SKETCHBOOKS & ALBUMS

A Series of the Getty Center Publication Programs

The SKETCHBOOKS & ALBUMS series acquaints readers w i t h drawings and other forms o f visual
d o c u m e n t a t i o n that have been u n p u b l i s h e d or unavailable.

The g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d the SKETCHBOOKS & ALBUMS series is that the genesis o f an a r t w o r k is central to
its understanding. I f the conception and p r e p a r a t i o n o f a w o r k o f art have a claim on our a t t e n t i o n , then the
p r i m e record o f that process must be recognized and u n d e r s t o o d . Sketchbooks and related m a t e r i a l , such as
j o u r n a l s , dossiers, copybooks, and corpora o f drawings, reveal the artist's t h o u g h t process and what the
artist looked at, copied, read, disliked, or a d m i r e d — h e n c e , the e v o l u t i o n o f a visual concept.

Each w o r k reproduced i n the SKETCHBOOKS & ALBUMS series w i l l be accompanied by a catalog o f the visual
d o c u m e n t a t i o n under consideration and by scholarly analysis that considers the w o r k chronologically,
regionally, typologically, and thematically and places it w i t h i n its historical and c u l t u r a l context.

Julia Bloomfield, Thomas F. Reese, Salvatore Settis, Editors

THE GETTY CENTER PUBLICATION PROGRAMS
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL-GEOMETRY AND ORNAMENT IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
 SKETCHBOOKS & ALBUMS

THE TOPKAPI SCROLL-GEOMETRY AND ORNAMENT IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Topkapi Palace Museum Library MS H. 1956

Gulru Necipoglu

with an essay on the geometry of the muqarnas by Mohammad al-Asad

THE GETTY CENTER FOR THE HISTORY OF ART AND THE HUMANITIES
THE GETTY CENTER PUBLICATION PROGRAMS
Julia Bloomfield, Thomas F. Reese, Salvatore Settis, Editors

SKETCHBOOKS & ALBUMS

The Topkapi Scroll—Geometry and Ornament in Islamic Architecture

Oleg Grabar, E d i t o r i a l Consultant
Lynne K o s t m a n , M a n a g i n g E d i t o r
Diane M a r k - W a l k e r , M a n u s c r i p t E d i t o r

Published b y T h e Getty Center for the H i s t o r y o f A r t a n d the H u m a n i t i e s ,

Santa M o n i c a , C A 90401-1455
©1995 b y T h e Getty Center for the H i s t o r y o f A r t a n d the H u m a n i t i e s
A l l rights reserved. Published 1995
P r i n t e d i n the U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Necipoglu, Gulru
The Topkapi scroll: geometry and ornament in Islamic architecture
: Topkapi Palace Library M S H . 1956 / Gulru Necipoglu; with an essay
on the geometry of the muqarnas by Mohammad al-Asad.
p. cm. — (Sketchbooks & albums)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I S B N 0-89236-335-5
1. Architectural drawing, Timurid—Catalogs. 2. Architectural
drawing—16th century—Asia, Central—Catalogs. 3. Arabesques—
Catalogs. 4. Architectural drawing—Turkey—Istanbul—Catalogs.
5. Topkapi Sarayi Muzesi. Kutuphane. Manuscript, H . 1956—
Catalogs. I . Al-Asad, Mohammad. I I . J. Paul Getty Center for the
History of Art and the Humanities. I I I . Title. IV. Series.
NA2706.A783N43 1995

720'.22'255—dc20 95-14621
CIP
CONTENTS ix PREFACE
xiii NOTES TO THE READER
PART 1 : THE SCROLL TRADITION
3 Chapter 1. Architectural Drawings and Scrolls in the Islamic World
29 Chapter 2. The Topkapi Scroll, Its Date and Provenance
41 Chapter 3. The Topkapi Scroll as a Mirror of Late Timurid-Turkmen Architectural Practice
54 Notes to Part 1
PART 2: THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC " ARABESQUE"
61 Chapter 4. Ornamentalism and Orientalism: The Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century European Literature
73 Chapter 5. Recent Studies on Geometric Ornament
84 Notes to Part 2
PART 3: THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS OF THE GEOMETRIC MODE
91 Chapter 6. Geometric Patterning Before the Mongols
111 Chapter 7. The Post-Mongol Synthesis
124 Notes to Part3
PART 4: GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
131 Chapter 8. Theory and Praxis: Uses of Practical Geometry
167 Chapter 9. Manuals of Practical Geometry and the Scroll Tradition
176 Notes to Part 4
PART 5: GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC THEORY
185 Chapter 10. The Aesthetics of Proportion and Light
197 Chapter 11. Geometric Abstraction and the Psychology of Visual Perception
217 Chapter 12. The Semiotics of Ornament
224 Notes to Part5
CATALOG : PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
231 List of Pattern Types
239 List of Drawings
285 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL: A COLOR REPRODUCTION

349 THE MUQARNAS: A GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS BY MOHAMMAD AL-ASAD

361 MAP OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
363 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRINTED PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES
381 INDEX
PREFACE Drawings can reveal m u c h about architectural
practice and design methods, p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n
a b u i l d i n g t r a d i t i o n lacks theoretical treatises; the
Islamic architectural heritage is a case i n p o i n t . I n
the p r e m o d e r n M u s l i m w o r l d references to a r c h i -
tecture were often embedded i n a wide variety
o f n o n a r c h i t e c t u r a l texts and " h o w - t o " manuals
p r o v i d i n g simple instructions w i t h o u t theoretical
elaboration. These were c o m p l e m e n t e d by collec-
tions o f w o r k s h o p drawings, jealously guarded
by master builders as privileged i n f o r m a t i o n , and
by oral w o r k s h o p t r a d i t i o n s passed o n f r o m master
to apprentice over the generations.
This makes p a r t i c u l a r l y valuable the few r e m a i n -
i n g examples o f drawings that once mediated
the conceptualization and transmission o f a r c h i -
tectural knowledge i n the Islamic w o r l d ; t h r o u g h
these drawings one can begin to penetrate the
theory and praxis o f architecture and o r n a m e n t .
The scroll preserved at the Topkapi Palace M u s e u m
L i b r a r y and reproduced i n its entirety i n this
v o l u m e is an i m p o r t a n t discovery w i t h m a j o r
i m p l i c a t i o n s for Islamic and general architectural
history. I n a d d i t i o n to the i n f o r m a t i o n i t p r o -
vides about architectural practice, the scroll also
raises broader questions p e r t a i n i n g to the i n t e r -
action between science and art, and promises to be
relevant for theories o f o r n a m e n t , abstraction,
aesthetics, and v i s i o n . M y decision to p u b l i s h this
rare d o c u m e n t , w h i c h I ascribe to late fifteenth-
or sixteenth-century I r a n , was p r o m p t e d by the
necessity o f m a k i n g i t accessible i n its o r i g i n a l f o r m
to a wide audience, b o t h specialists i n the Islamic
field and nonspecialists.
The scarcity o f i n f o r m a t i o n about architectural
drafting methods i n the Islamic w o r l d , w h i c h
are often assumed to have been nonexistent, adds
to the significance o f the Topkapi scroll, the ear-
liest k n o w n d o c u m e n t o f its k i n d . A l t h o u g h this
scroll t h r o w s new light o n h o w architectural
design was geometrically conceptualized, recorded,
and t r a n s m i t t e d i n the p a r t i c u l a r context o f late
medieval I r a n , i t also raises m o r e general questions
about the m o d e o f geometric p a t t e r n i n g that
d o m i n a t e d architectural revetments t h r o u g h o u t
the Islamic w o r l d between the eleventh and
the early sixteenth centuries.
The scroll's geometric language parallels that
o f late G o t h i c architectural drawings, a parallel
i n f o r m e d by a shared late antique c u l t u r a l heritage
that often engendered similar design methods
and aesthetic sensibilities. N o d o u b t Byzantine
architectural practice, t o o , grew o u t o f this t r a d i -
t i o n , b u t u n l i k e the medieval b u i l d i n g practice
o f Europe, w h i c h is relatively w e l l d o c u m e n t e d by
extant w o r k s h o p drawings f r o m the t h i r t e e n t h
century o n w a r d , that o f B y z a n t i u m remains largely
u n d o c u m e n t e d . This is w h y I have chosen to focus
o n comparisons w i t h the L a t i n West, o n l y refer-
r i n g to the Byzantine architectural t r a d i t i o n w h e n
relevant i n f o r m a t i o n was available.
The Topkapi scroll's distinctive m o d e o f geo-
m e t r i c design, d o m i n a t e d by i n t e r l o c k i n g star-and-
p o l y g o n patterns i n two and three dimensions,
came to be k n o w n generically i n the I r a n i a n w o r l d
as girih (Persian, " k n o t " ) . I n part 1 this scroll
is compared to other s u r v i v i n g scrolls and p a t t e r n
books a t t r i b u t e d to master builders p r a c t i c i n g
i n the Islamic lands, a remarkable g r o u p o f d o c u -
ments never before treated as a whole. Its prove-
nance, date, graphic conventions, and contents are
discussed together w i t h the h i t h e r t o underesti-
mated role o f such scrolls i n disseminating design
concepts, techniques, and tastes w i t h i n the Islamic
w o r l d . T h e n , a c o m p a r i s o n o f the Topkapi scroll
w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y late G o t h i c p a t t e r n books,
i n w h i c h geometry plays a similar role i n generating
variegated designs, is followed by an assessment
o f the scroll's i m p l i c a t i o n s for T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
architectural practice.
A catalog o f p a t t e r n types, a list o f drawings
illustrated w i t h overlays r e c o r d i n g u n i n k e d
c o n s t r u c t i o n lines, and an appendix c o m p l e m e n t
the first part o f the b o o k w i t h m o r e detailed
descriptions o f the Topkapi scroll's patterns. Since
most o f these t w o - and three-dimensional pat-
terns are repetitive variations o f geometric c o m -
positions generated by similar g r i d systems, i t
w o u l d have been tedious to describe t h e m i n the
text. I t is suggested, therefore, that the reader
become familiar w i t h this catalog and list and the
accompanying r e p r o d u c t i o n o f the scroll itself
before reading the rest o f the b o o k , where the geo-
m e t r i c mode o f design codified i n the Topkapi
scroll is historicized and contextualized. The
appendix is an essay by M o h a m m a d al-Asad that
X PREFACE
addresses the spatial geometry o f the Topkapi
scroll's muqarnas projections by analyzing i n detail
a single example chosen f r o m the scroll, i n f o r m e d
by the fifteenth-century T i m u r i d m a t h e m a t i c i a n
G h i y a t h a l - D i n Jamshid M a s ' u d al-Kashi's dis-
cussion o f the muqarnas. This essay includes
computer-generated elevations and sections that
dissect the i n d i v i d u a l components o f the chosen
t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l muqarnas p r o j e c t i o n , trans-
l a t i n g i t i n t o v o l u m e t r i c forms.
Part 2 provides a c r i t i q u e o f the n i n e t e e n t h -
and t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y secondary l i t e r a t u r e o n the
so-called geometric arabesque as a backdrop for
the subsequent parts o f the b o o k . The Topkapi
scroll's distinctive mode o f geometric p a t t e r n i n g
that came to be k n o w n as the girih was a r b i t r a r i l y
labeled i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t texts
as a subcategory o f the arabesque, w i t h its geo-
m e t r i c , vegetal, and calligraphic variants. Often
interpreted i n essentialistic terms, as a timeless
c o m p o n e n t o f Islamic visual c u l t u r e transcending
historical analysis, the subject o f the geometric
arabesque has generated a considerable l i t e r a t u r e
that continues to grow. I had to deconstruct the
ahistorical discourse o f that l i t e r a t u r e before c o n -
s t r u c t i n g m y alternative reading o f the girih as a
contextually circumscribed mode o f design that
emerged and spread i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o n j u n c t u r e .
Parts 3, 4, and 5 deal w i t h the p o l i t i c a l , religious,
p h i l o s o p h i c a l , scientific, and aesthetic contexts i n
w h i c h the girih was i n i t i a l l y f o r m u l a t e d i n the
early medieval Islamic w o r l d and subsequently
became codified i n scrolls that c o n t r i b u t e d to its
l o n g life d u r i n g the late medieval p e r i o d . These
parts o f the b o o k draw u p o n a wide range o f
p r i m a r y sources capable o f t h r o w i n g light o n the
theory and praxis o f geometric design i n medieval
Islamic settings.
Part 3 traces the historical development and
contextual associations o f the girih m o d e , explor-
i n g where and h o w i t first flourished and c o n -
t i n u e d to be elaborated w e l l i n t o the late fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries w h e n the Topkapi scroll
appears to have been c o m p i l e d . Part 4 assesses the
c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences to
architectural and artisanal practice at a t i m e w h e n
ars and scientia were i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d i n the
M u s l i m and C h r i s t i a n medieval worlds alike. I t
focuses o n treatises o f practical geometry and
applied m e n s u r a t i o n that played an i m p o r t a n t role
i n the education o f builders and artisans, c o m -
p a r i n g the geometric constructions encountered
i n such practice-oriented " h o w - t o " manuals w i t h
those c o m p i l e d i n the Topkapi scroll.
Part 5 analyzes Islamic texts that p r o v i d e a
glimpse o f medieval theories o f aesthetics and o f
the psychology o f vision that c o u l d have i n f o r m e d
the taste for geometric abstraction and other
modes o f abstract p a t t e r n i n g . I t highlights the
s i m i l a r i t y o f medieval aesthetic theories i n the
L a t i n West, B y z a n t i u m , and the Islamic w o r l d ,
theories engendered by a shared classical heritage
that was r e m o l d e d i n each case by differing
m o n o t h e i s t i c orientations and c u l t u r a l memories.
The b o o k concludes by addressing the semiotic
dimensions o f abstract decorative revetments
as distinctive visual i d i o m s f u n c t i o n i n g as i d e n t i t y
markers t h r o u g h o u t p r e m o d e r n Islamic history.
A case is made for the signifying power o f n o n -
figural patterns, generally dismissed as mere
d e c o r a t i o n . Geometric o r n a m e n t emerges as a
m u l t i l a y e r e d sign system adaptable to a wide v a r i -
ety o f shifting contexts, rather t h a n as a static
m o l d o f timeless forms detached f r o m historical
m e m o r y and c o n t e x t - b o u n d c u l t u r a l codes o f
recognition.
This b o o k w o u l d n o t have been w r i t t e n w i t h -
o u t the encouragement o f Filiz cagman o f the
Topkapi Palace M u s e u m L i b r a r y w h o b r o u g h t the
Topkapi scroll to m y a t t e n t i o n i n 1986. T h a t year
she displayed i t for the first t i m e i n an e x h i b i t i o n
o n sixteenth-century O t t o m a n science, technology,
and architecture that c o m m e m o r a t e d the four
h u n d r e d t h anniversary o f the death o f the a r c h i -
tect Sinan. Since the published catalogs o f the
palace l i b r a r y o m i t visual documents that lack
accompanying texts, the scroll had remained
u n n o t i c e d u n t i l t h e n . H y p o t h e s i z i n g that the
Topkapi scroll may have belonged to the O t t o m a n
chief architect's office, D r . cagman dated i t o n
the basis o f its paper and f o r m a t , w h i c h is compa-
rable to other scrolls f r o m the late fifteenth or six-
teenth century preserved i n the Topkapi Palace's
manuscript collection.

The o n l y other m e n t i o n o f the Topkapi scroll
appeared i n the review o f Bernard O'Kane's
Timurid Architecture in Khurasan i n 1989 by
M i c h a e l Rogers, w h o had seen i t at the e x h i b i t i o n .
He described the scroll as follows:
I t is i n superb c o n d i t i o n and is evidently
a standard c o m p i l a t i o n o f designs f r o m
the c o u r t architect's office. Since i t bears
neither date n o r draughtsman's signature
it is difficult to state definitely w h e n
or where i t was p u t together t h o u g h i n
D r . Filiz cagman's view i t c o u l d well
have been c o m p i l e d i n sixteenth-century
O t t o m a n Turkey. Squinch-nets, however,
play no part i n O t t o m a n architecture and
the scroll repertoire o f designs for these
must therefore have come i n t o the palace
library f r o m the East. The balance o f p r o b a -
bilities w o u l d make t h e m T i m u r i d . I t is
welcome news that i t is to be published by
D r . G u l r u Necipoglu-Kafadar of Harvard
University for i t should be possible to
i d e n t i f y designs f r o m i t i n the T i m u r i d
m o n u m e n t s w h i c h are published here. 1
K n o w i n g m y special interest i n architectural
drawings, i t was D r . cagman w h o encouraged me
to w o r k o n the u n p u b l i s h e d T o p k a p i scroll, a
generous offer that opened up a subject w i t h fas-
c i n a t i n g horizons. I am greatly indebted to her for
s u p p o r t o f m y research over the years and for o u r
n u m e r o u s discussions f r o m w h i c h I have benefited
so m u c h . I w o u l d like to t h a n k D r . cagman and
the directorate o f the Topkapi Palace M u s e u m for
h e l p i n g me o b t a i n the scroll's photographs and for
a l l o w i n g me to p u b l i s h i t . I am also indebted
to Betty Tyers o f the I n d i a n D e p a r t m e n t i n the
V i c t o r i a & A l b e r t M u s e u m , w h o i n the w i n t e r
o f 1987 helped me locate the nineteenth-century
scrolls o f the Qajar state architect M i r z a Akbar,
arranged for H u g h Sainsburry to p h o t o g r a p h
t h e m , and gave me permission to p u b l i s h those
photographs. I am grateful to the V i c t o r i a & A l b e r t
M u s e u m for c o n f i r m i n g that permission after
her retirement and for a l l o w i n g me to reproduce
i n this b o o k selected examples f r o m the M i r z a
A k b a r scrolls.
A s o m Urunbayev, director o f the I n s t i t u t e o f
O r i e n t a l Studies at the Academy o f Sciences i n
Tashkent, p r o v i d e d invaluable guidance i n helping
me locate a collection o f fragmentary scrolls
( a t t r i b u t e d to sixteenth- and seventeenth-century
Uzbek master builders p r a c t i c i n g i n Bukhara) i n
his institute's m a n u s c r i p t l i b r a r y d u r i n g the s u m -
mer o f 1989. These documents were first kept at
the State Public L i b r a r y i n Tashkent and then
transferred to the I n s t i t u t e o f O r i e n t a l Studies i n
the same city. Because o f the transfer and change
i n catalog n u m b e r the whereabouts o f these
scrolls, cited i n former Soviet p u b l i c a t i o n s ,
remained u n k n o w n . I w o u l d like to t h a n k the
librarian, M r . M u n i r o v , who not only found them
i n the stacks for me b u t forgave m y breaking his
PREFACE xi
chair w h i l e using i t as a ladder f r o m w h i c h to p h o -
tograph the selected drawings that I was granted
permission to p u b l i s h . I w o u l d like to express m y
gratitude for the w a r m reception extended by
the institute's scholars and staff, w h i c h made the
rare o p p o r t u n i t y o f rediscovering and e x a m i n -
i n g the fragmentary Tashkent scrolls that m u c h
m o r e memorable.
I t was a pleasure to w o r k together o n this
project w i t h M o h a m m a d al-Asad w h o , after visit-
i n g Istanbul i n the summer o f 1988 to assist me
w i t h copying the u n i n k e d , incised c o n s t r u c t i o n
lines o f the Topkapi scroll, agreed to c o n t r i b u t e an
essay o n the geometry o f the muqarnas to this
book. I t was Elizabeth Dean H e r m a n n w h o finally
translated D r . al-Asad's and m y o w n sketches o f
the u n i n k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n lines i n t o the overlays
reproduced here i n the List o f Drawings. Conver-
sations w i t h Oleg Grabar about c o n v e r t i n g his
A . W. M e l l o n Lectures o f 1989 i n t o a b o o k o n the
theory o f Islamic o r n a m e n t (published i n 1992
by Princeton University Press as The Mediation
of Ornament) often had direct relevance for the
Topkapi scroll; as always he enthusiastically shared
his ideas. He also made useful suggestions as a
reader o f the first draft o f the b o o k m a n u s c r i p t
I s u b m i t t e d i n 1991 to the Getty Center for the
H i s t o r y o f A r t and the H u m a n i t i e s , p r o v i d i n g
invaluable guidelines for m y revisions. The c o m -
ments and constructive criticisms o f Yve-Alain
Bois, N e i l Levine, M u h s i n M a h d i , M i c h a e l Rogers,
A b d e l h a m i d Sabra, John Shearman, and H e n r i
xii PREFACE
Zerner o n the same m a n u s c r i p t were p a r t i c u l a r l y
illuminating.
For p r o v i d i n g help, i n f o r m a t i o n , encour-
agement, and s u p p o r t i n the course o f w r i t i n g
this b o o k I extend m y thanks to Chahriyar A d l e ,
N u r h a n Atasoy, Sheila Blair, Francois Bucher,
H o w a r d Burns, Yvonne D o l d - S a m p l o n i u s ,
Massumeh Farhad, Lisa G o l o m b e k , W i l l i a m
G r a h a m , Renata H o l o d , Cemal Kafadar, Joseph
Koerner, Paul Losensky, Roy M o t t a h e d e h , Nevra
N e c i p o g l u , Ayla Odekan, Bernard O'Kane, Yasser
Tabbaa, Wheeler T h a c k s t o n , Jr., Irene W i n t e r ,
and m y parents, U l k u and H i k m e t N e c i p o g l u .
I a m also i n d e b t e d to Reif A l t o m a for t r a n s l a t i n g
the relevant secondary l i t e r a t u r e f r o m Russian
i n t o English.
Special thanks go to Evin Erder, N a o m i
Kasahara, and Kate M c C o l l u m , m y resourceful
research assistants, and to Andras Riedlmayer,
w h o regularly b r o u g h t t o m y a t t e n t i o n new p u b l i -
cations. Jeffrey Spurr facilitated the search for
a p p r o p r i a t e i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n the visual collections
o f the H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Fine A r t s Library.
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s for photographs p u b l i s h e d w i t h
the permission o f various libraries and collections
are i n c l u d e d i n the captions; all r e p r o d u c t i o n s
f r o m books were p h o t o g r a p h e d by John C o o k w i t h
the exception o f figs. 119 and 120, w h i c h were p h o -
tographed by John Kiffe o f the Getty Center. The
scroll itself was p h o t o g r a p h e d by Hadiye Cangokce
and C e m cetin. F u n d i n g for research travel to
M o s c o w , L e n i n g r a d , Tashkent, Samarqand,
Bukhara, Baku, M o r o c c o , L o n d o n , I s t a n b u l , and culture(s) o f the Islamic w o r l d . I also hope t h a t m y
Paris was generously p r o v i d e d by the Aga K h a n b o o k w i l l make a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o w a r d b r i d g i n g the
P r o g r a m for Islamic A r c h i t e c t u r e at H a r v a r d t r a d i t i o n a l gap between studies o n the visual c u l -
U n i v e r s i t y and M I T , a p r o g r a m t h a t has played an tures o f the medieval C h r i s t i a n and M u s l i m wo r ld s,
i m p o r t a n t role i n generating scholarly interest i n a gap that accentuates the latter's exotic " o t h e r -
the a r c h i t e c t u r a l practices o f the Islamic w o r l d . ness" perpetuated by the essentialistic use o f such
I w o u l d p a r t i c u l a r l y like to t h a n k Margaret categories as the arabesque.
Sevcenko for her e d i t o r i a l suggestions u p o n read- C a m b r i d g e , Massachusetts
i n g the first draft o f m y m a n u s c r i p t ; her expert September 1994
advice guided me t h r o u g h the i n i t i a l revision
process. The revised text was j o i n t l y edited i n 1994
1. Rogers 1989, 135.
by Lynne K o s t m a n and Diane M a r k - W a l k e r o f the
Getty Center w i t h w h o m i t has been a pleasure to
w o r k o n this project. They were assisted by Tyson
Gaskill, Benedicte G i l m a n , Stacy Miyagawa, and
Diane T i m b a , w h o spent m a n y hours g o i n g over
the b i b l i o g r a p h y and text spellings and o b t a i n i n g
p h o t o permissions. The index was prepared by
Carol Roberts. D u e to the unexpected delays i n the
p u b l i c a t i o n schedule, I was compelled at t h a t t i m e
to update the b i b l i o g r a p h y , as m u c h as possible,
and to i n d u l g e i n f u r t h e r revisions t h a t refined
some o f m y arguments. Despite these revisions I
have no d o u b t t h a t skeptics w i l l r e m a i n . H a v i n g
chosen to address a n u m b e r o f controversial issues
and to venture b o l d l y i n t o such fields as intellec-
t u a l history, the h i s t o r y o f science, l i t e r a r y theory,
and aesthetics, I p r o b a b l y have opened myself to
p o t e n t i a l c r i t i c i s m . I t o o k up t h a t challenge, h o w -
ever, i n the hope o f s t i m u l a t i n g critical discussion
that may help dismantle some o f the stereotypes
that still enjoy p o p u l a r i t y i n the study o f the visual
NOTES TO THE READER In rendering passages from sources in foreign
languages i n t o English, published translations
have been used whenever they were available.
Otherwise, the translations are m y o w n .
Foreign terms a n d titles are anglicized w h e n
they have entered the language. Arabic a n d Persian
are transliterated, w i t h m i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s ,
according to the system used i n the International
Journal of Middle East Studies. Modern Turkish
o r t h o g r a p h y has been used t h r o u g h o u t except for
direct quotations f r o m O t t o m a n T u r k i s h texts,
w h i c h are transliterated according to the system
adopted by Islam Ansiklopedisi. Persian a n d Arabic
proper names a n d c o m m o n terms (except when
they are quoted) are spelled w i t h o u t diacritical
marks, aside f r o m ayn and hamza. Certain i n c o n -
c

sistencies were inevitable due t o the different sys-

tems o f t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n used i n quotations f r o m
other books a n d i n the titles o f works cited i n the
bibliography.
To s i m p l i f y matters, A . D . dates are used
t h r o u g h o u t . For the general readership, dates are
given for most o f the names o f historical person-
ages a n d dynasties u p o n first m e n t i o n ; these dates
are repeated i n the index for reference. I l l u s t r a -
tions are grouped i n several categories: figures dis-
t r i b u t e d i n parts 1 t h r o u g h 5 (referred to as figs.),
the Topkapi scroll r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d overlay draw-
ings (referred t o as cat. nos.), and D r . al-Asad's
computer-generated elevations and sections
(referred to as ills.).
PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION

These drawings are not kept separate nor bound as books, but are fastened together

side by side with gum, like the Hebrew rolls of the Law, and are preserved in rolls.

