0.90D+0.10B y=1
D = 50 kmol / hr
B = 50 kmol / hr

xD 0.9
y - int = = = 0.16
R D +1 4.52+1
q=1

xB xF
From graph : 6 stages, 5 plates
Feed plate : 3rd plate

127
C. RECTIFICATION

Problem 8.12
A mixture of 40 mol% benzene and 60% toluene is distilled in a column to give a product of 98%
benzene and a waste containing 5% benzene. For a relative volatility of 2.4, calculate the minimum
reflux ratio and minimum number of plates if the mixture is fed at its boiling point

GIVEN:

FEED DISTILLATE
90% Benzene 95% benzene
10% Toluene

Fed at boiling
point

BOTTOMS

5% benzene

REQUIRED:
a) N minimum
b) Rd minimum

SOLUTION:

a)
 x 1 - x B    0.95 1 - 0.05 
log  D  log  
 x B 1 - x D  
  0.05 1 - 0.95 

Nmin = = = 6.7265
log α log 2.4

b)
R D min 0.95- 0.4 2.4  0.4 
= where : y' = = 0.6154
R D min +1 0.95- y' 1+1.4 0.4 

R D min 0.95- 0.4

= ; R D min = 1.55
R D min +1 0.95- 0.6154

128
Problem 8.13
Rectification of a Heptane-Ethyl Benzene Mixture. A saturated liquid feed of 200 mol/h containing
42% mol heptane and 58% mol ethyl benzene is to be fractionated at 101.32 kPa abs to give a
distillate containing 97% mol heptane and bottoms containing 1.1% mol heptane. The reflux ration
used is 2.5:1. Calculate the mol/h distillate and bottoms, theoretical number of trays and the feed tray
number. Equilibrium data are given below at 101.32 kPa abs pressure for the mole fraction n-
heptane.

Temperature, 409.3 402.6 392.6 383.8 376.0 371.5

K
xH 0 0.080 0.250 0.485 0.790 1.000
yH 0 0.230 0.514 0.730 0904 1.000

Given: 97% mol heptane

Feed
200 mol/h RD = 2.5
42% mol heptane
58% mol ethyl benzene

1.1% mol heptane

Required:
a) Mol/h distillate and bottoms
b) Theoretical number of trays and feed number
Solution:
TMB: 200= D +B
CMB: 200 x 0.42 = 0.97D + 0.011B
D = 85.4167 mol/h
B = 114.5833 mol/h
𝑥𝐷 0.97
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅𝐷+1 =2.5+1

y-int= 0.2771

129
q=1
number of feed trays= 10 plates
Feed plate= 6

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

130
Problem 8.14
Enriching Tower for Benzene-Toluene. An enriching tower is fed 100 kmol/h of a saturated vapour
feed 40mol % benzene and the rest toluene at 101.32 kPa abs. The distillate is to contain 90mol %
benzene. The reflux ration is set at 4.0:1. Calculate the kmol/h distillate and bottoms and their
compositions. Also, calculate the number of theoretical plates required.
Given:
90% mol heptane

Feed
100 kmol/h RD = 4.0
40% mol benzene
60% mol ethyl benzene

xB
Required:
a) Composition of D and B
b) Number of theoretical plates
Solution:
𝐿
𝐷
=4 V=L+D V = 5D

TMB: F = B + D
100 = 4D + D D =20 kmol/h
B = 80 kmol/h
CMB: 0.4(100) = xB (4 x 20) + (0.9 x 20)
XB = 0.275
Quality of Feed: Saturated Vapor
Q=0 m=0
𝑥𝐷 0.9
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅𝐷+1 y-int = 4+1 y- int = 0.18

From the graph: Ntheo = 5 stages

131
132
Problem 8.15
Rectification Using a Partially Vaporized Feed. A total feed of 200mol/h having an overall
composition of 42 mol% heptane and 58 mol% ethyl benzene is to be fractionated at 101.32 kPa
pressure to give a distillate containing 97 mol% heptane and bottoms containing 1.1 mol% heptane.
The feed enters the tower partially vaporized so that 40 mol% is liquid and 60 mol% vapor.
Equilibrium data are given in Problem 11.4-2. Calculate the following.
(a) Moles per hour distillate and bottoms
(b) Minimum reflux ratio Rm
(c) Minimum steps and theoretical trays at total reflux.
(d) Theoretical number of trays required for an operating reflux ratio of 2.5:1.
Sol’n:
60
a) q = = 0.60
100

q 0.60 3
m=− =− =−
1−q 1 − 0.60 2
a.)TMB: 200=D+B (eqn.1)
CMB: 0.42(200)=0.92D+0.11B (eqn.2)
Solve eqn. 1 & 2 simultaneously

