2

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

“The man, who kills a man, kills a man. The man who kills

himself, kills all men; as far as he is concerned he wipes out

the world.”

-G.K.Chesterton

A. Background of the Study

Suicide is very controversial because it is a very unnatural action. It

contradicts the nature of both animal and human tendency of self-preservation. To

do this one needs an enormous amount of courage which for some is something to

admire while for some it is something to condemn. Albert Camus described

suicide in this manner:

“I see many people die because they judge that life is not worth living. I see others

paradoxically getting killed for the ideas or illusions that give them a reason for living

(what is called a reason for living is also an excellent reason for dying). I therefore

conclude that the meaning of life is the most urgent of questions.”

There are also two possible reasons why a person decides to take his life:

First, some may think that life is meaningless and too painful for them to bear. On
 3

the other hand some think that there is something or someone really noble worth

dying for. In almost all cultures, place, and time, suicide has been present and each

culture has its own ways of accepting it.

Throughout history, suicide has evoked a wide range of reactions—

bewilderment, dismissal, heroic exaltation, compassion, antagonism, moral or

religious condemnation—but it is never uncontroversial1. But how can we

understand suicide from the point of view of one of the greatest thinkers in the

period of scholasticism-St. Thomas Aquinas, in his notion of Human Act? How

can we make an ethical inquiry on the act of self-killing?

B. Statement of the Problem

The intention of this paper is to use St. Thomas Aquinas’ notion of human

act as a guide for an ethical evaluation of suicide and question whether it is always

the case that a person who committed suicide is held morally accountable for their

actions.

1
Carlo Andrew S. Nachor, In Defense of Suicide, (Quezon City: St. Anthony Mary Claret College,
2009), p. v
 4

1. What is suicide?

2. What is St. Thomas Aquinas’ notion of Human Act?

3. Using the perspective of Aquinas, Human Acts, should one consider all those

who commit suicide as fully and morally accountable in their action?

C. The Significance of the Study

The researcher observes that suicide has always been present in all cultures,

times and all walks of life. From the earliest page of world history, the Scriptures,

to our daily newspapers, news television shows and radio, we always hear about

suicide. A wide range of emotions and acceptance are seen. The topic is close to

the researcher’s heart because several times, he has known some friends or

acquaintances who have committed suicide and saw how the society has

ostracized the victim and his family.

The researcher aims neither to totally condemn nor to promote suicide;

rather, he wants the readers to have a better understanding of suicide. He wishes to

present the subject matter in a wider perspective and use whatever insights that he

gains for a greater awareness to the readers on how to treat people who committed

suicide, their family or those individuals who attempted to do it. He advocates that
 5

suicide victims and their family must not undergo discrimination and prejudice;

rather they have special need of support from the community where they belong.

He believes that, the act of suicide should not be condemned immediately nor

should it be totally promoted nor accepted; but rather, one must look at the factors

which may have caused the suicide. In other words, suicide is a very complicated

issue that not a single ethical conclusion can suffice to justify it. Some must be

treated with consideration and some not. Those who did it in full intention are

morally responsible while those who are too burdened with emotional turmoil,

pain can be considered not morally responsible since there is no fullness of

human’s capacity for proper reasoning. To understand the moral responsibility, the

researcher would like to use Aquinas’ notion of human act in order to distinguish

the instances wherein we can condemn the person or not.

St. Thomas Aquinas is well known for his “Golden Mean”. He is very

careful not to be in any of the extremes.2 He got this from the Greek ancient

philosopher Aristotle. Though some would say that his philosophy is no longer

relevant to contemporary times, the researcher assumes that his way of thinking as

an inclusivist may be a good perspective to understand suicide. His importance as

a thinker is still regarded with respect up to the present.

2
Ibid., p.6
 6

This paper can give two significant contributions in the society; first, a

better understanding and consideration of suicide using the perspective of St.

Thomas Aquinas, and second is that this can be useful as guideline to the religious

leaders and counselors on how they would give the best pastoral care for those

who are in the verge of committing this act and those families who are bereaved

by the death of a loved one due to this act. The research offers an alternative view

on how we should judge a person desiring, attempting, committing suicide and

their grieving loved ones. This paper may not offer any solutions but the writer

believes that the change of view on suicide is the first step to solve the problem.

There is a need for a change of attitude towards suicide and for those who

attempted to do the act, what is needed is the awareness about suicide and not

condemnation. There is much more to understand with the act of suicide.

D. Scope and Limitation

The study will focus on suicide as an act under philosophical and ethical

investigation. To introduce the subject matter, the researcher will use different

ethical principles from some philosophers regarding suicide to show a general

view of what suicide is. The main perspective that he will use is that of St. Thomas
 7

Aquinas, the notion of Human Act in order to undertake an ethical inquiry on

suicide.

The researcher does not intend to support or to condemn the act, rather to

question Aquinas’ judgment on suicide that it is totally unacceptable whether that

is always the case. The researcher’s major references are the ones found in the

Saint Anthony Mary Claret College Library and online sources.

The researcher also wants to clarify that apart from Aquinas’ notion of

Human Act and suicide, his other notions are no longer part of the scope. In other

words, other treatises and thoughts of Aquinas apart from these are excluded from

the scope.

E. Review of Literature and Related Studies

The following books are very much useful and related to this topic. The

researcher believes that reading these materials will be of great help in his ethical

inquiry on suicide in the light of Aquinas’ notion of Human Act.

Anderson, James. On the Truth of Catholic Faith Summa Contra Gentiles

Book Two: Creation. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1962.
 8

The book contains a discussion of St. Thomas Aquinas about the nature of

man, God’s freedom and unity of soul and body. According to him, one needs to

know and study creatures in order to achieve Divine Wisdom and to know God.

The chapter is divided into several parts namely: the bringing forth of things into

being, distinction and order, and finally, the nature of creatures.

Bourke, V.J. The Pocket Aquinas. New York: Washington Square

Press,1960.

This reader-friendly book is a representative collection of Aquinas’

enormous and monumental Summa Theologiae. It is divided into several chapters

namely: Knowledge and Method, Nature and Philosophy, Man and Psychology,

Reality and First Philosophy, Morality and Ethics, Societal and Political

Philosophy, Beauty and Art, and finally, Revelation and Theology. The book is

remarkable because the author’s way of discussing Aquinas is very simple and

comprehensive, yet, never lost the grandeur and profoundness of Aquinas’

thoughts.

Coppleston, SJ, Frederick. A History of Philosophy: Mediaeval Philosophy

Vol. 2. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.,1962.

The second volume of Coppleston’s history starts its discussion on the

Patristic period and ends with the Carolingian Renaissance. This book is a helpful

tool in understanding the context and the thought of Medieval Thinkers. The
 9

author describes in his book that the Christian Theology absorbed the Greek

philosophies

Evans, Glen. The Encyclopedia of Suicide: Second Edition. New York: Facts
on File, Inc, 2003.
This is a revised edition of the earlier Encyclopedia of Suicide. It contains a

history of suicide, the newest research and statistics, developments on researches

about suicide, and relationship of suicide to drugs. This encyclopedia is a good

reference for the researcher in understanding the historical background as well as

the most recent developments on suicide. The book also emphasizes that suicidal

tendencies are not just cries or attention but rather medical emergencies which

should be prompted by experts.

Fairbairn, Gavin. Contemplating Suicide. London: London & New York.

1995.
In Contemplating Suicide ,Fairbairn takes a fresh look at suicidal thinking

of self-harm. His view is distinctive in emphasizing the intentions that a person

has in thinking of suicide, rather than external facts. He constructs a natural

history of suicidal self-harm and examines some of the ethical issues it raises. He

sets his philosophical reflections against a backdrop of experiences in the caring

 10

professions and uses a storytelling approach in offering a critique of the current

language of self-harm.

Gilson, Etiene. The Christian Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas. New

York: Random House, Inc., 1958.

This book is a product of long years of study and experience of the author

at the Pontifical Institute on Medieval Studies. It is an impressive masterpiece that

shows the author’s deep knowledge of the Angelic Doctor. It is an interpretation of

the vast body of writings accumulated during the lifetime of St. Thomas Aquinas.

This book is divided into three parts namely; God, Nature and morality.

Gracia, Jorge and Noone, Timothy. A Companion to Philosophy of Middle

Ages. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2002.

This book is a compilation of essays by the most distinguished scholars in

the field of medieval thought. The book is divided into two parts namely: essays

on historical concept of the medieval period which started with the Patristic

Fathers until the Condemnation of some views in Paris in the 13 th Century. The

second part contains One hundred thirty-eight (138) alphabetically arranged

entries of some important authors of European and Arabic thought living in the

14th and 5th Century. It is a very useful reference for specialist and student alike.

Hecht, Jenifer. Stay: A History of Suicide and Philosophies against It.

London: Yale University Press, 2013
 11

After seeing some of her friends died of suicide, Hecht decided to come up

with an intensive study on suicide. She looked up the history of suicide and how it

is viewed from different schools of thought. She attempted to answer the

following questions: Did religion take a stand against suicide across most of

Western history? How and why? Even more importantly, how true was the claim

that suicide influences others to suicide? Is it demonstrably true that “one of the

key predictors of suicide knows a suicide”? What about this idea of “a monster in

you” that needed to be outsmarted until it could be chased away—does this

metaphor imply that no one is fully in his or her “right mind” when ending it all?

This also contains sociological researches on suicide which the author believed to

be very relevant for today’s time

Hume, David. Essays on Suicide and Immortality of Soul: The Complete 1783
Edition. Scotland: National Library of Scotland.,1783.

David Hume’s Essay on Suicide contains his thoughts on suicide,

immortality of soul, anti-suicide. It also included other works such as Immortality

of Soul from an anonymous editor, and Letters 114 and 115 from Roseau’s Eloisa.

Jamison, Kay Redfield. Night Falls Fast: Understanding Suicide. New York:
Random House Inc., 1999.
 12

This book contains a good introduction on suicide though it focuses

primarily on the psychological, psychopathological and neurobiological as well as

prevention of suicide. This will be of great use to anyone who seeks a deeper

understanding about suicide. The researcher tried to use this as a guide to establish

a good grasp of what suicide really is.

