Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Heat Stress Indices - A Review Paper
Heat Stress Indices - A Review Paper
Heat Stress Indices - A Review Paper
(Received January 18, 1987; accepted in revised form September 30, 1987)
ABSTRACT
This paper represents a review of the thermal example of calculations and procedures required to
indices commonly used for assessing heat stress determine the resulting values of each heat stress
conditions in an environment, e.g., Corrected Effec- index. Separate sections for Programmed Hand
tive Temperature, New Effective Temperature, Heat Held Calculators, the Mean Equivalence Lines and
Stress Index, Wet Bulb Globe Temperature and Wet the International Organization for Standardization
Globe Temperature. The advantages and disad- (ISO) standards are also provided in the paper.
vantages of the indices are included, as well as an
ever, each of the available heat indices has some globe temperature, so that the effective tempera-
advantages that make it more appropriate for use ture is corrected for the radiant heat effects.
in specific environmental conditions. The CET, therefore, combines the climatic fac-
Some of the available heat stress indices are tors: air temperature, humidity, air velocity, and
useful for occupational and field measurements, radiation into a single reading. In measuring the
while others are more accurate in predicting heat CET of an environment, globe temperature (Tg);
strain, and useful for research and laboratory wet bulb temperature (Twb) and air velocity (v)
studies. Heat stress indices also provide a neces- values are required. The CET of the environment
sary composite measure of the thermal environ- can be determined from a nomogram (Ellis et al.,
ment which is required when considering human 1972; Kerslake, 1972).
performance and worker safety (Hancock, 1987; The advantages of the CET are its ability to
Ramsey et al., 1983). The principal criteria for a integrate the main four climatic factors in a single
recommended standard heat stress index for in- reading (Goelzer, 1977); its simplicity and ease to
dustrial use have been established by the National use (WHO, 1969) and it is thought by some to be
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health a useful index for engineers (Fuller and Smith,
(NIOSH, 1972 and 1986). 1981). The disadvantages are its limited ability to
The purpose of this paper is to review the allow for the effects of clothing and metabolic
major heat stress indices reported in the literature. heat; different climates sharing the same CET
The advantages and disadvantages of each index value do not necessarily impose the same heat
have been summarized and a numerical example is strain particularly below 40% rh (Goelzer, 1977);
given to demonstrate the procedures and calcula- it underestimates the adverse effect of humidity
tions required to compute each of these indices. and low air movement especially when the en-
The Mean Equivalence Lines (MEL) (Wenzel, vironmental conditions approach the tolerance
1978), and the ISO standards for hot environ- limit (Ramanathan and Belding, 1973) and the
ments (ISO, 1983) are described in the paper. updating findings cannot be assimilated into the
scale to extend its scope or improve its accuracy
(WHO, 1969).
Bedford (1946) modified the effective tempera- Gagge (1937) defined the skin wettedness as the
ture scales (ET) developed by Houghten and fraction of the skin that is wet, and derived it from
Yaglou (1923) and called them the Corrected Ef- the skin evaporative loss (Esk) according to the
fective Temperature scales (CET). The ET scales following equation:
were based on equivalent subjective estimates of
Esk = h e w ( P~k - ~ ) (1)
thermal sensation of the thermal environment with
different combinations of air temperature, air where E~k = total skin evaporative loss (W/m2),
velocity, and humidity. All conditions having the h e = evaporative heat transfer coefficient ( W /
same thermal sensation were grouped together m 2°C), w = skin wettedness (no dimension), P~k
under the same "Effective Temperature" (ET) = saturated vapor pressure at T~k (mmHg), Pa =
which is the air temperature of a still saturated saturated vapor pressure at Ta (mmHg), T~k = skin
environment (i.e., zero air velocity and 100% rela- temperature ( o C), and Ta = air temperature ( o C).
tive humidity (rh)). Two ET scales were developed The skin wettedness (w) is calculated from the
by Houghten and Yaglou (1923): (1) the normal ratio between the total skin evaporative loss (E~k)
scale, which is applied for men wearing ordinary and the maximum evaporative loss from a fully
summer clothing, and (2) the basic scale, which is wetted skin surface (Emax) (i.e., w=Esk/Emax)
applied for men stripped to the waist. The modifi- (Gagge, 1937). When Esk is defined as the
cations of the ET scales as suggested by Bedford evaporative heat loss necessary for the regulation
(1946) were to replace the air temperature by the of body temperature (i.e., heat storage ( S ) = 0),
91
then skin wettedness w x 100 has been defined by of the net thermal effect of convection and radia-
Belding and Hatch (1955) as the Heat Stress Index tion. To is determined from the air and mean
(HSI) (see Heat Stress Index section below). The radiant heat temperatures according to the follow-
minimum value of w is 0.06 when there is skin ing equation (Gagge, 1981):
diffusion but no sweating, and the maximum value
of w is 1.0 when the skin is fully covered by sweat TO= ( h r T r + hcTa)/(h ~+ hc) (5)
(Gagge, 1981). It has been reported that the sweat- Tr = mean radiant temperature ( o C) (see Table 1).