D=85.2972mol/h B=114.7028mol/h
b.) 𝑥𝐷 0.97
d.) 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅 = 2.5+1 = 0.2771
𝐷 +1

R Dmin 0.97 − 0.58

=
R Dmin + 1 0.97 − 0.32

RDmin=1.5
From the graph:
c.) from the graph:
Ntheo = 12 stages
Nactual = 8stages

133
Problem 8.16

A rectification column is fed with 100 kmol/hr of an equimolar mixture of benzene and toluene at
101.32 kPa abs. The feed is liquid at the boiling point. The distillate is to contain 90 mol% benzene
and the bottomes 10 mol% benzene. The reflux ratio is 4.52:1. Calculate the kmol/hr of distillate,
kmol/hr of bottoms and the number of theoretical trays using McCabe-Thiele method.

GIVEN:
Distillate
90% benzene

100 kmol/h

Bottoms:
10% benzene

REQUIRED:
a) D & B
b) No. of plates

SOLUTION: Basis: 1 hour operation

TMB: 100 = D + B

CMB:
Benzene balance : 0.5(100) = 0.90D + 0.10B

a. D = 50 kmol/h
B = 50 kmol/h

0.9
b. Y-int = 4.52+1 = 0.16

q= 1

from graph:
6 stages
Feed plate number = 3

134
Problem 8.17
An equimolar liquid mixture of benzene and toluene is separated into two product streams by
distillation. The vapor stream leaving at the top of the column, which contains 97 mole% benzene, is
fed to a condenser to undergo complete condensation. The condensed liquid is split into two equal
fractions: one is taken off as the final overhead product stream and the other (the reflux) is recycled
to the top of the column. The final overhead product contains 89.2% of the benzene fed to the column.
The liquid leaving the bottom of the column is fed to a partial reboiler in which 45% of it is vaporized.
The vapor generated in the reboiler (the boil up) is recycled to the column, and the residual reboiler
liquid is taken as the final bottom product stream. The compositions of the streams leaving the
reboiler are governed by the relation:
[yB/(1- yB)] / [xB/(1- xB)] = 2.25
where yB and xB are the mole fractions of benzene in the vapor and liquid streams, respectively.
Using 100 mol of feed as a basis, calculate
a. the molar amounts of the overhead and bottoms products
b. the mole fraction of benzene in the bottoms product
c. and the percentage recovery of toluene in the bottoms product.

Given:

135
Solution:
Overall process calculations:
1. 89.2% recovery of B n5 = 91.96 mol
2. Total balance n3 = 54.02 mol
3. Benzene balance yB3 = 0.100 mol B/mol
Reboiler Calculations:
1. Mole fraction relation yB4 = 0.200 mol B/mol
2. % vaporization n4 and n2
3. Total balance n4 and n2
Solve the last 2 equations simultaneously:
n2 = 98.22 mol
n4 = 44.20 mol
4. Benzene balance yB2 = 0.145 mol B/mol

Additional Calculation:

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 54.02(1−0.1)

% Recovery T = 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑
= 100𝑚𝑜𝑙(0.50)x100 = 97%

Summary of answers:

Molar amount of overhead 0.5n5 = 45.98 mol

Molar amount of bottom n3 = 54.02 mol
Fraction of benzene in bottom yB3 = 0.100 mol B/mol
% Recovery of toluene 97%