Joiner, Thomas. Why People Commit Suicide. London: Harvard University

Press,2005.

The book contains an intellectual discourse on suicide which the author did

after losing his father to suicide. This contains facts about suicide and answers the

following questions: Why do people commit suicide? Why some desires for

death? How does science play a role in evaluating and preventing suicide? This

book is very useful for the researcher in understanding what suicide means.

Mappes and De Grazia. Biomedical Ethics 5th Edition. New York:

McGraw Hill Education, 2002.

The book provides insightful and comprehensive treatments on ethical

issues regarding medicine. This offers high quality analyses coupled with

exceptionally clear writings. This contains viewpoints on the biomedical ethics.

The structure of every chapter is as follows: Introduction to the central problem,

 13

various positions regarding the problem, arguments, brief abstractions, and

annotated bibliographies

Murray, Alexander. Suicide in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2000.

A three-part series, second volume in “The Curse of Self-Murder” explores

the origins of the condemnation of suicide and provides a unique perspective on

medieval culture and religion. The researcher believes that this is a good book to

read if one wants a deeper understanding on the suicide in the Middle Ages.

Osborne Jr., Thomas. Human Action in Thomas Aquinas, John Duns

Scotus and William of Ockham. Washington D.C.: The Catholic
America Press,2014.

This book contains the comparative views on human action is viewed by

the three famous Medieval Thinkers namely, St. Thomas Aquinas, John Duns

Scotus and William of Ockham. The chapter discusses the following: Cause of

Human Act, Practical Reason, Stages of Act, Evaluation and Specific on Act, and

Indifferent, Good, and Meritous Acts. Each chapter contains a comparison of the

thoughts of the medieval thinkers mentioned above

Rachels, James. The Elements of Moral Philosophy: Seventh Edition. New

York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2012.
 14

This is a standard textbook for undergraduate courses in Ethics. This book

introduces readers to major moral concepts and theories through eloquent and

thought-provoking discussions. The seventh edition features the updated

discussions on death, monogamy, utilitarianism, retributivists honesty and many

others.

F. Conceptual Framework.

` For us to see clearly the flow of this thesis entitled, “Inquiry on the Ethics

of Suicide according to St. Thomas Aquinas”, the researcher has made a

conceptual framework.

The cloud with the word “suicide” signifies the idea of suicide. An arrow

connects this to a rectangle which symbolizes the Angelic Doctor’s notion of

Human Act. According to Aquinas, an act is considered as human act if the

person’s intellect and will are operative in his/her action. If suicide is a human act,

then it is indeed immoral. But is this always the case? Some acts of suicide are

acts of man, which are the opposite consequence of human act. These are actions

done without the presence of one or both intellect and will. If this is the case, there

is a need to suspend our moral judgment towards the person who committed or

attempted to commit suicide. Both acts of man and human act give both the writer

and the readers a wider understanding on suicide.

 15

SCHEMATIC PRESENTATION OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Aquinas’ Intellect
Morally
Notion of and
Human Act Will Unacceptble

Suicide

Acts Absence Of Non

of Intellect
Man and/or Will Moral Act
 16

G. Definition of Terms

Acts of man- are those acts that man performs without being master of them

through his intellect and will. In principle, acts of man are not the concern of

morals, since they are not voluntary.

Amoral-

Choice-is willing one already-consented-to means in preference to others (as

conducive to the end intended);

Consent- is willing means as conducive to an end (the same end as willed in

intention)

Enjoyment-is willing the end in so far as it is possessed

Ethics –is the philosophical study of concepts involved in practical reasoning:

good, right, duty obligation freedom, rationality and choice

Human acts- are actions which are voluntary in nature. These actions must be

subject both to will and reason.

Intention-is willing an end as acquirable by means; use is willing whatever is at a

person's command for the realization of the means chosen (as conducive to the end

intended);
 17

Intend- is to have in mind as purpose or goal.

Non-moral- actions or events: those areas of interest where moral categories cannot be

applied since they are not one with full intellect and will.

Suicide- an act or an instance of taking one’s own life voluntarily

Use- is willing whatever is at a person's command for the realization of the means

chosen (as conducive to the end intended)

Voluntary-is an act done by design or intention.

Will -is capacity to choose among alternative courses of action, and to act on the

choice made, particularly when the action is directed toward a specific goal or is

governed by definite ideals and principles of conduct.

H. Methodology

The method of discussion will be a critical analysis of the morality of

suicide using the notion of Aquinas’ human act and morality. To understand

suicide better the first part will be an exposition of what suicide is, its kinds and

some philosophical views about it. This will include a historical survey of suicide

on different ages and contexts. Then, using Aquinas’ notion of Human Act, we

will examine the ethical and moral implications of suicide depending on what kind
 18

and situation. Then having all these affirmative and negative aspects of suicide,

the researcher will try to make a synthesis of all these, for a better understanding

of suicide

H. Thesis Division

The first Chapter of the thesis is this Introduction. Chapter 2 will be for the

definition and discussion of what suicide is and its classifications. This chapter

also includes how different cultures view and accept suicide, and how notable

thinkers have discussed the subject matter. Chapter 3’s discussion will be on the

human act notion of St. Thomas Aquinas. This will include how the Angelic

Doctor came with the idea, what human act is and how it functions when one uses

it as a basis for ethical inquiry. Chapter 4 will be for an Ethical inquiry in the

moral accountability of suicide committers using the notion of Human Act of the

Angelic Doctor. Chapter 5 will be for the conclusion and recommendations.

 19

CHAPTER II

UNDERSTANDING SUICIDE

“There is but one truly serious philosophical problem,

andthat is suicide. Judging whether life is or is not worth living
amounts toanswering the fundamental question of philosophy.
All the rest— whether or not the world has three dimensions,
whether the mind has nine or twelve categories—comes
afterwards.”

-Albert Camus

Suicide is an ever serious problem. Taking one’s life is a very strange act

and yet it is not a surprise for us to hear someone committing suicide. Right from

ancient to modern times, the events of suicide have been a distressing

phenomenon among all the human societies, in one way or the other. It is a

phenomenon which is very ancient yet very relevant until today. It is found in

most of the cultures and race. The researcher knows that there is a need to clarify

that suicide is not universal since there are some cultures where suicide is not

present but it is very rare. Researchers have found that suicide was unknown

among the Yahgans of Tierra del Fuego, the Andaman Islanders, and various

Australian aborigine tribes.3

3
Glen Evans and Norman L. Farberow, “Introduction: The History of Suicide,” Encyclopedia of
Suicide, (New York:Facts on File Inc.,2003), i.
 20

Though different ways of life, context and time have various and wide

range of response on self-killing. What is certain is that this is an ethical and

human problem which is needed to be understood and addressed. But before

knowing this problem, one must have a better understanding on the subject matter.

A. The Meaning of Suicide

1. Definition

The safest definition of suicide is a willed self-caused death but in order to

have deeper analysis, we must trace its roots. In trying to trace the etymological

meaning of suicide, one problem that the researchers encounter is that one cannot

find any equivalent word in any ancient civilizations. Greeks will use the

following expressions:

‘to seize death’; ‘to grasp death’; ‘to break up life’; ‘to end life’; ‘to be delivered

from life’; ‘to deliver oneself; ‘to leave the light’; ‘to go voluntarily to Hades’;

‘to do violence to oneself; ‘to flee living’; ‘to carry oneself off; ‘to get through

with oneself; ‘to consume oneself; ‘to die voluntarily’; ‘to kill oneself;

‘to destroy oneself; ‘to get oneself out of the way’ 4

4
Ibid., xiv.
 21

Romans would use expressions like sibi mortem consciscere(“to procure

his own death”), vim sibi inferre(“to cause violence to himself”), or sua manu

cadere(“to fall by his own hand”)5

2. Etymology

The etymology of suicide is as controversial as the act itself since there are

two opposing versions on how the word originated. The word suicide first

appeared in 1662, when Edward Philips, in his New World of Words, called

suicide “a barbarous word, more appropriately derived from sus, a sow, than from

the pronoun sui, as if it were a swinish part for a man to kill himself.” The Oxford

English Dictionary, on the other hand, states that suicide was first used in English

in 1651, derived from the modern Latin word suicidium, which in turn had been

produced by combining the Latin pronoun for “self” and the verb “to kill.” 6 This

means that suicide indeed is a recent word and even the old Latin does not have

any equivalent to it.

The etymology would suggest that suicide is a word that is too morbid and

too unacceptable to be have a term for it, but history shows that there is a very

long debate and discussion upon understanding suicide and its moral acceptability.

5
Ibid., xv.
6
Ibid,p.xv
 22

3. Acts Commonly Mistaken as Suicide

In order to understand suicide better, the researcher adopted the taxonomy

of Fairbairn in his book, Contemplating Suicide; one must distinguish what is

suicide from the acts which seem to be suicide. The problem lies not from the

point of view of the doer, but from the perspective of the observer.

a. Cosmic Roulette

This term is used to describe actions wherein the actor intentionally puts

himself to danger or risks. He or she may create situations that might bring him

danger but the intention of dying is not fully. They have special preference on

gambling their lives though they knew that death is a probable consequence. The

action normally is directed not on dying but on the risk of dying. One may think

mistakenly that a person who died because of his or her desire of risks committed

suicide. This, in fact, is not the case.

b. Gesturing Suicide

These are acts in which a person pretends to take suicidal self-harming action or

says that he has done so when he has not, may be referred to as gestured suicide or

suicide gestures. In other words, these are people who want to show others that

they are suicidal. They would attempt not because they like to die but to catch

attention or convey a message. In some cases, this becomes a means for

 23

blackmailing, winning sympathy and stimulating emotional reaction to the people

around him or her. For some, it is a way of asking for help.

c. Living Dangerously

These are acts that though considered as risky; still the actors try to do it.