ing efficiency is related to the skin wettedness Approximate values for w and h~ can be as-
level, and that the decline in intensity of sweating sumed, however, accurate determination of these
is linked to maximal inefficient sweat drippage variables requires the measurements of skin tem-
before the onset of hidromeiosis (Candas et al., perature (Tsk), clothing temperature (T~I), oxygen
1983). consumption (VO 2), and the subject's body weight
and height. It has been reported that ET* can be
applied in hyper and hypo environments (i.e., high
NEW EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE (ET*) altitudes and lower than sea level as in under-
ground mines, respectively) (Nishi and Gagge,
Gagge et al. (1971) developed the New Effec- 1977). The ET* scale is useful for comfort and
tive Temperature scale (ET*). The ET* is similar thermal sensation studies.
to the ET scale, but it uses as a reference an The advantages of ET* are: it is a good indica-
environment at 50% rh. The ET* is defined as the tor of physiological strain and warmth discomfort
dry bulb temperature at 50% rh in which the total (Gonzalez et al., 1978); it provides a theoretically
heat exchange from the skin surface would be the accurate estimate of human heat transfer (Gagge
same as in the actual environment (Gonzalez et et al., 1971), and it is more comparable to our own
al., 1978). Quantitatively, ET* is the solution (by every day experience than the ET scale (Gagge
iteration) of the following equation (Gagge and and Gonzalez, 1973). The disadvantages of the
Gonzalez, 1973): ET*, however, are: it is difficult to apply and
ET* + w[2.2hc/(h~+h~)](O.5P~T.-Pw) = To requires complicated instruments, measurements
and computations; it is not suitable for occupa-
(2)
tional studies; it assumes a normally clothed
where E T * = new effective temperature ( ° C ) ; w sedentary human subjects and its usefulness is
= skin wettedness (no dimension); h c = convective limited for exposure times shorter than an hour
heat transfer coefficient and is a function of air (Gagge et al., 1971).
velocity ( W / m 2°C). It may be evaluated by the
following equation (Nishi, 1977):
h~ = 8.6v °53 (3) HEAT STRESS INDEX (HSl)
h~ = linear r a d i a t i o n exchange coefficient
Belding and Hatch (1955) developed the Heat
( W / m 2° C). Its value is rather constant at normal
Stress Index (HSI) (initially called the Belding and
temperature range and is approximately 4.7
Hatch Index (BHI)). The HSI is calculated from
W / m 2 ° C (Nishi, 1977); P f f T * = saturation vapor
the equation:
pressure at ET* (mmHg). It can be determined
from a psychrometric chart or by Antoine's for- Heat Stress Index (HSI) =
mula (Nishi, 1977):
Required evaporative heat ( Ereq ) (6)
P~T* = exp[18.669 X 100
Maximum evaporative heat (Ema x )
- 4030.18/(ET* + 235)] mmHg (4)
where E r e q = evaporative heat loss required to
Pw = ambient vapor pressure at Ta (mmHg); and maintain the body in thermal equilibrium (i.e.,
To = operative temperature (°C). It is a single S = 0), and E m a x = maximum evaporative capacity
temperature figure that is physically representive of the climate.
92
TABLE 1
HSI equations and coefficients (adapted from Ramsey and Chat, 1983)
Coefficients ( K )
Shorts Standard Standard
clothing plus coat
R = K R (T r - 3 5 ) 12.8(11.0) 7.7 (6.6) 6.2 (5.3)
C = K c v0.6 ( T a - 3 5 ) 13.6 (11.7) 8.1 (7.0) 6.5 (5.6)
E ...... = K F t,0.6 ( 4 2 - P~) 27.1 (23.3) 16.3 (14.0) 13.0 (11.2)
rr = r~ +1.8,0s (Tg - r~l)
Ere q M + R + C
=
Where T~, = air temperature ( o C), Tg = Vernon globe temperature ( o C), Tr = mean radiant temperature which can be estimated from
Tg ( o C), t, = air velocity ( m / s ) , Pw = water vapor pressure of ambient air (mmHg), M = metabolic rate of body heat production (W
(kcal/h)), R = radiant heat exchange (W (kcal/h)), C = convective heat exchange (W (kcal/h)), Ere q = an expression of stress in
terms of requirement for evaporation of sweat (W (kcal/h)), and Em~,x = m a x i m u m evaporative heat loss which can be achieved at a
given P,, and r, (W (kcal/h)).
Table 1 (Witherspoon and Goldman, 1974; of 100 was proposed by Belding and Hatch (1955)
Ramsey and Chat, 1983) summarizes the equa- as the m a x i m u m that a healthy young adult male
tions and coefficients needed to calculate HSI. can tolerate for eight hour work shift, 70-90 indi-
The index (and coefficients in Table 1) assumes a cates very severe heat strain, 40-60 represents
standard man (i.e., 70 kg weight, 1.7 m height, and moderate to severe heat strain, and 10-30 repre-
1.8 m 2 body surface area), dressed in shorts and sents a mild to moderate heat strain.
