WATER PANS AND PONDS

Training Notes by Prof. Bancy Mati

1.1 What is a water storage pond?

Excavated ponds and pans are small reservoirs, about 1 m to 3 m deep, usually dug of-stream
with raised and compacted banks all around. They are constructed to collect and store runoff
water from various surfaces including from hillsides, roads, rocky areas and open rangeland
(figure 1.1). The difference is that pans receive their water wholly from surface runoff while
ponds are constructed where there is some ground water contribution or a high water table. The
capacity of pans and ponds can range from 500 to 5,000 m3. Structures whose reservoir capacity
is less than 500 m3 are called tanks, while those exceeding 5,000 m3 are called dams.

Pans and ponds are generally built close to settlements, and are located on grazing lands rather
than farmlands, since the latter is more valuable and the former more compact. They are
excavated on gentle sloping lands; less than 2% or 1:50; this simplifies construction and
minimizes erosion. The catchment land above must be gently sloping as well. Catchment size
should not be too large or too small, and should be grassed to help in trapping silt. When
properly designed and with good sedimentation basins, the water collected can be used for
livestock watering or to supplement the irrigation of crops. In this chapter, we adopt the term
pond to be inclusive of both pans and ponds unless otherwise stated.

Figure 1.1: Pictorial depiction of a pan/pond layout (adapted from SWALIM, 2007)

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1.2 Advantages and limitations of ponds
Advantages
One advantage of pans and ponds is that relatively large volume rainwater can be stored when
compared to that of surface or sub-surface tanks.
 The storage structure is easy to construct and use
 Pans can be used to collect runoff from home compound, where houses are grass-thatched
 They can provide water for domestic/livestock use and for crop irrigation
 Pans can be sited almost anywhere if lined to control seepage.

Limitations of ponds
 The main disadvantage of pans/ponds is that the water is liable to pollution and
contamination due to unprotected catchments.
 Seepage and evaporation losses are also problems owing to the fact that the reservoirs are
built on natural ground and that they are mostly too wide to provide cover.
 For community water supplies, they have relatively small capacities compared to earth dams,
 They can suffer high siltation rates

1.3 Types of ponds

1.3.1 Pans
A pan is a small reservoir created by excavating open ground, to collect and store surface runoff
from uncultivated grounds, from hillsides, roads, rocky areas and open rangelands. Pans rely
wholly on surface runoff and do not receive ground water contribution. As such, they suffer
losses of water easily and are sometimes seasonal. A pan can be made square, rectangular or
hemi-spherical in shape. The hemispherical shape is preferred as it accords better hydraulic
efficiency. The main limitation with water pans include; relatively small capacities; high siltation
rates; loss of water through seepage and, high evaporation losses. Otherwise pans can be
excavated almost anywhere and lined with various materials (as described for underground
tanks). They are popular for livestock watering in dry areas having few watercourses. Pans are
particularly useful for runoff harvesting from home compounds where the houses are grass
thatched or other traditional dwellings (figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 (a) Illustration of a water pan for (b) Water pan for surface runoff
collecting runoff from home compound harvesting (source, MoANRM, 2009)

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1.3.2 Ponds
Ponds, like pans, are also excavated depressions (1 m-3 m deep), and holding at least over 100
m3 but less than 5,000 m3 of water. However, ponds are constructed in areas where some
ground-water recharge is possible, mostly due to high water table. Ponds are also excavated in
perennial swamps and streambeds to increase the volume of water storage and improve inflows
from outlaying areas (Figure 1.3). Since they get recharged naturally, they have few seepage
problems and are preferred to pans. The main limitation is availability of a site with high water
table in arid zones where water is most scarce.

Figure 1.3 (a) Excavated earthen pond for (b) Excavated pond on high water table
RWH (photos by B. Mati)

1.3.3 Water holes

Water holes are small excavated household ponds for harvesting small amounts of water, usually
for domestic use and livestock drinking and sometimes, irrigation of small gardens. These offer
temporary solution to water availability at home as the water is available for short periods during
and after the rainy season. The size and shape of water hole depends on the catchment
characteristics and the amount of rainfall received. Water holes look like unlined underground
tanks (Figure 1.5).

Waterholes are normally excavated by hand, in areas with high water table or where the soils are
self-sealing and thus unlikely to suffer seepage problems. The water hole is usually located at the
lower part of a home compound to benefit from natural drainage and possibility of minimum
earth excavations. The catchment surface should preferably be impermeable. If possible, the
catchment area may be prepared artificially by paving with concrete or soil conditioning. A silt
trap is provided at the inlet point to prevent sediment load from entering the water storage
structure. The water must be cleaned and treated before consumption. Most waterholes have to
be desilted at the beginning of each rainy season.

