Aramid Fiber

Aramid fibre is a chemical fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is a long-chain

synthetic polyamide where at least 85% of the amide linkages are attached directly
to two aromatic rings.

From: Fibrous and Composite Materials for Civil Engineering Applications, 2011

Related terms:

Carbon Fiber, Resin, Aircraft, Polyamide, Glass Fiber, Tensile Strength, Textile Fiber,
Kevlar

View all Topics

Fiber Reinforcements and General The-

ory of Composites
Hung Man Yang, in Comprehensive Composite Materials, 2000

1.07.1.5 Aramid Fibers

Aramid fibers as a class offer excellent physical and chemical properties at high
temperatures. They are considered high-performance fibers and command relatively
high prices. Table 2 lists the aramid fibers now in commercial production around the
world.

Table 2. Worldwide production of aramid fibers.

Fiber product Base polymer Fiber producer Estimated capacity

(ton yr –1)
m-Aramid fibers
Nomex Poly(m-phenylene DuPont Co. 10 000
isophthalamide)
Teijinconex Poly(m-phenylene Teijin Ltd. 5000
isophthalamide)
Fenilin Poly(m-phenylene Russia 1000
isophthalamide)
p-Aramid fibers
Kevlar Poly(p-phenylene DuPont Co. 20 000
terephthalamide)
Twaron Poly(p-phenylene Akzo Nobel 10 000
terephthalamide)
SVM Poly[5-amino-2-(p- Russia Unknown
-aminophenyl)
benzimidazole
terephthalamide]
Aramid copolymer
fibers
Technora Copoly(l,4-pheny- Teijin Ltd. 1000
lene/3,4 -
diphenylether
terephthalamide)
Armos Copoly[p-pheny- Russia Unknown
lene/5-amino-2-
(p-aminophenyl)benz-
imidazole
terephthalamide]
Trevar Aramid copolymer Hoechst AG Unknown

There are basically six aramid compositions which are converted into commercial
fiber products. Although many aramid compositions are known, few are produced
on a commercial scale. The reasons are both technology and business. Technologi-
cally, the most important factor is the level of fiber properties which are controlled
by the polymer composition, choice of ingredients, polymer molecular weight, and
method of fiber formation. From a business point of view, one must deal with the
problems of monomer supply, investment, and manufacturing costs. Some aramid
fibers may still be in development stages. It often takes a long time to fully evaluate
a new fiber composition and assess its product functionality.

> Read full chapter

Aramid fibers
Mustafa Ertekin, in Fiber Technology for Fiber-Reinforced Composites, 2017

7.1 Introduction
Aramid fiber was the first organic fiber used as reinforcement in advanced com-
posites with high enough tensile modulus and strength. They have much better
mechanical properties than steel and glass fibers on an equal weight basis. Aramid
fibers are inherently heat- and flame-resistant, which maintain these properties at
high temperatures.

The term “aramid” is designated for the fibers of the aromatic polyamide type in
which at least 85% of the amide bonds (CONH) are attached directly to two aromatic
rings, as defined by the US Federal Trade Commission. The configuration of these
bonds as either para or meta is often used to classify the polymer.

The substitution of the aliphatic carbon backbone by aromatic groups brings about
considerable changes in the properties of the resultant fibers. The first fiber of
this class to be developed was Nomex from DuPont that appeared in the 1960s.
This yarn is of only medium tenacity but is nonflammable and widely used for the
production of fireproof clothing, electric insulation, etc. However, only a few years
later, aramid fibers (Kevlar by DuPont also) with chains containing p-disubstituted
benzene rings appeared. In addition to good thermal stability, these fibers also
possess outstanding mechanical properties. Their outstanding potential is derived
mostly from the anisotropy of their superimposed substructures presenting fibrillar,
pleated, crystalline, and skin-core characteristics [1–5].

> Read full chapter

Vehicle armor
R.A. Ash, in Lightweight Ballistic Composites (Second Edition), 2016

Aramid fiber
Aramid fiber was commercialized in the 1960s and is widely used in ballistic pro-
tection. The fibers offer a set of properties which make them particularly useful in
armor, clothing, and a wide range of applications. Aramid fibers were first used in
vehicle armor in the 1970s.

The chemical structure of the chain molecules is such that the bonds are aligned
along the fiber axis, giving them outstanding strength, flexibility, and abrasion tol-
erance. The aramid fiber derives its strength from strong bonding between relatively
short molecules.

Aramid fibers have superior resistance to heat, low flammability, and high resistance
to organic solvents. Aramid fibers start to degrade at about 500°C. The “inert” aspects
of aramid fiber offer excellent versatility for a wide range of applications. However,
aramid fibers are sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light, acids, and certain salts.
Aramid fibers have been used extensively in body armor, vehicle armor, military
helmets, protective gloves, and fireproof suits for firefighters.

> Read full chapter

Aramids
Johannes Karl Fink, in High Performance Polymers (Second Edition), 2014

13.4.1 Ultraviolet Stabilizers

Aramid fibers have an inherently poor resistance to ultraviolet light. Thus, fabrics
made from aramid fibers change in color when exposed to ultraviolet light. In
addition, there is a significant loss of strength to the fabric. Ultraviolet absorbers
or light screeners are often incorporated into the aramid fibers during manufacture
or used to treat the aramid fibers in subsequent processing steps to improve their
performance.