gym shoes, experiencing a skin temperature of In addition to the analytical procedure (i.e.,
35 ° C (95 ° F), and uniformly wetted with sweat. If using the equations given in Table 1 to determine
the workers has a surface area (A) greatly differ- the HSI values, nomographs are also available as
ent from that of the standard man, the coefficients an aid to determine E r e q a n d E .... (McKarns and
in Table 1 can be corrected if multiplied by A/1.8. Brief, 1966). Based on the values of E r e q and
The coefficients for shorts and standard clothing E ..... the allowable exposure times (AET) in the
have been experimentally validated and the coeffi- hot environments for a 1 ° C ( 2 ° F ) rise in body
cients for standard clothing plus coat are an ex- temperature, and the minimum recovery times
trapolation of these values (Ramsey and Chat, (MRT) in a cooler rest location for restoration of
1983). Different authors, however, recommended normal body temperature were suggested by Mc-
slightly different values for these coefficients. Karns and Brief (1966). It was assumed that the
Some investigators (Vogt et al., 1982) con- average man can tolerate a I ° C body temperature
cluded that 3 6 ° C is a more accurate estimate of rise and that his temperature will rise I ° C for
mean skin temperature for use in heat transfer each 73.25 W gained. The following equations
equations, than the 35 ° C assumed by Belding and evaluate allowable exposure and minimum re-
Hatch (1955) for the HSI. K a m o n and Rayn (1981) covery times in minutes:
modified the HSI by assuming 36 ° C for the mean
skin temperature and called their index the Effec- A E T = (73.25 × 60)/(Ere q - Emax) (7)
tive Heat Strain Index (EHSI). M R T = (73.25 × 6 0 ) / ( E . . . . -- Ereq ) (8)
The maximum sweat production that can be
maintained by the average man through an eight The advantages of the .HSI are: it permits
hour period is assumed to be one liter per hour, estimation of tolerance time and required resting
which is equivalent to an evaporite heat loss of time (Goelzer, 1977); it is useful in designing and
about 698 W (600 kcal/h). Therefore, the value of evaluating the efficiency of environmental control
E m a x c a n n o t exceed this value of 698 W. An HSI systems (Goelzer, 1977); it can be continuously
93
improved in scope and accuracy as fresh informa- indoor, night or sunless day exposure, K equals 1
tion on heat exchange is acquired (WHO, 1969); it (Goelzer, 1977). W B G T can be measured either by
differentiates between thermal conditions in cor- the method recommended by N I O S H (1972) or by
rect order of physiological strain (Belding and using an integrated electronic instrument.
Hatch, 1955) and it has been used widely and
successfully as a tool for evaluating hot woi'k-en- 1. NIOSH Method
vironments (Ramsey and Beshir, 1987). The disad-
vantages are: it is difficult to apply to variable or N I O S H (1972) recommended the W B G T index
intermittent heat exposure (Goelzer, 1977); it is as the standard heat stress index for industrial use.
validated only on young acclimatized when This recommendation was based on the principal
(Goelzer, 1977); it involves difficult calculations criteria established by N I O S H (1972) for a recom-
and requires more instruments than several other mended standard heat stress index. N I O S H also
indices (Goelzer, 1977); it underestimates the ad- suggested the instruments and procedures for
verse effect of low wind speeds and hot humid measuring W B G T so that it could be used as the
environments (Ramanathan and Belding, 1973) parameter in determining the environmental con-
and it does not correctly differentiate between ditions for implementation of work practices. The
heat gained from work and that gained by convec- standard tree for measuring WBGT, as suggested
tion or radiation (Ramsey and Beshir, 1985). by NIOSH, consists of a tripod, a mercury-in-glass
thermometer to measure Tdh, a 15 cm (6 in.) globe
with mercury-in-glass thermometer placed in the
WET BULB GLOBE TEMPERATURE center of the globe to measure Tg and a mercury-
in-glass thermometer with its bulb covered by a
(WBGT)
clean wetted wick to measure Tnwb. The wick is
immersed in a 125 ml flask filled with distilled
Yaglou and Minard (1957) developed the Wet water.
Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index for use NIOSH selected values for K in eqn. (9) equal
in controlling heat casualties at military training to 1 and 2 / 3 for indoor and outdoor heat ex-
centers. It was not based on analysis of a new set posures, respectively. Consequently, N I O S H re-
of prime data but was, in fact, derived from and commended the following equations to calculate
as a means for estimating the Corrected Effective the WBGT:
Temperature (CET). For indoor exposure, or outdoor exposure with
The W B G T combines the effect of the four no solar load:
main climatic factors contributing to heat stress:
air temperature, humidity, air velocity and radia- W B G T = 0.7T, wb + 0.3Tg (10)
tion. Air temperature is measured directly by the
For outdoor sunlit exposure:
dry bulb temperature (Tab), while the combined
effect of humidity and air velocity is measured by W B G T = 0.7Tnwb + 0.2Tg + 0.1Tdb (11)
the natural wet bulb temperature (Tnwb) and radi-
ation is measured by the globe temperature (Tg). In continuous heat exposure, the time-weighted
The W B G T at one time was calculated according average W B G T values are calculated on an hourly
to the following equation (AIHA, 1975): basis, and in a two-hour basis in intermittent heat
exposure. The time-weighted average W B G T is