Unlike the Cosmic Roulette, these acts are not oriented towards the risk. A typical

mountain climber, though his adventures are risky, never in his mind did he desire

for death. He would bring safety equipment and follow precautionary measures.

Other examples are the alcoholics, drug addicts, smokers and drag racers that

enjoy not the risk but the act that they do. They just enjoy the sensations of

smoking, drugs, speed driving or other self-centered, risky and gratifying acts.

d. Heroism

Heroic deaths are not suicides even if the person knew that he was certain

to die; they are not suicides because the person did not intend to die but merely to

save those he set out to save. An example of this is the case of Scholastic Richard

Michael “Richie” Fernando, SJ. He is a Filipino Jesuit Missionary to Cambodia

who died from a grenade blast after protecting a student amputee, Sarom, who run

amuck and tried to retaliate due to his expulsion. His primary intention is to

protect rather than to kill himself. His death is just the consequence of what he has

intended.
 24

e. Fatal Intentional Omissions yet the Protagonist did not Intend to Die

These are suicide which are caused by the negligence of the protagonist to

take the necessary procedure to survive but never willed to die. An example of this

is a Jehovah’s Witnesses member who is in need of blood transfusion in order to

be saved but refused since his/her religion prohibits this medical procedure.

Another example is the case of Anorexia nervosa wherein the actors refuse to eat

not because they intended to but because of the disease. Both of the cases may be

considered as an intentional omission of a necessary act for survival but cannot be

considered suicide because they never intended to die.

These four categories of action though closely related and often

considered as suicide are not considered as such. In order to know fully what

suicide is, one must not mistakenly take these as acts of suicide. After

understanding what “not suicide” is, the discussion will now proceed to the

analysis the different faces of suicide

B. History of Suicide as a Philosophical Thought

On the pages of the history of humanity, stories and discourses on suicide

has always occupied a place. From the most ancient times in most of the societies

until today, suicide has always been present, though it varies on the means of
 25

doing it, attitude and views on it. What is significant about this is that it is almost a

universal phenomenon.

The earliest account on suicide is found in an Egyptian papyrus entitled A

Dispute over Suicide (also known as The Dialogue of a Misanthrope with His Own

Soul), written by an unidentified writer during Egypt’s First Intermediate Period

(2280–2000 B.C.).7 The main theme of this writing reflects the neutrality of

suicide in the early Egyptian culture. This contains the discourse between a man

and his soul on whether he will commit suicide or not. The soul was afraid that the

man will commit suicide while but the man wants it, considering it to be a

vacation. The soul is saying that death does not respect social position. The soul

cited reasons why suicidal self arises such as distrust for the world, lack of

friendship, absence of good, dishonor, injustice, lack of self-worth and fantasy

over death.8

1. Ancient Greek and Hellenistic Philosophy

Ancient Greek Civilization has a lot of philosophers who spoke on suicide.

The Stoics and Epicureans in particular, considered it a reasonable expression of

human freedom, but their beliefs remained unusual throughout that period.

7
Ibid., xvi.
8
Ibid., xvi.
 26

The earliest declaration of a theory of anti-suicide was by the pre-Socratic

philosopher Pythagoras, who lived between about 570 and 495 B.C. Pythagorean

philosophers deprecated a voluntary end to life because, to them, life is sacred.

Pythagoras taught that each of us is stationed at a guard post, responsible for

attending to it until we are dismissed. Plato would borrow the idea, which

remained a cogent metaphor for centuries. He disapproves suicide and quoted

Socrates as saying before his death that no man has right to take his own life

unless he sends some necessity to him. Life itself was the discipline of the

gods.9But according to Jennifer Michael, Plato praises a suicide as a noble act

done for some good reason and adds contrasting disdain for people described as

merely having weak characters, unable to face life.10 He also said that suicide can

be permissible if there is “pressure of some excruciating and unavoidable

“misfortune” to the actor and if one has “fallen into some irremediable disgrace

that he cannot live with”

Aristotle refuted suicide by saying that it is failure to courage by saying that

running away from trouble through suicide is a form of cowardice. He believed

that having the human form to be of great moral importance; therefore, destroying

human life at any stage is immoral. In committing suicide, a person is also robbing

9
Evans and Farberow, 186.
10
Jenifer Hecht, Stay: A History of Suicide and Philosophies Against It, (London: Yale University
Press., 2013), 18.
 27

civic and social contributions; therefore, it has social effects.11This was later

adopted by St. Thomas Aquinas.

The Stoics are concerned with living a naturally flourishing life and if the

means for having this is no longer available, suicide maybe justified regardless of

the character or virtue of the individual in question. Seneca, a Roman Stoic,

would say that quality and not the quantity of life is all that matters. According to

him, it is better to commit suicide rather than letting senility on old age prevent us

from living as we should.12

Epicureanism has different view on death. Death for them is nothing since

it does not exist for the living. If it exists, we don’t and if we are present, it does

not exist. For this school of thought a man is a fool if he says that he fears death

not because it is painful as it arrives but because anticipation of it is too painful.13

If the goal is to seek pleasure, and pleasure is defined as the absence of pain in

body and trouble in spirit; while death deprives our capacity to feel both, therefore

death is something not to be feared of. This is because they thought death would

11
Evans and Farberow, 186.
12
James Fieser, Metaethics, Normative Ethics and Applied Ethics, (Belmont, C,A: Wadswoth-
Thompson Learning), 33.
13
William Sahakian, Systems of Ethics and Value Theory, ( New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams &
Co.,1964), 155.
 28

help to reach complete state completely void of pain and therefore full of spiritual

tranquility.14

Seneca defended suicide as a last resort against unbearable agony. In his

Epistles and De Ira, he said; “The eternal law has done nothing better than this,

that it has given us only one entrance into life, but a thousand ways of escape out

of it,”

2. Medieval Philosophy

The Medieval period is mostly about Christianity. This period started when

the Rome became the Holy Roman Empire-when Christianity became the official

religion of the State in 350 AD. This is the reason why as one continues historical

analysis on suicide, one will largely see it in a point of view of Christianity.

The first view that the writer would like to discuss is a writing of a Church

Father named Eusebius who at that time was about to be a Bishop. In a narrative

he wrote he praised certain women who committed suicide to protect their

chastity. The researcher takes this as a statement that implies the acceptability of

suicide if one does it to protect one’s chastity.

On the other hand, St. Augustine of Hippo, a great theologian and Church

Father, has no tolerance on suicide. In the City of God, he said that no man is
14
Nachor, 19-20.
 29

allowed to inflict death on himself even for the following reasons; on account on

another man’s or his sins, because of guilt, for these can be healed through

repentance. There is no better life after death for those who died by suicide.15

The Angelic Doctor, St. Thomas Aquinas rejected suicide and expanded on

St. Augustine’s rule. According to him, suicide is morally unacceptable for three

reasons: it injures the community of which an individual is a part; it is contrary to

natural self-love, whose aim is to preserve us; and it “violates our duty to God”:

since he gave us life, only he should be allowed to end it.16 For him Suicide is

equated to homicide.

The Thomistic-Augustinian view of suicide became prevalent to the Roman

Catholic Church and this is the reason why during the medieval era or even until

now, suicide victims are not given any burial rites and is not allowed to be buried

in the Catholic cemetery. Middle age narrative contains gruesome stories on how

the dead bodies of suicide victims are dragged, tried, violated, tortured, impaled,

hanged and being buried in the “cemetery of the damned.”17

15
Ibid.,p.50
16
Evans and Farberow, xxiii.
17
Hecht, 57.
 30

3. The Modern Philosophy

The Modern period, since they are reviving the lost glory of Ancient Greece

and Rome became ambivalent towards the suicide and slowly separates from the

traditional medieval thought.

St. Thomas More (1478-1535) is a British Chancellor to King Henry VIII

and a Catholic Martyr-Saint. In his Utopia, it appears that he satirically and

fantastically recommends suicide for those who are suffering from painful and

incurable diseases. But the tone of the work makes it doubtful whether he would

really support suicide in reality. 18 On the other hand, some commentaries about his

writings would say that he supported suicide as a form of Euthanasia.

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) is a French writer and mayor of

Bordeaux who was the first major dissenter about suicide among European

writers. He shares the same stand with the Epicureans on death and suicide. In his

work, A Defense of Legal Suicide, he wrote that death is a remedy against all evils.

He also said that though man’s life depends on the will of others, death depends on

his. He considered suicide as a foolish act but not immoral. 19

18
Nachor, 20.
19
Evans and Farberow, 164.
 31

John Locke (1632-1704), the father of British Empiricism argued against

suicide. In his Two Treaties of Government, Locke wrote that man being created

by God to be His servant and through His order sent to the world and do His

business. Therefore, it is every man’s duty to preserve his life and “guard his

post”20

François-Marie Arouet Voltaire (1694-1778), a French writer and

philosopher who is considered as one of the leaders of enlightenment, condemned

the conventional prejudice on suicide. He steadily attacked the taboos,

superstitions, and primitive punishments still being imposed for suicide victims.

As a result, he and others laid the foundation for a secular approach to the problem

of suicide; saw laws slowly changed; and were instrumental in a gradual shift in

society’s emotional attitudes21.

David Hume (1711-1776) is a Scottish philosopher who influenced

development of skepticism and empiricism. One of the most significant works on

suicide in this period is his Essay on Suicide. He stated three reasons why he

supports suicide. First, because God has given us power to act. Therefore, death at

one’s own hand was as much under His control as if it had proceeded from any

other source. Second, suicide was not a breach against neighbor and society, “for a

20
Ibid., 150.
21
Ibid, 239.
 32

man who retires from life does no harm to society, he only ceases to do good and

which, if it is an injury, is of the lower kind.” Third, Hume stated that suicide

cannot be a crime against self because he believed that “no man ever threw away a

life while it was still worth keeping.”

