Program: EE241 Sem : 3

Ownership : Centre for System Engineering Studies (CSES)

FKE Doc.ID : Date Issued 2020

STUDENT KIT
VIRTUAL LAB MODULETM
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY III
COURSE CODE: EEE430

I1: ELECTROMECHANICAL TRANSDUCER

Authors

Najidah Hambali
Prepared by : Noor Ezan Abdullah Date : June 2020
Noor Hafizah Abdul Aziz

Endorsement by Center of Studies

Chair : Date :

Signature :
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MODULE OUTCOMES:

Upon completion of this experiment, students should have the:

MO1 : Ability to understand the basic principle of capacitor.

MO2 : Ability to measure capacitance using Wheatstone Bridge circuit
MO3 : Ability to understand the basic principle of potentiometer
MO4 : Ability to operate potentiometer to act as voltage divider
MO5 : Ability to analyze the usage and application of potentiometer.
MO6 : Ability to understand the principle of Linearity and Range of a mutual inductive type transformer

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

EXPERIMENT 1: CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT

The charge held by a two-conductor system is directly proportional to the voltage between the
conductors. The constant of proportionality of the equation is called the capacitance of the system. The
capacitance of a system is determined by the equation: -

(1)

Where is the permittivity of free space

is the relative permittivity of the medium between the conductors (the dielectric)

A is the area of the conductors facing or influencing each other

d is the distance between the conductors

It may be seen that the capacitance can be varied by varying ε r, A or d. Thus, it should be possible to
construct transducers which use the variation of one or more of these parameters to the vary capacitance
of the system. This variation in capacitance may be measured and thus related to the magnitude of the
physical change which caused the parameter variation.

The method for measuring resistance using a Wheatstone Bridge uses the ratio of resistance in each of
the two arms to affect a balance. This balance is obtained when the voltages at each end of the detector
arm are equal and to achieve this the ratio of resistance in each side of the bridge must be equal as well.

The Wheatstone Bridge circuit may be used, and the same balance conditions apply. However, at ac it is
a ratio of impedances and not just resistances which cause the potential division in each side which is
necessary for balance. Consider the circuit of Figure 1.
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Zs
Xs

R1 Rs

source det

R2 Xx
Zx
Rx

Figure 1: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

For this circuit:

(2)

Where Zs and Zx are the impedances of the standard and unknown arms respectively.

These impedances will be phasor quantities with both magnitude and phase angle, and it is necessary to
adjust both the magnitudes and phase angles of the impedance arms to achieve balance. This means
that the bridge has to be balanced for both the resistive and reactive components.

as (3)

then (4)
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but, (5)

and (6)

so (7)

equating real and imaginary parts, we get:

and (8)

(9)

These are the general equations or balance equation for this type of bridge. It is often known as the
resistance-ratio bridge.

EXPERIMENT 2: ROTARY AND LINEAR POTENTIOMETER CHARACTERISTIC

A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider
and widely used in a variety of electronic circuit application such as a volume controller of a radio or a
speed controller of a DC motor. The schematic symbol for a potentiometer is shown in Figure 2. Notice
that it is a three-terminal device. A voltage source E is connected across the fixed resistance RT between
terminals a and c. A terminal labeled b is attached to a movable contact (called the wiper arm or slider)
which can be adjusted so that it contacts the resistance between a and c at any point along its entire
length. As the contact is moved down, the resistance between b and c, Rbc, decreases and otherwise. No
matter where the contact is positioned,

RT = Rab + Rab (1)

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Rab

E RT b

Rbc

Figure 2: Schematic symbol for a potentiometer

As illustrated in Figure 3, the voltage divider rule can be applied to potentiometer to determine the voltage
Vbc between adjustable contact b and fixed contact c: -

(2)

Since RT remains constant, the voltage Vbc is directly proportional to resistance Rbc and can be adjusted
by moving the wiper arm to a desired position.

E b
+

-
c

Figure 3: Potentiometer as voltage divider

Potentiometers are available in a wide variety of sizes, resistance and power ratings, and tapers. The
latter term refers to the way the resistance between the wiper arm and one end varies as the arm is
moved. In some devices the variation is linear, meaning that Rbc is directly proportional to the position of
the arm, while in others, the resistance may be logarithmically related to position. Figure 4 shows some
typical potentiometers.