W B G T = 0.7Tnwb + 0 . 3 [ ( T g - TdblK + TdU] (91 determined by the equation (NIOSH, 1972):
Av. WBGT WBGTlXtl+WBGT2×t2+'"+WBGT"×tn
For outdoor exposures with solar load, the value tl + t2 + ... + t n
of K is related to the clothing or the type of skin, (12)
e.g., 0.75 for green or gray outer clothing, 0.65 for
military khaki uniform, and 0.45 for clean white where: W B G T D W B G T 2. . . . . WBGT. are calcu-
clothes. For seminude, K equals 0.82 for negroid, lated values of W B G T for various work or rest
0.78 for Hindu, and 0.60 for white skin. For areas occupied during the total time period; and
94
t 1, t 2. . . . . t, are the elapsed times in minutes spent 1975; ACGIH, 1987); the need for measuring each
in the corresponding areas which are determined climatic the need for measuring each climatic fac-
by a time study. tor separately (i.e., air temperature, humidity and
The WBGT index, its measuring techniques radiation) in order to determine the W B G T pro-
and calculation procedures as recommended by vides information which are useful for evaluating
NIOSH (1972), were later supported by the Oc- efficiency of environmental control systems if
cupational Safety and Health Administration coversion factors between wet-bulb and natural
(OSHA) advisory committee (Ramsey, 1975), and wet-bulb temperatures are used (Ramsey and Chai,
the American Conference of Governmental In- 1983); air velocity does not have to be measured
dustrial Hygienists (ACGIH, 1987). The original separately (Dukes-Dobos, 1976; Goelzer, 1977); it
NIOSH criteria document (1972) was revised to is a reliable indicator and has a reasonable degree
reflect acclimatized versus unacclimatized workers of precision (Ramsey, 1976); it is practical for
and exposure limits versus alert limits (NIOSH, industrial purposes (Astrand et al., 1975); it ap-
1986). Values for ceiling limits were given in the parently correlates well with the resulting physio-
revised criteria. Following these recommendations, logical reactions due to heat exposure (Ramsey,
many investigators have used the WBGT index for 1976; Onkaram et al., 1980); it has proved to be of
evaluating heat stress (Ramsey and Beshir, 1987). value in eliminating adverse effects of heat at
The WBGT has been applied for evaluating heat military training centers (Onkaram et al., 1980);
stress in many industrial plants, e.g., aluminum its applicability in industrial use has been proven
reduction plants (Horvath, 1976), steel plants (Horvath, 1976; Minard, 1976; Polhemus, 1976;
(Parker and Pierce, 1984; Minard, 1976), glass Rodgers, 1976) and the integrated electronic in-
container plants (Polhemus, 1976), and chemical struments have small size, require short stabiliza-
plants (Rodgers, 1976) as well as in underground tion time, and are simple to use (Kuehn and
mines (Ramsey et al., 1986). Recently, the WBGT MacHattie, 1975).
index has been adopted by the International The disadvantages of the WBGT are: the
Organization for Standardization (ISO, 1982) as WBGT estimate gets progressively poorer under
the international standard heat stress index. The low humidity conditions (Ramsey, 1976; Goelzer,
WBGT has been used for assessing the effects of 1977); the same W B G T value does not have con-
workplace thermal conditions on safe work behav- sistent physiological meaning independent of the
ior (Ramsey et al., 1983). climatic factors (Ramanathan and Belding, 1973;
AIHA, 1975; Goelzer, 1977); higher air tempera-
2. Integrated electronic instruments tures and work rates would exaggerate these in-
consistencies (Ramanathan and Belding, 1973); it
Integrated electronic instruments for measuring does not consider the metabolic workload (Ramsey
W B G T are also commercially available (e.g., and Beshir, 1985); the standard tree is bulky,
Reuter Stokes models RSS-211, 212, 213, 214 and awkward, and requires 20 min estabilization period
217, Yellow Springs Heat Stress Instrument, and (Astrand et al., 1975; Onkaram et al., 1980); the
Vista Scientific Corporation Heat Stress Monitor). integrated electronic instruments have high initial
Such instruments provide a direct or digital read- cost and sensitive to electronic failure (Ciriello
out of WBGT, and for some models individual and Snook, 1977; Beshir et al., 1982); the elec-
thermal measurements as Tdb, Twb, Tg and v can tronic circuit a n d / o r the plastic case of the in-
be obtained as well as an access to a self contained tegrated instrument may be damaged by the high
data logger for loading directly to a printer or a temperatures that would be experienced if the
computer. The stabilization time required for the instrument were left exposed for a long period
integrated electronic instruments is usually around (Parker and Pierce, 1984) and when NIOSH de-
5 rain since all the sensors are resistance ther- termined that the studies of Lind (1963) provided
mometers and the globe has a small diameter the best basis for establishing a heat standard, the
(about 4.2 cm) (Kuehn and MacHattie, 1975). environmental conditions were measured in Lind's
The advantages of WBGT are: it is simple to study by the ET scale and NIOSH declared ET to
measure and calculate heat stress (Astrand et al., be impractical and substituted W B G T for it,
95
//
W B G T = 1.1 W G T - ~ I ~ . / / & / ~
ature, humidity, air velocity, and radiation into a
single reading. The main concept considered in 40 W B G T = W G T + 3.0
developing this index was to design a simple de- O
human.
The Botsball (BB) consists of a dial thermome- 2O
at both high and low levels for either of these two which may be useful in further in-depth analysis
variables the well behaved relationship shown in (Ramsey and Beshir, 1987).