In the normal textile dye process, dye molecules typically penetrate the fiber and
become entrapped therein. Alternatively, the dye molecules may chemically bond
with the fiber. However, aramid fibers are difficult to dye using conventional
techniques.

Thus, ultraviolet stabilization of aramid fibers is not easily accomplished by ultravi-

olet absorbers or light screeners in the dye bath. Actually, the normal dye process
does not improve the ultraviolet stability of aramid fibers.

Textile pigment printing involves the printing of an insoluble coloring material on

a textile fabric. The pigment, which has no affinity for the fibers of the fabric, is
adhered to the fabric by a resin binder. It has been shown that a suitable pigment
may serve as a UV stabilizer as such [72]. Resin binders are acrylic copolymer binders,
styrene-butadiene latex binders, or modified nitrile polymer binders.

Tetrabutyl titanate was used as a sol-gel precursor of a nanosized coating of aramid

fibers. The photostability of the aramid fiber increased by this treatment [73].

> Read full chapter

Technical yarns
R.H. Gong, X. Chen, in Handbook of Technical Textiles (Second Edition), 2016
3.3.3.1 Aramid yarns
Aramid fibre is a synthetic fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is a long-chain
synthetic polyamide that has at least 85% of the amide linkages attached directly to
two aromatic rings. Nomex and Kevlar are well-known trade names of the aramid
fibre owned by DuPont; Twaron and Technora are aramid fibres manufactured by
Teijin. Aramid fibres have high tenacity and high resistance to stretch, to most chem-
icals, and to high temperature. They are well known for their relatively lightweight
and resistance to fatigue and damage. Because of these properties, aramid fibres are
widely used and accepted for making body armour. High-tenacity aramid fibres can
be used as reinforcing material for many composite applications, including materials
for boat and aircraft parts. The Nomex aramid, on the other hand, is heat resistant
and is used in making firefighters’ apparel and applications of a similar nature.

Aramid yarns are more flexible than many other high-performance counterparts
such as glass and carbon and are thus easier to go through the subsequent fab-
ric-making processes, be it weaving, knitting, or braiding. Care should be taken,
though, because Aramid yarns are much stronger and much less extensible than
the conventional textile yarns, which could make the fabric formation process more
difficult. Aramid fibres are sensitive to UV light, and unprotected ones will discolour
and lose strength with prolonged exposure.

> Read full chapter

High-performance ballistic fibers and

tapes
T. Tam, A. Bhatnagar, in Lightweight Ballistic Composites (Second Edition), 2016

1.4.5 Pleat structure

Aramid fiber has a unique feature when observed under a cross-polarized micro-
scope light field, featuring transverse bands (Fig. 1.25). However, these transverse
bands are diminished when the filament is under tension (Fig. 1.26). This leads to
the hypothesis that aramid fiber has a pleated structure (Fig. 1.27). The occurrence
of a pleat sheet structure in aramids is not well understood.
Figure 1.25. Cross-polarized microscope light field featuring transverse bands.

Figure 1.26. Diminishing transverse bands under stress.

Figure 1.27. Pleat structure model of aramid fiber (Bhatnagar, 2006).

To explain the formation of the pleated structure, it has been hypothesized that
during the coagulation of the aramid fiber the skin is first formed and is subjected
to attenuation stress on a spun filament. This allows the “core” of the fiber to relax
and form pleats at a uniform periodicity. The formation of the pleat structure gives
the fiber an inherent elongation or elasticity. That may be the reason that, when
aramid fiber is under stress, the transverse bands diminish as observed under the
microscope.

> Read full chapter

Durability of high-performance ballis-

tic composites
N. Bhatnagar, N. Asija, in Lightweight Ballistic Composites (Second Edition), 2016

8.2.3.1 Aramid fiber-based materials

Aramid fibers belong to the family of aromatic polyamides. Aromatic polyamides
were first applied commercially as meta-aramid fibers such as Nomex® in the early
1960s, with p-aramid fibers such as Kevlar® being developed in the early 1970s. These
fibers are high-performance human-made fibers, having rigid polymer chains that
connect the molecules with strong hydrogen bonds, and are characterized by the
presence of an aromatic benzene ring and amide group in their chemical structure
(Fig. 8.10).
Figure 8.10. Aramid fiber structural constituents. (a) Aromatic ring. (b) Amide bond.