—Caspar P u r d o n C l a r k e 1
CHAPTER 1. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC
The Topkapi scroll, the p o i n t o f departure for this
study, is the best-preserved example o f its k i n d ,
w i t h far-reaching i m p l i c a t i o n s for the theory and
praxis o f geometric design i n Islamic architecture
and o r n a m e n t . Created by master builders i n the
late medieval I r a n i a n w o r l d , the scroll compiles
a r i c h repertory o f geometric drawings for w a l l sur-
faces and vaults. N o t an isolated case, this i m p o r -
tant d o c u m e n t belongs t o a once-widespread
Islamic t r a d i t i o n o f scrolls i n w h i c h geometric pat-
terns ranging f r o m g r o u n d plans and vault p r o -
jections t o epigraphic panels and architectural
o r n a m e n t i n diverse media appeared side b y side.
A n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Topkapi scroll's drawings,
therefore, must be framed by a discussion o f the
history o f architectural drawings and scrolls i n
the Islamic w o r l d .
There are no k n o w n Islamic architectural
w o r k i n g drawings f r o m the p r e - M o n g o l era
despite occasional textual references t o plans.
The historian-geographer al-Ya qubi ( d . 897),
c
for example, described the f o u n d a t i o n o f the
r o u n d city o f Baghdad by the Abbasid caliph
a l - M a n s u r i n 762, and he m e n t i o n e d the tracing
o f the p l a n directly o n the g r o u n d . T h e h i s t o r i a n
2
al-Tabari (839-923) explained h o w the same plan
was delineated w i t h lines traced i n ashes, c o t t o n
seeds, and naphtha; these materials were then
set afire so that the caliph, standing at the center,
c o u l d w a t c h t h e m b u r n and thus better visualize
the design. A l - K h a t i b al-Baghdadi's (1002-1071)
3
h i s t o r y o f Baghdad referred t o b o t h the tracing o f
the plan o n the g r o u n d and a detailed d r a w i n g sent
to the Byzantine ruler i n w h i c h "Baghdad's l a n d ,
markets, thoroughfares, palaces, and canals o n
b o t h the East and West sides were i l l u s t r a t e d . . . .
W h e n the k i n g was d r i n k i n g , he w o u l d call for the
i l l u s t r a t i o n and d r i n k a toast, l o o k i n g at the draw-
i n g . . . . H e used t o say: I have never seen an illus-
t r a t i o n o f a better b u i l t p l a c e . " A n o t h e r instance
4
o f plans being sent f r o m Baghdad t o B y z a n t i u m
is recorded w i t h reference t o the suburban palace
o f Bryas, b u i l t at C o n s t a n t i n o p l e i n 823 for the
emperor T h e o p h i l u s o n the basis o f drawings
b r o u g h t by John the Syncellus, ambassador t o the
Abbasid c o u r t . A r c h i t e c t u r a l drawings were also
used i n Egypt a r o u n d that t i m e d u r i n g the f o u n -
d a t i o n o f the mosque o f I b n T u l u n i n 878. I t is
WORLD
reported that w h e n A h m a d I b n T u l u n decided t o
b u i l d this mosque he met w i t h his architect, w h o
drew its sketch o n p a r c h m e n t so that the ruler
c o u l d c o m p r e h e n d the design clearly. 5
The existence o f conventions for representing
architecture o n p a r c h m e n t can be deduced f r o m
an early K o r a n m a n u s c r i p t discovered i n Yemen,
most likely d a t i n g f r o m before the tenth century
w h e n the manufacture o f paper spread t h r o u g h -
out the M u s l i m w o r l d . T w o o f the Koran's folios
c o n t a i n architectural representations; each depicts
an arcaded mosque shown b o t h i n plan and ele-
v a t i o n . The use o f drawings i n medieval Islamic
6
architectural practice is also i m p l i e d i n p h i l o s o p h i -
cal and ethical texts. The philosopher al-Farabi's
(Alfarabius or Avennasar, 870-950) Fusul al-
madamXAphorisms o f the statesman), for example,
described the p l a n n i n g architect as the chief o f
those w h o execute his drawings (rasm) and c o n -
cepts. Similarly, the p h i l o s o p h e r - h i s t o r i a n I b n
Miskawayh's ( d . 1030) b o o k o f ethics, the Tadhib
al-akhlaq (The refinement o f character), c o m -
pares the architect-engineer t o an a r m y c o m m a n -
der whose "supervision is w o r t h a considerable
4 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
a m o u n t o f labor o n the part o f the people w h o t o i l
u n d e r h i m and carry o u t his p l a n s . " 7
The role o f the architect i n c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g
b u i l d i n g s and d r a w i n g plans can also be inferred
f r o m theological w r i t i n g s t h a t stressed "arguments
f r o m design" to prove God's existence. The t e n t h -
c e n t u r y author a l - M a q d i s i o f B a l k h , for example,
c o m p a r e d the creation o f the universe to the c o n -
s t r u c t i o n o f a m o n u m e n t . Just as i t w o u l d be
impossible to imagine a finished b u i l d i n g to have
been created " w i t h o u t the maker w h o made i t ,
the fashioner w h o fashioned i t , the expert w h o
f o r m e d i t , and the planner w h o made its p l a n , " the
universe c o u l d n o t have been created w i t h o u t an
o m n i p o t e n t G o d responsible for all these steps.
The same analogy was used by the S u n n i t h i n k e r
and th e o l og ian M u h a m m a d al-Ghazali (1058-1111)
w h o said t h a t i t was the customary procedure for
the architect t o sketch the p l a n o f a m o n u m e n t ,
the b u i l d e r t o b u i l d i t , and the decorator to deco-
rate i t : " H o w e v e r , this is n o t the case w i t h G o d
M o s t H i g h . I n every instance H e H i m s e l f is the
Planner, B u i l d e r and D e c o r a t o r . " 9
Occasionally m o r e specific references to a r c h i -
tectural drawings can also be f o u n d . For example,
the Persian h i s t o r i a n Bayhaqi (995-1077) recorded
that the Ghaznavid r u l e r M a s u d I (r. 1031-1041)
c
h i m s e l f drew the plans for his b u i l d i n g s o n paper:
" H e b u i l t w i t h his o w n knowledge o f geometry,
and drew the lines w i t h his o w n exalted h a n d
and t h a t a m o n g these same facilities his geometry
was p a r t i c u l a r l y m a r v e l l o u s . " 1 0
S i m i l a r l y the
t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y h i s t o r i a n I b n B i b i described
h o w the A n a t o l i a n Seljuq ruler A l a ' a l - D i n K a y q u -
c
bad had d e t e r m i n e d the p l a n o f the Kubadabad
Palace i n 1236. The sultan drew the design o f
each palace structure according to his o w n c o n -
ception and i n d i c a t e d the placement o f r o o m s .
The palace complex was t h e n b u i l t o n the basis o f
the sultan's sketch and under the d i r e c t i o n o f the
supervisor o f architectural w o r k s . 11
Several later M u s l i m rulers are also r e p o r t e d to
have d r a w n plans i n order to c o m m u n i c a t e t h e i r
ideas to builders. The early f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
I l k h a n i d m o n a r c h Ghazan K h a n , for example,
was described by his vizier Rashid a l - D i n as hav-
i n g personally sketched the p l a n (tarh) o f his o w n
8
t o m b complex i n T a b r i z . 12
A n o t h e r reference f r o m
this p e r i o d to a plan or d r a w i n g (rasmi u tarhi) o n
paper (kaghaz) appears i n the e n d o w m e n t deed
(waqfiyya) dated 1309 o f the R a b - i Rashidi i n
c
Tabriz, a t o m b complex b u i l t for Rashid a l - D i n .
A l t h o u g h these plans o n paper have n o t survived,
the earliest k n o w n example o f an architectural
d r a w i n g incised o n plaster dates f r o m the same
p e r i o d . I t is a 50-centimeter plaster slab s h o w i n g
the p r o j e c t i o n o f a muqarnas quarter vault (fig. 1),
w h i c h was discovered d u r i n g the G e r m a n excava-
tions i n T a k h t - i Sulayman, the site o f a M o n g o l
palace b u i l t by the I l k h a n i d r u l e r Abaqa K h a n
i n the 1270s. The design o n the plate is composed
o f incised squares, triangles, and r h o m b o i d s (cor-
r e s p o n d i n g to 45-, 90-, and 135-degree muqarnas
u n i t s ) . I f d o u b l e d , the design c o u l d have been
used i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a muqarnas h a l f vault,
and i f q u a d r u p l e d , i t c o u l d generate a muqarnas
f u l l vault. The slab was analyzed i n detail by U l r i c h
H a r b o n the basis o f r e m a i n i n g muqarnas vault
fragments at T a k h t - i Sulayman, w h i c h were
composed o f prefabricated elements cast i n plas-
ter m o l d s and ordered i n corbeled tiers w i t h
filler units. 1 4
This plaster plate reveals t h a t the c o m p l i c a t e d
geometric m e t h o d o f designing muqarnas vaults
m u s t have been r a p i d l y disseminated t h r o u g h
such t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l drawings. Texts suggest
that drawings d i d i n fact play an i m p o r t a n t role i n
the d i f f u s i o n o f f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y architectural
i n n o v a t i o n s f r o m the I l k h a n i d capitals to p e r i p h -
eral areas, c o n t r i b u t i n g to the creation o f a unified
i m p e r i a l style associated w i t h c o u r t patronage. We
k n o w t h a t plans (tarh) were sent f r o m the I l k h a n i d
i m p e r i a l capital Tabriz to Yazd for the t o m b c o m -
plex o f Rashid a l - D i n ' s son-in-law, Shams a l - D i n . 1 5
1 3
A n o t h e r exchange o f drawings (tarh) between
Tabriz and Yazd centered o n a hospital project
c o m m i s s i o n e d by Shams a l - D i n ; s i m i l a r l y , plans
were dispatched f r o m Shiraz to Yazd for the
madrasa complex o f the a m i r G h i y a t h a l - D i n . 1 6
These references seem to p o i n t to an increas-
i n g use o f architectural drawings o n plaster and
paper i n I r a n and Central Asia d u r i n g the I l k h a n i d
p e r i o d (1256-1336). After the M o n g o l conquest o f
these r e g i o n s — n o w u n i t e d w i t h East Asia under
the Pax M o n g o l i c a (1260-1368)—an abundance
o f locally p r o d u c e d , inexpensive paper appears to
have p a r t i c u l a r l y encouraged architectural draw-
ings o n this m e d i u m . Rag paper had been i n t r o -
duced to Samarqand by Chinese prisoners o f
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS A N D SCROLLS I N T H E ISLAMIC WORLD 5

war i n 751, and because i t was m u c h cheaper 1. Plan of a muqarnas

than papyrus and parchment, its use had spread quarter vault discovered
in Takht-i Sulayman,
t h r o u g h o u t the Islamic w o r l d after the t e n t h
Iran, ca. 1270, incised
century. I t was n o t , however, u n t i l the M o n g o l s plaster slab. From
arrived i n the 1220s that an extensive paper i n d u s - Harb 1978, pl. 1. Photo:
Courtesy Deutsches
t r y developed i n Tabriz and other I r a n i a n towns
Archaologisches Institut,
under Chinese i n f l u e n c e — i n t e r e s t i n g l y this Abteilung Teheran.
occurred a r o u n d the t i m e that a paper i n d u s t r y
was being established i n Europe. The i m p l i c a t i o n s
o f this i m p o r t a n t technological change for the
transmission o f architectural knowledge i n the
Islamic w o r l d are o b v i o u s . 17
The ease o f w o r k i n g
w i t h a pen o n paper w o u l d have increased the
sophistication o f graphic conventions; n o longer
were architects restricted t o the m e d i u m o f plaster
on w h i c h designs c o u l d o n l y be r o u g h l y scratched.
The T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n c u l t u r a l sphere, w h i c h
extended f r o m the A n a t o l i a n f r o n t i e r t h r o u g h
Central Asia f r o m the late fourteenth t o the early
sixteenth century, i n h e r i t e d the M o n g o l - I l k h a n i d
architectural t r a d i t i o n as elaborated u p o n b y such
M o n g o l successor states as the Jalayirids (1336-
1432) and Muzaffarids (1314-1393). I n this p e r i o d ,
when the abundance o f paper c o n t r i b u t e d t o an
unprecedented development i n the arts o f the
b o o k , architectural drawings seem t o have been
m o r e w i d e l y used t h a n ever before. The renowned
T i m u r i d architect -engineer Ustad Qawam a l - D i n
Shirazi ( f l . 1410-1438), for example, was n o t o n l y
skilled i n engineering-geometry (muhandasi)
and architecture (mi mdri) c
b u t also i n d r a w i n g
(tarrdhi).18
That architectural drawings were also
. used i n the Arab w o r l d at this t i m e can be deduced
6 PART
2a. Ottoman plan with
three options for a mau-
soleum project, fifteenth
or sixteenth century, red
and black ink on paper.
Istanbul, Topkapi Saray1
Muzesi Arsivi, E. 9495/11.
1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
3. Ottoman plan of a
double bath, second half
of the fifteenth century,
red and black ink on
paper. Istanbul, Topkapi
Saray1 Muzesi Arsjvi,
E. 9595/7.
2b. Detail of figure 2a,
"dead drawing" of the
incised squared grid
shown in ink. Drawing
by Behcet Unsal.
f r o m the h i s t o r i a n I b n K h a l d u n ' s (1332-1406) ref-
erence to plans d r a w n for m o n u m e n t a l projects:
" A r c h i t e c t u r e is also needed w h e n rulers and
people o f a dynasty b u i l d large towns and h i g h
m o n u m e n t s [haydkil]. They t r y their u t m o s t to
make good plans and b u i l d tall structures w i t h
technical perfection, so that [architecture] can
reach its highest d e v e l o p m e n t . " 19
References to the use o f architectural drawings
o n paper m u l t i p l y considerably d u r i n g the post-
T i m u r i d era, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the w r i t t e n sources o f
the O t t o m a n , Safavid, and M u g h a l empires, attest-
i n g to a relatively widespread d r a f t i n g t r a d i t i o n o f
w h i c h o n l y a few examples have survived. Frequent
textual references i n sixteenth- and seventeenth-
century O t t o m a n and M u g h a l sources to architec-
t u r a l drawings sent f r o m dynastic capitals t o the
provinces testify to their role i n disseminating
s t r u c t u r a l and decorative design concepts, a
role that has so far been u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . 20
The
seventeenth-century French traveler Jean Chardin's
reference to a palace b u i l t by the Safavid shah
Tahmasp i n Qazvin o n the basis o f a p l a n pre-
sented to h i m by a T u r k i s h (presumably O t t o m a n )
architect suggests that occasionally architectural
drawings may have m o v e d f r o m one c o u r t to
another. 21
Indeed, plans f r o m Baghdad and Isfahan
are reported to have been available at the c o u r t o f
the M u g h a l emperor Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1666)
whose a b i l i t y to draw plans (tarh) was described by
his c o u r t h i s t o r i a n A b d a l - H a m i d L a h o r i :
c
A t other times, the superintendents o f
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f royal b u i l d i n g s , i n c o m -
pany w i t h the w o n d e r - w o r k i n g architects,
lay before the critical royal eye plans o f
proposed edifices. . . . For the m a j o r i t y
o f b u i l d i n g s he h i m s e l f draws the plans.
A n d o n the plans prepared by the skillful
architects, after l o n g consideration he
makes appropriate alterations and emen-
dations. A n d o n the final approved plans
s u b m i t t e d by the strong p i l l a r o f state and
f i r m a r m o f sovereignty, Yamin al-Daula
Asaf K h a n , he writes d o w n his sacred
j u d i c i o u s notes to serve as a guide for
the b u i l d i n g overseers and architects o f
buildings. 22
O n the basis o f reports f r o m foreign travelers,
it appears that architectural drawings were also
widely used i n Safavid I r a n . Engelbert Kaempfer
w r i t i n g i n the late seventeenth century, for
example, referred to architects at the Safavid c o u r t
w h o prepared plans and drawings for the royal
edifices. 23
I n 1660 Raphael D u Mans described
these architects (maamar, i.e., mir mar) as " c o n -
c
tractors for m a k i n g the p l a n and d r a w i n g o f
a large edifice" b u t added that their d r a f t i n g
methods differed considerably f r o m those o f their
European colleagues: " H e r e they use, depending
o n t h e i r capacity, pens to draw w i t h , b u t u n l i k e
o u r [architects] they do n o t k n o w h o w to repre-
sent a b i g palace i n terms o f its ichonography,
its o r t h o g r a p h y , or its perspective, and as i f i t were
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 7

4. Ottoman plan of a bath, second half of the

fifteenth century, ink and yellow wash on
paper. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi Muzesi
Arsivi, E. 9495/12.
6. Squared tracing board prepared for the plan of a for-
mal garden laid out for the Mughal emperor Babur,
detail of a double-page miniature painting. From Babur,
Baburnama (Memoirs of Babur), copied ca. 1580.
By courtesy of the Board of Trustees of the Victoria &
Albert Museum, London, I . M . 1913-276 and I.M.
1913-276A.

7. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder from Bukhara,

plan of a mausoleum or centrally planned pavilion,
sixteenth century, red and black ink and colors (orange,
green) on paper. Tashkent, Uzbekistan, Institute of
Oriental Studies, Uzbek Academy of Sciences.

already capable o f being i n h a b i t e d . " 2 4

The appearance o f such drawings can be

deduced f r o m s u r v i v i n g O t t o m a n g r o u n d plans
drawn o n squared paper, the earliest examples o f
w h i c h are datable to the late fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries (figs. 2 - 5 ) , and f r o m a
sixteenth-century m i n i a t u r e , w h i c h depicts the
M u g h a l emperor Babur inspecting the laying o u t
o f a f o r m a l garden. Part o f this image shows an
architect h o l d i n g a red tracing b o a r d prepared
w i t h lines o f w h i t e chalk f o r m i n g a squared g r i d
on w h i c h the rectilinear garden's p l a n w o u l d have
been traced (fig. 6 ) . 2 5
The use o f grid-based
g r o u n d plans i n O t t o m a n , M u g h a l , and Uzbek
architectural practice p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a t e d i n
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n precedents, the graphic
conventions o f w h i c h , t h o u g h adapted to different
local t r a d i t i o n s , c o n t i n u e d to be influential i n
Rajput I n d i a and Qajar I r a n d u r i n g the eighteenth
and n i n e t e e n t h centuries (figs. 7-11). 26
Some o f
these s u r v i v i n g g r o u n d plans are i n c l u d e d i n
scrolls that are s i m i l a r to the T o p k a p i scroll, and
this makes t h e m directly relevant to the subject o f
the present study.
U n t i l the recent discovery o f the Topkapi scroll,
the earliest k n o w n Islamic architectural scrolls
were those n o w kept at the I n s t i t u t e o f O r i e n t a l
Studies at the Academy o f Sciences i n Tashkent.
These fragmentary scrolls have been a t t r i b u t e d by
Soviet scholars to an Uzbek master b u i l d e r or a
5. Ottoman plan of a bath, late sixteenth cen-
g u i l d o f architects p r a c t i c i n g i n sixteenth-century
tury, red and black ink on paper. Vienna,
Bukhara. Similar scrolls were still being used by Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Cod.
the t r a d i t i o n a l M u s l i m builders o f Central Asia i n 8615, fol. 153r.
8 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION

8. Attributed to an Uzbek
master builder from
Bukhara, plan of a
madrasa or caravanserai,
sixteenth century, red
and black ink and colors
(yellow, green) on paper.
Tashkent, Uzbekistan,
Institute of Oriental
Studies, Uzbek Academy
of Sciences.

9. Plan of an unidentified
building, from the collec-
tion of drawings once
belonging to the Qajar
royal architect Mirza
Akbar, late eighteenth or
nineteenth century, ink
on paper. By courtesy of
the Board of Trustees of
the Victoria & Albert
Museum, London.

10. Plan and elevation

of a Rajput palace in
Jaipur, eighteenth cen-
tury, ink on paper. From
Tillotson 1987,104, fig.
129. Jaipur, Rajasthan,
City Palace Museum.

11. Detail from the plan

of a Rajput palace in
Jaipur, eighteenth cen-
tury, ink on paper. From
Begley and Desai 1989,
10, fig. 10. Jaipur,
Rajasthan, City Palace
Museum.
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 9

12. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder from Bukhara,

scroll fragment with repeat units for geometric patterns
and inscriptions intended for banna'i brick masonry,
sixteenth century, ink and colors on paper. From
Baklanov 1947,103, p1. 1. Tashkent, Uzbekistan, Institute
of Oriental Studies, Uzbek Academy of Sciences.

the early t w e n t i e t h century, and as we shall see,
their c o n t i n u e d use has been d o c u m e n t e d i n
c o n t e m p o r a r y I r a n , I r a q , and M o r o c c o as well.
These scrolls, w h i c h often c o m b i n e geometric
patterns for t w o - and three-dimensional architec-
t u r a l revetments, w i t h grid-based g r o u n d plans,
appear to have been c o m p i l e d by master builders
responsible for c o o r d i n a t i n g all aspects o f a b u i l d -
i n g , i n c l u d i n g its decorative p r o g r a m . A l t h o u g h
they constitute a d r a f t i n g t r a d i t i o n that was once
quite widespread i n the Islamic w o r l d , i t is difficult
to determine w h e n such scrolls first came i n t o use.
I find i t t e m p t i n g to hypothesize that their scroll
f o r m a t was adopted under influences c o m i n g
f r o m M o n g o l China d u r i n g the I l k h a n i d p e r i o d .
However, s u r v i v i n g examples o f early t h i r t e e n t h -
century A y y u b i d pilgrimage scrolls, w h i c h sche-
matically depict the layouts o f Islamic sanctuaries
i n plan and elevation, suggest that the scroll for-
m a t employed by master builders may already have
been i n use before the arrival o f the M o n g o l s . 27
the Leningrad Academy o f Sciences o n the i n i t i a -
tive o f A . A . Semenov, the curator o f manuscripts
at the State Public L i b r a r y i n Tashkent, they were
transferred to that l i b r a r y and classified by N i k o l a i
Borisovich Baklanov i n the early 1940s. They
finally ended up as a m i x e d g r o u p at the I n s t i t u t e
o f O r i e n t a l Studies i n Tashkent where they are
n o w kept i n eight folders, having been cut up for
easier preservation and pasted o n t o separate card-
b o a r d sheets. A t the t i m e o f t h e i r discovery the
mode o f geometric design codified i n these frag-
m e n t a r y scrolls was identified as the girih (Persian,
" k n o t " ) by t r a d i t i o n a l Central Asian master b u i l d -
ers w h o still used such scrolls. This t e r m refers to
the n o d a l p o i n t s or vertices o f the weblike geo-
m e t r i c g r i d systems or c o n s t r u c t i o n lines used i n
generating variegated patterns for architectural
plans and decorative revetments i n two and three
dimensions (each " k n o t " center where a n u m b e r
o f c o n s t r u c t i o n lines intersects has an n-fold
r o t a t i o n a l s y m m e t r y ) . The same master builders
1958 by G. A . Gaganov, w h o a t t e m p t e d to classify
their u n d e r l y i n g g r i d systems. 30
The Tashkent
scrolls were subsequently referred to i n several
Soviet p u b l i c a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g those o f Lazar
Rempe1', Galina Pugachenkova, Pugachenkova
and Rempe1', M i t k h a t Bulatov, and most recently
Iosif N o t k i n . 3 1
These studies addressed various
issues, i n c l u d i n g the m a t h e m a t i c a l analysis o f geo-
m e t r i c patterns, the relationship o f scroll patterns
to plan types and architectural revetments seen i n
the extant Islamic m o n u m e n t s o f Central Asia, the
m a t h e m a t i c a l bases o f architectural practice, and
the i m p l i c i t theory o f geometric h a r m o n i z a t i o n
e m b o d i e d i n the Tashkent scrolls. I t was Bulatov
w h o observed that the t w o - and three-dimensional
patterns c o m p i l e d i n these scrolls testified to the
use o f similar geometric processes i n architectural
design and geometric o r n a m e n t to create an over-
all sense o f u n i t y i n the b r i c k - a n d - t i l e based a r c h i -
tecture o f Central Asia, w h i c h t h r i v e d o n lavish
decorative effects. 32