Fig. 1 may not be valid. For example, environ-
ments with moderate heat, high humidity and no
radiant heat, have WBGT and W G T values which PROGRAMMED HAND HELD CALCULA-
are almost equal (Ramsey, 1987). TORS
Recently, a NIOSH Workshop on Recom-
mended Heat Stress Standards (NIOSH, 1980) Programmed hand held calculators are increas-
concluded that "the primary heat stress index to ingly being used for evaluating occupational en-
be used for monitoring the industrial environment vironments. The heat stress indices utilizing such
should be the WGT, with the alternative of using calculators, are those which are well correlated to
the WBGT, the ET or equivalent". The W G T was human physiological responses but have com-
suggested as a basic index because of its simplicity plicated computations such as the New Effective
and ease of use in industry. The primary purpose Temperature (Nishi, 1977) and the Heat Stress
for using a single and simple index would be to Index (Kamon and Ryan, 1981). For example,
establish a point at which some other more de- instead of applying the tedious computations sug-
tailed observations must be made. gested by Gagge and Gonzalez (1973) to de-
The advantages of W G T are: the Botsball is a termine the value of ET*, the programmed hand
practical, rugged, simple and reliable device (Be- held calculator developed by Nishi (1977) to de-
shir et al., 1982); the instrument's small size pro- termine this value can be used. This calculator
vides for non-invasive placement near the worker performs those boring computations and needs as
and enhances accurate assessment of the environ- input data: Za, Twb (or rh), To, h~, h r, metabolic
ment (Beshir et al., 1982); the required stabiliza- rate, human mechanical efficiency, effective cloth-
tion time is relatively short (Ciriello and Snook, ing insulation and mean skin temperature.
1977; Beshir et al., 1982); it combines the effects Programmed calculators provide the user not
of the four main climatic factors into a single only with the heat stress level, but may also pro-
reading (Gershoni, 1979); it requires no calcula- vide work practice information such as the time
tions (Ramsey and Beshir, 1987); it is less expen- limits of exposure and the rest period required.
sive than the WBGT standard tree or the in- Computer programs have been also developed for
tegrated electronic instruments (Onkaram et al., determination of some heat stress indices (Gagge,
1980) and high correlations between W G T and 1973; Chai, 1981; Cvejanovich, 1983). The use of
other indices, especially WBGT, have been re- programmed hand held calculators and computers
ported (Ramanathan and Belding, 1973; Botsford, for assessment of occupational heat and thermal
1976; Beshir, 1981; Lee and Ramsey, 1987). indices is expected to be more widely practiced in
The disadvantages of W G T are: correlation the future.
between W G T and physiological responses to heat
exposures has not been fully established
(Ramanathan and Belding, 1973); although pre- MEAN EQUIVALENCE LINES (MEL)
dictive relationship between W G T and WBGT
have been developed (Beshir et al., 1982; Lee and Influencing factors of heat ~tress can be classi-
Ramsey, 1987), some combinations of environ- fied as climatic variables and non-climatic varia-
ment can result in large errors (Ciriello and Snook, bles. Climatic variables consist of: air tempera-
1977); when the wick is dry, erroneous measure- ture, air velocity, humidity and radiant heat while
ments will be obtained (Beshir et al., 1982); lack non-climatic variables include: activity level (i.e.,
of positive adjustment for flow rate and wick heat production in the body) and thermal resis-
wettedness (Beshir et al., 1982); the small size of tance of the clothing. In order to assess the heat
the globe resulted in a much higher sensitivity to stress effects, it is necessary to know how far the
air velocity than man exhibits (Hatch, 1973) and various influencing factors compensate each other,
only an integrated measure of the environment is or in other words, what combinations of the varia-
obtainable, rather than individual climatic factors bles produce equal effect.
97
tions of all the climatic and non-climatic variables required skin wettedness (dimensionless), w lim =
mentioned above, to drive those combinations skin wettedness compatible with a steady state of
which produce equal effects on various physio- b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e s (dimensionless), SWp =
logical reactions and to check the statements of all predicted sweat rate ( W m - 2 ) , and Dmax =
the indices in use. The author developed the Mean m a x i m u m acceptable dehydration (Win-2).
Equivalence Lines (MEL) which are represented Equations for calculating the above mentioned
in psychrometric charts and describe combina- variables are included. N o time limits have been
tions of climatic and non-climatic conditions in suggested for the work shift, if the three condi-
which equal heart rates as well as equal rectal and tions are satisfied. In this case SWp can be used as
skin temperatures would be reached. a comparison index for the equivalence of heat
Wenzel (1978) reported that the combinations stress conditions.
of ambient temperatures and humidities that were ISO (1983) emphasizes that it is necessary to
found to be equivalent under the given conditions calculate an allowable exposure time (DLE), if
of physical activity corresponded particularly well one or other of these three conditions is not
with the Index of Physiological Effect (Robinson satisfied. The D L E can be determined from the
et al., 1945). There was also good agreement with m a x i m u m heat storage (Qmax) compatible on the
the Predictive 4 hour Sweat Rate index (McArdle one side with the normal execution of a task and
et al., 1947). The combinations corresponded with on the other with the absence of pathological
other indices (i.e., HSI, ET and WBGT) only effects. The raising of the deep body temperature
within limited ranges of climate depending upon corresponding to this m a x i m u m heat storage is
work level. taken to be between 0.8 and 1°C.