Aramid fibers are polar in nature owing to the presence of hydrogen bonds. This
property enhances the wettability of aramid fibers and makes them chemically more
active than UHMWPE fibers. On the other hand, this is also responsible for the
hydrolytic degradation of aramid fibers in the presence of high temperature and
humidity conditions. Aramid fiber-based UD composite materials use high-perfor-
mance aramid fibers as the reinforcement. The fibers commonly used are Kevlar®,
Zylon® or PBO fibers, and M5® fibers. The common characteristics of aramid fibers
are (Bhatnagar, 2006) the following:

1. High strength-to-weight properties and high tenacity

2. Good resistance to abrasion and cutting

3. Chemically resistant to organic solvents but sensitive to some acids, bases, and
chlorine.
4. Nonconductive under regular conditions, but prone to hydrolytic degradation
under high temperature and humidity conditions
5. Good fabric integrity at elevated temperatures

6. Sensitive to degradation on exposure to UV radiation

> Read full chapter

Fatigue analysis of carbon, glass and

other fibres
Y. Abdin, ... V. Carvelli, in Fatigue of Textile Composites, 2015

5.5.2 Aramid fibres

Aramid fibres are made of aromatic polyamides and possess remarkably high
Young's modulus, more than 20 times higher than conventional polyamide fibres.
Aramid fibres represent unique fatigue damage mechanisms as compared to other
fibres typically used as reinforcements in composites (Kerr, Chawla, & Chawla, 2005).
This is due to the fact that these fibres have chains radially pleated and axially aligned
along the fibre axis, with lower strengths in the radial direction due to weak hydrogen
bonds. During cyclic loading, there is splitting and delamination, but despite the
breakage of hydrogen bonds the axial load-bearing capacity remains unaltered. It has
been found that aramid fibres retain higher degrees of tensile strength after fatigue
loading as compared to other fibres. Yamashita, Kawabata, and Kido (2001) studied
the loss of stiffness during cyclic loading in aramid fibres (both in tension and
compression) and observed that the tensile modulus of the aramid fibre increases
when subjected to tensile load, whereas the modulus decreases in compression.
They also noticed that the loss of stiffness was largely in the second half of the life
and less during the first half (Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.8. Typical loss of stiffness curves for aramid fibres during cyclic loading
(Yamashita et al., 2001). Note the different behaviour during tensile and compressive
cyclic loading. There is a reduction of modulus during compressive loading, whereas
there is an increase during tensile loading.

Minoshima, Maekawa, and Komai (2000) conducted a series of tests on aramid fibres
and noted that ‘Kevlar™ 49’ fibres have excellent fatigue properties and relatively
low negative slopes of S–N curve in log–log plots as compared to traditional metals
(Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9. Environment has a strong effect on the fatigue behaviour of Kevlar™
fibres. Minoshima et al. (2000) showed that the strength and life of ‘Kevlar™ 49’
fibres are reduced significantly when subjected to loading in ambient air conditions
as opposed to vacuum.

> Read full chapter

High-performance ballistic fibers

T. Tam, A. Bhatnagar, in Military Textiles, 2008

9.8.4 Pleat structure

Aramid fiber has a unique feature when observed under a cross-polarized micro-
scope light field, in that it displays transverse bands. However, these transverse
bands diminish when the filament is under tension.2,3 This leads to the hypothesis
that aramid fiber has a pleated structure as in Fig. 9.21. The occurrence of a pleat
sheet structure in aramid is not well understood.
9.21. The pleat structure model of aramid fiber.

For the formation of the pleated structure it has been hypothesized that during
the coagulation of the aramid fiber, the skin is first formed and is subjected to
attenuation stress on a spinning filament. This allows the ‘core’ fiber to relax and
form pleats at a uniform2,3 periodicity. The formation of the pleat structure gives
the fiber an inherent elongation or elasticity. That may be the reason why, when
Kevlar fiber is under stress, the transverse bands diminish as observed under the
microscope.

> Read full chapter

Dyeing of synthetic fibres

A.K. Roy Choudhury, in Handbook of Textile and Industrial Dyeing, 2011

2.14 Dyeing of aramid fibres

Aramid fibres, aromatic polyamides, were first introduced in commercial appli-
cations in the early 1960s by Dupont under the trade name Nomex. The fibre
is characterised by its excellent resistance to heat. The aramid fibres are almost
undyeable with existing classes of dyes under ordinary conditions due to high degree
of macromolecular organisation in the polymer chains, high crystallinity and high
density.

Some authors propose modifying the surface of the aramid fibre by a suitable
treatment such as a plasma treatment, so as to generate activation sites, where the
dyes will then be capable of bonding. However, this type of treatment degrades the
mechanical properties of the fibres, which is hardly beneficial when these fibres are
intended to be used in fields requiring excellent properties in terms of resistance to
fire and chemical products.

To overcome the difficulty in dyeing of aramid fibres complicated exhaustion

procedures are used employing a strong polar solvent (swelling agent), creating
voids in the fibre structure and then introducing a substance capable of forming a
chemical bond with the dye in the swollen fibre. In most of the proposed methods,
aramid fibre is pre-treated with an organic polar solvent, heated in an organic solvent
to reversibly loosen its structure and then a dye with active groups is incorporated
into the structure. However, the solvent may create a pollution problem (Han and
Jaung, 2009). The chosen solvent may be benzyl alcohol, cyclohexanone, dimethyl-
formamide, dimethylacetamide, dimethyl-sulfoxide, acetophenone, benzaldehyde
and mixtures thereof.
ScienceDirect is Elsevier’s leading information solution for researchers.
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. Terms and conditions apply.

> Read full chapter