(a) (b)
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Figure 4: Examples of available potentiometer

EXPERIMENT 3: LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

A pair of coils can be used as a mutual inductance or transformer type transducer by monitoring the
secondary EMF when the primary is supplied by an ac source and the reluctance of the magnetic path is
varied. Due to the peaked shape of the output curve from a single secondary, there is very little direct use
for a transducer of this type. However, if we had two secondary giving opposing outputs equally centered
about the primary, as in Figure 5, the graphs could be added together algebraically to give a more useful
characteristics.

Figure 5: Linear Variable Differential Transformer

When operating a transducer, the key specifications are primary excitation (voltage and frequency),
physical dimension, method of coupling, resolution, frequency response and damping factor and
environmental conditions under which these outputs hold. The transducer has a differential output which
can minimize the effects of errors due to temperature and stray magnetic fields. Any increase or decrease
in output will be cancelled out by the other coil producing output in the opposite direction. Several LVDTs
maybe joined in series to give a greater output.

Other advantages of the LVDT are that the output is electrically isolated from the input and the electrical
parts are stationary, resulting in wear and long life. By using high excitation frequency, effects due to
temperature and stray magnetic fields can be made insignificant although the transducers are enclosed in
a screening case. Excitation can be either from a constant voltage source which ensures that the flux in
the primary is constant, regardless of frequency. Well designed LVDTs have linearity typically better than
0.1% but over a very small range usually less than +3mm

PRE-LAB WORK:
Search the internet and grasp as much as possible the material before performing the virtual lab.
Students should understand the basic operation of capacitance and Wheatstone Bridge by answering the
following questions:

EXPERIMENT 1: CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT

 ELECTROMECHANICAL TRANSDUCER EEE430

1) If Zx is a pure capacitor, what form of component would the standard, Z s, have to be to achieve
balance?

2) What is the formula for Zx, if a pure capacitor is used?

3) What do the balance equations now become if a pure capacitor is used?

EXPERIMENT 2: ROTARY AND LINEAR POTENTIOMETER CHARACTERISTIC

4) Name two types of potentiometer and illustrate the internal view of each type (Please label the
terminals).

5) From Figure 4, which figure represents the linear and rotary potentiometer?

6) What is the rotatable sliding contact of rotary potentiometer and the wiper contact of linear
potentiometer represent?

7) What is the main difference between rotary and linear potentiometer?

EXPERIMENT 3: LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

Read this document, especially the Experimental Work section. Search the internet and grasp as much as
possible the material before performing the virtual lab. Students should understand the basic operation of
LVDT by answering the following questions:

8) Name three application of LVDT transducers for measurement of process parameters

9) What is the typical frequency range of the alternating current used to energize the coils of an
LVDT?

10) Sketch and label the structure of a typical LVDT

Students/Group leader has to get your instructor to approve all your PRE-LAB work before commencing
the virtual experiment. Submit the pre-lab work together with the report.
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EXPERIMENTAL WORK:

EXPERIMENT 1: CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT

List of components/equipments:

1) 1 x TK2941A Instrumentation Module

2) 1 x Function Generator

3) 1 x Decade Capacitance Box

4) 1 x AC voltmeter

PROCEDURE

Step 1 Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 9 (Schematic Diagram) and Figure 10 (Wiring
Diagram).
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Cs
(Decade
Capacitance Box)
R1

det
1 kHz
10 VP-P
R2
Cx

Figure 9: Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup

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Figure 10. Capacitance measurement wiring diagram

Step 2 Set the function generator with a frequency of 1 KHz and 10 V P_P. Make sure all values in
capacitance decade box are set to 0.

Step 3 Power off the system. Choose a value for Cx of about 100 nF. Set R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ. Record the
value of the cross-bridge voltage. Calculate the value of Cs should be produced to make the bridge
balance when the R1 and R2 is set to 1 kΩ. Energize the circuit. Record the V OUT (ac value) in the Table 1.
Repeat the step by change the ratio of resistor arms.