136
IX. SOLID-LIQUID EXTRACTION

A. CONSTANT SOLVENT UNDERFLOW

Problem 9.1
0.4 kg/s of dry sea-shore sand, containing 1 per cent by mass of salt, is to be washed with 0.4 kg/s of
fresh water running counter currently to the sand through two classifiers in series. It may be assumed
that perfect mixing of the sand and water occurs in each classifier and that the sand discharged from
each classifier contains one part of water for every two of sand by mass. If the washed sand is dried
in a kiln dryer, what percentage of salt will it retain? What wash rate would be required in a single
classifier in order to wash the sand to the same extent?
Solution
The problem involves a mass balance around the two stages. If x kg/s salt is in the underflow
discharge from stage 1, then:
salt in feed to stage 2= (0.4×1)/100=0.004 kg/s.
The sand passes through each stage and hence the sand in the underflow from stage 1=0.4 kg/s,
which, assuming constant underflow, is associated with (0.4/2) =0.2 kg/s water. Similarly, 0.2 kg/s
water enters stage 1 in the underflow and 0.4 kg/s enters in the overflow. Making a water balance
around stage 1, the water in the overflow discharge= 0.4 kg/s.
In the underflow discharge from stage 1, x kg/s salt is associated with 0.2 kg/s water, and hence the
salt associated with the 0.4 kg/s water in the overflow discharge= (x × 0.4)/0.2=2x kg/s. This
assumes that the overflow and underflow solutions have the same concentration.
In stage 2, 0.4 kg/s water enters in the overflow and 0.2 kg/s leaves in the underflow.
Thus: water in overflow from stage 2= (0.4−0.2) =0.2 kg/s.
The salt entering is 0.004 kg/s in the underflow and 2x in the overflow—a total of (0.004+2x) kg/s.
The exit underflow and overflow concentrations must be the same, and hence the salt associated
with 0.2 kg/s water in each stream is:
(0.004+2x)/2= (0.002+x) kg/s
Making an overall salt balance:
0.004= x +(0.002+x) and x =0.001 kg/s 83
This is associated with 0.4 kg/s sand and hence:
salt in dried sand= (0.001×100)/(0.4+0.001) =0.249 per cent
The same result may be obtained by applying equation 10.16 over the washing stage:
Sn+1/S1 = (R−1)/(Rn+1 −1)
( equation 10.16)
In this case: R = (0.4/0.2) =2,n=1,S2 = x,S1 = (0.002+x) and:

137
 x/(0.002+x)= (2−1)/(22 −1) =0.33
x = (0.000667/0.667) =0.001 kg
and the salt in the sand=0.249 per cent as before.
Considering a single stage:
If y kg/s is the overflow feed of water then, since 0.2 kg/s water leaves in the underflow, the water
in the overflow discharge= (y −0.2) kg/s. With a feed of 0.004 kg/s salt and 0.001 kg/s salt in the
underflow discharge, the salt in the overflow discharge=0.003 kg/s.
The ratio (salt/solution) must be the same in both discharge streams or:
(0.001)/(0.20+0.001) =0.003/(0.003+y −0.2) and y =0.8 kg/s

138
Problem 9.2
Prepared cottonseed meats containing 35 per cent of extractable oil are fed to a continuous
countercurrent extractor of the intermittent drainage type using hexane as the solvent. The extractor
consists of ten sections and the section efficiency is 50 per cent. The entrainment, assumed constant,
is 1 kg solution/kg solids. What will be the oil concentration in the outflowing solvent if the
extractable oil content in the meats is to be reduced by 0.5 per cent by mass?
Solution:
Basis: 100 kg inert cottonseed material
Mass of oil in underflow feed= (100×0.35)/(1−0.35)=53.8 kg.
In the underflow product from the plant, mass of inerts=100 kg and hence mass of oil=
(100×0.005)/(1−0.005)=0.503 kg.
This is in 100 kg solution and hence the mass of hexane in the underflow product= (100−0.503)
=99.497 kg.
The overall balance in terms of mass is:

Inerts Oil Hexane

Underflow Feed 100 53.8 ---
Overflow Feed --- --- h (say)
Underflow Product 100 0.503 99.497
Overflow Product --- 53.297 (h-99.497)

Since there are ten stages, each 50 per cent efficient, the system may be considered, as a first
approximation as consisting of five theoretical stages each of 100 per cent efficiency, in which
equilibrium is attained in each stage. On this basis, the underflow from stage 1 contains 100 kg
solution in which the oil/hexane ratio=53.297/(h−99.497) and hence the amount of oil in this
stream is:
S1 =100[1−(h−99.497)/(h−46.2)] kg
Sn+1 =0.503 kg
With constant underflow, the amount of solution in the overflow from each stage is say, h kg and
the solution in the underflow=100 kg.
Thus: R = (h/100) =0.01h
and in using equation: Sn+1/S1 = (R−1)/(Rn+1 −1):
(0.503h−23.24) = (53.30h−5330)/[(0.01h)5 −1]
Solving by trial and error: h =238 kg and in the overflow product:
mass of hexane= (238−99.497) =138.5 kg, mass of oil=53.3 kg
and concentration of oil= (100×53.3)/(53.3+138.5) =27.8%