Given the scarcity o f i n f o r m a t i o n , the question
o f w h e n Islamic architectural scrolls o r i g i n a t e d
cannot yet definitively be resolved.
T H E T A S H K E N T S C R O L L S
Before t u r n i n g to the Topkapi scroll itself, let us
briefly consider comparable s u r v i v i n g scrolls. The
fragmentary Tashkent scrolls, o r i g i n a l l y belonging
to the collection o f the Bukhara M u s e u m , were
analyzed i n several Soviet publications f o l l o w i n g
their discovery i n the 1930s. After being restored at
differentiated this m o d e o f geometric design f r o m
curvilinear vegetal patterns governed by a less r i g -
orous, i m p l i c i t u n d e r l y i n g geometry; the latter
they identified as islimi (the spiraling ivy or vine-
a n d - t e n d r i l m o t i f ) , a t e r m sometimes c o r r u p t e d
i n t o islmi (Islamic). 28
The Tashkent scrolls were briefly discussed
i n two articles by Baklanov. 29
The first o f these
described the grid-based g r o u n d plans and m u q a r -
nas vault projections, w h i l e the second focused o n
patterns for t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric o r n a m e n t .
These geometric patterns were also analyzed i n
The eight folders i n Tashkent c o n t a i n fragments
o f several scrolls, the earliest two o f w h i c h have
been dated to the sixteenth century o n the basis o f
their Samarqandi rag paper. The first o f these frag-
ments (38 c m X 160 c m ) consists o f five geometric
patterns and a design for a naskhi i n s c r i p t i o n o n
squared paper i n t e n d e d for transfer to bannai
b r i c k masonry (fig. 12). 33
The second fragment,
d r a w n o n the same type o f Samarqandi paper, also
38 centimeters h i g h , is a part o f a scroll w i t h three
g r o u n d plans superimposed o n squared grids and
a segment o f a f o u r t h p l a n ; these are grouped
10 PART
14. Attributed to an
Uzbek master builder
from Bukhara, plan for a
muqarnas quarter vault,
sixteenth century, red
and black ink and colors
(orange, yellow, green)
on paper. Tashkent,
Uzbekistan, Institute of
Oriental Studies, Uzbek
Academy of Sciences.
15. Attributed to an
Uzbek master builder
from Bukhara, plan for a
muqarnas quarter vault,
sixteenth century, red
and black ink and colors
(orange, yellow, green)
on paper. Tashkent,
Uzbekistan, Institute of
Oriental Studies, Uzbek
Academy of Sciences.
1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
13. Attributed to an
Uzbek master builder
from Bukhara, plan for a
muqarnas quarter vault,
sixteenth century, red
and black ink and color
(green) on paper.
Tashkent, Uzbekistan,
Institute of Oriental
Studies, Uzbek Academy
of Sciences.
together w i t h three g r o u n d projections o f m u q a r -
nas quarter vaults i n square frames and another
muqarnas vault composed o f four stellate domelets
decorated w i t h square kufic calligraphy (see figs. 7,
8,13-15). 34
The p o l y c h r o m a t i c designs i n b o t h o f
these Tashkent scroll fragments are d r a w n w i t h a
reed pen i n black and red i n k , h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h
orange, yellow, ocher tones, and green, often used
i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h s t i p p l i n g o r cross-hatching t o
distinguish different spatial layers collapsed o n t o
a single plane. T h e i r sophisticated draftsmanship
and color-coded graphic conventions testify to the
advantages o f paper over plaster, an observation
c o n f i r m e d b y c o m p a r i n g their detailed muqarnas
drawings w i t h the simple muqarnas quarter vault
p r o j e c t i o n scratched o n the I l k h a n i d plaster tablet
f r o m T a k h t - i Sulayman (see fig. 1).
The r e m a i n i n g six folders at Tashkent are gen-
erally dated t o the sixteenth century b u t may w e l l
include later drawings f r o m the seventeenth cen-
tury. These folders c o n t a i n scroll fragments (exe-
cuted o n smaller pieces o f paper) w i t h designs
typical o f Uzbek architecture. They are d o m i n a t e d
by projections for muqarnas quarter vaults r e n -
dered either i n black i n k ( w i t h some units m a r k e d
by small black circles) o r i n black i n k h i g h l i g h t e d
w i t h red, green, and s t i p p l i n g (figs. 16-19). These
muqarnas projections, contained i n square o r
nearly square frames o f various sizes, are simpler
and smaller t h a n those i n c l u d e d i n the previously
discussed scroll fragments (see figs. 13-15). 35
The
second largest g r o u p o f drawings i n these six f o l d -
ers, executed i n simple b l a c k - i n k outlines, c o n -
sists o f projections for intersecting arch-net vaults
f o r m i n g stellate patterns (figs. 2 0 - 2 2 ) , accom-
panied b y designs for t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l i n t e r -
l o c k i n g geometric patterns (figs. 2 3 - 2 6 ) and epig-
raphy. Such arch-net (or squinch-net) v a u l t s —
composed o f a series o f r i b l i k e intersecting p o i n t e d
arch profiles and created b y p r o j e c t i n g a stellate
geometric p a t t e r n o n t o a curved surface—are
c o m m o n l y k n o w n as yazdi bandi ( b i n d i n g o r k n o t
m e t h o d associated w i t h Yazd); they were w i d e l y
used i n the architecture o f I r a n and Central Asia
f r o m the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n p e r i o d o n w a r d . 3 6
Executed w i t h simple drafting i n s t r u m e n t s
(ruler, d i v i d i n g compass, and set squares), the
Tashkent scrolls, t h e n , consist o f f o r m a l drawings
o f squared g r o u n d plans, geometric and calli-
graphic patterns, and g r o u n d projections o f
muqarnas o r arch-net vaults contained i n square
and rectangular frames. They appear to have been
w o r k s h o p catalogs prepared t o preserve the m e m -
ory o f codified t w o - and three-dimensional ideal
patterns; these were generated b y various types o f
u n d e r l y i n g geometric g r i d systems, the construc-
t i o n lines o f w h i c h are i n d i c a t e d either as i n k e d
outlines or as u n i n k e d " d e a d " drawings incised
o n the paper surface. They are based o n the funda-
m e n t a l concept o f the repeat u n i t , the fragment
o f an overall p a t t e r n meant t o be m u l t i p l i e d
or rotated b y s y m m e t r y . 37
Unaccompanied by
explanatory texts o r measurements, these drawings
seem t o have served as an aide-memoire for a r c h i -
tects and master builders w h o were already f a m i l -
iar t h r o u g h experience w i t h the coded graphic
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 11

16. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder from Bukhara,
plan for a muqarnas quarter vault, sixteenth or
seventeenth century, ink on paper. Tashkent,
Uzbekistan, Institute of Oriental Studies, Uzbek
Academy of Sciences.
17. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder from Bukhara,
plan for a muqarnas quarter vault, sixteenth or
seventeenth century, ink on paper. Tashkent,
Uzbekistan, Institute of Oriental Studies, Uzbek
Academy of Sciences.
18. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder from Bukhara,
plan for a muqarnas quarter vault, sixteenth or
seventeenth century, ink on paper. Tashkent,
Uzbekistan, Institute of Oriental Studies, Uzbek
Academy of Sciences.
19. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder from Bukhara,
plan for a muqarnas quarter vault, sixteenth or
seventeenth century, ink on paper. Tashkent,
Uzbekistan, Institute of Oriental Studies, Uzbek
Academy of Sciences.
20. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder from Bukhara,
plan for a stellate arch-net vault, sixteenth or seven-
teenth century, ink on paper. Tashkent, Uzbekistan,
Institute of Oriental Studies, Uzbek Academy of
Sciences.
21. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder from Bukhara,
plan for a stellate arch-net vault, sixteenth or seven-
teenth century, ink on paper. Tashkent, Uzbekistan,
Institute of Oriental Studies, Uzbek Academy of
Sciences.
12 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
language used i n t h e m . They f u n c t i o n e d as m n e -
m o n i c devices t h a t assured the preservation and
transmission o f architectural knowledge over the
generations. The abstract patterns codified i n the
scrolls c o u l d be adapted to given dimensions o n
the c o n s t r u c t i o n site where they were often traced
full scale o n the floor or o n w a l l s . 38
The geometric g r i d systems and p a t t e r n types
c o m p i l e d i n the Tashkent scrolls were j u d g e d by
Soviet scholars to be entirely consistent w i t h . t h e
design vocabulary o f Uzbek m o n u m e n t s preserved
i n Central Asia. The g r o u n d plans represented
standard b u i l d i n g types codified i n the T i m u r i d
p e r i o d and further elaborated by Uzbek b u i l d -
ers, as d i d the accompanying t w o - and three-
d i m e n s i o n a l patterns for decorative architectural
22. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder from Bukhara,
plans for two stellate arch-net quarter vaults, sixteenth revetments. Baklanov related the Tashkent scrolls'
or seventeenth century, ink on paper. Tashkent, decorative patterns based o n squared grids to spe-
Uzbekistan, Institute of Oriental Studies, Uzbek cific developments that occurred i n the bannai
Academy of Sciences.
b r i c k masonry technique d u r i n g the T i m u r i d and
Uzbek p e r i o d s . 39
H e observed that these drawings
were made to c o n f o r m to standardized glazed
or unglazed bricks o f u n i f o r m w i d t h b u t v a r y i n g
length ( p r o p o r t i o n a l l y related to a square m o d u l e )
that c o u l d o n l y be laid h o r i z o n t a l l y , vertically, and
diagonally ( f o r m i n g 45, 90, and 135 degrees), a
technical constraint that governed the design
process. H e was able t o demonstrate h o w changing
b r i c k l a y i n g techniques affected the types o f geo-
m e t r i c b r i c k - a n d - t i l e patterns used i n the Islamic
m o n u m e n t s o f Central Asia between the t e n t h and
the seventeenth centuries.
Baklanov n o t e d t h a t the e v o l u t i o n o f color-
23. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder
from Bukhara, scroll fragment with repeat
unit for a star-and-polygon pattern,
sixteenth century, ink on paper. From
Rempel' 1961, 399, fig. 1. Tashkent,
Uzbekistan, Institute of Oriental Studies,
Uzbek Academy of Sciences.
24. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder
from Bukhara, scroll fragment with repeat
unit for a star-and-polygon pattern,
sixteenth century, ink on paper. From
Rempel' 1961, 402, fig. 1. Tashkent,
Uzbekistan, Institute of Oriental Studies,
Uzbek Academy of Sciences.
glazed bricks, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
turquoise i n the eleventh century and c u l m i n a t i n g
i n a w i d e r color range by the f o u r t e e n t h century,
had b r o u g h t about a standardization o f geometric
o r n a m e n t . Between the t e n t h and the eleventh
centuries the absence o f color had forced designers
to in ven t m o r e complex geometric patterns exe-
cuted w i t h a variety o f b r i c k and terra-cotta shapes
cut i n c o m p l i c a t e d forms and laid at m u l t i p l e
angles to each other. I n T i m u r i d and Uzbek b u i l d -
ings erected between the late f o u r t e e n t h and the
seventeenth centuries, the unprecedented expanse
o f walls that had to be covered w i t h p o l y c h r o m a t i c
surface revetments i n a wide variety o f media
resulted i n a relative s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f geometric
c o m p o s i t i o n s , and these became b o l d l y enlarged.
Small m o l d e d , cut, and fired bricks or terra-cotta
pieces were no longer p r o d u c e d i n the variety o f
shapes c o m m o n i n Seljuq and I l k h a n i d m o n u -
ments. The curvilinear outlines seen i n earlier
geometric revetments had almost completely dis-
appeared f r o m T i m u r i d and Uzbek geometric pat-
t e r n i n g , w h i c h t o o k o n a p r e d o m i n a n t l y angular
appearance i n contrast to the curvilinear vegetal
and calligraphic compositions executed i n mosaic
t i l i n g . Baklanov concluded that i t was i n this par-
ticular context that the somewhat standardized
angular bannai b r i c k patterns o f the Tashkent
scrolls were c r e a t e d . 40
Like Baklanov, Rempel' also detected a stan-
d a r d i z a t i o n i n the p r o p o r t i o n a l systems o f girihs
collected i n the Tashkent scrolls, reflecting a rela-
tive s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f geometry i n the decorative
 ARCHITECTURAL
revetments o f T i m u r i d and Uzbek m o n u m e n t s .
The shapes o f the rectangular and square frames
that contained girihs i n these scrolls were n o t a r b i -
trary; each repeat u n i t corresponded to a definite
p r o p o r t i o n and c o u l d o n l y have been applied to
a surface w i t h the same p r o p o r t i o n s , regardless
o f actual size. Nevertheless, u n l i k e the decorative
revetments o f the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
w h i c h were custom-made for p a r t i c u l a r m o n u -
ments, those i n c l u d e d i n the Tashkent scroll,
he observed, were designed i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f
such considerations. To Rempel' this signaled
that the " g o l d e n age" o f geometric o r n a m e n t a t i o n
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the complex level o f Islamic
research i n the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences was over.
N o w decorators, diverted by the development o f
color, w h i c h was accompanied by a resurgence o f
curvilinear vegetal and floral m o t i f s executed i n
mosaic t i l i n g , avoided complex geometry. Rempel'
argued that the masters w h o had created the
Tashkent scrolls used simple formulas o f practical
geometry to create standardized t w o - and three-
d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns that no longer
required an advanced knowledge o f c o m p u t a t i o n a l
mathematics or t r i g o n o m e t r y . 41
Bulatov agreed that the geometric g r i d systems
used i n T i m u r i d and Uzbek m o n u m e n t s to har-
monize all aspects o f architectural design, f r o m
g r o u n d plans and wall patterns to decorative vault-
i n g , differed f r o m those favored i n earlier periods.
H e identified six basic g r i d systems that regulated
geometric decoration i n Central Asian m o n u m e n t s
between the t e n t h and twelfth centuries (square;
DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE
25. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder
from Bukhara, repeat unit for a star-and-
polygon pattern, sixteenth century, ink on
paper. From Rempel' 1961, 401, fig. 1.
Tashkent, Uzbekistan, Institute of Oriental
Studies, Uzbek Academy of Sciences.
26. Attributed to an Uzbek master builder
from Bukhara, repeat unit for a star-and-
polygon pattern, sixteenth century, ink on
paper. From Rempel' 1961, 401, fig. 3.
Tashkent, Uzbekistan, Institute of Oriental
Studies, Uzbek Academy of Sciences.
square and its derivatives; semisquare and its
derivatives, or the double square; equilateral
triangle and its derivatives; c o m b i n a t i o n o f e q u i -
lateral triangle and square; and the radial g r i d ) .
A m o n g these the radial g r i d came to enjoy p a r t i c u -
lar favor i n the T i m u r i d p e r i o d , as d i d the simpler
grids based o n the derivatives o f the square and
the triangle. By the end o f the fifteenth century
designers had come to prefer b o t h t w o - and
three-dimensional patterns generated by radial
coordinates w i t h i n square or rectangular repeat
units. Bulatov noted that radial symmetries were
used by T i m u r i d and p o s t - T i m u r i d designers
to h a r m o n i z e t w o - and three-dimensional a r c h i -
tectural revetments, decorative v a u l t i n g , and the
spatial arrangement o f centralized b u i l d i n g s . The
direct translatability between planar and spatial
geometry, based o n a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f geometric
progressions a l l o w i n g a wide range o f v a r i a t i o n ,
c o n t r i b u t e d to the sense o f u n i t y i n T i m u r i d a r c h i -
tecture and its surface d e c o r a t i o n , reflecting an
i n t i m a t e relationship between the principles o f
architectural design and o r n a m e n t . 42
I n the Tashkent scrolls the most c o m m o n g r i d
systems used are the square or 45-degree r o t a t e d -
square g r i d , d r a w n i n black i n k (used i n squared
g r o u n d plans, square kufic calligraphy, and pat-
terns for bannai brick m a s o n r y ) , and the radial
g r i d , scratched o n paper w i t h the sharp p o i n t o f a
compass b u t n o t gone over i n i n k . Based o n d i v i d -
i n g concentric circles i n t o equal arcs by equidis-
tant r a d i i , along w h i c h rows o f polygons and star
polygons inscribed i n smaller subsidiary systems o f
ISLAMIC WORLD 13
circles are f o r m e d , the radial g r i d constitutes the
basis o f b o t h t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geomet-
ric designs, i n c l u d i n g arch-net and muqarnas vault
projections. It is often used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
other g r i d systems and axes o f d y n a m i c symmetry,
resulting i n composite networks o f u n i n k e d
" d e a d " drawings that generate complex m u l t i -
layered patterns.
The radial grids o f the arch-net and muqarnas
vault projections i n the Tashkent scrolls have
recently been analyzed by N o t k i n (see figs. 13-22).
I n an earlier study o f muqarnas types used i n the
Shah-i Z i n d a complex at Samarqand, N o t k i n had
concluded that f r o m the end o f the f o u r t e e n t h
century o n w a r d radial grids, w h i c h were p a r t i c u -
larly suited to the versatile m e d i u m o f plaster, had
started to replace rectilinear networks used i n pre-
vious muqarnas vaults composed o f less flexible
terra-cotta units. The radially arranged tiers o f the
Tashkent scrolls' muqarnas drawings, replete w i t h
a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f stars, were largely i n t e n d e d for
the plaster m e d i u m . N o t k i n identified t h e m as
Uzbek elaborations o f the radially s y m m e t r i c a l
plaster muqarnas type that had experienced an
unprecedented inventiveness i n the late T i m u r i d
p e r i o d . H e a t t e m p t e d to decipher the coded c o n -
ventions o f these muqarnas drawings by separating
their i n d i v i d u a l tiers, an exercise that led h i m to
conclude that the Tashkent scrolls (despite their
intricate c o d i n g o f corbeled spatial layers) c o n t a i n
ambiguous representations open to several alter-
native readings. Regarding this a m b i g u i t y as a
measure i n t e n d e d t o protect secret craft k n o w l -
14 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
27. Detail from a scroll showing stellate arch-net
patterns and arch elevations, from the collection of
drawings once belonging to the Qajar royal architect
Mirza Akbar, late eighteenth or nineteenth century, red
and black ink on paper. By courtesy of the Board of
Trustees of the Victoria & Albert Museum, London,
Library, M S no. 55.
28. Scroll fragments showing stellate arch-net patterns for
vaults, arch elevations, and bannai brick masonry designs
for arch spandrels, from the collection of drawings once
belonging to the Qajar royal architect Mirza Akbar, late
eighteenth or nineteenth century, red and black ink and
colors (yellow, pink, blue-gray) on paper. By courtesy of
the Board of Trustees of the Victoria & Albert Museum,
London, Indian and South-East Asian Section, M S no. 32.
edge b y enabling the designer alone t o translate
the coded drawings i n t o spatial forms, N o t k i n
identified these muqarnas drawings as the crea-
tions o f a B u k h a r a n g u i l d o f master builders a n d
architect-engineers [muhandis) active i n the
sixteenth c e n t u r y . 43
The fragmentary Tashkent scrolls almost cer-
t a i n l y reflect the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n d r a f t i n g
methods o f the fifteenth century, i f n o t earlier,
given the stylistic conservatism o f sixteenth- a n d
seventeenth-century Uzbek architecture i n B u -
khara, w h i c h often perpetuated already established
formulas 4 4
T h e i r graphic sophistication i n c o m -
parison to later scrolls used by elderly M u s l i m
master builders p r a c t i c i n g i n n i n e t e e n t h - a n d early
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Central Asia was i m m e d i a t e l y
n o t e d by Soviet scholars. Despite their s i m p l i c i t y ,
however, the m o r e recent scrolls testify t o a
relatively u n b r o k e n t r a d i t i o n o f architectural
practice i n Central Asia f r o m at least the T i m u r i d
period onward. 4 5
N I N E T E E N T H - A N D
T W E N T I E T H - C E N T U R Y S C R O L L S
Thanks t o the resident architect o f the B r i t i s h
Embassy i n I r a n , Caspar P u r d o n Clarke, a
Freemason w h o managed t o penetrate the secrecy
o f the masons' g u i l d i n Tehran, we k n o w that
scrolls w i t h architectural drawings s i m i l a r t o those
d o c u m e n t e d i n Central Asia at the t u r n o f this
century were also being used b y c o n t e m p o r a r y
I r a n i a n master masons. W h i l e he was overseeing
the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the B r i t i s h Legation B u i l d i n g
at Tehran, Clarke was " a l l o w e d t o acquire a q u a n -
t i t y o f these r o l l books, most o f w h i c h are n o w
i n the L i b r a r y o f the South Kensington M u s e u m "
i n r e t u r n for having taught the g u i l d master's
son the m o d e r n technique o f casting plaster i n
gelatin m o l d s . 46
These scrolls, preserved at the V i c t o r i a & A l b e r t
M u s e u m , are a t t r i b u t e d to the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
Qajar state architect {muhandis al-dawlat) Mirza
A k b a r (figs. 2 7 - 3 6 ) . They are i d e n t i f i e d i n the
m u s e u m entry as a " c o l l e c t i o n dispersed at the
death o f M i r z a A k b a r , acquired f r o m Oostads [i.e.,
ustad, " m a s t e r " ] K h o d a d a d a n d A k b a r , Master
builders o f Teheran, by C. P u r d o n Clarke, Super-
i n t e n d a n t o f Her B r i t a n n i c Majesty's W o r k s i n
Persia, January 1876." Today o n l y two o f these
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y scrolls are preserved i n t h e i r
o r i g i n a l f o r m a t , r o l l e d a n d protected b y leather
flaps. T h e i r u n i n k e d " d e a d " c o n s t r u c t i o n lines,
scratched o n the paper w i t h a p o i n t e d t o o l b y
means o f w h i c h variegated designs were generated,
are described i n a note scribbled o n one o f the
scrolls: " T h e u n i n k e d d r y p o i n t t r a c i n g indicates
the basis o f the f o r m a t i o n o f f i g u r e s . " 47
The
first scroll is o n blue paper (22.5 c m h i g h ) a n d
is i d e n t i f i e d as " R o l l o f Standard Patterns for
Tessellated W o r k " ; i t provides c o m p o s i t i o n s for
t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns i n black i n k ,
w h i c h c o u l d be applied i n several media. T h e sec-
o n d scroll, o n w h i t e paper (20.5 c m h i g h ) , is i d e n -
tified as " R o l l o f Standard Patterns for G r o i n e d
V a u l t i n g " ; i t gives projections for stellate arch-net
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 15

29. S c r o l l fragments s h o w i n g m u q a r n a s quarter vaults

w i t h arch-net squinches, f r o m t h ecollection o f drawings
o n c e b e l o n g i n g t o t h eQ a j a r r o y a l architect M i r z a A k b a r ,
late eighteenth o r nineteenth century, i n k o n paper.
B y courtesy o ft h e B o a r d o fTrustees o ft h e Victoria &
A l b e r t M u s e u m , L o n d o n , I n d i a n a n dS o u t h - E a s t A s i a n
S e c t i o n , MSn o . 4 1 .

vaults executed i nblack i n k , occasionally h i g h -

l i g h t e d i n r e d ( s e e fig. 27).
30a, b. Scroll fragments s h o w i n g m u q a r n a s quarter
T h e other, m o r e fragile scrolls were c u tu p i n vaults a n dmuqarnas fragments m i x e d w i t h arch-net
L o n d o n (asw e r e those i nT a s h k e n t ) a n d pasted vault patterns, f r o m t h ecollection o fdrawings once
in n o particular order onto fifty-three large sheets b e l o n g i n g t o t h eQ a j a r r o y a l architect M i r z a A k b a r , late
e i g h t e e n t h o r n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , r e da n db l a c k i n k o n
o f cardboard. T h e y are n o w kept i nt h e I n d i a n
paper. B ycourtesy o ft h e B o a r d o fTrustees o f t h e
D e p a r t m e n t o fthe Victoria & Albert M u s e u m Victoria & Albert M u s e u m , London, Indian a n d South-
( s e e figs. 2 8 - 3 Ó ) . 48
T h e black-ink outlines o f these E a s t A s i a n S e c t i o n , MS n o s . 3 8 - 3 9 .

pasted drawings, w h i c h generally provide t h e

repeat u n i t o fthe overall design, w e r e once again
generated b yvarious grid systems a n d often high-
lighted w i t h r e d a n d other lively colors (yellow,
orange, pink, a n d blue-gray), like t h e drawings i n
Tashkent. T h i s nineteenth-century collectiono f
designs a n d pounces, w h i c h m a y contain earlier
specimens, consists o fdrawings f o rt h e construc-
t i o n o fa r c h curves a n d o r n a m e n t a l details f o r
spandrels, capitals, borders, vault projections
(arch-net a n d muqarnas), square o r hexagonal
tiles, m o s a i c tile w o r k , g e o m e t r i c patterns a n d
i n s c r i p t i o n s i n t e n d e d f o r bannà'ïbvick masonry,
geometric w i n d o w lattices, a n d g r o u n d plans
o n s q u a r e d grids (as w e l l as Q a j a r e s q u e figurai
sketches o ffairies, birds, a n i m a l s , m y t h i c a l crea-
tures, flowers, cypress trees, a n d vegetal p a t t e r n s ) .
Although thecollection includes m a n y geometric
patterns s i m i l a r t o those i nTashkent, i talso c o n -
tains E u r o p e a n i z i n g m o t i f s a n d eclectic c o m p o s i -
tions inconsistent with a T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n design
r e p e r t o r y ( s e e fig. 36).
T h e M i r z a A k b a r drawings arem o r e sketchy
i n n a t u r e t h a n those i nT a s h k e n t . M o r e o v e r t h e
former include both freehand figurai motifs
16 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION

•
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 17

31. Scroll fragments showing geometric patterns, inscrip-

tions, and ground plans drawn on squared grids, from
the collection of drawings once belonging to the Qajar
royal architect Mirza Akbar, late eighteenth or nine-
teenth century, ink on paper. By courtesy of the Board of
Trustees of the Victoria & Albert Museum, London,
Indian and South-East Asian Section, M S no. 25.

32. Scroll fragments showing geometric patterns, inscrip-

tions, and ground plans drawn on squared grids, from
the collection of drawings once belonging to the Qajar
royal architect Mirza Akbar, late eighteenth or nine-
teenth century, ink on paper. By courtesy of the Board of
Trustees of the Victoria & Albert Museum, London,
Indian and South-East Asian Section, MS no. 24.

