1

 INTRODUC
TION:
An audio amplifier is an electronic device that increases the
strength (amplitude) of audio signals that pass through it. An
audio amplifier amplifies low-power audio signals to a level
which is suitable for driving loudspeakers. This includes both
amplifier used in home audio systems and musical instrument
amplifiers like guitar amplifiers. Audio amplifier make the signal
whether it is speech, live singing, an electric guitar or the mixed
audio of an entire band through a sound reinforcement
system ,audible to listeners. It is the final electronic stage in a
typical audio playback chain before the signal is sent to
loudspeakers and speaker enclosures.
The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio
amplifiers which perform tasks like pre-amplification of the
signal (associated with microphone signals and electric
instrument signals), equalization, tone controls etc. Design
parameter for audio amplifier include gain, frequency response,
distortion and noise.
The input can be any type of audio sources like record players,
CD players and digital audio players. Most of the audio power
amplifiers require these low-level inputs, which are line level.
While the input signal to an audio power amplifier, such as the
signal from an electric guitar, may measure only a few hundred
microwatts, its output may tens or hundred of watts for home
stereo system ,several thousand watts for a nightclub’s sound
system.
 2
 OBJECTI
The main aim ofVE :
the project is to make an audio amplifier that can
deliver up to 50W power output. Input can be given via computer/mp3
player or a mic.
There are many different types of amplifiers, but the amplifier which
we have made is a class AB amplifier because its power consumption is
quite low than normal amplifiers, very low distortion, Hi-fi quality
sound and also that its noise is very low.

CO
MPONE
NTS
Sno.
1.
:Components
Transistors
Specifications
2N3904
Quantity
3
2N3906 2
BC547 1
BD140 2
BD139 2
MJE2955 1
MJE3055 1
2. Resistors 100k ohm,1 watt 1
1k ohm,1 watt 2
47k ohm,1 watt 2
2200 ohm,1 watt 1
10k ohm, 1 watt 2
470 ohm,1 watt 1
100 ohm,1 watt 2
220 ohm,1 watt 2
0.5 ohm, 5W 2
5.6 ohm, 2W 1
3. Capacitors 1 µF,63 v 1
 3
1kpf,63V 1
22pf,50 V 1
0.1 µF,400V 1
104j /400 V 1
4. Potentiometer 100K ohm Linear 1
pot
100K ohm Trim pot 1
5. Speaker 8 ohm,50 watt 1
6. LED 1.5 V 1
7. Audio female jack 3.5 mm 1

POW
ER
In this project, we have used a (24-0-24)V ,5A Transformer at the input
SUPPL
side which is given to the bridge rectifier. Then it goes to two large
filter capacitors to get the DC output of +35v and -35v.Its a dual power
Y :circuit. We have used two 2A fuses for the safety purposes.
supply

Sno. Components Specifications Quantity

1. Transformer 24-0-24 V ,5A 1
2. Brdige Rectifier BR1010 1
3. Capacitors 4700 µF,50 v 2
4.
T Fuse 2A 2

H
E
Classes of Amplifier:
O type of audio amplifiers is Class A. Class A amps have
The simplest

R
output transistors (that conduct (i.e., do not fully turn off),irrespective

Y:
 4
of the output signal waveform. Class A is the most linear type of audio
amp, but it has low efficiency. Consequently, these amps are used in
applications that require high linearity and have ample power
available.

The amplifiers single output transistor conducts for the full 360 o of the cycle of the input waveform.

Class B amplifiers use a push-pull amplifier topology. The output of a

Class B amp incorporates a positive and negative transistor. To
replicate the input, each transistor only conducts during half (180°) of
the signal waveform .This allows the amp to idle with zero current,
thereby increasing efficiency compared to a Class A amp.
There is a trade-off that comes with a Class B amp: the increased
efficiency degrades audio quality. This happens because there is a
crossover point at which the two transistors transition from the on
state to the off state. Class B audio amps are also known to have
crossover distortion when handling low
level signals. They are not a good choice for low-power applications.