139
Problem 9.3
Tung meal containing 55 weight % oil is to be extracted at a rate of 4000 lb/h using n-hexane
containing 5 weight % oil as solvent. A countercurrent multi-stage extraction sytem is to be used.
The meal retains 2 lbs of solvent per lb of oil-free meal. The residual charge contains 0.11 lb oil per
lb of oil-free meal while the product is composed of 15 weight % oil. Determine the number of ideal
stages.
Given:

Req’d: N
Sol’n:
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑖𝑙
5 15 0.11
𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡
Yb=95 = 0.0526 Ya*=85 = 0.1765 yb*= 𝑙𝑏 ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 0.055 yb*=xb=0.055
2
𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡

Solute balance:
0.11𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑖𝑙
0.55(4000) + 0.05Vb= 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡 (o.45x4000) + 0.15 V1 (eqn.1)

Solvent balance:
2𝑙𝑏 ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑒
0 + 0.95Vb= 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡
(0.45X4000) + 0.85 V1 (eqn.2)

Solving eqn. 1 & 2 simultaneously

V1 = 20,819 lb Vb = 22,417 lb Vb’=Va’= 22,417 lb(0.95) = 21,296.15 lb
Solute balance around stage 1:
15 2 𝑙𝑏 ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑒
0.55(4000) + yaVa’=0.15V1+85 ( 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡
) (0.45𝑥 4000)

Ya= 0.0731

y −y ∗ 5⁄ −0.055
ln[ b b ] ln[ 95 ]
ya −ya∗ 0.0731−15⁄85
N= y −y N= 5⁄ −0.0731 = 3.1205 stages
ln[ b a ] ln[ 95 15 ]
yb∗ −y 8
a 0.055− ⁄85

140
B. CONSTANT SOLUTION UNDERFLOW

Problem 9.4

Roasted copper containing the copper as CuSO4 is to be extracted in a countercurrent stage extractor.
Each hour a charge consisting of 10 tons of inert solids, 1.2 tons of copper sulfate, and 0.5 ton of water
is to be treated. The strong solution produced is to consist of 90 percent water and 10% CuSO4 by
weight. The recovery of CuSO4 is to be 98% of that in the ore. Pure water is to be used as the fresh
solvent. After each 1 ton of inert solids retains 2 tons of water plus the copper sulfate dissolved in
that water. Equilibrium is attained in each stage. How many stages are required?

GIVEN:

Water
Extract
Yb=0
10%CuSO4

90%water

Final underflow
Feed
Retention=2 ton solution/ ton solid
10 tons inert
98% recovery
1.2 ton CuSO4

0.5 ton H2O

REQUIRED: N

SOLUTION:

Solution balance around the system :

2 ton solution
1.2+0.5+ Vb' = ton solid 10 ton solids  + V1
0.98 1.2
but V1 = = 11.76 tons
0.10

substituting :
Vb = 30.06 tons = Va

CuSO4 balance  around stage 1 

1.2+ y a Va = 0.10 11.76+0.1 2x10
y A = 0.0657

 0 - 0.0012 
ln 
0.0657 - 0.1 
N=  +1 = 9.22 stages
 0 - 0.0657 
ln  
 0.0012- 0.1 

141
Problem 9.5

A counter current multiple-contact extraction system is to treat 50 tons/hr of wet sliced sugar beets,
with fresh water as the solvent. The beets have the following analysis: 48% wt water, 40% wt pulp
and 12% weight sugar. The strong solution leaving the system is to contain 0.15 fraction sugars and
97% of the sugar in the sliced beets is to be recovered. Determine the number of extraction cells
required, assuming equilibrium between the underflow and overflow in each cell
a) if each ton of dry pulp retains 3 tons of water
b) if each ton of dry pulp retains 3 tons of solution

GIVEN:
Solvent
Extract
Yb=0
15%sugar

85%water

Final underflow
50 tons/hr
97% recovery
48% water

40% pulp
REQUIRED:
17% sugar
N if a) if each ton of dry pulp retains 3 tons of water
b) if each ton of dry pulp retains 3 tons of solution

SOLUTION:

a) Constant solvent retention

Solvent balance around the system :

