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Biology for Technology Hierarchy of life

Atom

Biomolecules: The chemical

building blocks of life

Dr. Dhanushka Udayanga

Department of Biosystems Technology
Faculty of Technology

Where we can find biomolecules?

Learning outcomes Ex. Yeast cells

Structure & function of biomolecules in biological systems.

Understand the chemical composition of living systems
Recognize the technological applications of biomolecules

Eduard Buchner’s Experiment (1860-1917)

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The nature of the polymer is determined by monomers

used to build the polymer.
Polymer Monomer

Starch Ring Shaped

Sugars
DNA & RNA Nucleotides

Proteins Amino acids

Lipids are macromolecules, but they really don’t follow the

Cell free fermentation
monomer-polymer relationship.

Yeast extract

Biological Macromolecules  These long chains are built via chemical reactions termed
dehydration reactions are and broken down by hydrolysis
reactions.
4 Major types
• 1.Carbohydrates (Sugars)
• 2.Proteins
• 3.Lipids (Fats)
• 4.Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA)

In many cases macromolecules are polymers.

Polymer is a long molecule built by linking together

a large number of small, similar chemical subunits
called monomers.

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 Dehydration and hydrolysis are the basis of

making and breaking macromolecules

Biological Macromolecules

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 Functional groups accounts for differences in molecules

 Carbon is the framework of biomolecules.

Biomolecules predominantly contain C atoms.

C can be bonded to other atoms including O, N, S,P and H.
C can form 4 covalent bonds.

Organic/biomolecules having same molecular formula can exist

in different forms called Isomers

Differ in their Differ in how groups

actual structure attached to the same
skeleton arranged in space

 Carbon can form chains, branches, rings, balls, tubes

and coils

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 When polarized light is passed through a solution that

Enantiomers contains an achiral compound, there is no net rotation
of the plane of polarization of the light.
A subcategory of stereoisomers, which are actually mirror
images of each other.

http://webmis.highland.cc.il.us/~jsullivan/prin
ciples-of-general-chemistry-v1.0/s28-02-
isomers-of-organic-compounds.html

 when polarized light is passed through a solution

that contains one enantiomer of a chiral
compound, the monochromatic light is rotated.

 The molecules that has mirror image forms called chiral

molecules

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d and l forms of molecules
In contrast, when polarized light is passed through a
solution that contains one enantiomer of a chiral
compound, the light is rotated either clockwise
[dextrorotatory, (+) enantiomer] or counterclockwise
[levorotatory, (−) enan omer].
 The angle that depends on the molecular structure and
concentration of the compound, the path length, and the
wavelength of the light.
Carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates are an essential components of foods
Simple Carbohydrates : Sugars are found in a variety of natural food
sources including fast foods, fruit, vegetables and milk, and give food
a sweet taste. But they also raise blood glucose levels quickly.
Complex Carbohydrates: any starches, including the highly refined
starches
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are energy storage and structural
molecules.
Loosely defines group of molecules that all contain
C, H and O in molar ratio of 1:2:1.
Empirical formula = (CH2O)n, n= number of carbon
atoms
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Isomers of Glucose Glucose is not the only sugar with formula C6H12O6

Trioses Pentoses Hexoses

The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharaides.

Contain few carbon atoms (3-6).
Glucose: play a major role in energy storage, have 6 carbon atoms. Stereoisomer Structural isomer
Glucose have energy storing C-H bonds.
The stereoisomers are mirror images of each other.
empirical formula is C6H12O6.

Structure of Glucose molecule Disaccharides

 Glucose is an Aldohexose.
Most organisms transport
sugars within their bodies.

In humans and animals:

Transport glucose to obtain
energy.

In plants, Glucose produce by

photosynthesis transform in to
sucrose before translocation.

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 The enzymes typically use Glucose will not work

on Sucrose/present in specific cells.

Disaccharides form monosaccharaides linking with  What is the translocation form of Glucose in plants?
glycosidic bonds. And Why?

Sucrose: Sucrose is less readily metabolized/used

during transportation

Ringing/Girdling plants disturb phloem translocation of sucrose.

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Sugar based products in food technology Homopolysaccharides:

Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Chitin

Heteropolysaccharides:
Peptidoglycan
Agarose
Animal extracellular matrix
(ECM) proteins
Glycosaminoglycans
Chondroitin sulfate
Dematan sulphate
Keratan sulphate

 Agarose is a Polysaccharide extracted form sea

Polysaccharides (glycans) weeds.
Most carbohydrates found in nature occur as polysaccharides,
polymers of medium to high molecular weight.

Polysaccharides differ from each other in the…,

1. identity of their recurring monosaccharide units
2. length of their chains
3. types of bonds linking the units
4. degree of branching

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Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
 a three-dimensional network of extracellular macromolecules,
such as collagen, enzymes, polysaccharides, and glycoproteins,
that provide structural and biochemical support of surrounding
cells.
a collection of extracellular molecules secreted by support cells
that provides structural and biochemical support to the
surrounding cells.
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Major functions of Polysaccharides
• 1. Structural material of living systems
• 2. Storage energy/fuel/ in living systems
• 3. Protection of cells and regulation (provide
viscosity, adhesiveness, tensile strength)
Starch
Contains 2 types of glucose polymer
Amylose
Amylopectin
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The simplest structure of starch is Amylose High molecular weight compounds.

In Amylose… Highly branched.
 many hundreds of α-glucose molecules linking The glycosidic linkages joining successive glucose residues in
together Amylopectin chains are (α1-4)
 Long unbranched chains The branch points, occurring every 24 to 30 residues are α1-
6 linkages
 α-1-4 linkages present
 The long chain amylose tend to coil up in water
 Therefore starch is partially insoluble in water

• Eg. Plant starch/In potato starch

20%- Amylose
80% Amylopectin

Starch
Amylose versus Amylopectin gelatinization

 Amylose come out

 Amylopectins are in
the granules

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Cellulose
Glycogen
Polymer of D-glucose residues
Glycogen is made up of chains of linked with (β1-4) linkage (polymer
glucose. of β-Glucose).
The glucose, within the chains,
Chains of sugars that serve as
are held together by glycosidic structural material in plants.
bonds, specifically a 1 to 4 alpha
acetal connection. These β-linked chains are tough
fibers.
Each of the chains are formed
with about 8-10 glucose Starch hydrolyzing enzymes (eg.
molecules. Amylase)-do not hydrolyze
Celluloses with β linkages.
glucose chains bond to each
other with a 1 to 6 linkage, Amylase
called a branching point. Starch Glucose

Cellulase
Cellulose Glucose

Glycogen cont… Cellulose is a chief component of plant cell walls.

Compatible form of starch in animals.

Like Amylopectin, glycogen also insoluble
polysaccharide containing branched amylose chains.
Glycogen as much longer average chain length than
plant starch.

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 Cellulases from various microbes in animal rumen can

Cellulose cont…. break cellulose.

Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on

Earth.
 The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that
of wood is 40–50%, and that of dried hemp
(Cannabis) is approximately 57%.

Stomach of a ruminant

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Chitin
Cellulose in Industry…
1  Structural material of Arthropods
and fungi

 It is polymer of N-
acetylglucosamine, a substituted
version of glucose

 Few organisms are to digest

3 Chitin, but most posses
Chitinases to prevent from fungi.
Cellophane

• Cuttlebone made up of aragonite/Calcium carbonate and

outer shell with Chitin

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Arthropod Shells are made up of Chitin

and Proteins

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