If the required evaporation rate is not achieva-
ble
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR
D L E 1 = 60Q ..... / ( Ereq - - Ep) (17)
STANDARDIZATION (ISO) STANDARDS
If the required skin wettedness is excessive and
The ISO has recently issued a standard for hot incompatible with a stable regime of body temper-
environments. ISO (1982) specifies the required atures
measurements and procedures for the estimation
of the heat stress on working man, based on the DLE 2 = 60Qrnax//(Wreq - Wlim) (18)
W B G T index.
If the required sweat rate involves an exag-
The ISO has also proposed a method of ana-
gerated dehydration
lytical evaluation and interpretation of the ther-
mal stress experienced by a subject in a hot en- D E E 3 = 60Oma,,/SWp (19)
vironment (ISO, 1983). The method is based on
the comparison between the required skin wetted- The allowable exposure time (DLE) which is to
ness and the required sweat rate as a result of the be taken into consideration in the limiting dura-
working conditions, and the skin wettedness and tion of work, is the shortest DLE, i.e., the mini-
sweat rate which it is physiologically possible to m u m value of D L E 1, D L E 2 and D L E 3. When
achieve. D L E 1 or D L E 2 are the determining factors, it is
ISO (1983) recommends that ambient condi- advised to allow the worker a rest period sufficient
tions acceptable for an 8 hour should satisfy the to bring about a return to normal body tempera-
following conditions: ture before being exposed again to a hot environ-
ment. When D L E 3 is the determining factor, no
Ep = Ere q (14)
further exposure should be allowed during the
Wreq < Wlim (15) day.
This proposed standard provides a programme
SWp < Omax/8 (16)
in BASIC which allows the calculation of the
98
required sweat rate and of the D L E for all situa- 2. Skin wettedness (w)
tions where the following parameters are known:
the metabolic heat production, the thermal insula- The skin wettedness can be determined from
tion of the clothing and climatic parameters. the relation:
The method of analytical estimation and inter-
w = HSI/100
pretation of thermal stress (ISO, 1983) allows a
more precise approach than the method based on = 199.5/100
the W B G T (ISO, 1982) as well as a more rational = 1.995
choice of means of protection. However, at the (see section 4 below for the calculation of HSI)
present state of techniques of measurement and Since w cannot exceed 1, therefore the value of
calculation, its application takes longer and is the skin wettedness in this example is 1. This
more difficult. The ISO (1983) procedures can be means that the worker's b o d y was fully covered by
used either when an in-depth analysis of hot work- sweat.
ing conditions is needed, or as a complement of
the ISO (1982) standard when its reference values 3. New effective temperature ( E T * )
are exceeded.
In this example, the value of E T * is determined
by the iteration procedure (Gagge and Gozalez,
A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 1973) to demonstrate the complexity of the com-
putations. However, it is agreed that the computa-
The following example reviews the procedures tions would not be so hard, if they were per-
and calculations required to determine the values formed on a p r o g r a m m e d hand held calculator
of the heat stress indices discussed in this paper. (Nishi, 1977).
The climatic factors of an indoor industrial The new effective temperature can be obtained
workplace were measured with the appropriate by solving eqn. (2) (by iteration).
instruments as follows:
E T * + w [ 2 . 2 h c / ( h c + hr) ] (0.5P~T. -- Pw) = To
Air temperature (Ta) = 36 ° C
Natural wet bulb temperature (Tnwb) = 30 ° C hc = 8.6v °53
Psychrometric wet bulb temperature (Twb)=
= 8.6(0.5) 0.53 --- 5 . 9 5 6 W / m 2 o C
29°C
Globe temperature (T~) = 40 ° C Assuming h r = 4 . 7 W / m 2 ° C , then the oper-
Air velocity (v) = 0.5 m / s ative temperature (To) can be determined from
Botsball reading ( W G T ) = 29.5 o C eqn. (5):
The worker was wearing a normal summer
To=(hrTr+hcTa)/(hr+hc)
clothing (i.e., clo = 0.6), and performing a m o d -
erate workload task and his metabolic energy was = (4.7 × 45.09 + 5.956 X 3 6 ) / ( 4 . 7 + 5.956)
250 W. = 40°C
(see section 4 below for the calculation of T~)
1. Corrected Effective Temperature (CET) The term w
[ 2 . 2 h c / ( h c + h r ) ] = 112.2 X 5 . 9 5 6 / ( 4 . 7 + 5.956)]
The corrected effective temperature value can
be determined from a n o m o g r a m (Ellis et al., = 1.23
1972; Kerslake, 1972) by applying Tg = 40, Twb = Knowing T~=36°C and T w b = 2 9 ° C , then
29 and v = 0.5: from a psychrometric chart, the value of Pw is
equal to 26.5 m m H g . F r o m the above c o m p u t e d
C E T = 31.6 ° C
values, eqns. (2) and (4) become:
If the effective temperature value is required,
use Ta instead of Tg: E T * + 1.23(0.5P~T. -- 26.5) = 40
recommended by NIOSH. In: S.M. Horvath and R.C. Kamon, E. and Ryan, C., 1981. Effective heat strain index
Jensen (Eds.), Standards for Occupational Exposure to Hot using pocket computer. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 42:
Environments. Proc. Symposium. H E W Publication No. 611-615.