3 ton H2O
0.48 50 + Vb' = 0.4x50 +0.85V1
ton pulp
0.97  0.12x50
but V1 = = 38.8 tons
0.15

substituting :
Vb' = 68.98 = Va '

Solute balance :
15  3 tons H2O 
0.12 50 + y a Va ' = 0.97  0.12x50 +  0.4x50
85  pulp 
y a = 0.1509

142
  
 0- 0.003 
ln  
 0.1509- 15 
N=  85  +1 = 16.37 stages
 
 0- 0.1509 
ln  
 0.003- 15 
 85 

b) Constant solution retention

Solution balance around the system :

3 ton solution
0.12 50 +0.48 50  + Vb = 0.4x50 + V1
ton pulp
0.97  0.12x50
but V1 = = 38.8 tons
0.15

substituting :
Vb' = 68.8 = Va'

Solute balance around the system :

15  3 tons H2O 
0.12 50 + y a Va ' = 0.97 0.12x50 +  0.4x50
85  pulp 
y a = 0.1513

 
 0 - 0.003 
ln  
 0.1513- 15 
 85  +1 = 16.26 stages
N= 
 
 0 - 0.1513 
ln  
 0.003- 15 
 85 

143
C. VARIABLE UNDERFLOW

Problem 9.6
A countercurrent leaching process treats 420 tons of ore per day with 200 tons of wash water
containing 1% solute by weight. The ore contains 16.8% solute, 16.5% water and the balance, inerts.
The overflow discharge from the process is to contain 33% by weight solute based on 69% recovery
of the solute from the underflow feed.
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑥, 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
0 0.147 0.301 0.401 0.479 0.580

1 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
,
𝑁 𝑘𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑠
0.473 0.51 0.575 0.631 0.688 0.812

𝑘𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑠
𝑁, 2.11 1.96 1.74 1.58 1.45 1.23
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛

Required: N
Solution:
69% recovery
200 tons wash water (1% solute)

1 N
420 tons ore
70.56 ton solute
69.30 ton water
280.14 ton inerts
70.56
𝑥𝑎 = = 0.5045 𝑦𝑏 = 0.01
70.56+69.30
280.14
𝑁𝐿𝑎 = 69.30+70.56
= 2.0030 𝑁𝑉𝑏 = 0 & 𝑁𝑉𝑎 = 0

𝑥𝑏 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑏 𝑥𝑏 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
0.012 133.3524 0.1640
0.155 143.4355 0.152
0.152 143.2240 0.153

280.14
𝑁𝐿𝑏 = = 2.93
143.2240

144
 0.69∗70.56+0.01∗200
𝑦𝑎 = 0.69∗0.56+69.30+2+200−(1−0.152)∗143.2240 = 0.2553

Using graphical method:

N = 2 stages

Ponchon-Savarit Method
2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

145
Problem 9.7
A continuous countercurrent multi-stage system is to be used to leach oil from meal by benzene
solvent. The process is to treat meal containing 2000 kg/hr of inert solid meal, 800 kg oil and 50 kg
benzene. The inlet flow per hour of solvent contains 1310 kg benzene and 20 kg oil. The leached
solids are to contain 120 kg oil. Calculate the amounts of concentration of the streams leaving the
process and the number of stages required.
X, kg oil/kg solution 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
N, kg inert/kg solution 2.0 1.98 1.94 1.89 1.82 1.75 1.68

Given:

Required: ∗ Solvent in extract =

xb and yb solvent in La + solvent in Vb
# of stages Solvent in extract = (50 + 1310)kg
Solvent in extract = 1360 kg
Solution:
mass solute 20 kg ∗ Solute in extract =
∗ yb = =
mass solution (1310 + 20)kg
(solute in La + solute in Vb) − solute in Lb
yb = 0.01504

Solute in extract = [(800 + 20) − 120]kg

mass solute 800 kg
∗ xa = = Solute in extract = 700 kg
mass solution (800 + 50)kg
xa = 0.9412
Va:
mass inerts 2000 kg/hr
∗ NLa = =
mass solution (800 + 50)kg mass of solute
∗ ya =
mass of solution
Na = 2.3529

146
 700 kg
ya =
(700 + 1360)kg
xb assumed Lb = 1/N xb calculated
ya = 0.3398
0.10 1000 0.12
mass solute 120
∗ xb = = (𝐞𝐪𝐧 𝟏) 0.12 1002.004 0.12
mass solution Lb

Assume a value of xb and substitute to xb assumed = xb calculated = 0.12

eqn 1

@xb= 0.12
Nb = 1.996

Plotting the graph:

# of stages = 6

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

147
Problem 9.8
350 kgs per hour of halibut liver is to be extracted in a counter-current cascade with ether to recover
oil. The ether which has been partially purified contains 2% oil. The fresh livers contain 20% oil and
are to be extracted to a composition of 1% oil (on solvent free basis). 250 kgs of solvent is used. All
are in % wt/wt.
(a) What % of oil entering with the liver is recovered in the extract?
(b) How many equilibrium stages are required?

