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Maraging steel
Maraging steels (a portmanteau of "martensitic" and "aging") are steels (iron alloys) that are known for possessing superior strength and
toughness without losing ductility. Aging refers to the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special class of low-carbon ultra-high-
strength steels that derive their strength not from carbon, but from precipitation of intermetallic compounds. The principal alloying element is 15 to
25 wt% nickel.[1] Secondary alloying elements, which include cobalt, molybdenum and titanium, are added to produce intermetallic precipitates.[1]
Original development (by Bieber of Inco in the late 1950s) was carried out on 20 and 25 wt% Ni steels to which small additions of aluminium,
titanium, and niobium were made; a rise in the price of cobalt in the late 1970s led to the development of cobalt-free maraging steels.[2]

The common, non-stainless grades contain 17–19 wt% nickel, 8–12 wt% cobalt, 3–5 wt% molybdenum and 0.2–1.6 wt% titanium. Addition of
chromium produces stainless grades resistant to corrosion. This also indirectly increases hardenability as they require less nickel; high-chromium,
high-nickel steels are generally austenitic and unable to transform to martensite when heat treated, while lower-nickel steels can transform to
martensite. Alternative variants of nickel-reduced maraging steels are based on alloys of iron and manganese plus minor additions of aluminium,
nickel and titanium where compositions between Fe-9wt% Mn to Fe-15wt% Mn have been used.[3] The manganese has a similar effect as nickel, i.e.
it stabilizes the austenite phase. Hence, depending on their manganese content, Fe-Mn maraging steels can be fully martensitic after quenching
them from the high temperature austenite phase or they can contain retained austenite.[4] The latter effect enables the design of maraging-TRIP
steels where TRIP stands for Transformation-Induced-Plasticity.[5]

Contents
Properties
Grades of maraging steel
Heat treatment cycle
Uses
Physical properties
See also
References
External links

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Properties
Due to the low carbon content maraging steels have good machinability. Prior to aging, they may also be cold rolled to as much as 90% without
cracking. Maraging steels offer good weldability, but must be aged afterward to restore the original properties to the heat affected zone.[1]

When heat-treated the alloy has very little dimensional change, so it is often machined to its final dimensions. Due to the high alloy content
maraging steels have a high hardenability. Since ductile FeNi martensites are formed upon cooling, cracks are non-existent or negligible. The steels
can be nitrided to increase case hardness and polished to a fine surface finish.

Non-stainless varieties of maraging steel are moderately corrosion-resistant and resist stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement. Corrosion-
resistance can be increased by cadmium plating or phosphating.

Grades of maraging steel

Maraging steels tend to be described by a number (200, 250, 300 or 350), which indicates the approximate nominal tensile strength in thousands of
pounds per square inch; the compositions and required properties are defined in MIL-S-46850D.[6] The higher grades have more cobalt and
titanium in the alloy; the compositions below are taken from table 1 of MIL-S-46850D:

Maraging steel compositions

Element Grade 200 Grade 250 Grade 300 Grade 350
Iron balance balance balance balance
Nickel 17.0–19.0 17.0–19.0 18.0–19.0 18.0–19.0
Cobalt 8.0–9.0 7.0–8.5 8.5–9.5 11.5–12.5
Molybdenum 3.0–3.5 4.6–5.2 4.6–5.2 4.6–5.2
Titanium 0.15–0.25 0.3–0.5 0.5–0.8 1.3–1.6
Aluminium 0.05–0.15 0.05–0.15 0.05–0.15 0.05–0.15
Tensile Strength (MPa) 1379 1724 2068 2413

That family is known as the 18Ni maraging steels, from its nickel percentage. There is also a family of cobalt-free maraging steels which are cheaper
but not quite as strong; one example is Fe-18.9Ni-4.1Mo-1.9Ti. There have been Russian and Japanese research in Fe-Ni-Mn maraging alloys.[2]

Heat treatment cycle

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The steel is first annealed at approximately 820 °C (1,510 °F) for 15–30 minutes for thin sections and for 1 hour per 25 mm thickness for heavy
sections, to ensure formation of a fully austenitized structure. This is followed by air cooling or quenching to room temperature to form a soft,
heavily dislocated iron-nickel lath (untwinned) martensite. Subsequent aging (precipitation hardening) of the more common alloys for
approximately 3 hours at a temperature of 480 to 500 °C produces a fine dispersion of Ni3(X,Y) intermetallic phases along dislocations left by
martensitic transformation, where X and Y are solute elements added for such precipitation. Overaging leads to a reduction in stability of the
primary, metastable, coherent precipitates, leading to their dissolution and replacement with semi-coherent Laves phases such as Fe2Ni/Fe2Mo.
Further excessive heat-treatment brings about the decomposition of the martensite and reversion to austenite.

Newer compositions of maraging steels have revealed other intermetallic stoichiometries and crystallographic relationships with the parent
martensite, including rhombohedral and massive complex Ni50(X,Y,Z)50 (Ni50M50 in simplified notation).

Uses
Maraging steel's strength and malleability in the pre-aged stage allows it to be formed into thinner rocket and missile skins than other steels,
reducing weight for a given strength.[7] Maraging steels have very stable properties and, even after overaging due to excessive temperature, only
soften slightly. These alloys retain their properties at mildly elevated operating temperatures and have maximum service temperatures of over
400 °C (752 °F). They are suitable for engine components, such as crankshafts and gears, and the firing pins of automatic weapons that cycle from
hot to cool repeatedly while under substantial load. Their uniform expansion and easy machinability before aging make maraging steel useful in
high-wear components of assembly lines and dies. Other ultra-high-strength steels, such as AerMet alloys, are not as machinable because of their
carbide content.

In the sport of fencing, blades used in competitions run under the auspices of the Fédération Internationale d'Escrime are usually made with
maraging steel. Maraging blades are superior for foil and épée because crack propagation in maraging steel is 10 times slower than in carbon steel,
resulting in less blade breakage and fewer injuries.[i][8] Stainless maraging steel is used in bicycle frames and golf club heads. It is also used in
surgical components and hypodermic syringes, but is not suitable for scalpel blades because the lack of carbon prevents it from holding a good
cutting edge.

American musical instrument string producer, Ernie Ball, has made a specialist type of electric guitar string out of Maraging steel, claiming that this
alloy provides more output and enhanced tonal response.[9]

Maraging steel production, import and export by certain states, such as the United States,[10] is closely monitored by international authorities
because it is particularly suited for use in gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment;[11] lack of maraging steel significantly hampers this process.
Older centrifuges used aluminum tubes; modern ones, carbon fiber composite.

Physical properties

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Density: 8.1 g/cm³ (0.29 lb/in³)

Specific heat, mean for 0–100 °C (32–212 °F): 813 J/kg·K (0.108 Btu/lb·°F)
Melting point: 2,575 °F, 1,413 °C
Thermal conductivity: 25.5 W/m·K
Mean coefficient of thermal expansion: 11.3×10−6
Yield tensile strength: typically 1,400–2,400 MPa (200,000–350,000 psi)[12]
Ultimate tensile strength: typically 1.6–2.5 GPa (230,000–360,000 psi). Grades exist up to 3.5 GPa (510,000 psi)
Elongation at break: up to 15%
1
KIC fracture toughness: up to 175 MPa·m ⁄2
Young's modulus: 210 GPa (30,000,000 psi)[13]
Shear modulus: 77 GPa (11,200,000 psi)
Bulk modulus: 140 GPa (20,000,000 psi)
Hardness (aged): 50 HRC (grade 250); 54 HRC (grade 300); 58 HRC (grade 350)

See also
Aermet
USAF-96 and Eglin steel (Inexpensive maraging steels with less nickel and other expensive materials.)

References
i. However, the notion that maraging steel blades break flat is a fencing urban legend. Testing has shown that the blade-breakage patterns in
carbon steel and maraging steel are identical due to the similarity in the loading mode during bending. Additionally, a crack is likely to start at the
same point and propagate along the same path (although much more slowly), as crack propagation in fatigue is a plastic phenomenon rather
than microstructural.

3. Raabe, D.; Sandlöbes, S.; Millan, J. J.; Ponge, D.; Assadi, H.;
1. Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J. T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials Herbig, M.; Choi, P.P. (2013), Segregation engineering enables
and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, p. 119, ISBN 0-471- nanoscale martensite to austenite phase transformation at grain
65653-4
boundaries: A pathway to ductile martensite, 61, Acta Materialia,
2. Sha, W; Guo, Z (2009-10-26). Maraging Steels: Modelling of pp. 6132–6152.
Microstructure, Properties and Applications. Elsevier.
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4. Dmitrieva, O.; Ponge, D.; Inden, G.; Millan, J.; Choi, P.; Sietsma, J.; 8. Juvinall, Robert C.; Marshek, Kurt M. (2006). Fundamentals of
Raabe, D. (2011), Chemical gradients across phase boundaries Machine Component Design (Fourth ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
between martensite and austenite in steel studied by atom probe p. 69. ISBN 978-0-471-66177-1.
tomography and simulation, 59, Acta Materialia, p. 364, 9. "Slinky M-Steel Electric Guitar Strings" (https://ernieball.co.uk/guitar-
arXiv:1402.0232 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1402.0232), strings/electric-guitar-strings/slinky-m-steel-electric-guitar-strings#).
doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2010.09.042 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.acta Ernie Ball.
mat.2010.09.042), ISSN 1359-6454 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1 10. Part 110--export and import of nuclear equipment and material (http
359-6454)
s://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/part110/full-text.html),
5. Raabe, D.; Ponge, D.; Dmitrieva, O.; Sander, B. (2009), "Nano- retrieved 2009-11-11.
precipitate hardened 1.5 GPa steels with unexpected high ductility", 11. David Patrikarakos, Nuclear Iran: The Birth of an Atomic State, pg.
Scripta Materialia, 60: 1141, doi:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2009.02.062 (ht 168.
tps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scriptamat.2009.02.062)
12. http://www.imoa.info/
6. Military Specification 46850D: STEEL : BAR, PLATE, SHEET, STRIP,
FORGINGS, AND EXTRUSIONS, 18 PERCENT NICKEL ALLOY, 13. Ohue, Yuji; Matsumoto, Koji (10 September 2007). "Sliding–rolling
MARAGING, 200 KSI, 250 KSI, 300 KSI, AND 350 KSI, HIGH contact fatigue and wear of maraging steel roller with ion-nitriding
QUALITY, available from http://everyspec.com/MIL-SPECS/MIL- and fine particle shot-peening". Wear. 263 (1–6): 782–789.
SPECS-MIL-S/MIL-S-46850D_19899/ doi:10.1016/j.wear.2007.01.055 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.wear.20
07.01.055).
7. Joby Warrick (2012-08-11). "Nuclear ruse: Posing as toymaker,
Chinese merchant allegedly sought U.S. technology for Iran" (https://
www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nuclear-ruse-posin
g-as-toymaker-chinese-merchant-allegedly-sought-us-technology-for
-iran/2012/08/11/f1c66d9a-e265-11e1-ae7f-d2a13e249eb2_story.htm
l?wpisrc=nl_headlines). The Washington Post. Retrieved
2014-02-21.

External links
Maraging steel data sheets (http://www.matthey.ch/en/alloys/maraging-steels-durnico-durimphy-ultrafort-durinox-phynox)

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