33. Scroll fragments showing geometric patterns and

inscriptions drawn on squared grids, from the collection
of drawings once belonging to the Qajar royal architect
Mirza Akbar, late eighteenth or nineteenth century, red
and black ink on paper. By courtesy of the Board of
Trustees of the Victoria & Albert Museum, London,
Indian and South-East Asian Section, MS no. 20.
18 PART 1. THE SCROLL
34a, b. Scroll fragments showing square, rectangular, and
pentagonal repeat units for geometric tile panels, from
the collection of drawings once belonging to the Qajar
royal architect Mirza Akbar, late eighteenth or
nineteenth century, red and black ink on paper. By cour-
tesy of the Board of Trustees of the Victoria & Albert
Museum, London, Indian and South-East Asian Section,
M S nos. 21-22.
TRADITION
35. Scroll fragment showing geometric patterns for
window grilles, from the collection of drawings once
belonging to the Qajar royal architect Mirza Akbar, late
eighteenth or nineteenth century, ink on paper. By cour-
tesy of the Board of Trustees of the Victoria & Albert
Museum, London, Indian and South-East Asian Section,
M S no. 44.
 ARCHITECTURAL
36. Scroll fragment showing the elevation for a mihrab
drawn on a squared grid, from the collection of drawings
once belonging to the Qajar royal architect Mirza Akbar,
late eighteenth or nineteenth century, ink on paper. By
courtesy of the Board of Trustees of the Victoria & Albert
Museum, London, Indian and South-East Asian Section,
M S no. 14.
DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD
and arch elevations; these are missing f r o m the
Tashkent scrolls, w h i c h consist exclusively o f
g r o u n d plans, g r o u n d projections o f vaults, and
surface patterns. The muqarnas designs i n the
V i c t o r i a 8c A l b e r t M u s e u m are also quite ele-
mentary w h e n compared to the earlier ones i n
Tashkent (cf. figs. 13-19, 2 9 - 3 0 ) . The drawings
i n L o n d o n are freehand and consist o f weblike
lines i n black i n k , occasionally h i g h l i g h t e d i n red;
they no longer e m p l o y the complex color c o d i n g
or s t i p p l i n g seen earlier. This may be explained by
the relative standardization and s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f
muqarnas design i n Qajar I r a n .
A selected g r o u p o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric
patterns f r o m the " c o l l e c t i o n o f drawings made by
M i r z a A k b a r , master-builder to the Shah o f Persia
i n the early part o f the nineteenth c e n t u r y " was
first published i n A r c h i b a l d H . Christie's b o o k o n
o r n a m e n t , Traditional Methods of Pattern Design-
ing, 1910, and later i n Ernst H . G o m b r i c h ' s Sense
of Order, 1979. Christie observed that patterns
f o r m e d by i n t e r l o c k i n g stars and polygons i n the
M i r z a A k b a r scrolls were generated by a series
o f concentric circles subdivided by rays, w h i c h
f o r m e d complex constellations o f radial s y m m e t r y
(figs. 3 7 - 3 9 ) . This m e t h o d allowed Islamic design-
ers to "recast familiar types o f p a t t e r n by means
o f t h e i r newly discovered f o r m u l a , " g i v i n g t h e m a
distinctive appearance. Christie singled o u t such
i n t e r l o c k i n g star-and-polygon patterns as " t h e
most characteristic t r i u m p h s o f Islamic o r n a m e n -
tal i n v e n t i o n , " i n n o v a t i o n s that had relatively little
influence o n Western o r n a m e n t a l art. He c o n -
19
37a. Archibald H . Christie,
drawing of a star-and-polygon
pattern from the Mirza Akbar
scrolls. From Christie 1929, 257,
fig. 290. Photo: By permission
of Oxford University Press.
37b. Archibald H. Christie,
diagram showing the uninked
radial grid lines of figure 37a.
From Christie 1929, 258, fig. 291.
Photo: By permission of Oxford
University Press.
cluded that "as the intricasies o f these patterns
were gradually mastered, each was reduced to a
stereotyped f o r m u l a , and passed f r o m h a n d to
h a n d u n t i l a collection o f w o r k i n g drawings such
as his [ M i r z a Akbar's] became a necessary part o f
the material e q u i p m e n t o f every w o r k s h o p . " 4 9
Clarke described the curious way i n w h i c h such
p a t t e r n scrolls were p u t together to record w o r k -
shop practices. The g r o u n d plans were first w o r k e d
out o n a squared t r a c i n g board (probably resem-
b l i n g the one seen i n fig. 6) by the master b u i l d e r
and then copied by his assistants o n t o squared
paper to preserve t h e m for future reference.
Clarke's valuable account thus suggests that most
o f the d r a w i n g s — g l u e d together i n no p a r t i c u l a r
order i n s c r o l l s — w o u l d have accumulated as
copies o f executed or experimental designs:
So w e l l concealed are the methods used by
o r i e n t a l craftsmen t o produce the w o r k ,
w h i c h often puzzles us by its complexity,
that travellers have been deceived i n t o
believing that by some i n t u i t i v e faculty
the Eastern master-builder is able to dis-
pense w i t h plans, elevations and sections,
and start the foundations o f the various
parts o f his structure w i t h o u t a precise
p r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the b u l k and require-
ments o f the several parts. To all appear-
ance the Persian master-builder is
independent o f the aid o f plans. W h e n
engaged to b u i l d a house he first r o u g h l y
levels the g r o u n d and t h e n traces o u t the
20
39a. Archibald H .
Christie, drawing of a
star-and-polygon pattern
with a central swastika
from the Mirza Akbar
scrolls. From Christie
1929, 43, fig. 36. Photo: By
permission of Oxford
University Press.
39b. Archibald H .
Christie, diagram show-
ing the uninked radial
grid lines of figure 39a.
From Christie 1929, 268,
fig. 306. Photo: By
permission of Oxford
University Press.
PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
38a. Archibald H . Christie, drawing of a
star-and-polygon pattern from the Mirza
Akbar scrolls. From Christie 1929, 254,
fig. 286. Photo: By permission of Oxford
University Press.
38b. Archibald H . Christie, diagram show-
ing the uninked radial grid lines of figure
38a. From Christie 1929, 255, fig. 287.
Photo: By permission of Oxford University
Press.
p o s i t i o n o f the walls ( f u l l size) w i t h p o w -
dered "gatch" or plaster o f Paris, appar-
ently w i t h o u t other measurement than
foot paces. A c t u a l l y he has first o f all
w o r k e d o u t the general scheme, n o t as
o u r architects d o , o n p l a i n paper, b u t
on a sectional l i n e d t r a c i n g b o a r d , every
square o f w h i c h represents either one or
four bricks. These tracing boards are the
key to the mystery o f t h e i r craft, and
masons w i l l understand the significance
o f the discovery that they represent i n
m i n i a t u r e scale the floor o f the master-
builder's w o r k r o o m . . . .
The surface is r u l e d b o t h ways w i t h fine
lines parallel to the sides, like the sectional
paper used by engineers. I t is then p r o -
tected by a coat o f varnish, w h i c h allows
the d r a w i n g to be washed o f f w h e n done
w i t h . The system o f p l a n n i n g is simple, as
i n Persia the bricks are square. A reed pen
or b r u s h is used to d o t w i t h I n d i a n i n k
each small square w h i c h represents either
one or four bricks, and w h e n the design
has been f o u n d to w o r k o u t satisfactorily
the squares are filled up w i t h black and
the plan is ready. I t is then copied by an
assistant o n to similar squared paper and
w o r k is set o u t by laying bricks corre-
s p o n d i n g w i t h those o n the p l a n . E r r o r
is n o t possible, as the squares confine the
sizes to b r i c k dimensions, and as o n l y
one system o f b o n d is used the n u m b e r
o f bricks required for the intended struc-
ture is easily c o m p u t e d by c o u n t i n g the
squares and m u l t i p l y i n g by the height
after d e d u c t i n g the openings. W h e n trans-
ferred to paper for future references a
curious custom is followed w h i c h bears
the signs o f great a n t i q u i t y . These draw-
ings are n o t kept separate n o r b o u n d as
books, b u t are fastened together side by
side w i t h g u m , like the Hebrew rolls o f
the Law, and are preserved i n rolls w h i c h ,
when open, extend about 20 feet. . . . As a
b i n d i n g each r o l l terminates w i t h a piece
o f leather cut i n the f o r m o f a mason's
a p r o n w i t h a string fastened to the peak.
This s t r i n g is l o n g enough to w i n d several
times r o u n d and thus secure i t . Probably
the survival o f this early type o f b o o k is
o w i n g to the practical reason that a r o l l
can be easily carried and concealed; as for
the peculiar f o r m o f the leather b i n d i n g
it is a coincidence o n l y due to the neces-
sity o f the case. 50
Such design scrolls were identified by c o n t e m -
p o r a r y master builders i n I r a n and I r a q as tumar
( l i t . , " r o l l , " or " s c r o l l , " vulgarized as tmar).51
Clarke's comparison o f t h e m w i t h the Hebrew
" r o l l s o f the Law" is p a r t i c u l a r l y suggestive since
they were v i g i l a n t l y protected as canonical codes
o f craft practice passed o n f r o m one generation
to the next. T h a t the fragmentary Tashkent scrolls
once had the same f o r m a t is revealed by a leather
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 21

40. Ghulam b.
Muhammad A l i , Qajar
c

scroll fragment with

repeat units for tile pat-
terns, ca. 1800, ink,
colors, and gold on
paper. Photo: Courtesy
Sotheby's, London.

flap preserved i n one o f the folders where they are 41. Geometric patterns for bannai
n o w kept. T h e widespread use o f such scrolls b y brick masonry drawn on a squared
grid, Shiraz, probably nineteenth
I r a n i a n master builders is c o n f i r m e d b y another
century, red and black ink and
s u r v i v i n g early n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Qajar scroll color (gray-green) on paper. From
w i t h a b r o w n m o r o c c o flap. I t contains t w o - Khanlari 197!?], pi. 12.
d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns for architectural
tiles signed by G h u l a m b . M u h a m m a d A l i (fig. 4 0 ) .
c

This fragmentary scroll sold b y Sotheby's i n 1985

to an u n i d e n t i f i e d private collector is r e p o r t e d t o
have measured 440 centimeters l o n g a n d 12 c e n t i -
meters h i g h . T h e auction catalog describes i t as
having " m a r g i n s r u l e d i n colours a n d g o l d , one
i l l u m i n a t e d headpiece i n colours a n d g o l d , i m p e r -
fect at b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d . " 5 2
As far as one can
judge f r o m its o n l y available p h o t o g r a p h , its
geometric patterns contained i n rectangular a n d
square frames reinterpreted t r a d i t i o n a l motifs 42. Geometric patterns for bannai
w i t h a distinctive Qajar flavor. brick masonry drawn on a squared
grid, Shiraz, probably nineteenth
A n o t h e r I r a n i a n tumdr was recently p u b l i s h e d
century, red and black ink and
i n Tehran as t w e n t y - f o u r separate sheets o f colored color (gray-green) on paper. From
geometric patterns a n d square kufic calligraphy for Khanlari 197!?], pi. 18.
bannai b r i c k masonry, executed o n squared paper 43. Geometric and calligraphic
(figs. 4 1 - 4 4 ) . T h o u g h t t o be about a century o l d patterns for bannai brick masonry
and i d e n t i f i e d b y local practitioners as a collection drawn on a squared grid, Shiraz,
probably nineteenth century, red
o f girih-sdzi ( l i t . , " a r t o f m a k i n g k n o t s " ) drawings
and black ink and color (gray-
(tar/i), i t belonged to a family o f Shirazi master green) on paper. From Khanlari
builders w h o i n h e r i t e d i t f r o m forebears going back 197!?], pi. 1.
a few generations. T h o u g h its t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l 44. Geometric and calligraphic
patterns are rather simple, all o f t h e m based o n patterns for banna'i brick masonry
checkered grids c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o d u l a r b r i c k drawn on a squared grid, Shiraz,
probably nineteenth century, red
shapes, the scroll testifies t o the c o n t i n u o u s use o f
and black ink and color (gray-
t r a d i t i o n a l design methods i n certain regions o f green) on paper. From Khanlari
I r a n u p t o the m o d e r n era. T h e b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n 197!?], pi. 2.
22 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
to the p u b l i s h e d Shiraz scroll facsimile lists the
b u i l d i n g s recently restored i n t h a t city by local
masters o f girih-sdzi; among them it mentions a
"muqarnas-band" ( l i t . , " m u q a r n a s b i n d e r , " or
"muqarnas m a k e r " ) . 5 3
The muqarnas therefore appears to have been a
subcategory o f the girih genre, w h i c h e m b o d i e d
b o t h t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l patterns gener-
ated by similar geometric g r i d systems. The t r a -
d i t i o n a l I r a n i a n master b u i l d e r Asgar S h i r b a f
c
classified b o t h planar and spatial geometric pat-
terns u n d e r the m o d e o f design called girih or
kdr-bandi ( k n o t w o r k , w o r k t h a t b i n d s , j o i n s , and
fastens t o g e t h e r ) , terms referring to t i g h t l y i n t e r -
l o c k i n g systems o f t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
geometric shapes governed by k n o t l i k e grids. I n
his b o o k o n this mode o f design he p o i n t e d o u t
that girihs c o u l d be applied to flat and curved sur-
faces alike i n m u l t i p l e media ( i n c l u d i n g w o o d ,
plaster, tile, b r i c k , and stone), and he classified
b o t h muqarnas and yazdi band! (arch-net) vaults
together w i t h geometric surface patterns, executed
by masters generically called ustdd-i kdr-band
(master o f k n o t w o r k or j o i n e r y ) . 5 4
The j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f planar and spatial geo-
m e t r i c patterns i n Islamic scrolls provides f u r t h e r
evidence that the two were regarded as c o m p l e m e n -
tary systems. This remarkable c o n n e c t i o n has l o n g
been overlooked i n the scholarship o n Islamic
architectural o r n a m e n t , w h i c h has tended to focus
o n t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l patterns and has viewed the
muqarnas as an entirely separate category w i t h
p u z z l i n g origins. The h i t h e r t o u n n o t i c e d affinity
between i n t e r l o c k i n g geometric surface revetments
and the muqarnas opens new perspectives i n t o
the mysterious source o f "stalactites"; they seem
i n fact to have o r i g i n a t e d as spatial girihs c o m p l e -
m e n t i n g the decorative use o f the planar girih
patterns w i t h w h i c h they are often juxtaposed i n
scrolls as w e l l as o n b u i l d i n g s . This c o n n e c t i o n —
55
to w h i c h we shall r e t u r n — s u p p o r t s Bulatov's
observation t h a t the direct t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y between
t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns
i m b u e d Islamic architecture i n C e n t r a l Asia w i t h
a h a r m o n i o u s sense o f u n i t y , s y n c h r o n i z i n g the
p r o p o r t i o n a l systems o f g r o u n d plans, surface
revetments, and decorative v a u l t i n g . I t is the fluid
dialogue between planar and spatial geometry
that explains the range o f diverse p a t t e r n types
c o m p i l e d i n scrolls.
Pattern scrolls similar to those described above
have also been d o c u m e n t e d i n m o d e r n I r a q , where
once again they serve p r a c t i c i n g t r a d i t i o n a l master
builders w h o regard t h e m as repositories o f i n h e r -
ited craft secrets. One reference to these c o n t e m -
p o r a r y I r a q i scrolls i n t e r p r e t e d the use o f repeat
u n i t s , often p r o v i d i n g one-quarter o f each design,
as "a m e t h o d to confuse those w h o were n o t m e m -
bers o f the f a m i l y o f masons to w h o m the scroll
belonged." 56
This element o f secrecy, together w i t h
the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l b u i l d i n g methods
by m o d e r n c o n s t r u c t i o n technologies (largely
i m p o r t e d f r o m the West), p r o b a b l y c o n t r i b u t e d
to the disappearance o f m a n y earlier scrolls.
The s u r v i v i n g design scrolls i n I r a q , Shiraz,
L o n d o n , and Tashkent demonstrate a remarkable
c o n t i n u i t y o f architectural drafting methods i n the
b r i c k - a n d - t i l e based architecture o f I r a q , I r a n , and
Central Asia u p to the m o d e r n era. This reflects
the relative persistence o f t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n
methods; these were based o n a b r i c k core c o l o r -
fully dressed w i t h glazed bricks, tile w o r k , plaster-
w o r k , and o r n a m e n t a l vaults, the c o m p o s i t i o n s o f
w h i c h had gradually frozen i n t o somewhat r e p e t i -
tive formulas i n the p o s t - T i m u r i d era. W i t h t h e i r
spiraling foliage, c u r v i l i n e a r interlaces, and floral
m o t i f s , the serene surfaces o f the celebrated late
sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Safavid m o n u -
ments o f Isfahan d i d briefly move away f r o m the
p r e d o m i n a n t l y angular geometry o f the T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n aesthetic, w h i c h the Uzbeks c o n t i n u e d
to perpetuate; b u t the geometric girih m o d e ( m o r e
suited to standard b r i c k - a n d - t i l e shapes) r e i m -
posed itself w i t h a vengeance i n the late Safavid
and Qajar architecture o f the eighteenth and n i n e -
teenth centuries. S u r v i v i n g examples o f Qajar
scrolls testify to a revival o f geometric p a t t e r n i n g
at a t i m e w h e n such patterns had come to be
regarded by European Orientalists as the typical
ingredients o f Islamic architectural o r n a m e n t
(a subject to w h i c h we w i l l t u r n i n part 2).
The j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f g r o u n d plans w i t h geomet-
ric designs for t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l a r c h i -
tectural revetments i n several s u r v i v i n g p a t t e r n
scrolls reveals t h a t they were c o m p i l e d by master
builders responsible for c o o r d i n a t i n g all stages
o f the design process i n a b u i l d i n g t r a d i t i o n that
relied heavily o n surface revetments. I t may n o t be
pure coincidence therefore t h a t all the s u r v i v i n g
 ARCHITECTURAL
scrolls considered thus far belong to the same
region, extending f r o m I r a q and I r a n to Central
Asia, a region unified by a local t r a d i t i o n o f b r i c k -
and-tile based a r c h i t e c t u r e — a t r a d i t i o n that
differed f r o m the p r e d o m i n a n t l y stone-based
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n e i g h b o r i n g M u s l i m states i n
A n a t o l i a , Syria, Egypt, a n d I n d i a .
The o n l y other k n o w n examples o f comparable
drawings survive i n M o r o c c o , another region
characterized b y a b u i l d i n g t r a d i t i o n that relies
o n extensive p o l y c h r o m a t i c surface revetments o f
geometric tile w o r k and w o o d w o r k , accompanied
by elaborately carved stucco and stone w i t h
curvilinear vegetal interlaces and cursive i n s c r i p -
tions. This M a g h r i b i t r a d i t i o n was o r i g i n a l l y
inspired by architectural developments i n the
eastern Islamic w o r l d that had traveled westward
between the eleventh and t h i r t e e n t h centuries
all the way to Spain. I t u n d e r w e n t an i n t e r n a l
development d u r i n g the f o u r t e e n t h a n d fifteenth
centuries, w h i c h witnessed the flourishing o f
an i n t r i c a t e revetment aesthetic c u l m i n a t i n g i n
the A l h a m b r a . Instead o f e x p l o r i n g the sculp-
t u r a l a r t i c u l a t i o n possibilities o f stone, the local
Mediterranean b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l , the M a g h r i b i
aesthetic relied o n c o n t i n u o u s surface revetments,
w h i c h carried the distant m e m o r y o f the b r i c k - a n d -
tile based eastern Islamic architectural t r a d i t i o n .
This t r a d i t i o n differed f r o m the relatively m o r e
sober stone architecture o f other M e d i t e r r a n e a n -
Islamic regions, such as Syria, Egypt, a n d A n a t o l i a ,
i n w h i c h o r n a m e n t a t i o n was sparsely used t o
articulate rather t h a n veil architectural forms.
DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD
After the C h r i s t i a n reconquest o f M u s l i m Spain,
the so-called H i s p a n o - M o r e s q u e architectural style
persisted i n M o r o c c o u p to the m o d e r n era w i t h o u t
m a j o r i n n o v a t i o n s . Elaborate surface revetments
conveying an impression o f richness c o n t i n u e d to
conceal the s i m p l i c i t y o f the basic architectural
fabric, w h i c h u n d e r w e n t l i t t l e s t r u c t u r a l develop-
m e n t . I n his Le Maroc et Vartisanat traditionnel
islamique dans Varchitecture, 1979 (translated i n t o
English as Traditional Islamic Craft in Moroccan
Architecture i n 1980), A n d r e Paccard demonstrated
that i n c o n t e m p o r a r y M o r o c c o the engineer
(mouhendis, i.e., muhandis), w h o supervises c o n -
s t r u c t i o n and acts as an i n t e r m e d i a r y between
client a n d b u i l d e r , does n o t design plans o n paper
for b u i l d i n g s b u t improvises their layout o n the
spot, t r a c i n g two rectangles (representing the
outer w a l l a n d i n n e r c o u r t ) o n the g r o u n d and
subsequently d e t e r m i n i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e -
r i o r rooms according t o the patron's wishes. T h e
task o f designing decorative patterns for surface
revetments i n m u l t i p l e media falls t o the master
builders (maalem, i.e., mu allim),
c
w h o c o n t i n u e to
use paper drawings that record a b o d y o f i n h e r i t e d
knowledge t r a n s m i t t e d over the centuries f r o m
master t o apprentice. Paccard n o t e d the element
o f secrecy involved i n this process—the masters
" d i d n o t reveal all their secrets, w h i c h they guard
jealously, t r a n s m i t t e d as they are f r o m father to
s o n " — a n d added that the geometric g r i d systems
used i n generating various patterns were at the
heart o f this secrecy: " T h i s refers to a sort o f geo-
metrical g r i d o r p a t t e r n . F r o m one a n d the same
23
g r i d , all sorts o f compositions can be m a d e . " 5 7
Paccard's m o n o g r a p h reproduces selected draw-
ings o f architectural o r n a m e n t f r o m the p a t t e r n
books o f p r a c t i c i n g M o r o c c a n masters, w h i c h
i n c l u d e d n o g r o u n d plans. These design booklets
{daftar) do n o t f o l l o w the t r a d i t i o n a l scroll f o r m a t .
Sometimes d r a w n o n m o d e r n squared paper using
colored pencils, they may be seen as updated
versions o f earlier scrolls, most l i k e l y created i n
response to an official effort t o revive local a r t i -
sanal t r a d i t i o n s threatened b y i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n
(figs. 4 5 - 5 0 ) . I n fact Paccard's b o o k c o m m e m o -
rates K i n g Hassan n's architectural patronage
aimed at r e v i t a l i z i n g t r a d i t i o n a l crafts i n M o r o c c o ,
an u n d e r t a k i n g that had actually commenced i n
the nineteenth century at the i n s t i g a t i o n o f the
French colonizers o f N o r t h A f r i c a . 58
Even t h o u g h the M o r o c c a n p a t t e r n books
betray some m o d e r n features, their t r a d i t i o n a l
t w o - and three-dimensional geometric designs
once again testify to the role o f drawings i n assur-
i n g the p e r p e t u a t i o n o f a mode o f architectural
decoration that dated back at least to the f o u r -
teenth o r fifteenth century, i f n o t earlier. N o such
drawings are k n o w n to have survived f r o m N a s r i d
Spain (1230-1492), the architectural heritage o f
w h i c h was subsequently perpetuated i n the Spanish
M u d e j a r style a n d i n M o r o c c o . A carpentry m a n -
ual e n t i t l e d Breve compendio de la carpinteria de lo
bianco y tratado de alarifes ( B r i e f o u t l i n e o f w o o d -
w o r k j o i n e r y a n d treatise o n master b u i l d e r s ) , first
published i n Seville b y the seventeenth-century
Spanish carpenter and architect Diego Lopez de
24 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION

46. El Bouri, muqarnas vault patterns, Morocco, twenti-

eth century, red and black ink on paper. From Paccard
i979> 1: 300, figs. 1, 2.

45. Moulay Hafid, star-and-polygon pattern drawn on

squared paper, Morocco, twentieth century, ink and col-
ored pencil on paper. From Paccard 1979,1: 226, fig. 1.
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 25

48. El Bouri, patterns for octagonal muqarnas vaults

47. El Bouri, pattern for an octagonal muqarnas half and the intrados of an arch, Morocco, twentieth
vault, Morocco, twentieth century, red and black ink on century, red and black ink on paper. From Paccard
paper. From Paccard 1979,1: 301, fig. 1. 1979,1: 296, fig. 1.

49. El Bouri, octagonal muqarnas vault patterns, 50. El Bouri, patterns for octagonal and star-shaped
Morocco, twentieth century, red and black ink on muqarnas vaults, Morocco, twentieth century, red and
paper. From Paccard 1979,1: 296, fig. 2. black ink on paper. From Paccard 1979,1: 296, fig. 3.
26 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION

51. Diego Lopez de Arenas, repeat unit for artesonado 52. Diego Lopez de Arenas, triangular repeat units for
woodwork showing a strapwork pattern with interlaced wooden muqarnas vaults. From Lopez de Arenas, fol. 23r.
stars and polygons. From Lopez de Arenas 1912, fol. 14V.
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS AND SCROLLS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 27

Arenas i n 1633, does, however, h i n t at the possi-
b i l i t y that paper drawings may have been used i n
M u s l i m Spain as well. Condensed f r o m a longer
m a n u s c r i p t composed i n 1619, this technical
m a n u a l directly addressed carpenters and master
builders. I t provides t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l star-and-
p o l y g o n patterns for artesonado (paneled) w o o d -
w o r k applied to flat and curved surfaces and
muqarnas vault projections, d r a w n w i t h simple
geometric methods using compasses and set
squares (figs. 51, 5 2 ) . 59
These drawings, w h i c h once
again establish an i n t i m a t e l i n k between planar
and spatial geometry, may w e l l carry the traces
o f an earlier d r a f t i n g t r a d i t i o n i n M u s l i m Spain
and the M a g h r i b .
The basic geometric g r i d systems used i n the
daftarof t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l patterns by the m o d e r n
w o o d e n muqarnas vaults by the m o d e r n maalem el
B o u r i appear o n elongated strips o f cream-colored
paper that c o u l d f o r m a scroll i f pasted together
(see figs. 4 6 - 5 0 ) . They are d r a w n i n black i n k ,
h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h red, and coded w i t h small circles
recalling those used i n some o f the Tashkent
scrolls. El Bouri's drawings seem to carry the
traces o f m u c h older graphic conventions, the
roots o f w h i c h are difficult to trace.
The relatively simple geometric compositions
o f el Bouri's muqarnas projections rely o n a fixed
vocabulary o f eight m o d u l a r units o f sculpted
w o o d arranged to f o r m 45-, 90-, and 135-degree
angles o n l y (recalling the scheme scratched o n the
T a k h t - i Sulayman tablet [see fig. 1]). These c o m p o -
sitions contrast w i t h the infinite variety o f angles
seen i n the m o r e complex muqarnas quarter vault
than i n v e n t i n g new ones. I n d i v i d u a l patterns and
their constituent units were k n o w n by particular
names, b u t the rules o f p r o p o r t i o n g u i d i n g their
c o m p o s i t i o n had been forgotten over t i m e . M u c h
like the p r a c t i c i n g master builders o f Central Asia
at the t u r n o f this century and those i n c o n t e m -
p o r a r y I r a n , the M o r o c c a n masters repeated end-
less variations based o n o l d geometric formulas,
slightly m o d i f y i n g t h e m by t r i a l and error. I n all
these areas the i n d i v i d u a l components o f t r a d i -
t i o n a l geometric patterns and their range o f
possible p e r m u t a t i o n s became identified w i t h a
specialized vocabulary f o r m i n g a c o m m o n basis
for c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g master builders and
decorators specializing i n various media, a vocab-
ulary that also acted as a m n e m o n i c device for
p a t t e r n types recorded i n scrolls. 63