Kg oil/kg sol’n 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.68

Kg sol’n/kg 0.288 0.368 0.44 0.51 0.60 0.71 0.87 1.06
exhausted
livers

Solution:

(a) Inert Livers = 350kg (0.8) = 280kg

1
Oil Balance: 250(0.02) + 350(0.2) = 280( )+ Oil in V1
100-1

Oil in V1 = 72.17kg
100
% Oil recovered in extract = 72.17 x ( )= 96.23%
75

(b) Number of Stages

Kg oil/kg sol’n 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.68

Kg livers/kg 3.47 2.71 2.273 1.96 1.67 1.41 1.15 0.943
sol’n

Xa = 70/70 = 1; y1 =?
Solution Balance: La + Vb = Lb + V1
1
V1 = 70 +250 - 280(100-1 ) = 317.17 kg

Y1 = 72.17/317.17 = 0.2275
xa = 1; N= 280/70 = 4

148
y1 = 0.2275; N =0
yb = 0.02 ; N=0
xb =? ; N =?
To get Lb draw a line of slope 1/0.01 = 100 (solid/solute in this stream) to cut N line from
0.02 which gives xb = 0.05.

La

Lb

Vb
Va
ya

The number of stages from graph are three (join y1 and xa) join xb = 0.05 and yb = 0.02 and
extend to cut at point P, and then draw the number of stages as 3.

149
Problem 9.9
Oil is to be leached from granulated meal with pure benzene as solvent. Content of oil in the feed is
0.32lb/lb dry (oil-free) solid meal and 95% is to be recovered. The economic upper limit to extract
concentration is 70% oil. Ravenscroft [Ind. Eng. Chem. 28, 851 (1934)] measured the relation
between the concentration of oil in the solution, y, and the entrainment or occlusion of solution by
the solid phase, K lb solution/lb dry solid, which is represented by the equation
K= 0.19 + 0.126y + 0.810y2
The oil content in the entrained solution then is given by x = K/ (K+1) y, wt fraction, and some
calculated values are

y 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

x 0.0174 0.0397 0.0694 0.1080 0.1565 0.2147 0.2821 0.3578
Calculate the no. of stages required.
Solution:
Feed composition, xF = 0.32/1.32 = 0.2424
Oil content of extract is y1 = 0.7
Oil content of solvent yS = 0
Amount of oil in the raffinate is 0.32(0.05) = 0.0160lb/lb dry solids
Corresponding entrainment ratio is
KN = 0.016/yN = 0.19 + 0.126yN + 0.81y2N
Solving by trial,
yN = 0.0781
KN = 0.2049
xN = 0.0133 (final raffinate composition)
The operating point P is at the intersection of lines FE1 and SRN. The triangular diagram
construction shows that six stages are needed.

150
151
X. LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION

Problem 10.1
A solute has a KD between water and chloroform of 5.00. Suppose we extract a 50.00-mL sample of a
0.050 M aqueous solution of the solute with 15.00 mL of chloroform. (a) What is the separation’s
extraction efficiency? (b) What volume of chloroform must we use to extract 99.9% of the solute?
Solution
For a simple liquid–liquid extraction the distribution ratio, D, and the partition coefficient, KD, are
identical.

(a) The fraction of solute remaining in the aqueous phase after the extraction is given by the equation:
𝑉𝑎𝑞 50.00𝑚𝐿
(𝑞𝑎𝑞)1 = 𝐷𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑔+𝑉𝑎𝑞 = [(5.00)(15.00𝑚𝐿)+50.00𝑚𝐿] = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟎

The fraction of solute in the organic phase is 1 – 0.400, or 0.600. Extraction efficiency is the
percentage of solute moving into the extracting phase. The extraction efficiency, therefore, is 60.0%.