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 Figure 1.5 (a) Rectangular shaped (b) Circular water hole used for
water hole (photos by Bancy Mati) supplemental irrigation

1.3.4 Overnight water storage ponds

An overnight storage pond (locally known as “diva” in Tanzania) is a small dam or excavated
pond used to store water from both river diversion or rainwater harvesting (Figure 1.7).
However, its name is derived from the fact that the water is allowed into the pond at night, and
during the day, farmers use it for irrigation. This systems is an arrangement to allow the diversion
at night from small rivers, which is used for irrigation then next day, and the river is let to flow to
downstream users during the day (no day-time water abstraction). It is a system used for water
sharing in areas with water scarcity. During the rainy season, the storage pond is used for water
harvesting.

Figure 1.7 Overnight storage tank (diva) (b) Overnight storage pond with concrete
with inlet channel (photos by Bancy Mati) retaining wall to increase storage volume

1.3.5 Charco Dams

Although they bear the name “dam”, “Charco” dams are really small excavated pits or ponds,
which are constructed at well-selected sites on a relatively flat topography for livestock watering.
Charco dams receive their runoff mostly from outlaying areas of a rangeland, thus contour
bunds are constructed to divert runoff into the dam. The design is simple and can be
implemented at village level with minimum of engineering requirements (Figure 1.6).

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 (a)-Plan

view (b) side view

( c) photo
Figure 1.6 (a) plan view, (b) side view - note the silt traps and spillway, and (c)
photo of a charco pond/dam (photo by B. Mati)

To achieve higher efficiency in water collection, the charco dam can be situated at the lowest
point of the topography. The excavation, achieving depths of 3 m, can be done by machinery or
by hand. The right site may be selected using contour maps of the area or by observing where
water collects naturally. The main limitations include high evaporation losses, water
contamination and siltation.

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1.3.6 Percolation ponds
Percolation ponds are small ponds dug for the duo purpose of water harvesting and to recharge
ground water. The water may be used for livestock watering. They are constructed by excavating
a depression to form a small reservoir, or by constructing an embankment in a natural ravine or
gully to form an impoundment (figure 1.8). They store water for short periods during and after
the rains. They are used in watershed conservation projects and to improve the overall
groundwater hydrology of an area.

Figure 1.8 (a) Percolation pond excavated (b) Percolation pond constructed using
on open ground (photos by Bancy Mati) packed stones across a gully

1.3.7 Fish ponds

A fish pond, or fishpond, is a controlled, artificial pond or reservoir that is stocked with fish.
Rearing fish in ponds is called aquaculture or fish farming. Water harvesting can be combined
with fish farming to increase the utility of the water. The types of fish ponds commonly used by
smallholder farmers fall into two categories (figure 1.9): (i) Fish ponds are normally excavated
within stream beds so as to have inflow and outflow arrangements. These are the more preferred
types as they allow better aeration of the pond. (ii) Fish ponds can also be situated on open
ground where water is supplied from rainfall harvesting and/or piped water. These types of
ponds are sometimes lined with geo-membrane or concrete. The fish in these ponds are fed
using feeds purchased from agro-dealers. Fish ponds require care to prevent dirt and pollutants
entering the pond.

Figure 1.9 (a)Fish pond in valley bottom with (b) Fish pond on farmland without outlet
inflow and outflow (photos by Bancy Mati)

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1.3.8 Borrow pits
Borrow pits are the depressions or ponds created in areas which are earth/soil borrow sites
during the construction of other infrastructure such as roads. The borrow pits, if appropriately
located, can serve as storage ponds for RWH. Although regulations governing road construction
require that borrow pits should be filled, this is not always a common practice. Most borrow pits
are left behind and can be used as storage reservoirs for rainwater. Water stored in borrow pits is
used by local people residing along the highways. The water is used mainly for drinking, for
livestock and sometimes for irrigation. Improvements can be made on the borrow pit so as to
increase its capacity and improve water quality.

1.4 Design of pans and ponds

The design of pans and ponds assumes the same procedure, methods and calculations of storage
volume, as with small earth dams. However, pans function more like underground tanks, while
ponds are more like small earth dams. Since the respective design procedures are the same, they will
not be described here and only the method of calculating storage volume will be described.

1.4.1 Components of storage ponds

The components of an pan or pond are quite similar to those of an underground tank. Basically, a
pond must have a catchment area, diversion channel, desitling basins, the reservoir and the water
delivery system, mainly pipes and taps (figure 1.10). A properly designed and constructed pan has
an embankment which is covered with grass sod to prevent collapse or erosion of the banks.
Particular attention is given to the development of seepage areas on the downstream face of the
dam. Any evidence of piping, wave action or damage should have corrective steps taken in time.

Figure 1.10. Illustration of the major components of a pan (adapted from Malesu, 2006)

The inlet should be stone pitched to prevent soil erosion. A mesh should be provided at the inlet to
prevent floating material from entering the pond. The slope of the sides shall depend on the soil

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condition. In order to prevent seepage losses through sides and bottom, these are lined with plastic
sheeting. This should be embedded properly and the outlet stone-pitched to prevent soil erosion. A
water extraction piping or well is constructed at a suitable point of pond to facilitate withdrawal of
water. The well has to be constructed by raising two masonry wing walls and one front wall. A
suitable platform fitted with iron fixtures for simple pumps is necessary.

A silt trap should be provided at the inlet point to prevent sediment load form entering the pond.
The size of the silt trap should be designed keeping in view the site conditions, duration and
intensity of rainfall. Silt Trap should be cleaned regularly. In sandy soil profiles, the pond volumes
are lower because of need for stabilisation of the sands with grass.

The ponds usually have large surface areas compared to the volume of water stored and heavy
losses occur since evaporation is a function of surface area. On the other hand, seepage increases
with the depth of the stored water. Plastic lining is useful in avoiding seepage losses.

1.4.2 Determining storage volume

Site selection
From an economic view point, the bund should be located where maximum storage volume is
obtained for minimum volume of earthfill, since the major share of the cost goes into the
earthfill. This condition, generally, can be met at a site where the stream/ or drainage channel is
narrow, steep, side slopes are steep and stable, and the stream bed is of consolidated and nearly
impervious formation. Such sites also minimise the pond area.

Characteristics of a Good Pond Site

A good pond site should have the following characteristics:
(i) Be a narrow gorge with a fan shaped valley above: so that a small amount of earthwork gives
a large capacity.
(ii) The capacity catchment area ratio should be such that the pond can fill up in about 2-3
months of rainfall. The capacity should not be too small to be choked up with sediments
very soon.
(iii) The pond should be located where it could serve a major purpose e.g. if for irrigation, it
should be above the irrigated fields.
(iv) Junction of two tributary, depressions and other sites of easily available fill material and
favourable geology should be preferred.
(v) The site should not have excessive seepage losses.
(vi) The catchment area should be put under conservation practices.

Size of pond
The size of a pond/pan for water harvesting is usually dictated by the availability of adequate
land or catchment area, and this includes roads, footpaths, home compounds or open grasslands.
In rare cases do we have the option to design and build a pond of a desired size to meet the
water requirements of the community. Where such an option exists, the first step is to work out
the water requirement for various needs. The next step is to determine the catchment area, above
the pond site, from where the monsoon run off would be available to fill the pond. Thereafter

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the location, alignment and height of the earthen bund are decided, as also the location and size
of the spillway to evacuate the surplus monsoon discharge.

The storage capacity should be at least double the total water requirement to take care of
evaporation and seepage losses. As a rough guide, 10 per extra storage may be provided for
sediment deposition. For example if the total annual water requirement is 10,000 cum and pond
will have only one filling, its gross capacity should be 22000 cum (2 x 10,000 + 10).

Determining the storage volume

A detailed survey is usually required to estimate the size of the catchment area and the reservoir
storage for different water levels. Where the surveys are likely to be expensive or other wise not
feasible, catchment area can be roughly computed from Survey using toposheets to the scale of
1:25,000 or 1:50,000. However, for calculating the reservoir storage volumes, simple field surveys
are carried out using locally made equipment and ordinary local skills. Since a pond is usually
built by putting a bund (earthen or masonry) across the flow path of a natural drainage, the
parameters required for computing approximate storage volumes, for different pond levels are:
V = (SD2)(B + nD)
2
Where,
V = total storage volume of pan in m3
B = channel width B (meters) at bund site
n = bank slopes e.g. n: 1 (fall of 1 metre in a length of n metres)
S = bed slope of channel – S: 1 (fall of 1 metre in a length of S metres along the channel bed)
D = depth of water above the channel bed (metres).

1.4.3 Determining spillway dimensions

Ponds located in low rainfall areas may have peak discharges during rainy season are too small to
require evacuation through a concrete or masonry spillway. Instead a pipe spillway may be
provided. Normally the pipe should be large enough to pass the peak monsoon discharge
without considering any moderation due to the reservoirs. Storage effect of small ponds of
capacity of 0.123 to 0.246 is usually neglected. However, where the reservoir is large with
considerable storage capacity the moderation effect may be considered using the following
formula:
Qo = 1.25 − (1500V − 0.06)1/2
Q RA
Where,
Qo = Rate of outflow when the pipe first flows full in m3
Q = Peak rate of inflow in m3
V = Available storage in ham
R = Runoff in mm, and
A = Drainage area in hectares (same as watershed area)
The above equation provides a rough guide to estimate of the size of the mechanical spillway
pipe required for a pan.

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Water quality issues
Due to its open siting and surface water inflows in ponds, the water can become polluted and
cause health hazards. Guinea worm, water hyacinth, mosses, algae may invariably invade the
pond in large quantities. Infectious diseases like guinea worm are associated with the village
where surface pond water is in use.

Operations and maintenance of pans and ponds

The operations and maintenance of pans and ponds is similar to that of underground tanks and
small earth dams.

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