M o r o c c a n master M o u l a y H a f i d are n o t so dif- projections o f the Tashkent scrolls, w h i c h are

ferent f r o m those seen i n the girih scrolls o f the
eastern Islamic w o r l d . They testify to the often
underestimated role o f drawings i n establishing
a certain degree o f visual u n i t y a m o n g the distinc-
tive local b u i l d i n g t r a d i t i o n s o f distant countries.
The three m a i n types o f g r i d systems used by this
M o r o c c a n master are square, isometric ( t r i a n -
g u l a r ) , and composite ( p o l y g o n a l ) . The most c o m -
m o n composite type is based o n the radial g r i d ,
that is, the circle d i v i d e d i n t o equal arcs by r a d i i
that generate i n t e r l o c k i n g star-and-polygon c o m -
positions used c o m m o n l y i n M a g h r i b i tile w o r k
characterized by their increasing variety o f stars
and polygons. The s i m p l i c i t y o f el Bouri's draw-
ings—based o n the square m o d u l e — c a n be
explained by the fact that muqarnas vaults fabri-
cated f r o m carved wooden units require a m o r e
r i g i d exactitude t h a n their T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
counterparts, w h i c h were often composed o f flex-
ible cast plaster units using the circle as a m o d -
ule. 61
The greater l i b e r t y o f c o m p o s i t i o n i n the
plaster muqarnas vaults o f M o r o c c o stemmed
f r o m their n o t being l i m i t e d to 45-, 90-, and
135-degree angles. 62

and w o o d w o r k . 60
M o r o c c a n muqarnas projections The standard patterns c o m p i l e d i n m o d e r n
also e x h i b i t an uncanny s i m i l a r i t y to those seen i n M o r o c c a n sketchbooks indicate that the masters
scrolls f r o m the east. The g r o u n d projections o f w h o drew t h e m repeated i n h e r i t e d formulas rather
CHAPTER 2. THE TOPKAPI SCROLL, ITS DATE AND
The T o p k a p i scroll is a typical tumar pasted at one
end to a w o o d e n r o d and at the other to a leather
flap (fig. 53). I t is 29.5 meters l o n g and 33 to 34
centimeters h i g h and contains 114 drawings i n
square or rectangular frames (cat. nos. 1-114).
There is, however, no w r i t i n g , date, or w a t e r m a r k
that m i g h t p o i n t to w h e n and where i t was p u t
together or h o w i t entered the O t t o m a n i m p e r i a l
treasury c o l l e c t i o n . I t combines two or m o r e frag-
m e n t a r y scrolls o f the same height, featuring two
types o f frames a r o u n d the i n d i v i d u a l patterns; one
o f these is a t h i c k b l a c k - i n k frame that differs f r o m
its t h i n n e r c o u n t e r p a r t (see cat. nos. 37, 40-114).
Pasted together i n irregular fashion at some
u n k n o w n date, the fragments o f each scroll are
glued together at various places, w i t h p o i n t s o f
r u p t u r e o c c u r r i n g between the drawings n u m b e r e d
3 - 4 , 2 7 - 2 8 , 2 8 - 2 9 , 3 6 - 3 7 , a n d 3 9 - 4 0 . Some o f
the drawings (see cat. nos. 4a, 28, 29, 37) are o n l y
p a r t i a l l y preserved. Those n u m b e r e d 3 and 27,
o n the other h a n d , are two halves o f the same pat-
t e r n , just like cat. nos. 36 and 39, i n d i c a t i n g the
haphazard way i n w h i c h the scroll fragments
were p u t together t o f o r m a single piece. Judging
PROVENANCE
f r o m Clarke's r e m a r k that Qajar scrolls were
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 feet l o n g , the i m p r a c t i c a l length
o f the T o p k a p i scroll (96.76 feet) can o n l y be
explained by its unprofessional r e s t o r a t i o n , most
likely by the royal librarians o f the O t t o m a n i m p e -
rial treasury, w h o w o u l d n o t have been acquainted
w i t h this type o f d o c u m e n t . 64
The s i m i l a r i t y
o f designs and graphic conventions i n the frag-
m e n t s — e a c h o f w h i c h is d r a w n o n the same type
o f heavy, h i g h q u a l i t y cream-colored rag p a p e r —
however, leaves l i t t l e d o u b t that the c o m b i n e d
scroll constitutes a consistent corpus, possibly
f r o m a single h a n d .
The scroll appears to have taken its present
f o r m after u n d e r g o i n g f u r t h e r repairs; the m o d e r n
arabic numerals o n its folios o f various sizes m u s t
have been added w h e n the manuscripts o f the
T o p k a p i Palace M u s e u m L i b r a r y were being cata-
loged. Its catalog n u m b e r , Hazine (Treasury) 1956,
indicates that i t o r i g i n a l l y belonged to the i m p e r i a l
c o l l e c t i o n , once housed at the I n n e r Treasury i n
the t h i r d c o u r t o f the T o p k a p i Palace. T h a t a r c h i -
tectural drawings were kept i n that treasury is
c o n f i r m e d by an early i n v e n t o r y o f its c o l l e c t i o n ,
c o m p i l e d i n 1505, w h i c h lists a chest full o f w o r k -
i n g drawings {karname), stored together w i t h a
brass architectural measuring stick 1 c u b i t l o n g . 6 5
The earliest k n o w n examples o f O t t o m a n a r c h i -
tectural drawings n o w kept i n the T o p k a p i Palace
M u s e u m Archives seem to represent u n a p p r o v e d
projects proposed to the sultan; this appears to be
the most l i k e l y hypothesis since very few o f these
drawings correspond to extant b u i l d i n g s . The sul-
tans were often presented w i t h several alternative
designs; one o f the s u r v i v i n g examples shows three
o p t i o n s for a mausoleum project o n the same page
w i t h i n d i c a t i o n s o f comparative costs (see fig. 2a).
W h e n Suleyman 1 ordered the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
the $ehzade mosque i n I s t a n b u l i n 1543, architect-
engineers (miihendisan) prepared plans and draw-
ings (resmler ve tarhlar) f r o m w h i c h the sultan
chose the one that appeared best p r o p o r t i o n e d
(mevzun) and most agreeable (matbu ). c 66
I t is
probable t h a t i n such instances the rejected plans
were placed i n the I n n e r Treasury; the chosen
d r a w i n g presumably w o u l d be r e t u r n e d to the
chief architect for use. The Office o f Royal A r c h i -
tects at the Vefa d i s t r i c t i n I s t a n b u l had its o w n
30 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION

53- Topkapi scroll, late
fifteenth or early
sixteenth century, ink
and colors on paper.
Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi Kiituphanesi,
M S H . 1956.
archive o f plans, the contents o f w h i c h appear to
have disappeared w i t h o u t a t r a c e . 67
The earliest O t t o m a n g r o u n d plans at the Top-
kapi Palace M u s e u m Archives are drawn o n u n i n k e d
squared grids and can be dated to the late fifteenth
and early sixteenth centuries o n the basis o f t h e i r
w a t e r m a r k e d I t a l i a n paper (see figs. 2 - 4 ) . 6 8
The
use o f I t a l i a n paper distinguishes t h e m f r o m the
T o p k a p i scroll's u n w a t e r m a r k e d heavy rag paper,
w h i c h is o f eastern o r i g i n . M o r e o v e r , the O t t o -
m a n plans are d r a w n o n i n d i v i d u a l folios o f differ-
ent sizes rather t h a n being pasted together i n the
scroll f o r m a t so c o m m o n i n the I r a n i a n w o r l d .
These differences strengthen the p r o b a b i l i t y that
the T o p k a p i scroll was c o m p i l e d somewhere i n the
east. This is further supported by the fact that the
scroll's patterns were largely i n t e n d e d for a b r i c k -
and-tile based architecture foreign to the O t t o m a n
t r a d i t i o n o f stone masonry. Its drawings consist o f
geometric patterns and i n s c r i p t i o n s o n squared
grids for bannai b r i c k masonry, t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l
star-and-polygon patterns, whole or p a r t i a l p r o -
jections o f radial muqarnas or stellate arch-net
vaults, and details o f architectural o r n a m e n t (see
Catalog for a descriptive list o f drawings). These
drawings, w h i c h w o u l d have had l i t t l e relevance i n
the O t t o m a n context, constitute the largest k n o w n
repertory o f t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geomet-
ric patterns for T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n or early Safavid
architectural r e v e t m e n t s . 69
The provenance and date o f the T o p k a p i scroll
can be established by c o m p a r i n g i t w i t h other
k n o w n Islamic scrolls, by assessing the r e l a t i o n -
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL,
ship o f its designs w i t h extant a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o n u -
ments, and by the c i r c u m s t a n t i a l evidence o f its
preservation i n the O t t o m a n i m p e r i a l treasury
c o l l e c t i o n . First let us compare i t to the scrolls
previously described. I n terms o f its paper size the
T o p k a p i scroll (33-34 c m h i g h ) is most closely
related to the t w o fragmentary sixteenth-century
Tashkent scrolls d r a w n o n 38-centimeter-high
Samarqandi paper; all k n o w n examples o f later
scrolls consistently use paper o f a lesser height.
The T o p k a p i scroll's sophisticated graphic conven-
tions and design vocabulary also find t h e i r closest
parallel i n the Tashkent scrolls, even t h o u g h the
f o r m e r scroll does n o t c o n t a i n any g r o u n d plans.
The n o w - l o s t parts o f the fragmentary documents
that make up the T o p k a p i scroll may, however,
have i n c l u d e d g r o u n d plans, or perhaps other
scrolls w i t h g r o u n d plans o r i g i n a l l y c o m p l e m e n t e d
those segments that have survived. The c o m p l e x i t y
o f graphic conventions used i n the T o p k a p i scroll
certainly p o i n t s to an earlier date o f c o m p i l a t i o n
t h a n the n i n e t e e n t h - and t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls
discussed above, w h i c h c o n t a i n rather sketchy
drawings displaying an eclectic design vocabulary
i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h an early date.
The T o p k a p i scroll's geometric patterns are
generated by various g r i d systems and d r a w n w i t h
a reed pen i n black i n k ; m a n y o f t h e m are h i g h -
l i g h t e d w i t h red i n k and sometimes w i t h a w i d e r
range o f colors i n c l u d i n g blue-gray, p i n k , orange,
yellow, and green. M u l t i p l e colors and s t i p p l i n g i n
red or black i n k are used as a graphic c o n v e n t i o n
to differentiate the i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s o f c o m -
ITS DATE AND PROVENANCE 31
plex designs, to code their s y m m e t r i c properties,
or to d i s t i n g u i s h the superimposed tiers o f m u q a r -
nas projections. The u n d e r l y i n g geometric grids or
c o n s t r u c t i o n lines o f the patterns i n the T o p k a p i
scroll were first incised o n the paper w i t h a metal
p o i n t . O n l y the simpler square and t r i a n g u l a r
grids, characterized by t h e i r static symmetry, were
traced over i n black i n k . The d y n a m i c a l l y symmet-
rical composite radial grids are made up o f c o n -
stellations o f weblike concentric circles s u b d i v i d e d
i n t o equal arcs by shared r a d i i ; they were p r o b a b l y
made by using compasses p r o v i d e d w i t h one scor-
i n g p o i n t , and they r e m a i n u n i n k e d , " d e a d " draw-
ings l i g h t l y scratched o n the surface o f the paper
so as n o t to detract f r o m the i n k e d patterns they
generate (see the overlay drawings, w h i c h s i m u l t a -
neously present the " d e a d " drawings and the i n k e d
patterns, i n the Catalog). These radial grids, often
c o m p l e m e n t e d by other superimposed geometric
schemes and o r i e n t e d along d y n a m i c axes o f sym-
metry, e x p l o i t the two f u n d a m e n t a l h a r m o n i c
systems o f lines p r o v i d e d by the circle: spokelike
straight lines r a d i a t i n g f r o m various centers and
curved concentric circumferences that successively
l i m i t the progressive extension o f circular space.
The T o p k a p i scroll's drawings often consist o f
repeat units meant to be m u l t i p l i e d by symmetry.
They are all geometric patterns generated by three
types o f g r i d systems: squared, t r i a n g u l a t e d , and
composite radial ( p o l y g o n a l ) . The first t w o are
o n l y used for t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l surface patterns
and calligraphy, i n t e n d e d for the most part for
transfer t o bannai brick masonry b u t also adapt-
32 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
able to other media such as w o o d , stone, p a i n t e d
plaster, or mosaic a n d inset tile w o r k (see Catalog,
Groups I , I I ) . They are far o u t n u m b e r e d by the
m o r e complex designs based o n composite radial
grids, w h i c h were used for b o t h t w o - a n d three-
d i m e n s i o n a l patterns (see Catalog, Groups I I I ,
I V ) . This p r e d o m i n a n c e o f the radial g r i d , w h i c h
finds a parallel i n the Tashkent scrolls, is i n keep-
i n g w i t h Bulatov's observation t h a t late fifteenth-
century T i m u r i d designers a n d t h e i r successors
had come t o favor radial symmetries i n t w o - a n d
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l architectural r e v e t m e n t s . 70
The n u m e r o u s g r o u n d projections for m u q a r -
nas vaults contained i n the T o p k a p i scroll are
s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r t o those i n c l u d e d i n the Tashkent
scrolls, i n terms n o t o n l y o f the radially s y m m e t r i -
cal type o f muqarnas depicted b u t also o f the c o n -
ventions for representing m u l t i p l e planes o n a flat
surface (see Catalog, G r o u p I V . i i ) . These drawings
represent parallel projections ( m i r r o r or o r t h o g o -
nal p r o je c tio ns ) o f t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l muqarnas
tiers where p o i n t s o n the flat p i c t u r e plane corre-
spond to m u l t i p l e layers i n space. I n t h e m the
b o u n d a r y lines o f successively corbeled muqarnas
tiers, representing different spatial levels collapsed
o n t o the same d r a w i n g , are often h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h
s t i p p l i n g or color c o d i n g . O n l y i n a few cases are
the muqarnas projections o f the T o p k a p i scroll
rendered i n simple black l i n e drawings. W h e t h e r
rendered i n b l a c k - i n k outlines, color coded
w i t h r e d a n d black i n k , or h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h s t i p -
p l i n g , these muqarnas drawings use sophisticated
graphic conventions reminiscent o f the Tashkent
examples—the o n l y real difference being t h a t
the latter sometimes use a w i d e r range o f colors,
i n c l u d i n g yellow, orange, a n d green, i n a d d i t i o n t o
s t i p p l i n g . T h e b l a c k - a n d - r e d color scheme used i n
the T o p k a p i scroll is also seen i n the m u c h simpler
muqarnas drawings o f M i r z a A k b a r a n d el B o u r i .
Like t h e i r counterparts i n Tashkent, the
T o p k a p i scroll's muqarnas p r o j e c t i o n s are c o m -
posed o f radially organized tiers w i t h a w i d e v a r i -
ety o f polygons a n d stars i n t e r l o c k i n g at m a n y
different angles. Such radially composed plaster
muqarnas vaults e m a n a t i n g f r o m fluted shell-
shaped o r fan-shaped semidomes h a d displaced
the simpler o r t h o g o n a l type i n the I r a n i a n w o r l d
by the second h a l f o f the fifteenth century. Lisa
G o l o m b e k a n d D o n a l d W i l b e r have i d e n t i f i e d the
radially s y m m e t r i c a l muqarnas w i t h the " S h i r a z i "
type that the T i m u r i d astronomer a n d m a t h e m a -
t i c i a n G h i y a t h a l - D i n Jamshid M a s ' u d al-Kashi
( d . 1429) described as the most c o m p l e x variant o f
the four basic muqarnas types k n o w n t o h i m (see
" T h e M u q a r n a s " i n the present v o l u m e ) . 7 1
T h e first
three types were o r t h o g o n a l , based o n the m o d u l a r
use o f the square; o n l y the Shirazi muqarnas was
generated by radial g r i d systems. I t p r o m i s e d an
almost u n l i m i t e d range o f possible c o m b i n a t i o n s
o f polygons a n d star polygons fitted together at
m a n y angles along a n e t w o r k o f concentric circles.
The m a j o r i t y o f the muqarnas vault p r o j e c t i o n s
i n c l u d e d i n the Tashkent a n d T o p k a p i scrolls rep-
resent this type o f radial muqarnas, c o m m o n l y
used f r o m the late fifteenth c e n t u r y o n w a r d .
The Shirazi type o f muqarnas seems t o have
spread to the east f r o m I r a n . A l t h o u g h o n l y a few
fifteenth-century T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n buildings with
this muqarnas type have survived i n I r a n itself,
examples are w i d e l y encountered i n the Uzbek
m o n u m e n t s o f Central Asia, such as the sixteenth-
century Chahr Bakr shrine complex i n Bukhara
(figs. 54, 55). T h e muqarnas semidome o f the
m i h r a b i w a n at the Taqi a l - D i n Dada shrine (1473-
1474) i n B o n d e r a b a d — l o c a t e d t h i r t y - s i x k i l o m e -
ters n o r t h w e s t o f Yazd—is an early variant o f the
T o p k a p i scroll's radial muqarnas patterns emanat-
i n g f r o m fan-shaped semidomes. T h e muqarnas
superstructure o f this m i h r a b (fig. 56) features a
series o f f o u r - , five-, seven-, a n d e i g h t - p o i n t e d
stars i n tile mosaic, set i n t o tiers o f plaster. T h e
fluted type o f radial muqarnas p a t t e r n e m a n a t i n g
f r o m a c o n c h - o r shell-shaped semidome, w h i c h
often appears i n the T o p k a p i scroll, is encountered
i n the M a s j i d - i Muzaffariya (Blue mosque, 1465),
the o n l y m a j o r T u r k m e n m o n u m e n t s u r v i v i n g i n
Tabriz. This muqarnas type is translated i n s i m -
plified f o r m i n t o stone o n the fifteenth-century
muqarnas portals o f the Shirvan Shahs complex i n
Baku, located t o the n o r t h o f T a b r i z . 72
The T o p k a p i scroll's muqarnas patterns a n d its
typically T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n design repertory seem
to p o i n t t o a late fifteenth- or sixteenth-century
date o f c o m p i l a t i o n . Its patterns appear to have
been created at a t i m e w h e n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l
T i m u r i d geometric design vocabulary (perpetuated
i n the T u r k m e n a n d early Safavid courts o f I r a n
and i n the Uzbek c o u r t o f Central Asia) was still
very m u c h alive. I t may, o f course, be t h a t the
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL, ITS DATE AND PROVENANCE 33

54. Plaster muqarnas hood of a portal,

Chahr Bakr shrine complex, Bukhara,
1559-1569. Photo by author.

55. Plaster muqarnas hood of a portal,

Chahr Bakr shrine complex, Bukhara,
1559-1569. Photo by author.

56. Plaster muqarnas mihrab hood inlaid

with mosaic tile-work stars, Taqi al-Din
Dada shrine complex, Bonderabad,
1473-1474. From Golombek and Wilber
1988, 2: fig. 354. Photo: Courtesy Renata
Holod.
34
58. Detail of composite
kufic inscription panel in
bannai brick masonry,
side portal of the
Masjid-i Jami , Varzana,
c
1442-1444. Photo:
Courtesy Anthony Hutt,
Scorpion Archives.
PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
57. Muqarnas cornice
of the ribbed dome,
madrasa complex of
Gawhar Shad, Mashhad,
1432. Photo: Donald
Wilber, courtesy of Asian
Art Photographic Dis-
tribution, Ann Arbor, M I .
scroll's T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n repertory was copied at
a m u c h later date, b u t this is q u i t e u n l i k e l y given
the s t r i k i n g difference between its sophisticated
d r a f t i n g conventions a n d those o f n i n e t e e n t h - a n d
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls. T h e fragmentary d o c u -
ments that compose the T o p k a p i scroll have been
damaged over t i m e , a n d this also seems t o suggest
an early date. I f the scroll were a recent copy o f
an older d o c u m e n t , i t w o u l d n o t feature so m a n y
breaks b u t instead w o u l d be consistently designed
and r a t i o n a l l y ordered. T h e absence o f anachro-
nistic m o t i f s inconsistent w i t h an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n design vocabulary f u r t h e r
argues for the late fifteenth- or sixteenth-century
date t h a t Filiz Qagman assigns t o the T o p k a p i
scroll o n the basis o f her l o n g experience w i t h
comparable documents i n the T o p k a p i Palace
M u s e u m Library's m a n u s c r i p t c o l l e c t i o n . 73
Let us n o w briefly compare the T o p k a p i scroll's
patterns w i t h those observed i n extant T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n m o n u m e n t s . As has been previously
n o t e d , the f o r m e r — l a r g e l y foreign to the M e d i -
terranean stone masonry t r a d i t i o n o f O t t o m a n
a r c h i t e c t u r e — w e r e no d o u b t i n t e n d e d for a b r i c k -
and-tile based b u i l d i n g t r a d i t i o n r e l y i n g o n exten-
sive p o l y c h r o m a t i c surface revetments. M o s t
o f t h e m w o u l d have h a d l i t t l e relevance i n the
O t t o m a n context; i n this category fall patterns for
the muqarnas cornices o f t y p i c a l l y T i m u r i d r i b b e d
domes (fig. 57, cat. n o . 81), for arch-net a n d plaster
muqarnas vaults, for bannai b r i c k masonry, a n d
for mosaic t i l i n g . O n l y a few o f the T o p k a p i scroll's
drawings, however, can be d i r e c t l y l i n k e d w i t h
extant T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n m o n u m e n t s , suggesting
that the patterns represent a w o r k s h o p catalog o f
available design choices rather t h a n sketches pre-
pared for specific b u i l d i n g s . Nonetheless, m a n y
generic similarities exist between the scroll's
ideal p a t t e r n types a n d those encountered i n the
r e m a i n i n g architectural m o n u m e n t s o f the b r o a d l y
defined i n t e r n a t i o n a l T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n c u l t u r a l
sphere. T h e most exact parallels seem t o p o i n t to
western a n d central I r a n d u r i n g the second h a l f o f
the fifteenth century, even t h o u g h m a n y o f the
scroll's patterns do o r i g i n a t e i n S e l j u q - I l k h a n i d
prototypes t h a t c o n t i n u e d i n use i n the post-
T i m u r i d era.
Geometric a n d calligraphic patterns d r a w n o n
squared grids for use o n bannaibrick masonry
represent a well-defined g r o u p i n the T o p k a p i
scroll; t h e i r variants are w i d e l y used i n m a n y
I r a n i a n a n d C e n t r a l Asian b u i l d i n g s (see Catalog,
G r o u p I ) . A m o n g these patterns is a c o m p o s i t i o n
for a square kufic panel (see cat. n o . 72). I t finds
almost an exact replica o n the entrance p o r t a l
o f the M a s j i d - i Jami i n Varzana (located o n a
c
caravan r o u t e between Isfahan and Yazd), w h i c h
is dated 1442-1444 a n d associated w i t h the
T i m u r i d ruler Shahrukh (fig. 58), w h o reigned
f r o m 1405 t o 1447. 74
Two-dimensional interlocking star-and-polygon
c o m p o s i t i o n s i n t e n d e d m a i n l y for mosaic tile
w o r k a n d carved plaster constitute another c o m -
m o n p a t t e r n type i n the T o p k a p i scroll (see
 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL, ITS DATE AND PROVENANCE 35

59. Mosaic tile panel, Masjid-i Jami ,

c

Varamin, fifteenth century. Photo:

Courtesy Nader Ardalan.

60. Mosaic tile dado panel in the

vestibule behind the entrance iwan,
Masjid-i Jami , Yazd, fifteenth
c

century. Photo: Courtesy Harvard

University, Fogg Art Museum, Fine'
Arts Library, Visual Collections.

Catalog, G r o u p I I I ) . A d istinc tive aspect o f these

patterns is t h e i r r i g i d l y angular character (the
exception is a single c u r v i l i n e a r design at the very
end o f the scroll [see cat. n o . 114]). This is a factor
entirely i n keeping w i t h the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
geometric design repertory, w h i c h h a d conspicu-
ously m o v e d away f r o m the c u r v i l i n e a r interlaces
encountered i n earlier m o n u m e n t s . Once again
the closest parallels for this p a t t e r n type appear
i n extant T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n b u i l d i n g s . O n e o f the
Topkapi scroll c o m p o s i t i o n s i n this category is
s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r to a mosaic tile panel at the
M a s j i d - i J a m i i n V a r a m i n , w h i c h was restored
c

i n the reign o f Shahrukh (cf. cat. n o . 70, fig. 5 9 ) . 75

A n o t h e r p a t t e r n (see cat. n o . 8), w h i c h provides

the repeat u n i t for a mosaic tile panel, closely
resembles the s tar - a nd -p o l yg on c o m p o s i t i o n o n a
fifteenth-century dado panel at the entrance p o r t a l
o f the M a s j i d - i J am i i n Yazd a n d o n the m i n b a r o f
c

the nearby shrine complex o f Taqi a l - D i n Dada i n

Bonderabad (fig. 6 0 ) . 7 6

The T o p k a p i scroll's i n t r i c a t e patterns w i t h

three different types o f stars (see cat. nos. 35, 39, 44)
also find t h e i r counterparts i n fifteenth-century
mosaic tile a n d carved plaster c o m p o s i t i o n s . 77

A n o t h e r p a t t e r n type i n the scroll consists o f two

superimposed s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n designs (see
cat. nos. 28, 29, 31, 32, 34). Mosaic tile patterns
belonging to this type appear i n the D a r b - i I m a m
at Isfahan (1453-1454), b u i l t b y a governor d u r i n g
the reign o f the Q a r a q o y u n l u ruler Jahanshah
(figs. 61, 6 2 ) . 78
I n this type a b a c k g r o u n d p a t t e r n
36 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION

61. Mosaic tile work

on an arch spandrel,
Darb-i Imam, Isfahan,
1453-1454. Photo:
Courtesy Kendall Dudley.

62. Mosaic tile work on a

portal, Darb-i Imam,
Isfahan, 1453-1454.
Photo: Courtesy Kendall
Dudley.

63. Double-layered relief

mosaic tile panel at the
side of the north portal,
Darb-i Imam, Isfahan,
1453-1454. From
Golombek and Wilber
1988, 2: pi. xva. Photo:
Courtesy Lisa Golombek.
 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL, ITS DATE AND PROVENANCE 37

64a. Double-layered relief mosaic tile

panel, Masjid-i Jami of Gawhar Shad,
c

Mashhad, 1416-1418. From Golombek

and Wilber 1988, 2: pi. xiia. Photo:
Courtesy Lisa Golombek.