(b) To extract 99.9% of the solute (qaq)1 must be 0.001. Solving for Vorg, and making appropriate
substitutions for (qaq)1and Vaq gives
[𝑉𝑎𝑞 − (𝑞𝑎𝑞)1𝑉𝑎𝑞]
𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑔 =
(𝑞𝑎𝑞)1𝐷
𝑉𝑎𝑞
[50.0(𝑞𝑎𝑞)2 = (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑆𝑎𝑞)2(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑆𝑎𝑞)1 = 0𝑚𝐿 − (0.001)(50.00𝑚𝐿)]
[𝐷𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑔 + 𝑉𝑎𝑞]
=
(0.001)(5.00)
= 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟎𝒎𝑳

This is large volume of chloroform. Clearly, a single extraction is not reasonable under these
conditions.

152
Problem 10.2
For the extraction described in Problem 10.2, determine (a) the extraction efficiency for two
extractions and for three extractions; and (b) the number of extractions required to ensure that we
extract 99.9% of the solute.
Solution
(a) The fraction of solute remaining in the aqueous phase after two extractions and three
extractions is
50.00𝑚𝐿 2
(𝑄𝑎𝑞)2 = {[(5.00)(15.00𝑚𝐿)+50.00𝑚𝐿]} = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟎

50.00𝑚𝐿 3
(𝑄𝑎𝑞)3 = {[(5.00)(15.00𝑚𝐿)+50.00𝑚𝐿]} = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟒𝟎

The extraction efficiencies are 84.0% with two extractions and 93.6% with three extractions.

(b) To determine the minimum number of extractions for an efficiency of 99.9%, we set (Qaq)n to
0.001 and solve for n in equation 7.27.
𝑛
50.00𝑚𝐿
0.001 = { } = 0.400𝑛
[(5.00)(15.00𝑚𝐿) + 50.00𝑚𝐿]

Taking the log of both sides and solving for n

log(0.001)=nlog(0.400)
n=7.54
We find that a minimum of 8 extractions is necessary.

153
Problem 10.3
We wish to extract nicotine from water using kerosene. If we have 100 lb of a 2% nicotine solution
extracted once with 200 lb of kerosene, what percentage will be extracted?
Equilibrium data: Y=0.90X

GIVEN:

Extract Kerosene
200 lb 200 lb
kerosene

Raffinate
4000 lb/hr
98 lb H2O
2% nicotine

98% H2O

REQUIRED: % Recovery
SOLUTION:

mass of nicotine in the extract

% Recovery =
original mass of mixture

Nicotine Balance around the stage :

0.02 100  = Nicotine in raffinate+ Nicotine in extract
2 = X  98  + Y  200 

but Y = 0.9X

Y
2=  98  + Y 200
0.9

lb nicotine
Y = 0.0065 200 lb kerosene 
lb kerosene
Y = 1.29 lb nicotine

1.29
%recovery = 100 = 64.75%
2

154
Problem 10.4
150 kg of a nicotine-water solution containing 1%nicotine is to be extracted with 250 kg of kerosene
at 20C. Water and kerosene are essentially immiscible in each other. Determine the percentage
extraction of nicotine after one stage operation. At the dilute end of the system, the equilibrium
relationship is Y=0.798X

GIVEN:

4000 lb/hr R=0.798

X Extract
55%oil
15%oil
45%inert
85%hexane

125 kg 125 kg
kerosene kerosene

REQUIRED: % Recovery
SOLUTION:

Nicotine Balance around stage 1 :

% recovery =
 Y1 + Y2 125 = 0.0048+0.0029125 = 64.17%
0.01 150  = Y1 125 + X1 0.99x150  0.01 150 1.5
but Y1 = 0.798X1
0.0048 125
Solving Simultaneously
% recovery on stage1 = 100 = 40.17%
1.5
kg unreacted nicotine 0.0029 125
X1 = 0.00604 % recovery on stage2 = 100 = 40.14%
kg water 0.00604 0.99x150
kg nicotine extracted
Y1 = 0.0048
kg kerosene

Nicotine Balance around stage 2 :

X1  0.99x150  +0 = Y2 125 + X 2 0.99x150 
but Y = 0.798X

Y2
0.00604 0.99x150  = Y2 125 + 0.99x150 
0.798
lb nicotine
Y2 = 0.0029
lb kerosene