(NIOSH) 76-100, pp. 27-42. Kerslake, D. McK., 1972. The Stress of Hot Environments.
Ellis, F.P., Smith, F.E. and Waiters, J.D., 1972. Measurements Cambridge University Press, London, England.
of environmental warmth in SI units. Br. J. Ind. Med., 29: Kuehn, L.A. and MacHattie, L.E., 1975. A fast responding and
361-377. direct-reading W B G T index meter. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc.
Fuller, F.H. and Smith, Jr., P.E., 1981. Evaluation of heat J., 36: 325-332.
stress in a hot workshop by physiological measurements. Kuhlemeier, K.V. and Wood, T.B., 1979. Laboratory evalua-
Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 42: 32-37. tion of permissible exposure limits for men in hot environ-
Gagge, A.P., 1937. A new physiological variable associated ments. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 40: 1097-1103.
with sensible and insensible perspiration. Amer. J. Physiol., Lee, C.H. and Ramsey, J.D., 1987. Relationships between
120: 277-287. W B G T and W G T under varying thermal components. In:
Gagge, A.P., 1973. A two-node model of h u m a n temperature S.S. Asfour (Ed.), Trends in E r g o n o m i c s / H u m a n Factors
regulation in Fortran. In: J.F. Parker, Jr. and V.R. West IV. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 359-365.
(Eds.), Bioastronautics Data Book. National Aeronautics Lind, A.R., 1963. A physiological criterion for setting thermal
and Space Administration, Washington, DC, pp. 142-148. environmental limits for everyday work. J. Appl. Physiol.,
Gagge, A.P., 1981. Rational temperature indices of thermal 18: 51-56.
comfort. In: K. Cena and J.A. Clark (Eds.), Bioengineering, McArdle et al., 1947.
Thermal Physiology and Comfort. Elsevier, Amsterdam, McKarns, J.S. and Brief, R.S., 1966. Nomographs give refined
Chap. 5, pp. 79-98. estimate of heat stress index. H e a t . / P i p . / A i r Cond., 38:
Gagge, A.P. and Gonzalez, R.R., 1973. Physiological bases of 113-116.
warm discomfort for sedentary man. Arch. Sci. Physiol., 27: Minard, D., 1976. Physiological strain in steel workers in
A409-A424. relation to a proposed standard for occupational heat ex-
Gagge, A.P., Stolwijk, J.A.J. and Nishi, Y., 1971. An effective posure. In: S.M. Horvath and R.C. Jensen (Eds.), Stan-
temperature scale based on a simple model of h u m a n dards for Occupational Exposure to Hot Environments.
physiological regulatory response. A S H R A E Trans., 77: Proc. Symposium. H E W Publication No. (NIOSH) 76-100,
247-262. pp. 109-115.
Gershoni, H., 1979. Allowances for heat stress. Ind. Eng., 20: Mutchler, J.E. and Vecchio, J.L., 1977. Empirical relationships
20-24. a m o n g heat stress indices in 14 hot industries. Amer. Ind.
Goelzer, B., 1977. Evaluation of heat stress in the work en- Hyg. Assoc. J., 38: 253-263.
vironment. World Health Organization (WHO), O C H / 7 7 . 1 . NIOSH, 1972. Criteria for a recommended s t a n d a r d - - o c c u p a -
Goldman, R.F., 1981. Personal communication. tional exposure to hot environments. National Institute for
Gonzalez, R.R., Berglund, L.G. and Gagge, A.P., 1978. Indices Occupational Safety and Health, HSM 72-10629, Washing-
of thermoregnlatory strain for moderate exercise in the ton, DC, Government Printing Office.
heat. J. Appl. Physiol., 44: 889-899. NIOSH, 1980. Proc. of a N I O S H Workshop on Recommended
Hancock, P.A., 1987. Performance criteria as exposure limits in Heat Stress Standards, edited by F.N. Dukes-Dobos and A.
h e a t stress. In: S.S. A s f o u r (Ed.), T r e n d s in Henschel. National Institute for Occupational Safety and
E r g o n o m i c s / H u m a n Factors IV. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Health, D H H S (NIOSH) Publication No. 81-108.
Netherlands, pp. 333-340. NIOSH, 1986. Criteria for a recommended s t a n d a r d - - o c c u p a -
Hatch, T.F., 1973. Design requirements and limitations of a tional exposure to hot environments. Revised criteria 1986.
single reading heat stress meter. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
34: 66-72. D H H S (NIOSH) Publication No. 86-113.
Horvath, S.M., 1976. Heat stress in aluminum reduction plants. Nishi, Y., 1977. Field assessment of thermal characteristics of
In: S.M. Horvath and R.C. Jensen (Eds.), Standards for m a n and his environment by using a programmable calcu-
Occupational Exposure to Hot Environments. Proc. Sym- lator. A S H R A E Trans., 83(I): 103-124.
posium. H E W Publication No. (NIOSH) 76-100, pp. 91-99. Nishi, Y. and Gagge, A.P., 1977. Effective temperature scale
Houghten, F.C. and Yaglou, C.P., 1923. Determining lines of useful for hypo- and hyperbaric environments. Aviat.
equal comfort. J. Amer. Soc. Heat Vent. Eng., 29: 163-176. Space Environ. Med., 48: 97-107.
ISO, 1982. Hot environments-estimation of the heat stress on Onkaram, B., Stroschein, L.A. and Goldman, R.F., 1980. Three
working man, based on the W B G T index (wet bulb globe instruments for assessment of W B G T and a comparison
temperature). International Organization for Standardiza- with W G T (Botsball). Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 41:
tion, I S O / T C 159, ISO-DIS 7243, Geneva. 634-641.
ISO, 1983. W a r m environments--analytical determination and Parker, R.D.R. and Pierce, F.D., 1984. Comparison of heat
interpretation of thermal stress using calculation of re- stress measuring techniques in a steel mill. Amer. Ind. Hyg.
quired sweat rates. International Organization for Stan- Assoc. J., 45: 405-415.
dardization, I S O / O P 7933 Draft Standard, Geneva. Peterson, J.E., 1970. Experimental evaluation of heat stress
Jensen, R.C. and Heins, D.A., 1976. Relationship between indices. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 31: 305-317.
several prominent heat stress indices. D H E W (NIOSH) Polhemus, J., 1976. Heat stress experience in glass container
Publication No. 77-109. plant. In: S.M. Horvath and R.C. Jensen (Eds.), Standards
102
for Occupational Exposure to Hot Environments. Proc. Ramsey, J.D. and Chai, C.P., 1983. Inherent variability in
Symposium. H E W Publication No. (NIOSH) 76-100, pp. heat-stress decision rules. Ergonomics, 26: 495-504.
133-153. Robinson, S., Turrell, E.S. and Glrking, S.D., 1945. Physiologi-
Pulket, C., Henschel, A., Burg, W.R. and Saltzman, B.E., 1980. cally equivalent conditions of air temperature and humid-
A comparison of heat stress indices in a hot humid environ- ity. Amer. J. Physiol., 143: 21-32.
ment. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 41: 442-449. Rodgers, S.H., 1976. Data on industrial experience related to a
Ramanathan, N.L. and Belding, H.S., 1973. Physiological heat standard: Chemicals. In: S.M. Horvath and R.C.
evaluation the W B G T index for occupational heat stress. Jensen (Eds.), Standards for Occupational Exposure to Hot
Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 34: 375-383. Environments. Proc. Symposium. HEW Publication No.
Ramsey, J.D., 1975. Heat stress standard: OSHA's Advisory (NIOSH) 76-100, pp. 155-160.
Committee recommendations. Nat. Saf. News, 6: 89-95. Sundin, D., Dukes-Dobos, F.N., Jensen, R.C. and Humphreys,
Ramsey, J.D., 1976. Reliability and comparability of heat C., 1972. Comparison of the A C G I H TLV for heat stress
exposure indices. In: Proc. 1976 Annual Reliability and with other heat stress indices. American Industrial Hygiene
Maintainability Symposium, pp. 1-3. Association Conference, San Francisco, CA.
Ramsey, J.D., 1987. Practical evaluation of hot working areas. Vogt, J.J., Candas, V. and Libert, J.P., 1982. Graphical de-
Prof. Saf., 42-48. termination of heat tolerance limits. Ergonomics, 25:
Ramsey, J.D. and Beshir, M.Y., 1985. Comparison of indices 285-294.
for assessing heat stress. In: I.D. Brown, R. Goldsmith, K. Wenzel, H.G., 1978. Heat stress upon undressed m a n due to
Coombes and M.A. Sinclair (Eds.), Proc. 9th Congress of different combinations of elevated environmental tempera-
the International Ergonomics Association, Bournemouth, ture, air humidity, and metabolic heat production: A criti-
England, pp. 577-579. cal comparison of heat stress indices. J. Hum. Ergon., 7:
Ramsey, J.D. and Beshir, M.Y., 1987. Thermal standards and 185-206.
measurement techniques. In: P.G. Rentos (Ed.), The In- WHO, 1969. Health factors involved in working under condi-
dustrial Environment, Its Evaluation and Control, 4th edn. tions of heat stress. World Health Organization, Tech. Rep.
NIOSH. Ser. 412, Geneva.
Ramsey, J.D., Beshir, M.Y. and Burford, C.L., 1982. Using the Witherspoon, J.M. and Goldman, R.F., 1974. Indices for ther-
Botsball to measure occupational heat. American Industrial mal stress. A S H R A E Bull., No. LO-73-8: 5-13.
Hygiene Association Conference, Cincinnati, OH. Wyndham, C.H. and Heyns, A.J., 1973. The accuracy of the
Ramsey, J.D., Burford, C.L., Beshir, M.Y. and Jensen, R.C., prediction of h u m a n strain from heat stress indices. Arch.
1983. Effects of workplace thermal conditions on safe work Sci. Physiol., 27: A295-A301.
behavior. J. Saf. Res., 14: 105-114. Yaglou, C.P. and Minard, D., 1957. Control of heat stress
Ramsey, J.D., Burford, C.L., Dukes-Dobos, F.N., Tayyari, F. casualities at military training centers. Arch. Ind. Health,
and Lee, C.H., 1986. Thermal environment of an under- 16: 302-316.
ground mine and its effect upon miners. Proc. International
Conference on the Health of Mines, Pittsburgh, PA. In
press.