64b. Detail from double-layered relief

mosaic tile work on the soffit of the arch
leading into the dome chamber, Masjid-i
Jami , Varzana, 1442-1444. Photo:
c

Courtesy Anthony Hutt, Scorpion

Archives.

composed o f small i n t e r l o c k i n g stars and polygons executed i n a single layer, n o t t w o , w i t h large p o l y -

is superimposed w i t h a linear p a t t e r n delineating
large stars and polygons p r o p o r t i o n a l l y related t o
the b a c k g r o u n d m o t i f s i n such a way t h a t its n o d a l
p o i n t s o f intersection overlap w i t h the centers o f
some b a c k g r o u n d stars.
The D a r b - i I m a m also features mosaic tile
panels w i t h large p o l y g o n and star fragments super-
imposed o n a m i n u t e l y rendered b a c k g r o u n d c o m -
posed o f small i n t e r l o c k i n g stars and polygons
gon and star fragments embedded i n a field o f
smaller i n t e r l o c k i n g stars and polygons, signaling
a loss o f technical s o p h i s t i c a t i o n .
W i t h a few exceptions f r o m the Safavid p e r i o d
this unusual relief t i l i n g technique and the d i s t i n c -
tive p a t t e r n type associated w i t h i t seem to have
largely disappeared after the late fifteenth century.
The rare Safavid examples seen at the c o u r t y a r d
iwans o f the M a s j i d - i J a m i i n Isfahan (fig. 66) and
c

(fig. 63). These panels f i n d t h e i r parallels i n two
Topkapi scroll drawings (see cat. nos. 38, 4 9 ) ,
w h i c h once again display a remarkable i n g e n u i t y
i n m a n i p u l a t i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l l y related back-
g r o u n d and f o r e g r o u n d m o t i f s i n different scales.
The drawings represent, i n fact, a t o u r de force o f
superimposed geometric schemes e x e m p l i f y i n g the
complex i n t e r p l a y o f t w o c o m p l e m e n t a r y layers
o f p a t t e r n and are thus perhaps comparable t o
p o l y p h o n y i n music. I n t h e m the corners o f the
large f o r e g r o u n d m o t i f s raised i n relief, w h i c h
w o u l d f o r m a c o n t i n u o u s field i f j o i n e d together,
fall o n the centers o f some b a c k g r o u n d stars.
Comparable examples o f mosaic tile pariels e x h i b -
i t i n g this rare T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n technique o f
the shrine o f I m a m Riza i n Mashhad have simpler
b a c k g r o u n d c o m p o s i t i o n s t h a n the T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n examples, w h i c h are closer to the t w o
drawings i n the T o p k a p i scroll (see cat. nos. 38,
49). This resemblance supports the early date t h a t
I have proposed for the T o p k a p i scroll as well as its
I r a n i a n provenance, given t h a t such relief tiles are
u n c o m m o n i n Central Asia. O t h e r characteristics
65. Mosaic tile panel at
o f the scroll also p o i n t to a closer k i n s h i p w i t h the portal, Darb-i Kushk,
the m o n u m e n t s o f I r a n t h a n w i t h those o f C e n t r a l Isfahan, 1496-1497.
Asia. One o f these is the frequent appearance o f Photo: Courtesy John
Rosenfield.
the r o t a t e d names Ali c
and Muhammad i n its cal-
l i g r a p h i c c o m p o s i t i o n s (see cat. nos. 71, 76, 91). 66. Double-layered relief
mosaic tile work at the
Such i n s c r i p t i o n s , so c o m m o n i n I r a n w i t h its
southwest iwan in the
S h i i sympathies, o n l y rarely appear i n T i m u r i d
c

courtyard, Masjid-i
relief t i l i n g appear o n the sanctuary i w a n o f and p o s t - T i m u r i d b u i l d i n g s f u r t h e r t o the east. Jami , Isfahan, restored
c

the M a s j i d - i J a m i o f Gawhar Shad i n M a s h h a d

c
Popular i n I r a n i a n m o n u m e n t s f r o m at least the 1475-1476. The tiles may
have been added in the
(fig. 64a), b u i l t for Shahrukh's wife i n 1416-1418, I l k h a n i d p e r i o d o n w a r d , calligraphic c o m p o s i t i o n s
early Safavid period, six-
and o n the M a s j i d - i J a m i i n Varzana (fig. 6 4 b ) .
c 79
bearing the name Ali c
also figure p r o m i n e n t l y i n teenth century. From
A similar c o m p o s i t i o n appears i n the mosaic tile the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Qajar p a t t e r n scrolls (see Seherr-Thoss 1968,193,
pi. 87. Photo: Hans C.
w o r k o f the D a r b - i K u s h k i n Isfahan (1496-1497) figs. 3i-33> 44).
Seherr-Thoss.
b u i l t by the son o f the A q q o y u n l u r u l e r U z u n The T o p k a p i scroll was p r o b a b l y c o m p i l e d i n
Hasan (fig. 65). Here, however, the mosaic tiles are the late fifteenth o r sixteenth c e n t u r y somewhere
38 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
i n western or central I r a n , possibly i n Tabriz,
w h i c h served as a m a j o r c u l t u r a l capital under the
I l k h a n i d s , the Q a r a q o y u n l u , and the A q q o y u n l u
T u r k m e n dynasties, as w e l l as the early Safavids. Its
geometric designs i n all l i k e l i h o o d were p r o d u c e d
under T u r k m e n patronage, b u t an early Safavid
date is also a possibility as the i n t e r n a t i o n a l
T i m u r i d heritage w o u l d still have been very m u c h
alive. W i t h the p o l i t i c a l decline o f the T i m u r i d s i n
the east a r o u n d the m i d d l e o f the fifteenth cen-
t u r y , the i n i t i a t i v e i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l patronage had
r e t u r n e d to western I r a n . The T o p k a p i scroll seems
to have been p u t together after that p o i n t ; i f so,
this w o u l d explain w h y so few o f its patterns, w h i c h
a d m i t t e d l y constitute a catalog o f ideal types, can
be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h designs o n extant m o n u m e n t s .
O n l y a h a n d f u l o f T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n and early
Safavid b u i l d i n g s survive i n such I r a n i a n c u l t u r a l
centers as Tabriz, Q a z v i n , Isfahan, Yazd, and
Shiraz. A l t h o u g h the parallels t h a t we have i d e n -
tified for the T o p k a p i scroll involve extant m o n u -
ments located i n I r a n , p r i m a r i l y along the axis
between Isfahan and Yazd, the capital Tabriz was
the m a j o r c u l t u r a l center f r o m w h i c h architectural
and decorative i n n o v a t i o n s were disseminated to
these n e i g h b o r i n g r e g i o n s . 80
Judging f r o m its cityscape as d r a w n by the
O t t o m a n artist M a t r a k c i Nasuh i n the 1530s, Tabriz
once, rivaled the T i m u r i d capitals o f Samarqand
and H e r a t i n architectural splendor. The nearly
wholesale d e s t r u c t i o n o f m o n u m e n t s i n Tabriz is,
therefore, as significant a loss for the h i s t o r y o f
eastern Islamic architecture i n the p o s t - M o n g o l
p e r i o d as is the disappearance o f Abbasid Baghdad
for the p r e - M o n g o l e r a . 81
I n his h i s t o r i c a l essay o n
Tabriz, the late sixteenth-century O t t o m a n h i s t o -
r i a n Ta likizade still ranked that c i t y — t o g e t h e r
c
w i t h I s t a n b u l , Cairo, D e l h i , Beijing, and R o m e —
a m o n g the leading metropolises o f the w o r l d .
By i m p l i c a t i o n this gave i t greater prestige t h a n
Samarqand and H e r a t . 82
I f the T o p k a p i scroll was
c o m p i l e d i n the T u r k m e n or early Safavid courts
o f Tabriz (or i n another I r a n i a n c i t y ) , its patterns
can be seen as precious mementos o f a n o w - l o s t
archaeological record.
C o n f r o n t e d w i t h the ruins o f ancient Near
Eastern m o n u m e n t s , the n i n t h - c e n t u r y Abbasid
author al-Jahiz w r o t e : " T h e c o m p o s i n g o f books
is m o r e effective t h a n b u i l d i n g i n r e c o r d i n g the
accomplishments o f the passing ages and centuries.
For there is no d o u b t that c o n s t r u c t i o n eventually
perishes, and its traces disappear, w h i l e books
handed f r o m one generation to another, and f r o m
n a t i o n to n a t i o n , r e m a i n forever r e n e w e d . " 83
Cen-
turies later the T i m u r i d h i s t o r i a n M i r k h w a n d
(1433-1498) w o u l d repeat the same observation:
" B u i l d i n g s may be seen, / Ruined by sun and r a i n . /
Erect history's strong f o u n d a t i o n / To escape f r o m
w i n d , r a i n , and d e s o l a t i o n . " 84
The survival o f
the T o p k a p i scroll i n the face o f the large-scale
destruction of T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n monuments i n
such centers as Tabriz bears o u t this sad t r u t h
c o n c e r n i n g the evanescence o f brick-based a r c h i -
tecture i n the I r a n i a n w o r l d .
The question remains h o w the T o p k a p i scroll,
meant to preserve the m e m o r y o f geometric design
t r a d i t i o n s f r o m one generation o f master builders
to the next i n a m a n u s c r i p t - d o m i n a t e d p r e m o d e r n
w o r l d u n i n f i l t r a t e d by the p r i n t i n g press, f o u n d
its way i n t o the O t t o m a n i m p e r i a l treasury collec-
t i o n . U n l i k e the p r i n t e d architectural manuals that
p r o l i f e r a t e d i n fifteenth- and sixteenth-century
Europe, where the late medieval g u i l d system had
begun to disintegrate, the T o p k a p i scroll addressed
a n a r r o w circle o f initiates already acquainted w i t h
i n h e r i t e d craft t r a d i t i o n s . Since its coded w o r k i n g
drawings r e c o r d i n g w o r k s h o p practices by means
o f economically rendered repeat units do n o t seem
to have been i n t e n d e d as presentation drawings
for patrons, its preservation i n the sultan's private
treasury seems unusual.
The c i r c u m s t a n t i a l evidence o f the T o p k a p i
scroll's placement i n the I n n e r Treasury o f the
T o p k a p i Palace can p r o v i d e an a d d i t i o n a l clue as
to its date and provenance. I f i t was p r o d u c e d i n
Tabriz or b r o u g h t there f r o m another I r a n i a n
center, i t c o u l d easily have passed i n t o the hands
o f the O t t o m a n s w h o conquered Tabriz several
times: the first i n 1474 w h e n M e h m e d 11 defeated
U z u n Hasan and the second i n 1514 w h e n Selim 1
vanquished the Safavid ruler Shah I s m a i l . O n c
b o t h occasions m a n y skilled artisans and scholars
as w e l l as treasures and manuscripts were taken
f r o m Tabriz to I s t a n b u l . This p a t t e r n was repeated
i n Suleyman I ' S several raids o n the same city i n
the first h a l f o f the sixteenth century, w h i c h even-
tually forced the Safavids to transfer t h e i r capital
to Q a z v i n i n 1543. The scroll c o u l d also have been
b r o u g h t to I s t a n b u l by such personages as the
 THE
T i m u r i d a s t r o n o m e r - m a t h e m a t i c i a n A l i Kusci,
w h o first m o v e d f r o m Samarqand to the c o u r t o f
U z u n Hasan i n Tabriz after the death o f his p a t r o n
U l u g h Beg and t h e n j o i n e d M e h m e d n's c o u r t i n
1472 w i t h a large retinue and a vast m a n u s c r i p t
c o l l e c t i o n , w h i c h i n c l u d e d m a t h e m a t i c a l treatises.
The T o p k a p i scroll may also have belonged to
the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n decorators and builders
w h o were i n v i t e d to the c o u r t o f M e h m e d 11 i n the
1470s. C o m p l e t e d i n 1472, this sultan's Q i n i l i Kosk
( T i l e d kiosk) at the T o p k a p i Palace was decorated
by a foreign w o r k s h o p staffed w i t h tile cutters
f r o m the I r a n i a n w o r l d . I t exemplified the prestige
o f the i n t e r n a t i o n a l T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n style i n the
O t t o m a n c o u r t at a t i m e when M e h m e d 11 was
d r e a m i n g o f a p p r o p r i a t i n g the A q q o y u n l u t e r r i t o -
ries i n the east. I t is t e m p t i n g to propose that the
scroll reached the O t t o m a n c o u r t some t i m e i n the
late fifteenth or early sixteenth century w h e n c u l -
t u r a l contacts w i t h the T i m u r i d , T u r k m e n , and
early Safavid courts were at their peak; this seems
all the m o r e l i k e l y given the d i m i n i s h e d interest
i n Persianate artistic models after that t i m e . The
Topkapi scroll p r o b a b l y owes its superbly pre-
served c o n d i t i o n to having been deposited i n the
I n n e r Treasury and then f o r g o t t e n , thanks to its
m i n o r relevance to classical O t t o m a n architecture,
the canonical language o f w h i c h was codified
by the 1550s and m a r k e d a deliberate departure
f r o m the Persianate T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n models
that previously had been e m u l a t e d . 85
I f the T o p k a p i scroll had been used i n the office
TOPKAPI SCROLL, ITS DATE AND PROVENANCE 39
o f the chief architect, i t w o u l d p r o b a b l y have dis-
appeared together w i t h all the architectural draw-
ings cited i n the O t t o m a n sources. This seems to
have been the fate o f many other p a t t e r n scrolls
consumed d u r i n g the c o n s t r u c t i o n process i n
the I r a n i a n w o r l d . The c o m b i n e d evidence, t h e n ,
strongly suggests a late fifteenth- or sixteenth-
century date and an I r a n i a n provenance for the
T o p k a p i scroll, hereafter referred to as a T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n scroll even t h o u g h i t may have been
c o m p i l e d i n the Safavid p e r i o d . D e t e r m i n i n g an
exact date o f c o m p i l a t i o n becomes a relatively
m i n o r issue since the p r e d o m i n a n t l y geometric
design repertory o f the scroll is genuinely T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n i n o r i g i n , a repertory that c o n t i n u e d
to be used i n the early Safavid era. I n whatever
context i t was created, the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the
T o p k a p i scroll for architectural practice i n the late
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n and early Safavid worlds are
o f far greater i m p o r t a n c e , i m p l i c a t i o n s that w o u l d
n o t change even i f this u n i q u e d o c u m e n t were
f o u n d to have been copied at a later date.
CHAPTER 3. THE TOPKAPI SCROLL AS A MIRROR
ARCHITECTUAL PRACTICE
The geometry that governed the t w o - and three-
d i m e n s i o n a l decorative revetments o f T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n architecture (perpetuated i n early Safavid
and Uzbek architectural practice) is the m a i n sub-
ject o f the T o p k a p i scroll. As G o l o m b e k and W i l b e r
have remarked: " W h a t supplies the u n i f y i n g force
to T i m u r i d architecture . . . is the g e o m e t r i z a t i o n
o f design, s t r u c t u r e , o r n a m e n t , and space. Geome-
t r y i n T i m u r i d architecture is n o t merely a means
to an end, b u t an end i n i t s e l f — a n u n d e r l y i n g
theme, an aesthetic p r i n c i p l e . A b u i l d i n g must n o t
o n l y have a geometric skeleton, b u t i n the final
analysis i t must l o o k ' g e o m e t r i c ' Geometry is as
m u c h a theme o f the architecture as i t is o f the
d e c o r a t i o n . " This obsession w i t h geometry, they
argued, t u r n e d i t i n t o "a f o r m o f design t h e o r y " i n
I r a n and Central Asia d u r i n g the T i m u r i d p e r i o d .
The T o p k a p i scroll, w h i c h once acted as an i n t e r -
v e n i n g m e d i u m i n the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n and
transmission o f architectural knowledge, can help
us penetrate the processes o f geometric h a r m o n i -
z a t i o n i n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n architecture where
geometry c o n s t i t u t e d an i m p o r t a n t key to struc-
t u r a l logic, beauty, and m e a n i n g . 87
OF LATE TIMURID-TURKMEN
" T h e v i r t u o s i t y o f T i m u r i d a r c h i t e c t u r e , " as
G o l o m b e k and W i l b e r n o t e d , "was n o t expressed
p r i m a r i l y i n the design o f new types o f structures,
or i n the elaboration o f previous types, b u t i n an
intensive e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h d e c o r a t i o n and
w i t h varieties o f v a u l t i n g . " 8 8
Robert H i l l e n b r a n d
affirmed t h a t " w h i l e architectural layouts remained
t r a d i t i o n a l , the T i m u r i d s developed v a u l t i n g and
t i l e w o r k to a h i t h e r t o unprecedented d e g r e e . " 89
I t is precisely to this aspect o f T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
architecture that the T o p k a p i scroll w i t h its i n t r i -
cate geometric patterns for p o l y c h r o m e surface
revetments and elaborate v a u l t i n g is devoted.
Buildings c o m m i s s i o n e d by the r u l i n g elite stood
o u t by v i r t u e o f t h e i r expensive decorative veneer
o f p o l y c h r o m a t i c revetments applied over a
8 6
greater surface area t h a n ever before i n I r a n i a n
Islamic architecture. As stellate arch-nets and
muqarnas vaults t u r n e d i n t o a f o r m o f o r n a m e n t a l
revetment c o m p l e m e n t i n g the decorative treat-
m e n t o f w a l l surfaces, their increasingly i n t r i c a t e
designs freed f r o m s t r u c t u r a l concerns had to
be w o r k e d o u t i n precise p r e l i m i n a r y d r a w i n g s .
The c r u c i f o r m d o m e chambers, weblike arch-
nets, complex muqarnas vaults, extensive i n s c r i p -
tions, and geometric o r n a m e n t o f T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n b u i l d i n g s almost certainly r e q u i r e d
detailed advance p l a n n i n g just as c o n t e m p o r a r y
late G o t h i c architecture d i d . A l t h o u g h o n l y a
few architectural drawings are k n o w n f r o m the
Romanesque and early G o t h i c periods i n Europe,
a large n u m b e r o f w o r k s h o p manuals, lodge books,
and drawings f r o m between the f o u r t e e n t h and
sixteenth centuries have survived, most o f t h e m
p e r t a i n i n g to German late G o t h i c . 91
This parallels
the p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f architectural drawings i n the
Islamic lands after the f o u r t e e n t h century, w h i c h
c u l m i n a t e d i n the earliest k n o w n examples o f
p a t t e r n scrolls datable to the late fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries. A l t h o u g h this may s i m p l y be an
accident o f survival, the b o o m o f drawings c o u l d
also be the result o f the c o d i f i c a t i o n o f forms
after an i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f s t r u c t u r a l e x p e r i m e n -
t a t i o n . B o t h the late G o t h i c and the late T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n architectural i d i o m s evolved f r o m
s t r u c t u r a l i n n o v a t i o n s that were eventually trans-
90
f o r m e d i n t o elaborate decorative sophistications.
Like late G o t h i c flamboyant v a u l t i n g , w h i c h
42 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
has been described as being generated f r o m a
" d i s c i p l i n e d geometric g r i d w h i c h explodes i n t o
fireworks o f incredible technical and design
sophistry," T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n v a u l t i n g became
an independent aesthetic force r e q u i r i n g m o r e
and m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d designs. 92
S u r v i v i n g late G o t h i c design booklets and the
T o p k a p i scroll reflect a shared p r e o c c u p a t i o n
w i t h the graphic representation o f increasingly
elaborate vault patterns and details o f geometric
o r n a m e n t rather than w i t h problems o f architec-
t u r a l space and structure. As the plans o f b u i l d i n g
types became relatively standardized w i t h the dis-
sipation o f d a r i n g s t r u c t u r a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , late
medieval architects i n Europe and i n the Islamic
lands increasingly t u r n e d t h e i r creative energies to
the decorative embellishment and refinement o f
canonical forms. As Spiro K o s t o f n o t e d , late G o t h i c
architects embarked o n a " d a z z l i n g adventure o f
elaborations," designing lacelike tracery, i n f i n i t e l y
variegated filigree w o r k , fanciful vault schemata,
and decorative m o t i f s , w h i c h constitute the subject
m a t t e r o f t h e i r drawings. He perceptively c o m -
pared the dematerialized muqarnas vaults o f the
A l h a m b r a , w i t h t h e i r m y r i a d m i n u t e l y fragmented
facets, to late G o t h i c vaults i n England: " T h e later
vaults i n b o t h the M u s l i m and G o t h i c c o m p a r i s o n
may seem at first glance w i l d l y l i c e n t i o u s , b u t they
are, each o n e w i t h i n its o w n t r a d i t i o n , r a t i o n a l l y
b r e d f r o m the visual principles t h a t governed the
earlier v a u l t s . " 93
Like t h e i r late G o t h i c contemporaries, master
builders i n the eastern Islamic lands strove for
refined v i r t u o s i t y and subtly variegated surface
revetments i n m u l t i p l e media, as the drawings o f
the T o p k a p i scroll w i t h its kaleidoscopic array o f
geometric patterns, i n s c r i p t i o n s , and vault projec-
tions show. Based o n m o r e visually c o m p l i c a t e d
m u l t i l a y e r e d geometric c o m p o s i t i o n s t h a n t h e i r
G o t h i c counterparts, the scroll's drawings p r o v i d e
a glimpse o f the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n design reper-
t o r y , governed by the abstract logic o f geome-
try. These drawings demonstrate t h a t the late
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n architect, like his colleagues
i n Europe, had to master a m o d u l a r system
o f geometric design i n w h i c h a r i t h m e t i c and mea-
surement played a relatively insignificant role.
K o s t o f stressed the p r e d o m i n a n t l y geometric basis
o f the medieval design process, n o t i n g the shared
p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f b o t h C h r i s t i a n and M u s l i m
architects w i t h g e o m e t r y : 94
I n m a t u r e G o t h i c design, a r i t h m e t i c a l
tidiness i n the m u c h m o r e sophisticated
geometry used was n o t always o f p r i m e
concern. The design process evolved f r o m
a geometric progression t h a t started w i t h
basic figures, such as equilateral triangles,
circles, and squares, e n d i n g u p , t h r o u g h
a series o f simple geometric steps, i n
elaborate constellations o f f o r m . I n this
d y n a m i c m a n i p u l a t i o n o f geometry the
m o d u l e had, as i t were t o fend for itself.
Measured drawings were exceptional.
P r o p o r t i o n s were n o t fixed according to a
respected general canon, as w i t h Classical
architecture. . . . I n G o t h i c architecture,
p r o p o r t i o n s are m o r e abstract; the i n d i -
v i d u a l elements have no accepted set o f
p r o p o r t i o n s i n themselves or i n r e l a t i o n
to the overall dimensions o f the b u i l d i n g ,
b u t rather f o l l o w a system o f i n t e r r e l a -
tionships g r o u n d e d i n the consistency
o f geometric f o r m u l a e . 95
U n l i k e Euclidean theoretical geometry, the
practical constructive geometry o f the medieval
master masons d i d n o t require a r i t h m e t i c rea-
soning to move t h r o u g h geometric processes. 96
Problems that w o u l d seem to require n u m e r i c a l
c o m p u t a t i o n were often solved t h r o u g h the c o n -
s t r u c t i o n and m a n i p u l a t i o n o f simple geometric
shapes, using basic w o r k i n g tools. As L o n Shelby
observed, rather t h a n being " t h e geometry o f the
m a t h e m a t i c i a n s , " this was the medieval mason's
"way o f visualizing p o t e n t i a l architectural forms
w i t h i n certain geometric f i g u r e s . " 97
I t was t h r o u g h
a m i n i m u m i n v e n t o r y o f geometric shapes t h a t
medieval architects created a m a x i m u m diversity
o f forms. A c t u a l measurements d i d n o t enter the
design process u n t i l the last m o m e n t , w h e n the sit-
i n g and dimensions o f a b u i l d i n g were d e t e r m i n e d ,
an observation c o n f i r m e d by the absence o f mea-
surements o n s u r v i v i n g w o r k i n g drawings. A m o n g
the a p p r o x i m a t e l y five t h o u s a n d preserved G o t h i c
architectural drawings, less t h a n a dozen c o n t a i n
i n d i c a t i o n s o f actual size, some o f t h e m apparently
added as an afterthought. M o s t o f these designs
were developed geometrically and thus were w o r k -
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL AS A MIRROR OF LATE TIMURID-TURKMEN
able for large and small structures a l i k e . 98
The geometric drafting methods o f medieval
master builders differed f u n d a m e n t a l l y f r o m those
developed i n post-Renaissance Europe. As Shelby
n o t e d , " M e d i e v a l a r c h i t e c t s — t h e master masons
and master c a r p e n t e r s — d i d n o t w o r k and t h i n k
and w r i t e like ancient and post-medieval a r c h i -
tects." 99
T h e i r d is ti nc t iv e modes o f conceptual-
i z i n g design problems are reflected i n G o t h i c
sketchbooks and lodge books, w h i c h constitute
valuable repositories o f f o r g o t t e n techniques and
lost m e n t a l processes. Shelby's analysis o f medieval
architectural drawings led h i m t o conclude that
the " a r t o f g e o m e t r y " o f the master masons p r o -
duced significantly different ways o f conceptualiz-
i n g and visualizing the design process. I n this
process the template designed by the master mason
and used by the masons to carve geometrically
i n t r i c a t e stones for vaults, w i n d o w s , portals, trac-
ery, and other o r n a m e n t a l details played a key
role: " L e a r n i n g h o w to project t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
forms f r o m t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l templates was one o f
the most i m p o r t a n t lessons a stonemason had to
master. I t was also a lesson w h i c h carried over i n t o
the most advanced task o f the master mason, t h a t
o f architectural design." 1 0 0
The T o p k a p i scroll shows that a s i m i l a r process
o f p r o j e c t i n g spatial forms f r o m t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l
templates was at w o r k i n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n a r c h i -
tectural practice. The direct t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y o f
drawings o n a flat plane i n t o spatial forms reduced
the need for precise elevation drawings, w h i c h are
conspicuously absent i n b o t h the T o p k a p i and
ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE
Tashkent scrolls. Elevations were often deduced
by means o f geometric procedures f r o m g r o u n d
plans, as was c o m m o n practice i n the G o t h i c
building tradition. 1 0 1
T h r o u g h methods o f paral-
lel p r o j e c t i o n m u l t i p l e levels o f space frequently
were collapsed o n t o a single d r a w i n g just as t w o -
d i m e n s i o n a l designs were projected o n t o walls and
vaults by means o f i m a g i n e d parallel rays. W o r k -
shop t r a i n i n g prepared T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n builders
to read such m u l t i l e v e l e d drawings, w h i c h c o n -
tained several superimposed h o r i z o n t a l cross sec-
tions. This technique enabled t h e m to visualize
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l constructs beneath crisscross
geometric lines o n paper. W i t h scroll drawings
acting as templates that p r o v i d e d easy shortcuts,
builders and t h e i r specialized teams o f decorators
c o u l d apply even the most i n t r i c a t e geometric
revetments o n walls and assemble the most c o m -
plex muqarnas or stellate arch-net vaults by simple
means, guided by the practical experience they
already possessed.
The T o p k a p i scroll indicates t h a t T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n architectural practice was closer i n spirit
to the G o t h i c t h a n i t was to the Renaissance t r a d i -
t i o n . Such T i m u r i d master builders as Qawam al-
D i n Shirazi, w h o was active i n the early fifteenth
century, were essentially refining a t r a d i t i o n a l sys-
t e m o f geometric h a r m o n i z a t i o n m u c h like t h e i r
late G o t h i c colleagues. By contrast, c o n t e m p o r a r y
I t a l i a n architects such as F i l i p p o Brunelleschi
(1377-1446) had begun t o t u r n away f r o m the
medieval architectural heritage u p o n rediscovering
the V i t r u v i a n system o f h a r m o n i c p r o p o r t i o n s
43
based o n a r i t h m e t i c ratios echoing musical c o n -
sonances. 102
I t was o n l y after the Renaissance t h a t
scaled architectural drawings (characterized by
measured g r o u n d plans and elevations d r a w n
according to specific dimensions) became the n o r m
i n European architectural practice, a development
that broadened the gap between d r a f t i n g conven-
tions i n Europe and i n eastern Islamic lands where
abstract geometric schemata prevailed. N u m b e r -
based design has l o n g been regarded as one o f the
key p o i n t s i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g Renaissance architec-
ture f r o m the G o t h i c t r a d i t i o n where m e t r i c a l
elements had played o n l y a secondary role. The
medieval geometric system o f p r o p o r t i o n i n g based
o n i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e ratios differed significantly
f r o m the a r i t h m e t i c system o f commensurable
ratios favored d u r i n g the Renaissance. R u d o l f
W i t t k o w e r l i n k e d the latter w i t h the emergence o f
perspective: " I n d e e d , the concept o f c o m m e n s u r -
a b i l i t y lies b e h i n d the emergence o f the m e t r i c a l ,
r a t i o n a l space o f Renaissance perspective." 1 0 3
As Francois Bucher observed, the " G o t h i c
design concept t h r i v e d o n the a r i t h m e t i c i r r a t i o n -
ality o f geometrically staggered p r o p o r t i o n s w h i c h
are i n s t i n c t i v e l y pleasant to the eye, b u t at the
same t i m e a puzzle to the measuring m i n d . " 1 0 4
The d y n a m i c G o t h i c m e t h o d o f design, based
o n geometric configurations i n v o l v i n g l i t t l e a r i t h -
metic, finds a s t r i k i n g parallel i n the girihs o f
the T o p k a p i scroll, generated by the ingenious
m a n i p u l a t i o n o f abstract geometric g r i d systems
u n e n c u m b e r e d by a r i t h m e t i c . Like their late G o t h i c
counterparts these drawings are u n a c c o m p a n i e d
44 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
by n u m e r i c a l n o t a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to absolute
measurements. M e a n t to be p r o p o r t i o n a l l y adapted
to b u i l d i n g s and local materials at the construc-
t i o n site, they are ideal patterns contained i n square
and rectangular frames whose l e n g t h - t o - w i d t h p r o -
p o r t i o n matters m o r e t h a n their actual dimensions.
The T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls have i m p o r -
tant i m p l i c a t i o n s for the study o f late medieval
architectural practice i n the eastern Islamic w o r l d .
The latter's j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f squared g r o u n d plans
w i t h designs for t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l a r c h i -
tectural revetments testifies to the role o f master
builders i n c o o r d i n a t i n g architectural design w i t h
surface d e c o r a t i o n . Grid-based g r o u n d plans, i n
w h i c h each square o f the g r i d represented a given
n u m b e r o f bricks, made the accurate estimates o f
c o n s t r u c t i o n costs easier, guided the geometric
p r o p o r t i o n i n g o f architectural layouts, and served
as a convenient device for enlarging drawings full
scale o n the s i t e . 105
Chardin's observations about
the c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y i n seventeenth-century
Safavid I r a n indicate that architects were p a i d a
percentage o n each b u i l d i n g based o n the c u b i t
measure o f the height and thickness o f walls. This
practice explains the rationale for grid-based plans
that consistently indicate w a l l thicknesses to facili-
tate such calculations:
The Persians d e t e r m i n e the price for
masons o n the basis o f the height and
thickness o f walls, w h i c h they measure
by the c u b i t , like c l o t h . The k i n g imposes
no tax o n the sale o f b u i l d i n g s , b u t
the Master A r c h i t e c t , w h o m they call
Mamarbachi [ T u r k i s h , mfmdrbasi, "chief
a r c h i t e c t " ] , that is, C h i e f o f Masons, takes
two percent o f inheritance allotments and
sales. This officer also has a r i g h t to five
percent o n all edifices c o m m i s s i o n e d by
the k i n g . These are appraised w h e n they
are c o m p l e t e d and the Master A r c h i t e c t ,
w h o has directed the c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
receives as his r i g h t and salary as m u c h as
five percent o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n cost o f
each e d i f i c e . 106
Ready-made tables for n u m e r i c a l c o m p u t a t i o n ,
such as those p r o v i d e d i n al-Kashi's fifteenth-
c e n t u r y treatise, Miftah al-hisab (Key to a r i t h m e -
t i c ) , s i m p l i f i e d the process o f calculation for the
overseers o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h o often prepared cost
estimates for projected b u i l d i n g s and assessed
their value u p o n c o m p l e t i o n . 1 0 7
Analyses o f Islamic b u i l d i n g s i n Central Asia
suggest that t h e i r structure frequently was
i n f o r m e d by regulating geometric grids and t h a t
the square modules o f g r o u n d plans d r a w n o n
paper were related to regionally varied c u b i t mea-
sures. The w i d e range o f v a r i a t i o n i n regional
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n c u b i t measures shows that
dimensions were n o t a p r i m a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n
the p r e d o m i n a n t l y m o d u l a r system o f architec-
tural design. 108
The geometric process o f p r o p o r -
t i o n i n g the g r o u n d plans o f b u i l d i n g s and t h e i r
vaults, t h e n , remained largely independent o f their
actual c o n s t r u c t i o n . Like the girihs for t w o - and
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l decorative revetments that
accompany t h e m , s u r v i v i n g grid-based g r o u n d
plans represent ideal b u i l d i n g types that were geo-
m e t r i c a l l y p r o p o r t i o n e d p r i o r to being converted
i n t o a chosen m o d u l a r u n i t o f measurement,
either equivalent to or commensurate w i t h the
local c u b i t . This u n i t o f measure w o u l d generate
all the i m p o r t a n t dimensions o f the m o n u m e n t
under c o n s t r u c t i o n , just as a set m o d u l e used i n
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h geometric schemes was typical
o f G o t h i c architectural practice. The process o f
t r a n s l a t i n g the grid-based plans i n t o elevations
m u s t have r e q u i r e d a p p r o x i m a t e adjustments o n
the b u i l d i n g site o f geometrically generated ideal
forms c o r r e s p o n d i n g to i r r a t i o n a l n u m b e r s . T h a t
is w h y attempts to reconstruct the p r o p o r t i o n a l
systems o f s u r v i v i n g medieval Islamic m o n u m e n t s
are b o u n d to r e m a i n largely unsuccessful.
I t is n o t u n l i k e l y that elevation drawings o f cer-
t a i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l details were prepared to c o m p l e -
m e n t the squared g r o u n d plans, even t h o u g h they
are missing f r o m the T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls.
Al-Kashi's treatise o n a r i t h m e t i c does p r o v i d e geo-
m e t r i c drawings for arch and d o m e profiles and
for a muqarnas m o d u l e , w h i c h he said was based
o n a d r a w i n g m e t h o d used by p r a c t i c i n g T i m u r i d
masons (see " T h e M u q a r n a s , " i l l . 2, i n the pres-
ent v o l u m e ) . 1 0 9
Elevations o f arch and d o m e
profiles such as the ones i n c l u d e d i n the Qajar
architect M i r z a Akbar's scrolls (see figs. 27, 28, 36)
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL AS A MIRROR OF LATE TIMURID-TURKMEN
may s i m p l y have been o m i t t e d f r o m earlier scrolls
because they w o u l d have been designed o n the
c o n s t r u c t i o n site according to geometric "rules o f
t h u m b , " o n the basis o f r e q u i r e d measurements.
The T o p k a p i scroll's few elevation drawings (see
cat. nos. 35, 39, 105) p o i n t to a d r a f t i n g t r a d i t i o n
that relied heavily o n g r o u n d plans f r o m w h i c h
elevations c o u l d be geometrically deduced d u r i n g
the c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s . 110
Profiles o f w i n d o w s ,
arches, and portals were most l i k e l y d e t e r m i n e d
according to standard geometric procedures i n the
f o r m o f full-scale templates t h a t were c o m m o n l y
used i n G o t h i c architectural practice as w e l l . The
p r e p a r a t i o n o f such drawings i n plaster o n the
floor o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k r o o m i n n i n e t e e n t h -
century Qajar I r a n is described by Clarke:
H a v i n g described the use o f the t r a c i n g
b o a r d i n Persia I shall n o w proceed to the
floor o f the w o r k r o o m , w h i c h is generally
a space w i t h i n the b u i l d i n g i n progress,
and here the full-size details are w o r k e d
o u t either by enlargement by squares or
geometrical methods m o s t l y e m p i r i c a l .
The p r e p a r a t i o n o f this floor requires
their greatest care, as its finished face is
fine plaster o f Paris evenly l a i d . The pat-
terns, once w o r k e d o u t , are incised o n the
plaster, w h i c h being greased is ready to
serve as a m o u l d for slabs o f plaster w h i c h
are cast f r o m i t . These, w h i c h take the
place o f tracings o f f u l l size details w i t h
ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE
us, are given o u t to the w o r k m e n and
serve as templates to shape the w o r k t o .
Perfect accuracy and fitting o f the several
parts are thus assured, as all emanate f r o m
one o r i g i n a l . 1 1 1
Clarke also described h o w plaster muqarnas
vaults were created by means o f a m e t h o d o f
parallel p r o j e c t i o n f r o m a plan d r a w n full scale
o n the floor:
The floor o f the r o o m to be vaulted was
levelled o n a bed o f ashes, a t h i n coat o f
plaster was r u n over this, and the whole
plan l a i d o u t ; the lines were t h e n cut o u t
w i t h a knife i n a V f o r m , and the plaster
was saturated w i t h h o t suet. A cast o f this
was taken i n plaster about h a l f an i n c h
t h i c k , and the first p l a n , that is to say, the
first line o f stalactites were cut o u t by the
w o r k m e n , stuck up h o r i z o n t a l l y against
the w a l l , and s u p p o r t e d by means o f sticks
and soft plaster; the visible part o f the sta-
lactite was t h e n finished by h a n d d o w n t o
the w a l l . A n o t h e r sheet was t h e n r u n and
the second l i n e was cut o u t , stuck o n as
before, and thus contained u n t i l the whole
was completed. As the faces o f the Persian
stalactites all f o r m p l a i n rectilinear figures,
it is n o t difficult to w o r k t h e m by h a n d . 1 1 2
45
I n 1881 a f r i e n d o f Clarke's, w h o had seen the
vault projections i n c l u d e d i n the M i r z a A k b a r
scrolls (see figs. 2 7 - 3 0 ) , c o m m e n t e d , "Such is the
habit w h i c h these Persian w o r k m e n have acquired,
by l o n g t r a d i t i o n and h a b i t , o f c a r r y i n g o u t this
w o r k , that they are able to w o r k o u t the most
i n t r i c a t e patterns merely f r o m such plans as y o u
see r o u g h l y d r a w n . " 1 1 3
George A i t c h i s o n also
described h o w Persian builders constructed m u q a r -
nas vaults by translating the plans i n c l u d e d i n the
M i r z a A k b a r scrolls i n t o full-scale drawings o n
the floor, a procedure he c o m p a r e d w i t h G o t h i c
b u i l d i n g practice:
M r . Clarke was enabled to p r o c u r e f r o m
the architects' g u i l d a great n u m b e r o f
their p a t t e r n - b o o k s , some o f w h i c h are
exhibited here, and i t is most probable
that s o m e t h i n g o f the sort existed i n the
M i d d l e Ages, w h e n stellar and other c o m -
plex v a u l t i n g was i n vogue. These Persian
p a t t e r n - b o o k s c o n t a i n the plans o n l y
o f all the most favorite Persian v a u l t i n g .
W h e n the size o f the space to be vaulted is
given, any master-mason can execute the
stalactite w o r k f r o m the p l a n alone. This
fact M r . Clarke p r o v e d i n the f o l l o w i n g
way: he made a p l a n , elevation and section
o f a cornice at Teheran, and w i s h i n g to
have a s i m i l a r one at the B r i t i s h Embassy
he was b u i l d i n g , some h u n d r e d miles
away, he showed the plan to the master-
4 6
67. Asgar Shi rbaf,
c
ground plan of a muqar-
nas portal hood, Iran,
twentieth century, ink
on paper. From Shi rbaf,
c
1982-1983, 1: 91.
68. Asgar Shi rbaf, paral-
c
lel projection of the
muqarnas ground plan
depicted in figure 67 to
the vault of a portal,
Iran, twentieth century,
ink on paper. From
Shi rbaf 1982-1983,1: 94.
c
69. Asgar Shi rbaf,
c
ground plan of a muqar-
nas portal hood and its
parallel projection
method, Iran, twentieth
century, ink on paper.
From Shi rbaf 1982-1983,
c
1: 97.
PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
mason a n d asked h i m i f he c o u l d exe-
cute i t f r o m the plan alone. T h e answer
was " C e r t a i n l y , " and w h e n i t was done
M r . Clarke verified i t f r o m his drawings,
and f o u n d i t e x a c t . 114
O n the basis o f a r e p o r t f r o m Clarke, the a r c h i -
tect R. Phene Spiers described the Qajar m e t h o d o f
vault c o n s t r u c t i o n i n a " r o o m w i t h stalactite vaults
at each angle a n d pendant i n the centre":
The p l a n was first made o u t o n the floor,
the outlines o f the several levels being
strongly m a r k e d o u t . T h e n t h i n slabs o f
stone were c u t to the o u t l i n e o f each level
and subsequently b u i l t i n the w a l l at the
r e q u i r e d height. I t s h o u l d be n o t i c e d ,
therefore, that there w o u l d always be
above the curved f o r m o f each course o f
stalactites an u p r i g h t vertical surface f r o m
1.5 inches t o 2 inches deep; this is the t e m -
plate. W h e n the bearing o f the templates
becomes t o o great, they are s u p p o r t e d i n
the centre b y chains f r o m beams fixed
above the stalactite ceiling, a n d i n the case
o f pendant stalactites similar chains are
suspended t o take t h e m . These chains are
afterwards coated w i t h plaster t o make
t h e m r i g i d like c o l u m n s . T h e positions
o f these templates a n d chains are carefully
ascertained by p l u m b i n g f r o m above d o w n
to the g r o u n d p l a n . T h e result w i l l be a
series o f shelves o r brackets, o n w h i c h the
plasterer commences his w o r k , c o m m e n c -
i n g at the b o t t o m and m o u l d i n g each sta-
lactite niche resting o n the lower template
and w o r k i n g i t u p t o the upper o n e . 1 1 5
The n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Qajar m e t h o d o f
muqarnas c o n s t r u c t i o n was still i n use i n 1936 w h e n
M y r o n S m i t h saw the plasterers o f Isfahan b u i l d
a muqarnas semidome by scratching its full-scale
design w i t h simple i n s t r u m e n t s (straight edge,
s t r i n g , pair o f dividers, a n d stylus) o n the floor
below, w h i c h had been covered w i t h plaster o f
paris {gach). T h e i r master first drew a rectangle
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the vault's dimensions, sketching
the outlines o f the f o r w a r d edges o f the various
h o r i z o n t a l strata, a n d c o n t i n u i n g t o design i t i n
tiers, b y visualizing its t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l projec-
t i o n o n the basis o f his t r a d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l k n o w l -
edge. After the design was finished, w i t h o u t the a i d
o f a d r a w i n g o n paper, black charcoal dust was
brushed i n t o its outlines. Beginning w i t h the line
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the t o p o f the lowest tier, slabs o f
gach were cast o n the floor and before setting h a r d
they were t u r n e d over and t r i m m e d w i t h a knife t o
the black line left by the charcoal, an o p e r a t i o n
repeated tier b y t i e r . 1 1 6
T h e same procedure is
described i n detail w i t h step-by-step diagrams i n
recent p u b l i c a t i o n s by p r a c t i c i n g I r a n i a n master
builders, testifying t o the c o n t i n u e d use o f t r a d i -
t i o n a l v a u l t - p r o j e c t i o n methods (figs. 6 7 - 6 9 ) . 1 1 7
T h a t the same technique was also widespread i n
Central Asia is demonstrated by N o t k i n ' s account
o f h o w the t r a d i t i o n a l Bukharan master b u i l d e r
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL AS A MIRROR OF LATE TIMURID-TURKMEN ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE 47