155
Problem 10.5
An aqueous waste stream containing 3.25% by weight phenol is to be extracted with one-third its
volume of methylene chloride to produce a raffinate without more than 0.2% phenol. How many
stages are required?
Graphical Solution:

The operating line is determined on a solute-

free basis as follows:
(3.25)(100) 3.36 𝑔 𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑙
𝑋𝑓 = =
96.75 100 𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
(0.2)(100) 0.20 𝑔 𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑙
𝑋𝑟 = =
99.8 100 𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Thus, per 100 g of water feed, the amount of

phenol removed is: 3.36 - 0.20 = 3.16 g

At a volumetric feed rate of solvent equal to

one-third the feed, and a specific gravity of 1.31
for methylene chloride, the weight ratio of
solvent to feed is:
𝑊𝑠 1 1.31
= = 0.451
𝑊𝑓 3 (1.0)(0.9675)

The phenol removed from the 100 g of water (3.16 g) must be in the extract, which contains 45.1 g
of methylene chloride:
3.16 𝑔 𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑙
𝑌𝑒 = (100) = 7.01
45.1 100𝑔𝑀𝑒𝐶𝑙2

The operating line is drawn from (3.36, 7.01) to (0.20, 0.00) in the graph and the stages stepped off.
The stages are counted at the intersections with the equilibrium line. It is seen that there are 4 stages
required.

156
Problem 10.6
Pure solvent isopropyl ether (C) at the rate of VN+1 = 600 kg/h is being used to extract an aqueous
solution of L0 = 200 kg/h containing 30 wt % acetic acid (A) and 70 wt % water (B) by countercurrent
multistage extraction. The desired exit acetic acid concentration in the aqueous phase is 4%.
Calculate the compositions and amounts of the ether extract V1 and the aqueous raffinate LN. The
equilibrium data at 20°C, 1 atm, are given and plotted below.

Solution:

The given values are

Pure solvent inlet: VN+1 = 600, yA,N+1 = yB,N+1 = 0, yC,N+1 = 1,
Feed: L0 = 200, xA0 = 0.3, xB0 = 0.7, xC0 = 0,
Raffinate: xAN = 0.04.
VN+1 and L0 are located by the compositions. Since LN is on the phase boundary of the raffinate
phase, it can be plotted at xAN = 0.04 & we find xCN = 0.017.
The composition of the mixture, xCM and xAM, are calculated by material balance as 0.75 & 0.075 and
used to plot point M. V1 is located by drawing a line from LN through M & extending it until it intersects
the phase boundary in the extract phase. This gives yA1 = 0.08 & yC1 = 0.90. By material balance, LN
= 136 kg/h & V1 = 664 kg/h.

157
Problem 10.7
Pure isopropyl ether (C) of 450 kg/h is being used to extract an aqueous solution of 150 kg/h with
30 wt % acetic acid (A) and 70 wt % water (B) by countercurrent multistage extraction. The exit acid
concentration in the aqueous phase is 10 wt %. Calculate the number of stages required.
Solution:

Known values:
Pure solvent from N+1: VN+1 = 450 kg/h yA,N+1 = yB,N+1 = 0 yC,N+1 = 1.0,
Feed: L0 = 150 kg/h xA0 = 0.3 xB0 = 0.7 xC0 = 0
Exit in water phase: xAN = 0.1. LN must be in
the raffinate solubility line. The points VN+1,
L0, and LN are plotted.

The mixture points are found to be xCM =

0.75, xAM = 0.075. The point V1 is located as
the intersection of line LNM with the phase
boundary in the extract phase, yA1 = 0.072,
yC1 = 0.895.
Then lines L0V1, and LNVN+1 is drawn to
locate the point Δ.
The number of stages is then calculated by
stepping off the triangles with the operating
and equilibrium lines, which is about 2 in
this case.

158
REFERENCES

Coulson, J. M., Richardson, J. F., Backhurst, J. R., & Harker, J. H. (1991).Particle technology and
separation processes (Vol. 2). Pergamon Press.
Dutta, B. K. (2009). Principles of mass transfer and separation processes.
Geankoplis, C. (2003). Transport processes and separation process principles (includes unit
operations). Prentice Hall Press.
McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., & Harriott, P. (1993). Unit operations of chemical engineering (Vol. 5, p.
154). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Treybal, R. E. (1968). Mass-transfer operations (Vol. 3). New York: McGraw-Hill.

159