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a post-Enlightenment German philosopher

would argue that suicide is wrong because it undermines the worth of human

persons and takes from the universe the goodness that is in him. Human life must

be preserved at all cost and each individual has a definite place in this vast

universe. In his 1785 Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant started his

discussion by saying that, in the first place, that most of us owe it to someone to

stick around. Killing oneself is murder, he says. “It can also be regarded as a

violation of one’s duty to other.

4. Contemporary Philosophy

The Contemporary Philosophers are more lenient and open to suicide since

the old religious and social groupings that had objected suicide gradually lost their

power. But this does not mean that they totally accepted suicide.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) is a German Philosopher who

formulated the philosophy of pessimism. In his work, The World as Will and Idea,

he said that as man will soon find that the terrors of life will outweigh the fear of
 33

death, and with this, he will end his life. 22 Though he considered suicide as a

painless antidote for a physical misery, he still believes that above all it is a

mistake since it does not give hope nor solve one’s problem in life. He argued that

death is freeing one’s life and going to nowhere to avoid suffering and pain. It is

not an escape because escape for him means going to better place. Nowhere is

never a better place. According to him, in order to escape such miserable state, one

must suffer first.23

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), a German philosopher would often

contemplate on suicide by saying that the thought of it is a consolation to many

bad nights. He however did not advocate totally suicide as a solution 24. He

believes that you can polish life and avoid difficulties, but if you do, you lose the

meaning of life itself.

Albert Camus (1913-1960) a French philosopher and writer said that the

only problem is the problem of suicide wrote extensively about the subject matter.

According to him, living on this earth will always be an absurdity since man is

22
Nachor, 21.

23
Hecht, 179.

24
Evans and Farberow, 172-173.
 34

always looking for understanding, and need of social warmth;25unfortunately, the

world is chaotic and cold. A man encounters the so-called absurd situation

(jealousy, ambition and selfishness) and is doomed to do his meaningless and

aimless activity which he compares to the “Myth of Sisyphus.” According to him,

there will be a time wherein being in an absurd situation will no longer be bearable

to us and the only solution is suicide.26

These are but only few of the philosophical views on suicide. There are a

lot more which is not included in this historical inquiry. The researcher believes

that this can help us understand how the philosophical beliefs on suicide evolved

through time due to socio-temporal influences. However, this is not sufficient for

the understanding of the subject matter. One must also understand the categories

of suicide based on the motivation of the suicide actor.

C. Durkheim’s Classifications of Suicide

Albert Camus, as mentioned in the previous chapter of the book classified

the countless reasons for suicide into two namely: uselessness of life and

meaningfulness or nobleness of a cause. These paradoxical categories however are

25
Michel Federico Schiacca, Philosophical Trends in a Contemporary World, (Indiana: University
of Notre Dame Press, 1964), 271.
26
D. R. Jatava, A Philosophy of Suicide, (Jaipur: ABD Press, 2010), p. 4
 35

not sufficient to fully understand the act of suicide. This is the reason why he

concluded that suicide indeed is a very serious philosophical problem.

For a self- killing to be considered as suicide, Emile Durkeim gave three

considerations namely; the relationship between death and actor is not accidental,

the person chooses to die, and the act is intentional rather than consequential. 27

Emile Durkheim, a sociologist, made the famous classification on suicide

namely: egoistic or suicide due to loneliness; altruistic or suicide because of

excessive concern in the society; fatalistic suicide or suicide because a person is

under regulated; and anomic or suicide because a person is over-regulated.

Fairbairn however reconstructed these categories and made it more intentionally-

centered.28

1. No Hope Suicide

This is probably the most common form of suicide. The actor intended and

decided to take his life because he believed that there is no hope for change or

improvement of his present situation. Some people who kill themselves because

they have no hope of achieving a better life may do so rationally because their

lives are not amenable to change in directions in which they would wish them to

27
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/suicide/ accessed last September 2, 2015
28
Gavin Fairbair, Contemplating Suicide, (New York: Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005), p. 84-134.
 36

change; others, because they are irrational, will misjudge the possibilities that

exist. If such a person was so irrational that we considered him no longer to be

capable of autonomous action, he could not suicide.29

2. Existential Suicide

This is kind of suicide caused by fear for the future and realization of one’s

mortality. This may also be caused by a very pessimistic view in life. An example

would be an individual who is so fearful of the possibility of a nuclear war that he

would rather be dead than wait for what seems to him to be inevitable. 30

3. Dutiful Suicide

In some cultures, there are instances that there is a duty to kill oneself in

certain circumstances. It is still debatable if this must be considered as suicide

since the intention of the actor is to perform his duty primarily and not to end his

life. Some examples of these are: Harakiri, from Japan wherein a man who lost his

29
Ibid.
30
Ibid.
 37

honor by disemboweling himself to regain it; Sutee, a practice in India wherein the

widow would throw herself in the funeral pyre of her husband.31

4. Altruistic Suicide

This kind of suicide happens when a person does not want to burden his or

her family. The most common reasons of committing it are dependence due to

terminal illness and old age. The intention is to free others from the burden that the

actor caused them.32

5. Revenge Suicide

In this act, the intention of the actor is to cause pain or punish others who

they believe have offended them. The classification of it as suicide is also

debatable since the primary intention is to take vengeance and not to die.

6. Political or Ideological Suicide

Sometimes suicide is enacted with the intention of making a political point.

Deaths of this kind might be termed political or ideological suicide. An example

of this is suicide of the Buddhist monks who set fire to themselves as a protest

about the war in Vietnam in the 1960s and1970s. They set out to make a political

31
Ibid.
32
Ibid.
 38

point by showing that what they believed in was so important that they were

willing to die for it. The effectiveness of the act is measured not on the success of

the act but how the message brought change.

7. Other-Driven Suicide

This suicide act is influenced by other person outside the actor. This may

either be by force or affection. Classical examples are the story of Romeo and

Juliet wherein both protagonists committed suicide because of each other’s

influence. Romeo committed suicide because of believing that Juliet is dead and

Juliet on the other hand did the same.33

8. Judicial Suicide

When a person commits suicide because of believing that this is what they

deserve after doing a grave sin or crime, this can be considered as judicial suicide.

Some of the actors believe that they have greatly sinned against God and others

33
Ibid.
 39

and only suicide is only suitable punishment. A classic example of this is the

despair of Judas who believed that betraying Jesus is an unforgiveable sin. 34

D. Suicide and the World Health Organization

Suicide is a philosophical problem yet it is a concrete phenomenon. In

order to understand suicide better, the writer cited some facts on the recent studies

on suicide according to the World Health Organization.

More than 800,000 people die because of suicide annually and it is the

second leading cause of death in 15-29-year-olds. In every adult who died of

suicide there may have been more than 20 others attempting suicide.

Many suicides happen impulsively in moments of crisis with a breakdown

in the ability to deal with life stresses, such as financial problems, relationship

break-up or chronic pain and illness. In addition, experiencing conflict, disaster,

violence, abuse, or loss, discrimination, bullying and a sense of isolation may also

cause suicidal behavior. Another reason is that, those who are at risk are those who

have a history of sexual or physical abuse, or a history of parental neglect, mental

health problems like schizophrenia, unhealthy lifestyle like drug and alcohol

34
Ibid
 40

abuse, unemployment or lack of job security, isolation, notion of being totally

alone, bullying and genetics or family history. 35

In such circumstances, the availability of means such as pesticides or

firearms – can make the difference as to whether a person lives or dies.

Social, psychological, cultural and other factors can lead a person to

suicidal behavior, but the stigma connecting mental disorders and suicide is the

reason why many people feel unable to seek help.36

In brief, the history of Philosophy tells us that the act of killing one’s self

had always been a topic to debate on. The turn of the times defined the view on

suicide; the ambivalent view on suicide due to different schools of thought in

ancient period, the absolute condemnation on the theocentric medieval period, and

the more liberal, anthropocentric discussions of the suicide during the modern and

contemporary philosophy.

These pieces of information from the World Health Organization suggests

that indeed suicide is not always done intentionally and can be considered as an

35
http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Suicide/Pages/Causes.aspx accesed last November 1, 2015
36
http://www.who.int/mental_health/suicide-prevention/exe_summary_english.pdf?ua=1
accessed last November 2, 2015
 41

act of man since as mentioned by WHO, some suicide are done “impulsively”

which implies that actors did not really intend to take their own lives.

Upon assessing and understanding the common causes for suicide, one can

say that indeed, some suicidal acts can be considered not really as a crime but a

disease. Some of the actors must be considered as victims and not really as

criminals.

These are the basic pieces of information that one needs to know in order to

understand suicide. The researcher attempted to discover the definition and

etymology of suicide, explored its philosophical history, analyzed its taxonomy as

proposed by Durkheim and Fairbairn and discussed what does WHO say about

recent cases of suicide.

 42

CHAPTER III

THE HUMAN ACT OF SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS

“No one can do justice to Aquinas’s theory of the will in a

few pages. It is rich, complicated and controversial, and as

thorough treatment of it would require a book lengthy study.”

- Eleonore Stump

In order to understand the moral theory of Aquinas, one should understand

his metaphysics, particularly his theory of Exitus-Reditus. Aquinas created the

notion of The Great Circle of Being which states the universe or all finite beings/

the Many are projected outwardly from God/The One. This movement is called

exitus. Since The One or God is The Good and the Source of all good, all things

that come from Him are good. This is the reason why all He created has

inclination and attraction towards good and this attraction enables the universe to

have the drive to journey back towards God since He is the source of all good.

This movement of “going back home” is called reditus.

The heart of his moral philosophy is the same. Though man is imperfect,

God bestowed on him the intellect and will which are always inclined towards

good and truth. Though he has free will, man is always seeking for good and his

search for good ultimately will lead him to the Source of all goodness.
 43

In moral theory, identifying a human action's kind is important. Although in

some instances making ethical judgments is relatively easy but in other instances,

the task can be tough. Knowing what in a human action is relevant to making this

determination is essential to identifying a correct moral kind. A sound moral

theory should indicate what in a human action is potentially relevant to identifying

its moral kind and why. St. Thomas Aquinas gave serious consideration to the

issue of moral specification - The second part of his Summa Theologiae which

contains his most prominent and systematic examination of the specification of

human actions.

A. Short Biography of Saint Thomas Aquinas

To understand his thought we must know who St. Thomas Aquinas is and

the context in which he lived. St. Thomas Aquinas is one of the prominent figures

of the Medieval Period because he wrote extensively on metaphysics, philosophy

of religion, philosophy of the human person, and ethics. He was born in 1224 at

Kingdom of Naples. In 1230 or 1231, he was sent to Monte Casino Abbey where

he stayed and studied for eight years. In July 1239, Thomas needed to transfer to

the University of Naples where he learned about the writings of Aristotle,

Maimonides and Averroes. Between 1242 and 1244 he entered the Dominican
 44

Order. By 1246, as a Dominican student regent, he transcribed the lectures of Saint

Albert the Great on Pseudo-Dionysius. He subsequently moved to Cologne and

worked under his mentor St. Albert. By 1256, he returned to Naples no longer as a

student but as a teacher. He fell ill on the way and died 7 March 1274 in the

Cistercian monastery of Fossanova, near Terracina. He was forty-nine years old.37

He is considered the Father of Thomism and the principal classical

proponent of natural theology. He is also a significant figure in Western

philosophy because his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law,

metaphysics, and political theory are either opposed or developed by Modern

Philosophy.38Some would say that Aquinas is considered primarily as a theologian

and not so much of a Philosopher. Aquinas himself didn’t think of himself as a

philosopher but as a theologian, an explorer and defender of what he believed to

be the true, divinely revealed religion. Though he is most likely considered as a

theologian, we can still regard him as a great philosopher because of the following

reasons: he was a great synthesizer; inclusive thinking made him stand at the

center of philosophy up to his time; the longevity of his philosophy was

extraordinary; he consistently took the position of the “golden mean”, and finally,

37
Etiene Gilson, The Christian Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas, (New
York: Random House, Inc., 1958.), 432.

38
Peter Kreft.,The Modern Scholar : Thomas Aquinas, (Boston: Recorded Books LLC, 2009), 8.
 45

his common sense prevailed throughout showing the union between his theoretical

and practical sides of his mind.39

Seeing these special qualities of St. Thomas Aquinas, the researcher

believes that his point of view can be a very effective way for an ethical evaluation

of suicide. The researcher believes that the idea of Angelic Doctor, a name of

endearment given to the thinker, can still be a good lens to understand the morality

or immorality of taking one’s life.

B. Components of Morality

1. The Moral Agent

St. Thomas followed Boethius definition of person. The person according

to Boethius is an individual substance of rational nature. St. Thomas Aquinas

believes that compared to angels, man is different since he is deprived of

knowledge which the angels have. Yes man is a rational being but this does not

mean that his knowledge is perfect. Despite his flaws, man is created according to

the image and likeness of God. And this includes his will which is always inclined

towards good.

39
Ibid., 6.
 46

St. Thomas Aquinas clearly defined the qualities which sets human beings

apart from other animals. According to the First part of Second Part of Summa

Theologiae which focuses on Man’s Last End, the faculty of will and reason

“I (Aquinas) answer that, of actions done by man those alone are properly called

human, which are proper to man as man. Now man differs from irrational animals

in this, that he is master of his actions. Wherefore those actions alone are properly

called human, of which man is master. Now man is master of his actions through

his reason and will; whence, too, the freewill is defined as the faculty and will of

reason. Therefore those actions are properly called human which proceed from a

deliberate will.”40

Following Aristotle, he identified human person is composed of form and

matter wherein the soul is the form. This is even applicable to all living things

since the soul or anima in Latin is the internal principle why a thing has life. The

rest of his explanation on Summa is devoted on the question of distinctive features

of a human soul as compared to animals or plants. Like animals and plants, human

beings can also have the ability for nourishment, growth and reproduce. What

makes man different from other creatures is his capability of using his capacities

of intellect and will. The will is where he ascribes the freedom of choice and on

40
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, (Ohio: Benziger Bros.,1947), 777.
 47

intellect, which is what makes that freedom possible and which in general is what

makes us fundamentally different from other animals.41

2. Elements of Human Action

In order to make specifications on human actions, the Angelic Doctor gives

five different terms namely, end, object, matter, circumstance, and motive.

a. End

‘End’ is the first term which Aquinas uses in the second part of his Summa

Theologiae to identify what specifies human actions. He reasons that, since human

actions do not have substantial forms to determine their species, the closest

analogue will be whatever in a human action plays a comparable role. The end

seems to him to be this corresponding principle, for just as no natural creature

exists or has a species without a substantial form, so no human action can come to

be of a particular kind unless an agent wills some definite end. Consequently,

41
St. Thomas Aquinas, Treatise on Human Nature, (Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company
Inc., 2002), xiv-xv.
 48

Thomas judges that the end is ‘as if’ (quasi) the form of a human action,

determining its species.42

The Angelic Doctor is distinctive in his emphasis on the role of the end in

human action. According to him, a human act is specified by the end. End has two

kinds namely; the proximate and the remote end. The former pertains to

immediate goals while the latter is further goals for the sake of which immediate

goals are pursued. This specifying end is the proximate rather than the remote

end.43

This is based on his understanding of the manner in which natural

movement is specified, namely by the term of the motion. But human action is

distinguishing because the human will independently moves itself whose object

towards the end. According to Thomas, the end is both the act’s principle and its

term. As a self-mover, an agent moves himself to one end rather than another. The

agent’s powers are also moved by the will to the end, since the end is the act’s

term.

42
Joseph Pilsner, The Specification of Human Actions in Saint Thomas Aquinas, (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 2
43
Ibid., p. 3
 49

b. Object

‘Object’ is the term most frequently used by Thomas to describe what gives

form and species to a human action. An object's place in moral specification can

best be understood by first considering its role in the related context of human

powers and their proper actions. Thomas sees differences in the objects of will

which allow one to discriminate further among will acts; for instance, relevant

differences in the object can determine whether actions are morally good or evil,

and whether they belong to more particular moral species, such as fraternal

correction or murder.44

c. Matter

Thomas sometimes says that matter specifies a human action and frequently

uses matter as an alternative term for object. When called upon to clarify what he

means, he says that not all matter can determine a human action's species, but only

a certain kind; he refers to it in some passages as the ‘matter about which’ an

action takes place, in other passages as an action's ‘due’ (debita) or ‘undue’

(indebita) matter. Unfortunately, it is not clear at first exactly what aspect of a

44
Ibid., p. 3
 50

human action such ‘matter’ refers to , or how matter which specifies is to be

distinguished from other kinds of matter identified by Aquinas.45

d. Circumstance

A circumstance is an attendant property of an action, as in murder, one

might take note of the time, the place, the type and color of the weapon. Although

Thomas in some contexts denies that any circumstance can give form and species

to a human action, in other contexts he asserts that at least some circumstances do.

For an example of the latter claim, Thomas points to a case where a stolen item

also happens to be consecrated to God, as when a thief makes off with a chalice.

He argues that, although the sacredness of what has been stolen may seem like an

attendant property of the theft, it is the very factor which in this case indicates that

a sacrilege has been committed; hence, this circumstance seems to bring with it a

new species of sin.46

e. Motive

Speaking generally, a motive in Aquinas can refer to any principle of

movement, but in the context of the voluntary, one often sees ‘motive’ referring to

what attract or moves a person to action, as when someone is drawn by a desirable

45
Ibid., p. 5
46
Ibid., p. 6
 51

goal. Although he suggests that all human actions receive their species from

motives, he hardly ever mentions this principle; it is usually invoked in certain

special cases, the most noteworthy being the sin or vice of gluttony. 47

C. The Faculty of Intellect as Constitutive Element of Human Act

The Angelic Doctor said that the intellect is the power that places the

human soul in its degree of perfection and yet properly speaking the human soul is

not an intellect. It is always eager to seek what is true. The angel, whose whole

power can be reduced to the intellectual faculty and to the will that issues from it,

is a pure intellect. That is why it is also called Intelligence. The human soul, on the

other hand, exercises vegetative and sensory functions and cannot rightfully be

given this title. We can only say that the intellect is one of the powers of the

human soul.48

The object of the intellect is universal being and truth. But universal being

and truth constitute the first formal principle it is possible to assign; and the formal

principle of an act is also that which places it in a determinate species. For

example, the act of heating is only such by reason of its formal principle, which is

47
Ibid.
48
Etienne Gilson, Thomism: The Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas, (Ontario: Pontifical Institute
of Mediaeval Studies, 2002), 241.
 52

heat. Now, the intellect moves the will by presenting it with its object, which is

universal being and truth. By doing so it places the act of the will in its proper

species, as opposed to the acts of the sensory or purely natural powers. So we have

here a real and effective moving of the will by the intellect. The will in its turn

moves the intellect, in the sense that it can in certain cases put it effectively into

motion. If we compare all our active powers with one another, the one that tends

toward the universal end will necessarily appear to act upon those tending toward

particular ends. For everything that acts, acts in view of an end, and the art that

aims at a given end directs and moves the arts that procure the means of attaining

this end. Now, the object of the will is precisely the good, that is, the end in

general. Consequently, since every power of the soul tends toward a particular

good which is its own proper good, as sight to the perception of colors and the

intellect toward the knowledge of truth, the will, whose object is the good in

general, must be able to use all the powers of the soul, and especially the intellect,

since the will encompasses the intellect.49

D. The Faculty of Freewill as Constitutive Element of Human Act

The biggest influence of Saint Thomas Aquinas in his notion of human act

is Aristotle. In order to understand his notion, the researcher tries to go back and
49
Ibid.,289
 53

trace the roots of the thought. His Treatise on Man’s Last End, is grounded on

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics.

The key text for Aristotle’s discussion of human action consists of the first

four chapters of Book III of the Nicomachean Ethics. His focus is on choice

(prohairesis), which is the act that belongs to virtuous or vicious habits. He

dividesthe whole human act into three component acts, namely (1) will or wish

(boulesis), (2) deliberation (bouleusis), and (3) choice (prohairesis). 50

The Medieval Thinkers especially St. Thomas Aquinas thought that will or

wish (boulesis/voluntas) and choice (prohairesis/electio) are acts that belong to

one faculty, namely the will (voluntas), for which there was no Greek word in

Aristotle’s time. This thought of Aristotle is the greatest influence in Aquinas’

notion of Human Act. The Angelic Doctor, however, elaborated the thought.

According to him human actions should be classified in two categories namely; in

respect to the end and in respect to the means in achieving the end. In the earlier,

there are three kinds of human act namely; willing, enjoyment and intention. The

latter has three kinds namely; consent, choice and use.51

50
Thomas Osborne, Jr., Human Action in Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus and William of
Ockham, (Washington D.C: The Catholic University of America Press, 2014), 110.
51
Ibid., 114.
 54

One significant innovation of St. Thomas Aquinas to moral theory is his

careful scrutiny of the will and how it is being used to produce free human actions.

From the moment a person is first aware of the desirability of some goal to the

moment when he or she achieves it, Thomas recognizes six distinct stages of the

will's involvement: volition simply considered, consent, intention, choice, use, and

enjoyment.52

The first stage is volition simply considered. This is where an agent's

natural attraction to an end prior to the ordering and volition of means to achieve

it. One must take note that in this stage, the determination to pursue the specific

end is not yet established. It is a stage prior to human action. Note well that a

determination to pursue this end has not yet been made; the man may never

proceed from attraction to action. Nevertheless, he recognizes that the proposal

possesses merit, and ‘will’ is the power through which an agent is drawn to such

an intelligible good.

The second stage is consent. This is the stage wherein the will of the person

is attracted towards the means that will bring him to an end. In order for an agent

to pursue an end, he or she must find means to achieve it. Some means which at

52
Joseph Pilsner, The Specification of Human Actions in Saint Thomas Aquinas, (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2006), 10.
 55

first seem capable of attaining an end might be found impracticable upon more

careful examination.

The third stage is intention. Aquinas says that intention is the willing of an

end as acquired by means; therefore, an end cannot be intended if a means has

been found. No agent can reasonably decide to seek an end without a practical

way to attain it; lacking at least one possible means an end can only be wished for

and not pursued. Once a possible means has first been found, intention starts.

The fourth stage is choice. This is the stage wherein one is preferred over

the other. Care must be taken to distinguish between consent and choice, since

both concern the means: while consent is the will's approval of each means

deemed conducive to an end, choice is the will's definitive movement to that one

(previously-consented-to) means by which the agent seeks to achieve an end in

this instance.

The fifth stage is the use. The use of something means the application of

that thing to some operation. Anything which is within a person's power and can

contribute to the execution of an action can be ‘used’.

The final stage of willing is called enjoyment. Here, the agent's will relate

to the end precisely in so far as this end is possessed; it pertains to ‘the delight one
 56

has in the desired goal’. Enjoyment brings perfection to the will; all that preceded

is somehow directed to this moment.53

The will is always inclined to what is good. Etienne Gilson described it as a

blind mouth which always hungers for what is good. The intellect on the other

hand, is attracted towards truth and it shows to the will what is good and true.

E. Act of Man

Human action is constituted with Intellect and will and from here,

one can draw the two factors which may impede the action in becoming a human

act namely the impediment of knowledge and the impediments of will.

There is only one impediment of knowledge and that is ignorance. A child

who does not know the effect of pulling the trigger of the gun is not responsible

for killing his/her playmate. This also applies for all those who have mental

disorders but the degree of responsibility depends on the gravity of his/her illness.

Man is responsible according to the degree of knowledge s/he possesses.

As for the impediments of the will, passions or strong emotions such as

love, anger, hatred, anguish and fear can cause high excitement which impairs the

53
Ibid., 10-15.
 57

will. For example, a person walking on the street when suddenly someone rushes

to punch him. S/he may become so angry that s/he strikes back in retaliation. The

overwhelming emotion of anger temporarily deprived him of his free will and thus

makes his act not sinful.

Man is responsible for his/ her actions insofar as they are human acts;

otherwise, these actions are but acts of man. These acts may either lessen or totally

impedes the moral responsibility of an individual.54 Consequently, we have the

other classification of actions one by person- Acts of man.

Acts of man, as opposed to human acts, are those acts that man performs without

being master of them through his intellect and will. In principle, acts of man are not the

concern of morals, since they are not voluntary. The acts of man include:

1. The natural acts of vegetative and sense faculties: digestion, heartbeat,

growth, bodily reactions, and visual or auditive perceptions. However, these

acts become human acts when performed under the direction of the will, as

when we look at something, or arouse ourselves.

2. Acts of persons who lack the use of reason. Such is the case with children or

person with mental problems.

54
Xavier Colavecho, OP, “Impediments of Human Action,” Catholic Encyclopedia for School and
Home, (New York: St. Joseph Seminary and College, 1965)
 58

3. Acts of people who are asleep or under the influence of hypnosis, alcohol, or

other drugs. In this case, however, there may still be some degree of control

by the will. Also, there is indirect responsibility if the cause of the loss of

control is voluntary.

4. Quick, nearly automatic reactions, called primo-primi acts. These are reflex

and nearly instantaneous reactions, such as withdrawing one’s hand after

suffering an electric shock, in which the will does not have time to intervene.

5. Acts performed under violence or threat of violence. This includes physical

or—in some cases—moral violence.55

The Angelic Doctor made a distinction between human act and act of man.

Before making a conclusion regarding the human act, he wrote this as one of the

arguments on human act and puts a response on it :

“Objection 3: Further, then does a man seem to act for an end, when he acts

deliberately. But man does many things without deliberation, sometimes not even

thinking of what he is doing; for instance when one moves one's foot or hand, or

scratches one's beard, while intent on something else. Therefore man does not do

everything for an end.”

“Reply to Objection 3: Such like actions are not properly human actions; since

they do not proceed from deliberation of the reason, which is the proper principle

55
http://fsubelmonte.weebly.com/3-human-acts-and-freedom.html Accessed last January 24, 2016
 59

of human actions. Therefore they have indeed an imaginary end, but not one that

is fixed by reason.”

Karol Josef Wojtyla, a Thomist philosopher who later became the beloved

Saint John Paul II wrote extensively regarding morality, human dignity and

freedom and morality. Before proceeding any further, morality and ethics must be

properly defined. Morality applies only to human acts, that is, actions which

proceed from man’s rationality; these are actions which are done with knowledge,

freedom and voluntariness. He said in one of his journals:

“Actions which do not have a rational character can be considered non-moral;

they cannot be judged as morally good or morally evil. If human actions are to be

judged whether morally good or morally evil, then there must be something by

which actions could be measured as good or evil; this is what we refer to as the

norm or standard of morality. The standard or norm does not only judge the

morality of the action, it likewise gives the reasons why a particular action is

morally good or morally evil.”56

56
://www.kritike.org/journal/issue_12/aguas_june2013.pdf Retrieved last November
2,2015
 60

Upon assessing this, one can say that a human act is a product of a complex

processes done by will and intellect. Some acts such as crying, mannerisms and

routine acts are considered as “acts of man” since these actions are not undergoing

these processes of deliberation. When someone for instance, pick up the telephone,

it is not necessary that one should ask whether how, or what should he do. It is

automatic that after picking the phone, he says, “Hello”. Another example, during

the Mass, when the priest would say to the regular Congregation, “The Lord be

with you.” For a person who is a regular churchgoer, it is not necessary to undergo

process of deliberation of reason and volition before responding. Automatically,

he or she will respond “And with your Spirit.”

There are also acts which are product of intense emotion and pain and

therefore can be considered still as acts of man. Actions such as crying, outburst

due to extreme anger and loud cries caused by sudden death of a close friend or

relative are examples of these. A person who is experiencing a great emotional

turmoil and pain can no longer use his will and reason efficiently.

Depression can be a good example for this. As depression deepens and

takes over the body and mind, the pain of depression often becomes

overwhelming. The chemical imbalance and deep despair can lead the brain to try

and find ways to end the pain. This is when suicidal thinking begins. Depressive

illnesses can distort thinking such that a person can’t think clearly or rationally.
 61

The illness can cause thoughts of hopelessness and helplessness, which may lead

to suicidal thoughts.57

A human action is constituted by intellect and will. The will follows the

intellect. Only the intellect can act on the will directly. The will is a “blind mouth”

that hungers for goodness, but must rely on the intellect to make judgments about

what is good. When the intellect presents the will with something as good, the will

chooses it. In such a way, the intellect moves the will as its final cause. 58

After understanding these points regarding Aquinas’ Human acts, for the

next chapter, the researcher will now use this as lens for ethical inquiry regarding

the moral accountability of the person who committed suicide.

57
http://www.save.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.viewpage&page_id=705c8cb8-9321-f1bd-
867e811b1b404c94 accesed last January 24, 2016
58
Scott MacDonald, Aquinas’s Libertarian Account of Free Choice, Revue Internationale de
Philosophie no.52 (June 1998), 312.
 62

CHAPTER IV

AN ETHICAL INQUIRY ON SUICIDE

"I don’t share the opinion that suicides are certainly to be damned.
My reason is that they do not wish to kill themselves
but are overcome by the power of the devil…59"

-Martin Luther

The previous chapter opens with the attraction of “the Many” (The

Universe) including the will of the person towards goodness. But despite this, one

may wonder how a person is attracted to commit suicide. At first glance, this is

very unnatural. But on a closer look, one can also say that those who commit

suicide due to intense pain and suffering are still acting naturally since they are

searching for what is good. The only problem is that because of being overcome

by despair, the person can no longer see any good. The impaired reason can no

longer find anything good. Out of desperation, he decides to cease living. This

chapter aims to show the different perspectives on the question whether a person

who commits suicide is morally accountable for what he does in the perspective of

Aquinas’ Human act.

59
Martin Luther, “Table Talk #222”,Luther’s Works, Vol. 54, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967),
29.
 63

A. Saint Thomas Aquinas’ Argument against Suicide

The writer wants to clarify that he is not claiming that St. Thomas Aquinas

agrees on suicide. Actually, the Angelic Doctor is strongly against suicide. St.

Thomas Aquinas formulated an authoritative church position on suicide in his

Summa Theologiae.

1. Arguments on Suicide and Response

In his discourse on whether suicide is right or not, Aquinas presented five

arguments in favor of suicide.

The first argument goes like this; Murder is sin because it is an act of

injustice. According to Aristotle one cannot do injustice towards himself.

Therefore killing oneself is not an act of injustice and therefore is not a sin.

Aquinas responds to this argument by saying that murder is a sin, not only because

it is contrary to justice, but also because it is opposed to charity which a man

should have towards himself: in this respect suicide is a sin in relation to oneself.

In relation to the community and to God, it is sinful, by reason also of its

opposition to justice.60

The second argument in favor of suicide says that it is lawful for one who

exercises authority to kill. Some authorities are evil doer. Consequently, they may
60
St.Thomas Aquinas. ,Summa Theologica (Ohio:Benziger Bros, 1947) p. 2109
 64

lawfully kill themselves. Aquinas answered this argument by saying that though a

wicked ruler can pass judgment on others a person cannot judge himself.

Therefore a person in authority is unlawful if he puts himself to death.

The third argument supporting suicide says that it is lawful to suffer lesser

danger to avoid the greater. For example if an infected or decayed limb causes one

to suffer greatly, he may lawfully cut it off. Whereas if suicide would prevent him

to have greater evil such as shame or unhappy life, one may say that this act can be

lawful. Aquinas made a response to this by saying that though man has a free-will;

the passage from life to death is beyond his control for it belongs to God.

Therefore it is unlawful for a person to take his own life. Aquinas said that

according to “the Philosopher” (the title given by Aquinas to Aristotle), death is

greater evil than life and therefore preference of death over life is unlawful. In the

case of a woman committing suicide rather than being violated or raped, this is

still unlawful. If she is violated without her consent, she is still pure. Without

consent in the mind, there is no stain in the body.

The fourth argument supporting suicide is the use of the Biblical story of

Samson, who despite of the fact of committing suicide, is still venerated as one of

the saints. Aquinas replied to this argument by saying that not even Samson is

excused from his liability in crushing himself in order to kill the Philistines.
 65

However, he can be excused if he is commanded by the Holy Spirit. This principle

is also applicable for the case of the martyrs of the Church.

The final argument that Aquinas presented in favor of suicide is the Biblical

story of Razias who as mentioned at the Second Book of Maccabees took his own

life “choosing to die nobly rather than to fall into the hands of the wicked, and to

suffer abuses unbecoming his noble birth." Now nothing that is done nobly and

bravely is unlawful. Therefore suicide is not unlawful. Aquinas offered an answer

which he quoted from Aristotle that avoiding penal evil and choosing death is a

sign of the weakness of the soul.61

All of these objection-responses logically lead the readers to the Angelic

Doctor’s conclusion that suicide is morally unacceptable except if the actor is

moved by the Spirit to commit suicide.

2. Aquinas’ Main Argument against Suicide

St. Thomas Aquinas gave three reasons why suicide is unlawful: First, it is

contrary to nature’s inclination to love one’s self. Second, it injures the community

and thirdly, it is a sin against God.

61
Ibid.
 66

a. Suicide is Contrary to Natural Law and Charity

Aquinas said that everything naturally loves itself, and because of this

everything naturally keeps itself in survival, and resists death as far as it can.

Therefore, suicide is contrary to the inclination of nature, and to charity because it

is natural for every man to love himself. Because of this, suicide is always a

mortal sin, and contrary to the natural law and to charity.

b. Suicide Injures the Community

The Angelic Doctor, adapting the thought of Aristotle, said that every part

belongs to a whole the same as every man belongs to a community. By

committing suicide, he is also robbing civic and social contributions; therefore, it

has social effects- particularly injures the community.

c. Suicide is a Sin against God

Aquinas said that life is God's gift to man, and he only has the power to

take and give life. Therefore whoever takes his own life, sins against God, like he

who kills another’s slave, sins against that slave's master, and as he who gives to

himself the right to judgment of a matter not entrusted to him. God alone has the
 67

right to pronounce sentence of death and life, since according to Dt. 32:39, "I will

kill and I will make to live."62

The manner in which Aquinas presented suicide is remarkable. His

common method starts with the objections to his claim, then what he says and

finally his reply to those objections in support of what he says.

The writer really admires the Angelic Doctor but he thinks that there is still

lacking in his treatise on suicide. What if the person’s will and intellect are

impaired due to pain, anguish or despair and because of the impairment of this

ability, committed suicide? Is he morally responsible for his action? The writer’s

question is not really whether suicide is morally acceptable or not, rather, he

questions the moral accountability of the one who committed suicide.

62
Ibid, 2109.
 68

B. The Main Argument of this Paper

In this chapter, the writer tries to assert that in some cases, suicide should

be treated not with prejudice but understanding. In one of the scenes in the movie

Luther, Father Martin Luther, who was still at that time an Augustinian monk,

said, while he himself is burying a young boy who committed suicide:

“Some people say that according to God’s justice, this boy is damned because he

took his life. I say he was overcome by the devil. Is this child anymore to blame for

the despair that overtook him? He is an innocent man who is killed by a robber in

the woods. God must be mercy.”

Upon reading this quote, one should understand that in medieval period,

there is neither science nor technical psychology, the reason why physiological

and behavioral problems are attributed to the devil. In this statement, the writer

wants to emphasize that though Luther has a very limited scientific explanation, he

recognized the fact that the boy who committed suicide is not morally responsible

for his action since he committed the act after being overcome by despair. The

writer thinks that this explanation of Luther supports his argument.

In order to support this claim, the researcher formulated this argument:

 69

P1: According to Aquinas’ notion of human acts, a person is morally

accountable for his actions if they are performed using

intellect and will.

P2: If suicide is done with intellect and will, the actor is held

morally responsible for his or her actions.

P3: If suicide is done out of despair or suffering, then it lacks

the faculty of reason and will.

P4: If a person who commits suicide is in despair or is suffering,

then his faculty of intellect and will is impaired.

C: Therefore, some of those who committed suicide are not morally

responsible for their actions since moral accountability is

applicable only on human actions that are performed with

intellect and will.

The first two premises are in favor of Aquinas’ judgment on suicide which

the writer believes to be valid and true. If suicide is a human act-which means that

he or she premeditated the act with effective deliberation of intellect and will
 70

without impairment of these faculties due to pain, depression or suffering, then,

the actor is held morally responsible for his or her action. There is no problem

with that. In this case the point of Aquinas is applicable and his judgments must be

held to be true.

On the other hand, the writer questions whether this is always the case. Is it

at all times applicable? Recent studies on suicide which are found on Chapter 2

reveal that suicide cases are done impulsively due to emotional, relational,

physiological, financial and psychological problems which may cause a person to

be depressed and desperate. If the action is done impulsively, then the act of

suicide is done with lack of the faculty of intellect and will. This implies that these

kinds of suicide are not human acts but acts of man. It is only by committing

human acts that a person is to be held morally responsible for his or her actions.

The writer tries to present his argument not just for the sake of questioning

whether Aquinas’ notion on suicide is applicable at all times nor just to present a

new perspective on viewing suicide, rather, he calls for a public awareness and

change of attitude towards suicide. The advancements of science show us that

suicide must not be solely viewed as a mortal sin or sign of abnormality, rather,

this is a both a philosophical, medical and societal problem that needs to be

addressed and solved. The writer believes that the first step of solving this problem

is the change of attitude towards suicide. The reason why some people commit
 71

suicide is that they can’t express the terrible feeling inside them because of the

fear of being stigmatized and ostracized by the society.

According to the 2014 journal of World Health Organization entitled,

Preventing Suicide: A Global Imperative, one of the myths that people usually

believe is that talking about suicide is a bad idea and it can be interpreted as an

encouragement. But what is factual is that given the widespread stigma around

suicide, most people who are contemplating suicide do not know who to speak to.

Rather than encouraging suicidal behavior, talking openly can give an individual

other options or the time to rethink his/her decision, thereby preventing suicide.63

If the public will have a change of attitude towards suicide, though this is

not really the solution to the problem, but, this is the first step towards it, since one

of the reasons why those who are thinking about suicide cannot open-up is the fear

of being ostracized. This same attitude towards suicide is the reason why only few

are willing to help people who are in crisis64. They fear or feel morbid talking

about it which goes to prove that indeed, the mentality of most of the people is still

similar to the traditional way of understanding suicide. If a person thinking of

suicide does not have the fear of being ostracized and the public is more open-

63
Margaret Chan, Preventing Suicide: A Global Imperative, (Geneva: World Health Organization
Publication. 2014), 66.
64
Ibid.
 72

minded towards subject matter, chances are, the person contemplating about

harming himself will have more time thinking about it an considering other

options. The feeling that someone cares or ready to listen to their problems is

already a great help. The stigma and taboo surrounding suicide maybe can be

helpful since in one way, especially in a religious perspective, it can be a good

prevention since the dreads of hell is enough to prevent some but this is not

enough nowadays. On the other hand, this same stigma prevents a person seeking

for help, the WHO says that not all suicidal behaviors are caused by mental

disorder, rather, unhappiness. A lot of person with mental disorder have no

suicidal behaviors and a lot of suicide victims have no mental disorder.

Upon showing all these facts, the writer can say that the first step to solve

this problem is to change one’s attitude towards suicide; one must not always

consider them morally responsible and stigmatized them as crazy or damned souls

burning in hell. Luther is right in saying that they are victims killed by the robber

in the woods. Those who contemplate, attempted suicide and their bereaved family

need a community who is ready to listen, accept, and show friendship and

compassion to them. This may not be a concrete solution but it gives the person a

sense of warmth and security that may somehow, ease the pain he or she is

experiencing right now. Marcia Naomi Berger MSW, LCSW, a well-known

psychotherapist and counselor at Marin Suicide Prevention wrote in her blog that:
 73

“… a smile would have most definitely helped in my case. If the smile is

genuine and caring, and it looks like the person is approachable, that person

could have such an impact on a suicidal person at the moment of desperation.