The amplifiers two output transistors only conduct for one-half, that is, 180o of the input waveform.
 5
A compromise between Class A and Class B amplifier topologies is the
Class AB audio amp. A Class AB amp provides the sound quality of the
Class A topology with the efficiency of Class B. This performance is
achieved by biasing both transistors to conduct a near zero signal
output, i.e., the point where Class B amps introduce nonlinearities . For
small signals, both transistors are active, thus functioning like a Class A
amp. For large-signal excursions, only one transistor is active for each
half of the waveform, thereby operating like a Class B amp.
Class AB speaker amps offer high signal-to-noise (SNR), low THD+N,
and typically up to 65% efficiency. This makes them ideal choices as
high-fidelity speaker drivers.

The amplifiers two output transistors conduct somewhere between 180oand 360o of the input waveform.

Differential amplifier:
A Differential Amplifier is a combination of inverting and non-inverting
amplifier. The differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that
amplifies the difference between the two input voltages but suppresses any
voltage common to the two inputs. It is an analog circuit with two inputs V -in and
V+in and one output Vout in which the output is ideally proportional to the
difference between two input voltages.

This eq
Vout=A(V+in-V-in) uation
Where A is the gain of the amplifer
 6
applies to an ideal differential amplifier, but there may be a certain
amount of common-mode gain in this imperfect world.
A principle application is to eliminate noise, which appears as a
common-mode fluctuating voltage. Because common-mode may be
held at a low level, the differential amplifier is quite effective in
eliminating noise as well as undesirable bias voltages that are present
in both inputs.
A differential amplifier may be configured to operate as a single-ended
amplifier simply by grounding one of the inputs.

By connecting each input in turn to 0v ground we can use

superposition to solve for the output voltage Vout. Then the transfer
function for a Differential Amplifier circuit is given as:
 7

When resistors, R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the above transfer function for the

differential amplifier can be simplified to the following expression:
Differential Amplifier Equation

If all the resistors are all of the same ohmic value, that is: R1 = R2 = R3
= R4 then the circuit will become a Unity Gain Differential
Amplifier and the voltage gain of the amplifier will be unity.
 8
Current Mirror:
A current mirror is a circuit to copy a current through one active
device by controlling the current in another active device of a circuit
,keeping the output current constant regardless of loading .The current
being ‘copied’ can be ,and sometimes is ,a varying signal current.
Conceptually, an ideal current mirror is simply an ideal inverting
current amplifier that reverses the current direction as well or it is a
current-controlled current source (CCCS).An important feature of
current mirror is a relatively high output resistance which helps to
keep the output current constant regardless of load conditions.
Another feature of the current mirror is a relatively low input
resistance which helps to keep the input current constant regardless
of drive conditions.
There are three main specifications that characterize a current mirror.
The first is the transfer ratio (in the case of a current amplifier) or the
output current magnitude (in the case of a constant current source
CCS). The second is its AC output resistance, which determines how
much the output current varies with the voltage applied to the mirror.
The third specification is the minimum voltage drop across the output
part of the mirror necessary to make it work properly. This minimum
voltage is dictated by the need to keep the output transistor of the
mirror in active mode. The range of voltages where the mirror works is
called the compliance range and the voltage marking the boundary
between good and bad behavior is called the compliance voltage.
There are also a number of secondary performance issues with mirrors,
for example, temperature stability.
 However the circuit has some noticeable limitations under many
circumstances:
 Current matching dependent on transistor matching:   The
current mirroring is dependent upon the matching of the
 9
transistors. Often the transistors need to be on the same
substrate if they are to accurately mirror the current.
 Current varies with change in output voltage:   This effect occurs
because the output impedance is not infinite. This is because
there is a slight variation of Vbe with the collector voltage at a
given current in T2. Often the current may vary by about 25% the
output compliance range.