70. Usta Shirin Muradov,

repeat unit of the ground
plan of a muqarnas
vault, Bukhara, twentieth
century, ink on paper.
From Notkin 1961, 88,
fig. 46. Photo: Courtesy
Iosif Isakevich Notkin.

71. The preparation of

plaster shelves on the
ground from the full-
scale muqarnas drawing
(see fig. 70). From
Notkin 1961, 88, fig. 47.,
Photo: Courtesy Iosif
Isakevich Notkin.

72. Shelves parallel to the

ground set up on the
vault (see figs. 70, 71).
From Notkin 1961, 89,
fig. 48. Photo: Courtesy
Iosif Isakevich Notkin.

73. The final placement

of individual muqarnas
units in the shelves
forming corbeled tiers
(see figs. 70-72). From
Notkin 1961, 89, fig. 49.
Photo: Courtesy Iosif
Isakevich Notkin.
4 8 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
74. Vault projection.
From the Dresden
Sketchbook, sixteenth
century, ink on paper.
Vienna, Osterreichische
Nationalbibliothek,
M S Cod. Vind. m i n . 3,
fol. 10V.
Usta S h i r i n M u r a d o v (1880-1957) b o t h drew and
constructed the fragment o f a muqarnas vault
(figs. 7 0 - 7 3 ) . 1 1 8
Once again the p l a n o n paper
was traced f u l l scale o n the floor: f r o m this t r a c i n g
plaster plates 2 to 3 centimeters t h i c k were cast
for each row. They were attached to the vault w i t h
wooden supports and t h e i r correspondence to
the p l a n was verified by p l u m b line. The attached
plates f o r m e d successively corbeled h o r i z o n t a l
shelves parallel to the floor, each shelf c a r r y i n g
rows o f plaster muqarnas u n i t s serving a p u r e l y
decorative f u n c t i o n as a k i n d o f s c u l p t u r a l surface
o r n a m e n t . This m e t h o d o f parallel p r o j e c t i o n
r e q u i r e d an a b i l i t y t o d i s t i n g u i s h the boundaries
o f different tiers, w h i c h i n the muqarnas drawings
o f the T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls are coded w i t h
graphic conventions that accentuate the edges
o f successive rows (see Catalog, G r o u p I V . i i ) .
A l t h o u g h an " a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l " approach whereby
historical b u i l d i n g techniques are deduced f r o m
c o n t e m p o r a r y practices may be m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y
suspect, the m o d e r n eyewitness accounts cited
above do help us visualize h o w the radial m u q a r -
nas patterns o f the T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls,
w h i c h were for the most part i n t e n d e d to be cast
i n plaster, w o u l d have been translated i n t o spatial
forms. This d e d u c t i o n is j u s t i f i e d by the s i m i l a r i -
ties between the relatively s i m p l i f i e d muqarnas
projections o f the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y M i r z a A k b a r
scrolls and t h e i r m o r e complex counterparts i n the
earlier T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls.
The patterns o f stellate arch-net vaults must
also have been d r a w n o n the floor as full-scale
templates f r o m w h i c h builders c o u l d project the
p r i n c i p a l intersection p o i n t s by p l u m b i n g f r o m
above (see Catalog, G r o u p I V . i ) . I t was c o m m o n
to trace r i b b e d or g r o i n e d vault patterns o n the
floor i n G o t h i c architectural practice as well; the
m e t h o d o f p r o j e c t i n g t h e m i n t o space c o n s t i t u t e d
a craft secret jealously guarded by medieval
masons. 119
A c c o r d i n g to N o t k i n the Tashkent
scroll's vault p r o j e c t i o n s , w h i c h are open to several
alternative readings, e x h i b i t a s i m i l a r concern w i t h
p r o t e c t i n g craft secrets. 120
Like the T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls i n w h i c h
vault patterns constitute the largest g r o u p o f draw-
ings, m a n y o f the s u r v i v i n g late G o t h i c lodge
books are d o m i n a t e d by vault patterns and t h e i r
p r o j e c t i o n methods. A n u m b e r o f t h e m are exclu-
sively devoted to the p r o b l e m o f vault p r o j e c t i o n ,
w h i c h seems to have been a p r i n c i p a l preoccupa-
t i o n o f late G o t h i c b u i l d e r s . 121
These documents
show t h a t despite all its visual c o m p l e x i t y , late
G o t h i c v a u l t i n g was based o n relatively simple
geometric procedures. F r o m the flat g r o u n d p r o -
j e c t i o n o f the vault d r a w n full scale o n the floor,
one c o u l d deduce the length o f the p r i n c i p a l arch
f o r m i n g the apex o f the vault as w e l l as the respec-
tive lengths o f interlaced ribs (figs. 74, 75). This
m e t h o d , w h i c h has been sufficiently tested i n m o d -
els to have p r o v e n f o o l p r o o f and f u n d a m e n t a l l y
simple, was based o n the concept t h a t all the ribs
o f a vault c o u l d be generated p r o p o r t i o n a l l y f r o m
its p r i n c i p a l arc (Principalbogen), 122
Once the
length o f t h a t arc was d e t e r m i n e d , the curvatures
o f r e m a i n i n g subsidiary arcs were generated f r o m
75. Vault model based
on figure 74. Photo:
Courtesy Francois
Bucher and The Inter-
national Center of
Medieval Art, The
Cloisters, Fort Tryon
Park, New York.
it by measuring the length o f each as s h o w n o n the
plan along a h o r i z o n t a l baseline; vertical lines were
t h e n struck u p w a r d f r o m the endpoints o f each o f
these r i b plans. The length o f the curved ribs was
d e t e r m i n e d by the intersection o f these vertical
lines w i t h the p r i n c i p a l a r c . 123
Similar vault p r o -
j e c t i o n plans w i t h vertical lines are used by t r a -
d i t i o n a l master builders i n c o n t e m p o r a r y I r a n
(see figs. 6 7 - 6 9 ) .
U n l i k e t h e i r late G o t h i c counterparts, the
muqarnas and stellate arch-net vault patterns i n
the T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls give plans w i t h -
out accompanying vertical p r o j e c t i o n lines p r o -
v i d i n g t h e i r c ur vat ur e. They often indicate o n l y
one-quarter o f a vault p a t t e r n t h a t c o u l d be
adapted to produce a h a l f or full vault, an econ-
o m y o f design that may have reflected a desire to
conceal i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the u n i n i t i a t e d . U n l i k e
their European equivalents the T o p k a p i and
Tashkent scrolls were n o t meant to educate b u i l d -
ers or to teach t h e m vault p r o j e c t i o n methods
b u t rather to guide those w h o were already w e l l
acquainted w i t h the sophisticated graphic c o n -
ventions used i n representing t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
constructs o n paper. U n a c c o m p a n i e d by any
a n n o t a t i o n s or w r i t t e n texts, these p a t t e r n scrolls
f u n c t i o n e d as an a i d e - m e m o i r e for master builders
familiar w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n techniques.
T h a t t h e i r coded system o f graphic n o t a t i o n
f o r m e d a collective basis for visual c o m m u n i c a t i o n
a m o n g master builders is suggested by a Persian
nasta liq i n s c r i p t i o n o n one o f the muqarnas draw-
c
ings i n the Tashkent scroll t h a t N o t k i n analyzed
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL AS A MIRROR OF LATE TIMURID-TURKMEN
(see fig. 13). The a n o n y m o u s author o f this i n s c r i p -
t i o n , w h i c h is scribbled i n a n a r r o w space between
the p r o j e c t i o n o f a muqarnas quarter vault and its
t r i a n g u l a r zone o f t r a n s i t i o n , challenged his c o m -
rades or friends w h o are p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f this craft
(yaran-i ahl-i hunar) to decipher the ingenious
c o m p l e x i t y o f his design by c o u n t i n g its i n d i v i d u a l
muqarnas tiers. P o i n t i n g o u t t h a t " c o m r a d e " or
" f r i e n d " is a c o m m o n f o r m o f address i n g u i l d
c o r p o r a t i o n s infused w i t h Sufi t r a d i t i o n s , N o t k i n
i n t e r p r e t e d this to be the h a n d w r i t i n g o f a literate
architect-engineer (muhandis) addressing his
n a r r o w circle o f professional colleagues. 124
The contents o f the T o p k a p i and Tashkent
scrolls s u p p o r t the c o m m o n l y expressed view t h a t
the key to T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n architecture lies n o t
o n l y i n its fascination w i t h c o m p l i c a t e d v a u l t i n g
systems b u t also i n its extensive surface decora-
t i o n . The n u m e r o u s t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric
patterns and epigraphic c o m p o s i t i o n s i n these
scrolls condense complex c o m p o s i t i o n s i n t o short-
h a n d formulas meant to act as guidelines for the
simpler w o r k i n g methods e m p l o y e d o n the c o n -
s t r u c t i o n site. They thus p r o v i d e a valuable glimpse
i n t o the processes o f design and execution.
The advantage o f squared paper i n designing
square kufic or naskhi i n s c r i p t i o n s and geometric
patterns for bannaibrick masonry is obvious.
Designs o n squared grids, t h o u g h n o t d r a w n o n a
one-to-one scale, c o u l d easily be transferred t o
w a l l surfaces rendered i n the bannai technique,
given the direct correspondence between the m o d -
ular b r i c k formats and the g r i d squares. Once the
ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE
repeat u n i t o f a design was executed o n the w a l l
as a m o d e l , even the most inexperienced artisans
c o u l d m u l t i p l y i t by s y m m e t r y to cover extensive
surfaces. The m e d i u m o f plaster, w i t h w h i c h most
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n i n t e r i o r s are decorated, w o u l d
have r e q u i r e d the t r a c i n g o f full-scale squared or
p o l y g o n a l grids o n the w a l l . This is c o n f i r m e d by
the g r i d lines preserved o n the plastered walls o f
an un fi n is he d vestibule at the f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
M a s j i d - i Safid i n T u r b a t - i Jam. Here, o n one o f
the walls, prepared w i t h a central panel featuring
squared g r i d lines, a series o f concentric circles
have been scratched o n the plaster w i t h large
compasses for a cursive i n s c r i p t i o n t h a t was
never c o m p l e t e d . 1 2 5
T h a t the t r a c i n g o f geometric grids o n plastered
w a l l surfaces m u s t have been a relatively c o m m o n
practice is also suggested by the M u g h a l m o n u -
ments o f I n d i a , w h i c h were a regional offshoot o f
the T i m u r i d architectural heritage. I n 1905 Ernst
H a n b u r y H a n k i n discovered several examples o f
interlaced geometric patterns t h a t had been d r a w n
w i t h the aid o f t r i a n g u l a r and p o l y g o n a l grids
faintly scratched o n the plastered walls o f two
baths i n the late sixteeenth-century palace c o m -
plex i n Fatehpur S i k r i . One was a design o f i n t e r -
l o c k i n g rectangles generated by an isometric g r i d
o f equilateral triangles i n the H a k i m ' s Bath. The
other was a geometric p a t t e r n o f i n t e r l o c k i n g stars
and polygons d r a w n o n an u n d e r l y i n g p o l y g o n a l
g r i d i n the b a t h o f Jodh Bai's palace. H a n k i n c o n -
cluded t h a t these grids f o r m e d by polygons i n
contact and p r o b a b l y applied to the walls w i t h the
49
aid o f full-scale templates f u n c t i o n e d as " t h e c o n -
s t r u c t i o n lines used i n p r o d u c i n g the p a t t e r n " :
I t was obvious t h a t polygons i n contact
were easy to draw. H a v i n g d r a w n t h e m ,
pairs o f lines had to be d r a w n passing
t h r o u g h the centres o f each o f the sides o f
the polygons, at nearly the same angle i n
each case. Each line was p r o l o n g e d u n t i l
it met a s i m i l a r line t h a t had crossed the
centre o f another side o f a p o l y g o n . W h e n
this had been done all over the surface
that had to be decorated, n o t h i n g m o r e
r e m a i n e d to be done, for the p a t t e r n
was c o m p l e t e d . 126
M o s t s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns generated by
radial g r i d systems can be condensed i n t o short-
h a n d formulas r e q u i r i n g the use o f p o l y g o n a l
templates. I n the T o p k a p i scroll p o l y g o n a l grids
or c o n s t r u c t i o n lines used i n designing such t w o -
d i m e n s i o n a l s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns are often
h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h orange or red i n k (see Catalog,
G r o u p I l l . i . b ) . These d o t t e d or solid c o n s t r u c t i o n
lines define g r i d networks w i t h polygons i n contact
and are superimposed o n c o m p l e x patterns d r a w n
i n black i n k . I t w o u l d be easier to transfer such
polygons o n t o w a l l surfaces t h a n the m u l t i p l e c o n -
centric circles used i n generating the patterns o n
paper. N o t all s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns i n the
T o p k a p i scroll, however, are accompanied by c o n -
s t r u c t i o n lines defining polygons i n contact. Those
generated by m o r e c o m p l e x u n i n k e d radial g r i d
50 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
76. Geometric grid regulating curvilinear patterns at
the mosaic tile-work side panel of the entrance portal,
Gur-i M i r complex, Samarqand, ca. 1400-1404.
Photo by author.
systems based o n d y n a m i c axes o f s y m m e t r y use
grids composed o f stars and polygons i n contact,
w h i c h demonstrates that H a n k i n ' s f o r m u l a was n o t
universally applicable (see Catalog, G r o u p I l l . i . a ) .
The T o p k a p i scroll implies t h a t the role o f
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n master builders lay p r i m a r i l y
i n p r e p a r i n g carefully w o r k e d o u t designs o n paper
for variegated surface revetments, vault patterns,
and geometrically p r o p o r t i o n e d g r o u n d plans,
w h i c h i n t u r n r e q u i r e d c o o r d i n a t i n g the activities
o f specialized artisans according to a preconceived
building program. 1 2 7
Geometric girths d r a w n by
architects were frequently c o m p l e m e n t e d by pat-
terns prepared i n c o u r t scriptoria (kitabkhdna
or kutubkhdna) for the decorative revetments o f
specific b u i l d i n g projects. We k n o w , for example,
that the i l l u m i n a t o r s and calligraphers employed
i n the s c r i p t o r i u m o f the T i m u r i d prince
Baysunghur i n the 1420s p r o d u c e d designs for a
w i d e variety o f media, ranging f r o m m a n u s c r i p t
i l l u m i n a t i o n , b o o k b i n d i n g , tent d e c o r a t i o n , and
tile w o r k to cursive m o n u m e n t a l i n s c r i p t i o n s .
Fifteenth-century albums o f m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g
preserved i n I s t a n b u l and B e r l i n , and most likely
c o m p i l e d i n T u r k m e n I r a n , c o n t a i n examples o f
such patterns and calligraphy samples, some o f
w h i c h may w e l l have been i n t e n d e d for architec-
tural decoration. 128
Largely consisting o f c u r v i l i n -
ear floral, vegetal, and figural designs accompanied
by cursive i n s c r i p t i o n s i n t e n d e d for mosaic t i l i n g
and plasterwork, the patterns created i n c o u r t
s c r i p t o r i a w o u l d have been translated by master
builders and t h e i r specialized teams o f decorators
i n t o available craft techniques. The geometric
girihs o f architectural scrolls p r o v i d e d d i s c i p l i n e d
grids that regulated and gave c o m p o s i t i o n a l u n i t y
to such curvilinear designs (fig. 76).
As G o l o m b e k and W i l b e r c o m m e n t e d : " I t may
be stated that w h e n a master b u i l d e r , such as
Qawam a l - D i n Shirazi, t o o k a structure i n h a n d he
f o l l o w e d t h r o u g h o n every stage o f the w o r k , f r o m
the w o r k i n g drawings to the design o f the vaults
and the w o r k i n g o u t o f all types o f d e c o r a t i o n .
One needs o n l y to study the details o f his struc-
tures to be convinced that this was the case, and
that he had his o w n crew o f decorators." 1 2 9
A
double-page m i n i a t u r e i n the Zafarndma (Book
o f v i c t o r i e s ) , circa 1467, w h i c h represents the c o n -
s t r u c t i o n o f T i m u r ' s M a s j i d - i J a m i i n Samarqand,
c
confirms that c o n s t r u c t i o n and d e c o r a t i o n were
carried o u t by teams o f specialized artisans w o r k -
i n g h a n d i n h a n d under the d i r e c t i o n o f master
builders and c o n s t r u c t i o n supervisors (fig. 7 7 ) . 1 3 0
The unprecedented increase o f w o r k signed by
master craftsmen specializing i n different media
d u r i n g the T i m u r i d p e r i o d has been i n t e r p r e t e d as
a measure o f the rising status o f calligraphers w h o
designed m o n u m e n t a l i n s c r i p t i o n s and o f tile cut-
ters, plasterers, carpenters, and painters w h o deco-
rated b u i l d i n g s . 1 3 1
This was an inevitable o u t c o m e
o f the specialized d i v i s i o n o f labor i n a construc-
t i o n i n d u s t r y that increasingly relied o n extensive
surface revetments i n m u l t i p l e media. The T o p k a p i
scroll reveals that p r e p a r i n g geometric drawings
for t w o - and three-dimensional decorative revet-
ments was an integral part o f the architect's
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL AS A MIRROR OF LATE TIMURID-TURKMEN ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE 51