Step 4 Power off the system. Choose a value for Cx of about 100 pF. Set R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ. Record the
value of the cross-bridge voltage. Calculate the value of Cs should be produced to make the bridge
balance when the R1 and R2 is set to 1 kΩ. Energize the circuit. Record the V OUT (ac value) in the Table 1.
Repeat the step by change the ratio of resistor arms.

Step 5 Power off the system. Choose a value for C x of about 1 µF. Set R 1 = R2 = 1 kΩ. Record the value
of the cross-bridge voltage. Calculate the value of Cs should be produced to make the bridge balance
when the R1 and R2 is set to 1 kΩ. Energize the circuit. The V OUT (ac value) is given in the Table 1 in
Results section. The steps have been repeated by change the ratio of resistor arms.
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EXPERIMENT 2: POTENTIOMETER AS AN ADJUSTABLE VOLTAGE DIVIDER

List of components/equipments:

1. 1 x Digital Multimeter

2. 4 x Resistor (any value)

3. 1 x Linear Potentiometer (any value)

PART 1

Resistors in series are often used as voltage divider circuits. These resistor combinations divide or break
down a large supply voltage to lower levels for specific applications. The circuit in the Figure 11 can
output four distinct output voltages from a single voltage source, VS = 5 V. The four output voltages are
referenced to the ground reference point.

VA = the voltage at point A with respect to ground; it is the voltage across resistors RT = R1+R2+R3+R4.
The formula for calculate VA, VB, VC and VD as below:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

R1
A B

R2
C
VS
R3
D

R4

Figure 11: Series resistors as voltage divider

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1) Given four resistors that range from 1KΩ to 10KΩ to be used for R1, R2, R3 and R4 in Table 2 in
Results section. Measure and record their value. Build the above circuit using your voltage
supply VS = 5V.
2) Calculate all the voltage output and compare with the given measured output in Table 3. Please
show the calculation for VA, VB, VC and VD.

PART 2

You could use a potentiometer to

VS
build a variable voltage divider.
Use of a potentiometer as shown
V in Figure 6 will vary the output
voltage from 0  VS.

Figure 12

1) Use a potentiometer to build the circuit of Figure 12. You will need to use an ohmmeter to
determine the two fixed terminals as well as the wiper. Given the overall potentiometer
resistance in Results section.
2) Calculate the min/max voltage and compare with the given measured output in Table 4. Please
show your calculation.

PART 3

R1

The circuit of Figure 13

VS
will produce an output
R2 voltage of 0 to a value
V
less than VS.

Figure 13

1) Connect the circuit of Figure 13 with the potentiometer used in the previous step and an R1.
2) Given the measured full resistance of the circuit (R1 + R2) in Results section.
3) Calculate and record the min/max output voltage and compare with the given measured output
in Table 5. Please show your calculation.

PART 4
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R1

VS

R2
V

R3 A potentiometer (R2) used with two fixed

resistors will provide an output voltage of
0 < Vout < VS.
Figure 14
1) Given measured value of a fixed resistor, R3 in Results section. Build the above circuit as shown
in Figure 14.
2) Calculate the min/max output voltage and compare with the given measured output in Table 6.
Please show your calculation.

EXPERIMENT 3: LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

LVDT AC OUTPUT

List of components/equipments:

5) 1 x TK2941A Instrumentation Module

6) 1 x TK294G Linear Variable Difference Transformer (LVDT) sub unit

7) 1 x TK294G Linear Transducer Test Rig

8) 1 x Power Supply +15vdc

9) 1 x 2 channel oscilloscope 15Mhz

10) 1 x DC voltmeter (or multimeter)

PART 1

3) Connect the circuit on Figure 15 (refer to Figure 16 for LVDT sub unit pin assignment)

4) Set the switch on the oscillator module to ‘C’ position and the frequency control to ‘max’. Set the
output amplitude control to ‘7’.

5) Connect the output of secondary coil 1 to channel 1 of the oscilloscope and primary coil to
channel 2 of the oscilloscope

6) Connect the oscillator module to the dc power supply unit

7) Power up the circuit.

8) Set the oscilloscope to a time base of 1μs/div and the vertical sensitivities to 2v/div
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V1
secondary
coil 1

oscillator Primary V2
module coil

secondary
coil 2

Figure 15: Schematic Diagram

secondary secondary
coil 2 Primary coil 1
coil

Figure 16: LVDT Sub Unit Pin Assignment

PART 2

1) Press the rod against the return spring slowly, moving the ferrite core through the body of the
transducer then releasing the rod slowly. Observe the secondary output waveform on the
oscilloscope.

2) Observe the phase change of 180º at the zero condition. Adjust the oscilloscope amplitude
control to obtain a larger display.

3) Reduce the oscilloscope time base setting to 100μs/div to make it easier to read the peak to peak
of the waveform.
 ELECTROMECHANICAL TRANSDUCER EEE430

4) Set the micrometer to the 0mm position. Lock the linear transducer test rig to the 55mm position
on the slider index scale.

5) Move the core through the coils in 1mm steps. Recorded output for each step is given in Table 7
in Results section until the final setting of 25mm on the micrometer.

6) Observe the 180º phase change and observe the position of the change that has been recorded
as negative reading.

7) Plot a voltage output graph against position for the whole range of movement.
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REPORT SECTION

Program: EE241 Sem : 3

Ownership : Centre for System Engineering Studies (CSES)
FKE Doc.ID : Date Issued 2020

STUDENT KIT
VIRTUAL LAB MODULETM
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY III
COURSE CODE: EEE430

I1: ELECTROMECHANICAL TRANSDUCER

NOTE: SUBMIT REPORT IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE LAB SESSION!

Prepared by : Student ID :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Group : Lab Date : Submission Date :

Lab Instructor :
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RESULTS:

EXPERIMENT 1: CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT

Procedures

1. Referring to the virtual experiment provided in Experimental Work section, VOUT (ac value) is given in
the Table 1.

Table 1

Capacitor Resistor (Ω)

VOUT (ac)
Cx Cs R1 R2
100 pF 100 pF 100 100 0.743
1k 1k 1.54
10k 10k 1.71
100k 100k 1.59
100 nF 100 nF 100 100 0.742
1k 1k 1.52
10k 10k 1.69
100k 100k 1.56
1 µF 1 µF 100 100 0.591
1k 1k 0.831
10k 10k 0.858
100k 100k 0.787

EXPERIMENT 2: POTENTIOMETER AS AN ADJUSTABLE VOLTAGE DIVIDER

Procedures

1. The respected values of resistors for the virtual experiment provided in Experimental Work section,
have been tabulated in Table 2, for both nominal and actual value. Use these values to answer the
following calculation and complete Table 3 until Table 6.

Part 1

VS = 5V

Table 2

Resistor Nominal value Actual measured

(calculate based value
on color bands)
R1 47 k 46.7 k
R2 6.8 k 6.7 k
R3 2.2 k 2.1 k
R4 1.0 k 0.9 k
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Table 3

Calc Measured Calc Measured Calc Measured Calc Measured

VA VB VB VC VC VD
VA VD
4.19 V 0.6051 V 0.1981 V 0.089 V

Calculation Step

Nominal values: R1 = 47 kΩ, R2 = 6.8 kΩ, R3 = 2.2 kΩ, R4 = 1.0 kΩ

For VA,

For VB,

For VC,

For VD,

PART 2

Measured potentiometer resistance = 49.9 Ω

Table 4

Minimum voltage Maximum Voltage

Calculated measured Calculated measured
0.0078 V 3.768 V

Vmin calculation,

Vmax calculation,

PART 3
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Measured potentiometer resistance = R2 = 54.1 Ω

Measured value of R1 = 2.2 kΩ
Measured value of R1 + R2 (max) =

Table 5

Minimum voltage Maximum Voltage

Calculated measured Calculated measured
0.0002 V 0.0023 V

Vmin calculation,

Vmax calculation,

PART 4

Measured potentiometer resistance = 49.9 Ω

R1 (measured) = 2.2 kΩ
R3 (measured) = 0.9 kΩ

Table 6

Minimum voltage Maximum Voltage

Calculated measured Calculated measured
1.8 mV 1.9 mV

Vmin Calculation,

Vmax Calculation,
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EXPERIMENT 3: LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

Procedures

1. The respected values of Output Voltage (pk-pk) for the virtual experiment provided in Experimental
Work section, have been tabulated in Table 7, from 1 mm until 25 mm.