Zobel Network :

Zobel network are a type of filter section based on the image-

impedance design principle. A zobel network is a series resistor-
capacitor network that is connected in parallel with a loudspeaker
driver in order to neutralize the effects of the driver’s voice coil
inductance. In some speaker designs it is advantage to use a so called
Zobel network to linearize the impedance of a drive unit.
Zobel networks were formerly widely used in telecommunications to
flatten and widen the frequency response of copper land lines,
producing a higher-quality line from one originally intended for
ordinary telephone use .
 10

Darlington Pair :

Circuit diagram of Darlington pair using

NPN transisitor

The Darlington transistor(often called a Darlington pair) is a compound

structure consisting of two bipolar transistors(either integrated or
separated devices) connected in such a way that the current amplified
by the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by
the second one. This configuration gives a much higher current gain
than each transistor taken separately and ,in the case of integrated
devices, can take less space than two individual transistors because
they can a use a shared collector. When using an emitter follower in a
circuit, the level of current gain, and the input impedance of the circuit
is limited by the current gain that can be achieved using a single
transistor.
 11
The gain of the Darlington transistor pair is that gain of the two
individual transistors multiplied together.

In view of the fact that the terms βQi and βQ2 on their own can be
neglected, we obtain the more familiar equation.

The basic circuit is formed by taking the emitter of the input transistor
and connecting it such that its emitter drives the base of the second
and then connecting both collectors together. This circuit can be used
as any single transistor would be in a variety of circuits, but particularly
as an emitter follower.
The Darlington pair offers many advantages they also have limitations
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:

 Very high current gain  Slow switching speed

 Very high input impedance for
overall circuit
 Darlington pairs are widely
available in a single package or
they can be made from two
separate transistors
 Convenient and easy circuit
configuration to use
 Limited bandwidth
 Introduces a phase shift that can
give rise to problems at certain
frequencies in circuit using
negative feedback
 Higher overall base-emitter
voltage = 2 x Vbe.
 High saturation voltage (typically
around 0.7 V) which can lead to
high levels of power dissipation in
some applications

 WOR
KING
:
 12

At the input side,3.5mm audio jack is used to give the input from a
smartphone. The 100k potentiometer is used as a volume control. Then
the 1µf capacitor in series with a 1kΩ resistor and 1kpf capacitor in
parallel with a 47kΩ resistor are as used as a high pass and low pass
filter stage. Then the two 2N3904 NPN connected through a emitter-
emitter junctions forms the differential amplifier stage. And then the
two 2N3906 PNP transistors connected through base- base junction
and are also connected through the two 2N3904 transistors with their
collector-collector junction, are working as a current mirror stage. Now
the 2N3904 transistor which is connected to two emitter terminals of
two 2N3904 transistors through its collector terminal, along with 2kΩ
resistor is acting as a constant current source. LED is used to provide 2
volt reference votage to the constant current source. The current is fed
to the LED from the power supply using a 10K resistor.BD140 transistor
which is connected with a 100 Ω resistor through its emitter, is forming
a voltage amplifier section. The bandwidth of this amplifier is limited to
100khz with the 22pf mylar capacitor. The BC547 transistor connected
through collector-collector junction with BD140 transistor, is used as a
Biasing stage and the biasing voltage should be adjusted to 1000 mV
between the bases of two output transistors using a 10k
potentiometer. The BD139 transistor connected through collector-
emitter junction of BC547 transistor ,is used as a constant current
source for voltage amplifier section. The audio signals are then fed to
the driver transistors BD139 and BD140 with the help of 100Ω
resistors. Both the driver transistors are directly coupled to the output
transistors MJE2955 and MJE3055 in Darlington configuration and have
to fixed in a large heat sink, to dissipate the heat produced in it. And
then the 5.6Ω,2W resistor connected with 104/400v capacitor is known
as the Zobel network which is used to stabilize the amplifier and
prevent any unnecessary oscillations. The negative feedback
 13
connections is connected to the inverting input of the differential
amplifier using a potential divider network which decides the gain of
the amplifier.

 APPL
 ICAT
Used for public address system, theatrical and concert system.

ION :
 Can be used in police and ambulance sirens.
 Can be used in emergency situations for broadcasting news.

 BIBL
 IOGR
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjU-LOF1-fU

APH
Y: