An Introduction to Quantum

Computing: From Basic

Concepts to Hardware

Shuntaro Takeda
1TheUniversity of Tokyo
2JST PRESTO

@shuntaro_takeda
 Self-introduction
- Department of Applied Physics, The Univ. of Tokyo
- Research on optical quantum information processing
Oct. 1st, 2019
Became Associate Professor
and started my own group!

Professor
A. Furusawa
Project Lecturer
S. Takeda

~20 people in total

 An Introduction to Quantum
Computing: From Basic
Concepts to Hardware

1. Introduction
2. Basic principles of quantum computing
3. Quantum algorithms
4. Hardware implementations
 What is a quantum computer?
Quantum computers are quantum mechanical
devices that enable us to perform certain
computational tasks more efficiently than what
is possible on classical (existing) computers.

Applications:
Simulation of Optimization Machine learning
quantum systems
 QC is now an exceptionally hot topic!
IBM’s commercial QCs
Japan started a big project

Heavy investment in USA/Europe/China

Much attention
from industry
 History of quantum computing
D. Deutsch
1980’s Proposal of quantum computing
・Formalization of QC (Deutsch, 1985)
1990’s Quantum algorithm discovered
・Integer factorization（Shor, 1994） R. Feynman
・Quantum error correction（Shor,1995）
・Database search（Grover, 1996）
2000’s Development of basic technologies
・Basic experiments with spins, ions, photons, etc.
2010’s Companies join quantum computer race

・Small-scale QCs with tens of qubits have emerged

There’s still a long way to go to build a practical QC
 An Introduction to Quantum
Computing: From Basic
Concepts to Hardware

1. Introduction
2. Basic principles of quantum computing
3. Quantum algorithms
4. Hardware implementations
 Double-slit experiment
Classical mechanics
“Left” or “Right” Wall

Two slits

Quantum mechanics Measurement

Superposition
Left  Right
Interference
Electron, atom, Introduce these principles
photon, etc. into computing!
 Principle of quantum computing
Classical computer’s information unit
Bit

0 or 1
z
Quantum computer’s information unit 0

Qubit  y
Superposition
  
01 c0 0  c1 1  cos i
0  e sin 1

Real
　c
0
2

 c1  1　
2 2 2
“Bloch sphere”
x
1
 Principle of quantum computing
Classical computer’s information unit
Bit

0 or 1
Quantum computer’s information unit
Qubit Measure
Superposition
0 P0  c0
2

01 c 0  c 1
　c  c  1　
0 1

1 P1  c1
2
2 2
0 1
 Principle of quantum computing
Classical computer’s information unit
Two bits

or or or
n bits can be only one of 2n states
Quantum computer’s information unit
Two qubits Superposition
c00 00  c01 01  c10 10  c11 11
01 01 　c
00
2 2 2 2

 c01  c10  c11  1　

n qubits can be any superposition of 2n states

 Principle of quantum computing
Classical computer’s logic gates
1-bit NOT 2-bit AND
1
1
0 1
0 1
1
otherwise 0
Quantum computer’s logic gates
1-qubit rotation

01 　R̂ 01
c0 0  c1 1 c0 0  c1 1
 Principle of quantum computing
Classical computer’s logic gates
1-bit NOT 2-bit AND
1
1
0 1
0 1
1
otherwise 0
Quantum computer’s logic gates
1-qubit rotation 2-qubit Controlled-NOT

　R̂
 Principle of quantum computing
Classical computer’s logic gates
1-bit NOT 2-bit AND
1
1
0 0c00 00  c01 01  c10 10  c11 11
1 1
1
 c00 00  c01 01  c10 11  c11 10
otherwise 0
Quantum computer’s logic gates
1-qubit rotation 2-qubit Controlled-NOT
00
11 00
11
　R̂ 01
01 01
01
 Principle of quantum computing
Classical computer’s calculation
0 AND
1 Perform only
1
NOT one calculation
1 0 at a time
0 0000  c0001 0001    c1111 1111 0
c0000

Quantum computer’s calculation

01 C-NOT 01
01 01 Perform multiple
　R̂ calculations
01 　R̂ 01 in parallel
01 　R̂ 　R̂ Rotation 01
 Principle of quantum computing
Classical computer’s calculation
0 AND
1 Perform only
1
NOT one calculation
1 0 at a time
0 0000  c0001 0001    c1111 1111 0
c0000

Quantum computer’s calculation

01 Meas.
Only one
01 　R̂ algorithm Meas.
Quantum outcome can
01 needed 　R̂ Meas. be read out
01 　R̂ 　R̂ Meas.
 An Introduction to Quantum
Computing: From Basic
Concepts to Hardware

1. Introduction
2. Basic principles of quantum computing
3. Quantum algorithms
4. Hardware implementations
 Quantum algorithm
- Quantum computers are only better than
classical computers at specific computational tasks

VS

- What problems will we use quantum computers to

solve? What algorithms will solve them?

・Database search
Examples ・Integer factorization
・Quantum simulation
 Database search
Grover’s algorithm (Grover, 1996)
- Searching through a database for a specific item
- Quadratic speedup over classical algorithm
- Application: optimization, NP-complete problems, etc.

Number of operations
Database
Yamada 2359
Suzuki 8723
N Hayashi 3850
Sato 1123
Tanaka 5678
Search space size N
https://slideplayer.com/slide/3169508/
 Database search
Classical algorithm
- Sequentially try all N possibilities
- Average search takes N/2 steps
Enter PIN Correct!
1234 or
×N/2 Wrong!
Grover’s algorithm
- Simultaneously try all possibilities
- Average search takes N1/2 steps
Superposition
Quantum
0 0 0 0 Enter PIN
00 00 00 12 Correct PIN
2591
9999 ×N1/2
 Database search
Grover’s algorithm’s circuit (3-qubit case)
1. Equal superposition of all states
2. Selectively invert the solution state
3. Invert all states about the mean

01
01 Inter-
ference
01

Amplitude
mean
c000 000  c001 001    c111 111 0
 Database search
Grover’s algorithm’s circuit (3-qubit case)
1. Equal superposition of all states
2. Selectively invert the solution state Repeat
~N1/2
3. Invert all states about the mean times
01
Inter- Inter-
01 ference
ference
01

Amplitude

c000 000  c001 001    c111 111 0

 Database search
Grover’s algorithm’s circuit (3-qubit case)
1. Equal superposition of all states
2. Selectively invert the solution state Repeat
~N1/2
3. Invert all states about the mean times
01 Meas. 1
Inter- Inter-
01 ference
Meas. 0
ference
01 Meas. 1

Amplitude

c000 000  c001 001    c111 111 0

 Database search
Grover’s algorithm’s circuit (3-qubit case)
1. Equal superposition of all states
2. Selectively invert the solution state Repeat
~N1/2
3. Invert all states about the mean times
01 Meas. 1
Inter- Inter-
01 ference
Meas. 0
ference
01 Meas. 1

Simultaneously investigate all patterns by superposition

Increase the amplitude of the solution by interference

Quadratic speedup!
 Quantum algorithm
- Quantum computers are only better than
classical computers at specific computational tasks

VS

- What problems will we use quantum computers to

solve? What algorithms will solve them?

・Database search
Examples ・Integer factorization
・Quantum simulation
 Integer factorization
Shor’s Factoring algorithm（Shor, 1994）
- Factoring integers efficiently (e.g. 191207=367×521)
- Exponential speedup over classical algorithm
- Application: breaking RSA encryption
Number of operations

exp(const×d1/3)
1030
Best classical
1020 algorithm
speedup
1010
const×d3
Shor’s algorithm
100
0 50 100 150 200 250
Number of digits d
https://github.com/mett29/Shor-s-Algorithm
 Quantum simulation
Quantum simulation
- Classical simulation of quantum systems
(such as molecules) is hard
R. Feynman “Nature isn't classical, dammit, and if you
want to make a simulation of nature, you'd
better make it quantum mechanical, and by
golly it's a wonderful problem, because it
doesn't look so easy.” (1982)
Shown to be correct! Science 273, 1073 (1996)

- QCs can simulate dynamics or find ground states of

a Hamiltonian Science 309, 5741 (2005)
- Application: material & chemical engineering
 Quantum algorithm
- Quantum computers are only better than
classical computers at specific computational tasks

VS

- What problems will we use quantum computers to

solve? What algorithms will solve them?