LVDT AC OUTPUT

Table 7: Output Voltage Reading

Position Output Voltage (pk-pk) Position Output Voltage (pk-pk)

(mm) (mm)

0 3.6 13 -6.6
1 4.0 14 -8.4
2 4.4 15 -8.4
3 4.9 16 -7.7
4 5.4 17 -7.0
5 5.8 18 -6.5
6 6.3 19 -6.0
7 6.8 20 -5.5
8 7.4 21 -5.0
9 7.4 22 -4.6
10 6.4 23 -4.1
11 2.9 24 -3.8
12 -2.5 25 -3.6
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DISCUSSIONS:

EXPERIMENT 1: CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT

1. State your observations on the variation of the Vout (ac) in Table 1.

2. Please explain the need of turning off the function generator before changing the capacitance value
at the capacitance decade box.

3. From your observation, please identify the best impedance combination of Wheatstone Bridge and
explain why.

4. In practical aspect, suggest 3 other bridge methods to measure the value of unknown capacitor.
Please elaborate the suggestion in terms of diagrams and equations.

EXPERIMENT 2: POTENTIOMETER AS AN ADJUSTABLE VOLTAGE DIVIDER

1. Illustrate the graph that shows the relationship between resistance and voltage drop of the
potentiometer. What is the conclusion can be obtained from the graph?

2. If all the resistors in Figure 5 were 20 times larger in value, what would the voltage drops be? How
would their power dissipation be affected?

3. In practical devices, it is not possible to obtained exactly 0 V or exactly E volts at the extreme end
positions of potentiometer. Why?

4. Explain the operation of potentiometer as voltage divider in detail by explaining how the movement of
the wiper influences the resistance and voltage drop. Please include diagram if necessary. Conclude
the relationship between resistance and voltage drop at the potentiometer from the experiment.

EXPERIMENT 3: LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

1. What is the shape of your graph, especially over the central section?

2. Discuss the output obtained from the graph. State your observations on the variation of the Output
Voltage (pk-pk) from 1 mm until 25 mm in Table 7.

3. Draw in what you consider the best straight-line approximation to the central section which will most
likely pass through the zero-null point.

4. Measure the maximum distance of your curve from the straight line, in the vertical (output voltage)
direction. Express this as a percentage of the total output voltage range between the two peaks, x%
which is the linearity of the transducer.

5. Between which position is the output within this linearity figure? This represents the RANGE of the
transducer. Express this as a figure of +y mm about the null point.
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QUIZ:

Students are expected to answer all questions before concluding the virtual experiment and include in the
lab report.

EXPERIMENT 1: CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT

1. Can the capacitance in the Wheatstone Bridge be replaced by other components?

2. What is the purpose of using Wheatstone Bridge in this experiment?

3. State the balance equation for the unknown capacitor.

EXPERIMENT 2: POTENTIOMETER AS AN ADJUSTABLE VOLTAGE DIVIDER

1. According to Figure 2, what is the voltage range of Vbc?

2. Is the measured resistance between terminal a and c constant? If not, explain why.

3. What would the potentiometer be used for when only two leads/terminals are connected?

EXPERIMENT 3: LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

1. When does the phase shift in LVDT output signal occurs? What does this phase shift determine?

2. Would a dc voltage output be more convenient?

3. How can we take account of the change in phase as the output voltage passes through zero?

CONCLUSION:
Conclude in detail by analyzing the characteristic on capacitance, rotary and linear potentiometer and
LVDT. Your conclusion should answer the outcome of this experiment. You may suggest the way to
improve the experiment.

REFERENCES:

1) Synchro & AC Basic Assignments , Feedback Modular Servo System MS150 DC.
2) W. Bolton , Instrumentation and Control Systems, 2004, Newnes,
3) Theodore F. Bogart, Jr. Electric Circuits 2nd Edition, 1992, Glencoe.
4) Transducer Kit tk29942-001 (Electro Mechanical Transducers), Feedback
5) John P. Bently, Principle of Measurement Systems, 2005, Pearson Education Limited