They could well save a life.65”

Using the Human Act of St. Thomas Aquinas, the writer proved that not all

the case, a person who commits suicide is morally accountable for his actions

since he or she did the act out of pain, despair or suffering. Pain, despair and

suffering impair the capacity of intellect and will. Because of this, their action is

not considered as human act and thus their action is non-moral. If a person did or

attempted to do the act with full deliberation of intellect and will, then Aquinas is

right in saying that they are morally responsible with his or her action. Being

aware that not all those who attempted or committed suicide did not really

intentionally harmed themselves, the first step of solving the problem is to avoid

stigmatization on them and see them not as unrepentant sinners but a person who

needs support friendship, affection and understanding.

65
http://marcianaomiberger.com/mental-health/preventing-suicide/ accessed last November 4,
2015
 74

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

“Did you really want to die?"

"No one commits suicide because they want to die."
"Then why do they do it?"
"because they want to stop the pain.”
― Tiffanie DeBartolo,

A. Summary of the Paper

The act of self-harm, also known as suicide is always present in the history

of human race. From the earliest writings in the ancient period, the Bible until in

the most recent news, we can hear stories of suicide. According to the World

Health Organization, a person dies of suicide every 40 seconds somewhere in the

world and there are more cases of attempted suicide.

Albert Camus mentioned that suicide is a philosophical problem. This made

the subject matter really controversial that philosophers throughout history have

something to say on suicide. The Ancient Greek and Hellenistic Philosophers are

divided, the Stoics, Epicureans and Seneca supported suicide while Pythagoras,

Aristotle and Plato considered suicide morally unacceptable. The majority of the

medieval philosophers since this period of thought is theocentric disagree on

suicide since this is an act against the law of God. Suicide can be acceptable if it is

martyrdom as Eusebius said. It is also in this period wherein suicide is totally

 75

unacceptable in the society that even the remains of the person who committed

suicide is desecrated and punished. The Modern Philosophy is ambivalent since it

is the period the recovery of the classics, the reason why this period shares the

same view with the ancient. The Contemporary period had been more lenient on

suicide. The Contemporary Philosophers is more lenient and open to suicide since

the old religious and social groupings that had objected suicide gradually loses

their power. But this does not mean that they totally accepted suicide since the

philosophy of pessimism is prevalent in this period.

The second chapter of this paper also mentioned that not all suicide is

intentional since there are cases wherein the act is done due to depression, pain,

despair, and unhappiness. Extreme cases of these are unbearable for some, the

reason why they think of nothing but to escape this predicament by cessation of

their existence. The World Health Organization said that most cases of suicide are

done impulsively. This goes to prove that suicide is at all times fully intended.

In the next chapter, the discussion was about the Human Action of Saint

Thomas Aquinas, a great Dominican theologian which is considered as the

Angelic Doctor and Prince of Scholasticism. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, an

action is considered human if it is done with the deliberation of intellect and will.

The will is a “blind mouth” that hungers for goodness, but must rely on the
 76

intellect to make judgments about what is good. When the intellect presents the

will with something as good, the will chooses it.

These are the only actions which we can subject to moral inquiry otherwise

the action is only an act of man. Acts of man cannot be subjected to ethical inquiry

since these actions are not done by the deliberation of intellect and will.

Using Aquinas’ notion of human act, the writer questioned whether a

person who committed suicide is morally responsible for his actions. This chapter

tried to defend the claim by saying that not all who committed suicide are morally

responsible for their actions since some acts of suicide can be considered as acts of

man and therefore can be considered as non-moral. Some people who attempted or

committed suicide are not deserving of being ostracized or stigmatized by the

society, rather what they need is professional help and awareness about their

plight. The first step of solving the problem of suicide is the change of attitude.

B. Findings

On this part, the writer will now try to answer the three questions which are

the main points of inquiry of this paper.

 77

1. What is suicide?

Suicide is an intended act of self-harm which had been prevalent

throughout the history of human race in all parts of the world. The history of

Philosophy tells us that the act of killing one’s self had always been a topic to

debate on. The turn of the times defined the view on suicide; the ambivalent view

on suicide due to different schools of thought in ancient period, the absolute

condemnation on the theocentric medieval period, and the more liberal,

anthropocentric discussions of suicide during the modern and contemporary

philosophy. Some commit this for honor while some are done due to duty

altruism, political, hopelessness, and the most common is despair and depression.

2. What is Aquinas’ Notion of Human Act?

The Human Action according to Saint Thomas Aquinas is an act that a

moral agent performs using his/her intellect and will. The will is a “blind mouth”

that hungers for goodness, but must rely on the intellect to make judgments about

what is good. When the intellect presents the will with something as good, the will

chooses it. When the intellect and/or will is impeded due to either/both ignorance

and/or passion, then, it will be considered as acts of man.

 78

Between act of man and human act, it is only human act which can be

judged as moral or immoral. Acts of man are non-moral.

3. Using the perspective of Aquinas, Human Acts, should one consider all those

who commit suicide as fully and morally accountable in their action?

According to Aquinas’ notion of human acts, a person is morally

accountable for his actions if they are performed with intellect and will. If suicide

is done with intellect and will, the actor is held morally responsible for his or her

actions. If suicide is done out of pain, despair or suffering, then it lacks the faculty

of reason and will. If a person who commits suicide is in suffering and pain, his

faculty of intellect and will is impaired. Therefore, some of those who committed

suicide are not morally responsible for their actions since moral accountability is

applicable only on human actions, which is a product of intellect and volition.

C. Recommendations

Based on the findings mentioned above the writer would like to recommend

the following:

1. Suicide should not be always seen in the lens of morbidity and prejudice

which is similar to the medieval view. Suicide is not always a human act since
 79

some are not done out of proper deliberation of intellect and will, because some

are caused by mental diseases, extreme suffering or depression. The writer would

also recommend that some of those who committed suicide should be considered

as victims and not as unrepentant sinners. The change of view on suicide and the

suicide victims is definitely not the solution to this problem but it is the first step.

2. One should not believe that talking about suicide is an encouragement

and thus one must avoid it. Given the widespread stigma around suicide, most

people who are contemplating suicide do not know who to speak to. Rather than

encouraging suicidal behavior, talking openly can give an individual other options

or the time to rethink his/her decision, thereby preventing suicide.

3. Health-care services need to include suicide prevention as a core

component since it is the problem which is least addressed. Mental disorders and

harmful use of alcohol contribute to many suicides around the world. Early

identification and effective management are keys to ensuring that people receive

the care they need. Improving the quality of care for people and seeking help can

ensure that early interventions are effective. Improved quality of care is the key to

reducing suicides that arise as a result of mental and alcohol use disorders and

other risk factors.

4. Communities play a critical role in suicide prevention. They can provide

social support to vulnerable individuals and engage in follow-up care, fight stigma
 80

and support those bereaved by suicide. In all countries, particularly those with

limited resources, the importance of communities and their support programs in

suicide prevention cannot be overstated. Effective social support within

communities and individual resilience can help protect vulnerable persons from

suicide by building and improving social connectedness and skills to cope with

difficulties. Specifically, the community can provide help in crisis situations, keep

in regular contact with people who have attempted suicide, and support persons

bereaved by suicide.

D. Implications to the Catholic Church

Regarding suicide, this is what the Catechism of the Catholic Church

teaches:

“Everyone is responsible for his life before God who has given it

to him…We are stewards, not owners, of the life God has entrusted to us.

It is not ours to dispose of. Suicide contradicts the natural inclination of

the human being to preserve and perpetuate his life. It is gravely contrary

to the just love of self. It likewise offends love of neighbor because it

unjustly breaks the ties of solidarity with family, nation, and other human

societies to which we continue to have obligations. Suicide is contrary to

love for the living God. Grave psychological disturbances, anguish, or

grave fear of hardship, suffering, or torture can diminish the responsibility

 81

of the one committing suicide. We should not despair of the eternal

salvation of persons who have taken their own lives. By ways known to

Him alone, God can provide the opportunity for salutary repentance. The

Church prays for persons who have taken their own lives.”

-Catechism of the Catholic Church 2280-2283

On the contrary to the common belief that the Church strongly condemns

all those who commit suicide to hell, She recognizes that though taking one’s life

is a grave sin against God, self and community, some suicide cases which are done

out of grave psychological disturbances, anguish, or grave fear of hardship,

suffering, or torture can diminish the responsibility of the one committing suicide

and even emphasizes that the living should hope that Eternal Salvation is possible

for them since God can provide salutary repentance for them. In other words, the

Church teaches us that one should not condemn these victims and like Her, one

should pray for them. These people should not be viewed as people condemned to

the fires of hell, rather, these are our brothers and sisters who needs our help and

understanding. Those who attempted to commit suicide and the bereaved family

needs care from the community and this care will only spring from the awareness

and better understanding on how suicide should be evaluated.

 82

E. Areas for Further Research

The researcher has just presented one perspective of inquiry on suicide

which is ethical. For those who want to investigate more on suicide, he

recommends to explore the notion of suicide in other philosophical perspectives

such as epistemological, phenomenological and metaphysical inquiry on suicide.

One may also explore suicide in a non-theistic perspective since this paper

already presented a theistic perspective; especially this is in line with a Catholic

saint and thinker- St. Thomas Aquinas.

Another suggestion is that one may also investigate on the impact of suicide

from the perspective of the ones who are left behind by the person who killed

himself. What can be the effects of suicide in the society?

These are but few of the topics that one can research on suicide. As it was

mentioned on the first chapter, there is much more to understand in the act of

suicide and this paper is just a very small part of it.

 83

Bibliography

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