・Database search
Examples ・Integer factorization
・Quantum simulation
 Quantum algorithm

About 60 kinds of quantum algorithms

 An Introduction to Quantum
Computing: From Basic
Concepts to Hardware

1. Introduction
2. Basic principles of quantum computing
3. Quantum algorithms
4. Hardware implementations
 Hardware of classical computer
0
1
1
1 0
0 0

Bit Logic gates

Voltage
Control of
voltages by
Vth transistors

Time
 Hardware of quantum computer
01 Meas.
01 　R̂ Meas.
01 　R̂ Meas.
01 　R̂ 　R̂ Meas.

Qubit Quantum logic gates

Any system that obeys Control of quantum states
quantum mechanics of the system

electron
atom photon
 Hardware of quantum computer
01 c0000 0000  c0001 0001 Meas.
   c1111 1111
01 　R̂Small change =Meas.
error
01 　R̂
Error is accumulated Meas.
01 　R̂ 　R̂ Meas.

Qubit Quantum logic gates

Any system that obeys Control of quantum states
quantum mechanics of the system

electron
atom photon
 Hardware of quantum computer

Building a quantum computer is super difficult!

Qubit Quantum logic gates

Any system that obeys Control of quantum states
quantum mechanics of the system

electron
atom photon
 Hardware of quantum computer
Various systems to build a quantum computer
- Superconducting circuits Tens of qubits
- Trapped ions >99% gate accuracy
- Semiconductor quantum dots A few qubits
- Photonics Low gate accuracy
- Neutral atoms
- Diamond vacancies
- Topological qubits
・・・

All approaches have pros & cons!

 Superconducting circuits

Refrigerator

Superconducting
chip (10~20mK)
 Superconducting circuits
Qubit Device

0 1 Electric
wiring

qubit
Josephson
Electrodes junction
Superconducting chip

High gate accuracy>99%

Scalable fabrication
×Short lifetime of qubits
×Requires cryogenic temperature etc.
 Trapped ions
Qubit Device
0 Vacuum
chamber

1
Ion

Ions
Electrodes
High gate accuracy>99%
Long lifetime of qubits
×Low gate speed
×Requires vacuum
 Semiconductor quantum dots
Qubit Device
Electrodes
0 1

spin

electron 2DEG
Electrons

Small footprint
×Gate accuracy is still low
×Requires cryogenic temperature
 Photonics
Qubit Device
crystal Photon
0 1
Optical
V-pol H-pol circuit

Photon

Room temperature/ in Air

High gate speed
×Probabilistic operation
×Gate accuracy is still low My tomorrow’s talk!
 Roadmap to practical QC
Current state-of-the-art
10%
Improve quantity & quality
Gate error

1%
Introduce error correction
0.1% Factoring/Database search
0.01% Practical
0.001%
QC
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Number of qubits
NISQ=Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum computer
Recent trend: Developing useful algorithms that run
on NISQ computers (without error correction)
 An Introduction to Quantum
Computing: From Basic
Concepts to Hardware

1. Introduction
2. Basic principles of quantum computing
3. Quantum algorithms
4. Hardware implementations
 Summary of quantum computing
Basic principles Algorithm
Qubit & quantum logic gates ・Database search
& measurement ・Integer factorization
・Quantum simulation
etc.

Hardware
- All approaches have pros & cons
- There’s still a long way to go to build a practical QC