77. Construction of the Masjid-i Jami of Timur in

c

Samarqand, double-page miniature painting. From

Sharaf al-Din A l i Yazdi, Zafarnama (Book of victories),
c

ca. 1467. Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University,

John Work Garrett Library, fols. 359V, 36or.
52 PART 1. THE SCROLL TRADITION
responsibility, i n a d d i t i o n to dealing w i t h p r o b -
lems o f s t r u c t u r a l stability and a r c h i t e c t o n i c s .
The scroll's ingeniously varied girih patterns tes-
t i f y to a standardized, repeatable, and flexible
approach to design t h r o u g h simple geometric
means t h a t p r o d u c e d sophisticated results. Per-
m u t a t i o n s arrived at by m a n i p u l a t i n g b y - t h e n -
standard schemes made possible a w i d e variety
o f i n t r i c a t e patterns, a l l o w i n g the designer great
scope for i m p r o v i s a t i o n . The scroll's repeat u n i t s
c o u l d be m u l t i p l i e d to cover large walls, b u t they
c o u l d also be contained i n frames, b l i n d arches,
niches, and n a r r o w strips t h a t s u b d i v i d e d the sur-
faces o f T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n b u i l d i n g s i n t o r i c h l y
orchestrated ornate c o m p a r t m e n t s capable o f
engaging the viewer i n a lively process o f a n t i c i p a -
t i o n and surprise. The use o f patterns and i n s c r i p -
tions differentiated by subtle variations o f similar
grids, by changes i n scale ( r a n g i n g f r o m designs
o n l y legible at close range to others readable f r o m
a distance) or by a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f textures and
colors, i n t r o d u c e d optical nuances that energized
b u i l d i n g surfaces, a d d i n g spatial variety to f a m i l -
iar layouts. Like surface patterns composed o f
repeated geometric u n i t s , the b u i l d i n g s were
themselves made u p o f a series o f geometrically
interrelated forms and spaces r h y t h m i c a l l y
echoing one another i n architectural ensembles
c o n s t i t u t i n g a c o l l e c t i o n o f sequentially ordered
serial elements.
The T o p k a p i scroll does n o t , however, p r o -
vide any clues as to h o w its i n d i v i d u a l patterns
contained i n discrete frames were related to one
another and h o w they w o u l d be c o o r d i n a t e d o n
132
the fabric o f a b u i l d i n g . T h a t task depended o n the
u n i f y i n g v i s i o n and relative expertise o f architect-
engineers w h o had mastered the methods o f
geometrically h a r m o n i z i n g t w o - and three-
d i m e n s i o n a l surface revetments w i t h one another
and w i t h their architectural s u p p o r t . I t was they
w h o b r o u g h t to life o n b u i l d i n g s the girihs—
sketched o u t i n scrolls as abstract linear schemes
independent o f a p p l i c a t i o n to any p a r t i c u l a r
m e d i u m — b y d e t e r m i n i n g the u n d e r l y i n g geomet-
ric skeletons o f decorative programs that artisans
specializing i n various techniques w o u l d t h e n exe-
cute. Selected patterns were unified t h r o u g h a har-
m o n y o f blues, shared geometric schemata, and
d y n a m i c p r o p o r t i o n s , b u t the p o l y c h r o m a t i c walls
o f T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n m o n u m e n t s still read like a
collection o f separately framed motifs f r o m scrolls,
no m a t t e r h o w w e l l integrated. These m o n u m e n t s
carried the unmistakable i m p r i n t o f an i n t e r m e d i -
ary m e d i u m o f drawings t h a t left its distinctive
m a r k o n the final architectural p r o d u c t .
I n the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n architectural t r a d i t i o n
the degree o f success i n the process o f geometric
h a r m o n i z a t i o n u l t i m a t e l y depended o n the rela-
tive skill o f available architects, since the use o f
p r o p o r t i o n i n g devices, no m a t t e r h o w elaborate,
does n o t necessarily guarantee h a r m o n i o u s results.
Today, i n retrospect, the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t a p p l y i n g
c o m p l e x geometric formulas c o u l d somehow
assure the aesthetic c o o r d i n a t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l and
decorative schemes seems u n f o u n d e d . The geo-
m e t r i c layouts and surface patterns used by
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n architects d i d n o t always lead
to w e l l - c o o r d i n a t e d ensembles t h a t fully i n t e -
grated all aspects o f p l a n , elevation, massing, and
surface d e c o r a t i o n . This is apparent i n the rela-
tively l o w rate o f s u r v i v i n g m o n u m e n t s , t h e i r large
percentage o f collapsed domes, and their often
unbalanced elevations characterized by harsh t r a n -
sitions between h i g h domes, tall iwans, p o r t a l
screens, minarets, and the m u c h lower rectilinear
walls t h a t l i n k t h e m together.
W e l l - k n o w n instances o f domes or portals being
heightened i n the m i d d l e o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n
process at the c o m m a n d o f a m b i t i o u s patrons
such as T i m u r suggest t h a t architect-engineers
were n o t always responsible for the i n c o n g r u i t y o f
p r o p o r t i o n s observed i n some extant m o n u m e n t s .
Such demands are quite revealing i n terms o f
T i m u r i d aesthetic sensibilities and demonstrate
the i m p o r t a n c e o f o s t e n t a t i o n , spectacular effects,
unprecedented m o n u m e n t a l i t y , and d a r i n g height.
The deliberate t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f extant m o n u m e n t s
is exemplified by their p r i v i l e g i n g o f elaborately
decorated, overbearing f r o n t a l views t h a t d w a r f
lateral or rear walls, w h i c h were sometimes left
largely or entirely undecorated. A p p r o a c h e d f r o m
t h e i r sides or the back, these spectacular b u i l d i n g s
reveal the u n i n t e g r a t e d p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e i r soar-
i n g portals, i w a n screens, and domes awkwardly
raised o n tall d r u m s , an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t they were
i n t e n t i o n a l l y designed as stage sets meant to be
viewed f r o m p a r t i c u l a r vantage p o i n t s .
The contents o f the T o p k a p i scroll, w h i c h
resemble those o f a p a t t e r n b o o k , can be seen as
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL AS A MIRROR OF LATE TIMURID-TURKMEN ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE 53

an index o f the unprecedented T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n " p a i n t e r l y " aesthetic o f architecture i n f o r m e d

emphasis o n surface d e c o r a t i o n , an emphasis that
t u r n e d the flat facades o f b u i l d i n g s i n t o stage
props for the display o f v i r t u o s o o r n a m e n t a l p a n -
els and fragmented vaults i n t o multifaceted c o m -
partments w i t h no s t r u c t u r a l role. Theatricality,
so central to the T i m u r i d visual aesthetic i n other
artistic media, therefore, provides a key to a r c h i -
tectural tastes as w e l l . 1 3 3
Extravagant revetments
added visual interest to standardized architectonic
forms, e n r i c h i n g architectural experience t h r o u g h
an o p t i c a l c o m p l e x i t y o f d e t a i l i n g that raised the
expressive p o t e n t i a l o f patterned surfaces and
enhanced their a b i l i t y to capture the viewer's
a t t e n t i o n . The resulting tension between the p o l y -
c h r o m a t i c veil o f o r n a m e n t and the s t r u c t u r a l
skeleton o f b u i l d i n g s was often skillfully t u r n e d
i n t o a d y n a m i c dialogue i n w h i c h the two c o m -
plemented one another t h r o u g h shared geo-
metric schemes. 134
by the c u l t u r a l prestige o f drawings o n paper. I t
embodies a c o n c e p t i o n o f architecture as a sequen-
tial series o f ornate walls and vaults, never per-
ceived as wholes b u t o n l y as p a r t i a l l y revealed
c o m p l i c a t e d surfaces experienced t h r o u g h move-
m e n t i n t i m e and space. This c o n c e p t i o n o f
architecture as a d r a m a t i c interplay o f structure,
o r n a m e n t , color, s c u l p t u r a l effects, textures,
and l i g h t presupposed the subjective processes
o f visual p e r c e p t i o n , w h i c h , as we shall see i n
part 5, was consistently stressed i n the p r i m a r y
sources. We shall t u r n to those sources after
reviewing the secondary l i t e r a t u r e o n Islamic
geometric o r n a m e n t .

Variegated revetments added d y n a m i c accents

and t e x t u r a l richness to the dematerialized p o l y -
c h r o m a t i c walls and shallow screens o f the
two-dimensional world of T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
architecture, so closely related i n aesthetics to the
arts o f the b o o k . C o m p l e t e l y covering the i n n e r
and outer surfaces o f b u i l d i n g s w i t h variously
framed c o l o r f u l patterns and i n s c r i p t i o n s n o t o n l y
b r o u g h t these m o n u m e n t s close i n s p i r i t to the
fantastic architectural settings represented i n c o n -
t e m p o r a r y m i n i a t u r e paintings b u t also to a l b u m
pages displaying an array o f drawings and calligra-
p h y samples. The Topkapi scroll, t h e n , reflects a
54
NOTES T O PART 1
1. Clarke 1893,100.
2. al-Ya qubi 1937,11.
c
3. For al-Tabari's passage and other sources on the
foundation of Baghdad, see al-Sayyad 1991,117-23; and
Lassner 1970. The common practice of tracing plans
on the ground with plaster is discussed in Creswell
1932-1940,1: 109-11. For a Mamluk amir who marked
the plan of a building on the ground with whitewash,
see Wilber 1976, 32. The practice of tracing plans on
the ground in the Ottoman period is discussed in
Necipoglu 1986, 234.
4. Translated in Lassner 1970, 49-59, 79.
5. Cited in Swelim 1994,182, from the tenth-century
Sir at Ahmad Ibn Tulun (Life of Ahmad Ibn Tulun) by
Abu Muhammad Abd Allah b. Muhammad al-Madini
c
al-Balawi. For Bryas, see Eyice 1959; and Runciman
1980, 223.
6. For these two drawings (on large folios measuring
51 cm x 47 cm) discovered in the Great Mosque of
Sana a in Yemen, see von Bothmer 1988,178-81, and
c
pi. 2. They are also discussed in Grabar 1992,155-93,
where an eighth-century Umayyad date is proposed.
7. al-Farabi 1961, 52,138-40; Ibn Miskawayh 1968, 104.
For textual references to architects, see Bulatov 1988.
8. Translated and discussed in Grabar and Holod
1979-1980.
9. al-Ghazzali 1970, 30-31.
10. William H . Morley's edition of Bayhaqi's history
is cited in Wilber 1976, 31. Here the reference is to the
plan of a new palace designed by Mas ud 1 and executed
c
by the architect-decorator Abd al-Malik al-Naqqash
c
al-Muhandis.
11. Ibn Bibi 1959, 148.
12. Cited in Wilber 1976, 31. Among later Muslim
rulers who are known to have drawn plans for their
own building projects are the fifteenth-century Otto-
man sultan Mehmed 11 (see Necipoglu 1986) and
the seventeenth-century Khan of Bitlis (see Evliya Qelebi
1990, 96). As Evliya recorded (I have slightly modified
Dankoff's translation of this passage), " I n the science
of architecture ( ilm-i m'fmari) he [the khan of Bitlis]
c
is such a master geometer-engineer (sahib-i hendese)
that the plan (tarz [u] tarh [u] resm) of the great palace
described above is entirely his own conception."
Another seventeenth-century ruler who drew plans
is the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan; see Begley and
Desai 1989, 10.
13. Cited in O'Kane 1987, 34.
14. Harb 1978.
15. Ja fari i960, 88-89; cited in Blair 1986, 33.
c
16. Ja fari i960, 89-90, 95.
c
17. The history of paper is summarized in Pedersen
1984, 54-71. For the role of paper as a medium for the
transmission of architectural knowledge, see Holod
1988, 1-2. The argument that architectural drawings on
paper must have been relatively rare in the pre-Mongol
era, when verbal transmission and the imprecise copy-
ing of actual buildings played a more important role, is
made in Bloom 1993.
18. Dawlatshah al-Samarqandi 1901, 340. The same
architect, referred to in an early sixteenth-century
source as "Ustad Qawam al-Din mi mar-i Shirazi,"
c
is praised as the "chief and refuge of the engineers/
architects (muhandisanlm'fmaran) of the age"; see
Khwandamir 1954, 4: 14-15. For an English translation,
see Thackston 1989, 159. During the Timurid period
plans inscribed on plaster tablets continued to be used,
complementing those drawn on paper. For a reference
by the historian Yazdi to a plan (tarh) on a tablet (lauh),
see O'Kane 1987, 34.
19. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 2: 359.
20. For the dispatch of architectural drawings within
the Ottoman empire, see Necipoglu 1986, 241-43. A plan
sent by the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan to his governor in
Delhi is cited in Qaisar 1988, 14. A letter written in 1529
by the Mughal ruler Babur and sent to Kabul refers to
the use of drawings in the construction of a mosque,
caravanserai, baths, and other structures: "Let this work
be ordered after taking counsel with Ustad Sultan
Muhammad; i f a design exists, drawn earlier by Ustad
Hasan A1T, let Ustad Sultan Muhammad finish the
C
building precisely according to it; i f not, let him do so,
after making a gracious and harmonious design"; see
Nath 1982-1985,1:126.
21. See Chardin 1811, 2: 388-89: "The king Tahmasp
had this fairly small palace built according to the plan
that a Turkish architect gave h i m . "
22. The plans of Baghdad and Isfahan are cited in
Qaisar 1988, 15. The Lahori quotation is translated
in Begley and Desai 1989, 10.
23. Kaempfer 1977,113.
24. Du Mans 1890, 209.
25. Surviving Ottoman plans and textual references
to architectural drawings in Ottoman sources are dis-
cussed in Necipoglu 1986. The textual and pictorial evi-
dence for Mughal plans (tarh) is discussed in Qaisar
1988, 14-15,37-39.
26. For Uzbek plans, see Baklanov 1944. The Rajput
plans are reproduced in Tillotson 1987,104; and Begley
and Desai 1989,10, fig. 10. The Qajar plans are discussed
in Clarke 1893.
27. For the Ayyubid scrolls, see Sourdel-Thomine
1986.
28. See Baklanov 1947,102; and Gaganov 1958. The
Tashkent scrolls, originally cataloged in boxes 16-23
at the State Public Library in Tashkent, have been
recataloged as folders 1-8.
29. Baklanov 1944; idem 1947.
30. Gaganov 1958.
31. Rempel' 1961, 397-415; Pugachenkova 1962;
Pugachenkova and Rempel' 1965, 323-24; Bulatov 1988,
265, 301; Notkin 1995. These Russian publications are
discussed in Holod 1988. Because the transferred and
recataloged Tashkent scrolls were lost track of, Holod
was unable to locate them. Similarly, Golombek and
Wilber wrote: "A full discussion of these rare drawings
would be highly desirable. Their present whereabouts
has not been ascertained"; see Golombek and Wilber
1988,1: 173. I was able to find these drawings in 1989 at
the Institute of Oriental Studies at the Academy of
Sciences in Tashkent.
32. For geometric harmonization and modular plan-
ning in Central Asian Islamic architecture, see also
Bulatov 1988; Kriukov 1964; and Zakhidov 1982.
33. Some designs in this folder (originally no. 16) are
reproduced and analyzed in Baklanov 1947. Referred to
as a "booklet of geometric ornament (daftar-i gerikh)"
it is said to have been discovered by M . C. Andreev
in 1936 in the collection of the Bukhara Museum; see
Gaganov 1958.
34. This scroll fragment (originally no. 17) contains
muqarnas projections (framed in 31.5 cm x 31.5 cm
squares). It was first discussed in Baklanov 1944.
For the same scroll fragment and reproductions of
some of its ground plans and muqarnas drawings, see
Pugachenkova 1962; and Pugachenkova and Rempel'
1965, figs. 298-99. Recently Notkin has studied the
muqarnas and arch-net vault projections in the
Tashkent scrolls; see Notkin 1995.
35. The contents of these six folders can be sum-
marized as follows: no. 18: twelve folios of drawings
in black ink of stellate arch-net vaults; no. 19: two folios
(24.5 cm x 31 cm and 24.5 cm x 26 cm) with four
projections of muqarnas quarter vaults in black ink
highlighted in red and green; no. 20: eight partial
muqarnas projections (contained in 22.3 cm x 22 cm
frames) rendered only in black ink (with some
units marked by small circles) and designs for two-
dimensional geometric ornament; no. 21: drawings in
black ink of partial muqarnas vault projections coded
with small circles (contained in 11 cm x 11.5 cm or 23 cm
x 23 cm frames) and of stellate arch-net vaults; no. 22:
a cursive inscription fragment of Persian poetry in black
ink, pricked with holes for pouncing, and a brown
leather flap originally belonging to one of the scrolls;
no. 23: eight projections for muqarnas quarter vaults
in black ink using the same small circles (contained in
23 cm x 22.5 cm to 23 cm x 23 cm frames). The muqar-
nas projections in this group of drawings are studied
by Notkin, who dated them all to the sixteenth century;
see Notkin 1995.
36. The term yazdi bandiis mentioned in Smith 1947,

101, n o , 136-37. For drawings used in the construction
of yazdi band! vaults in contemporary Iran, see Shi rbaf
c
1982-1983; Firishtah Nazhad 1977; and Lur'zadeh 1979.
Notkin refers to intersecting arch-net vaults as iroki, a
term used by traditional Central Asian master builders
at the turn of the twentieth century. Notkin disagrees
with the theory that this term refers to the Iraqi origin
of arch-net vaults but does not provide any alternative
explanation; see Notkin 1995. The term may well refer to
the broader region traditionally known as the "two
Iraqs" (Arab and Persian).
37. For the concept of the "repeat unit," see El-Said
and Parman 1976; and Critchlow 1976.
38. For the traditional Iranian practice of sketching
full-scale designs on the floor with plaster, see Smith
1947,132-34; Spiers 1905, 37-38, 52-54; and Clarke 1893,
99-101. For extant drawings scratched on various parts
of Gothic cathedrals, see Scholler 1989.
39. Baklanov 1947,102-111.
40. Ibid.
41. Rempel' 1961, 397-415.
42. Bulatov's discussion of various geometric grid sys-
tems is summarized in Golombek and Wilber 1988,1:
159-73.
43. Notkin 1970; idem 1995.
44. This is convincingly argued in O'Kane 1987, 34.
45. For examples of later scrolls, see Baklanov 1947,
108; and Rempel' 1961, figs. 206-10, 220-24. The
sketches of the traditional Bukharan master Usta Shirin
Muradov (1880-1957) are studied in Notkin 1961. Notkin
1995 refers to relatively simple, freehand drawings by such
contemporary masters as Khuli Dzhalilov of Samarqand
and Usta Shirin Muradov that are preserved in the
Museum of the Arts of Uzbekistan; see Notkin 1995.
46. Clarke 1893,101.
47. The two surviving scrolls are numbered 54 and 55
and are now kept in the library of the Victoria 8c Albert
Museum. The note states, "Le trace a la pointe en blanc
indique le base de la formation des figures."
48. These designs pasted on fifty-three cardboard
sheets (80 cm x 56 cm) are numbered 1-53.
49. Christie 1929, 43, 267-70, 252-55. Christie ana-
lyzed selected designs from the Mirza Akbar scrolls;
see idem, figs. 36, 244, 267, 269, 286, 287, 290, 291, 306.
Gombrich, who acknowledged his debt to Christie's
work, also published some patterns from the same
scrolls in his book on ornament; see Gombrich 1979,
85-86, pi. 36. The Mirza Akbar scrolls, which I exam-
ined in 1987, were also noted by Wasma'a K. Chorbachi,
who located the collection through Christie's publica-
tions; see Chorbachi 1989, 754-55. I first had referred to
the Mirza Akbar scrolls in Necipoglu 1986, before having
seen them. For my preliminary observations on these
scrolls, presented at a conference on Timurid-Turkmen
NOTES
culture held in Toronto in 1989, see Necipoglu 1992b.
The Mirza Akbar scrolls subsequently were mentioned
in O'Kane 1992.
50. Clarke 1893,100-101.
51. The term tumar is used in the introduction of
Khanlari n.d. I would like to thank Dr. Chahryar
Adle for sending me a photocopy of the shorter French
version of this text, which was published by the
Fondation de la culture iranienne in the 1970s. For
tmars still used in Iraq, see O'Kane 1987, 55 n. 40; he
referred to an unpublished Ph.D. dissertation unavail-
able to me (A. Gailani, "The Origins of Islamic A r t "
[Ph.D. diss., University of Edinburgh, 1974], 142,148).
52. Sotheby's London 1985, no. 311.
53. For the Shirazi scroll, see the introduction in
Khanlari n.d.
54. For treatment of two- and three-dimensional
girihs as related categories, see Shi rbaf 1982-1983;
c
and Lur'zadeh 1979. The contemporary Iranian master
builder Muhandis Zuhrah Buzurgmihri similarly
referred to all types of geometric patterning (including
those on vaults) in Iranian architecture as "kdr-bandT =
rasmi band!"; see Buzurgmihri 1982.
55. For the muqarnas and its various interpretations,
see Rosintal 1928; Hautecoeur 1931; Diez 1987; Herzfeld
1942; Jones and Michell 1972; Ecochard 1977; Odekan
1977; Harb 1978; Tabbaa 1985; Behrens-Abouseif 1993;
and Fernandez-Puertas 1993.
56. Cited in O'Kane 1987, 55 n. 40. For the continuing
use of nineteenth-century scrolls in some parts of the
Arab world today, see also Chorbachi 1989, 756, fig. 2;
772, fig. 14. In 1981 Chorbachi examined these "paper
scrolls of geometric patterns" from the master artisan's
workshops of two unspecified Arab towns. These scrolls,
illustrated in Chorbachi 1989, which are "still in the
hands of artisans today . . . were not only the basic
reference manual, but also served as a design book from
which artisans chose the appropriate pattern to be
used in architectural decoration or in the workshop";
see idem, 755.
57. Paccard 1980,1: 134, 20.
58. For the establishment of schools in the traditional
decorative crafts by the French, see Wright 1991, 131-33.
59. See Lopez de Arenas 1966. Lopez de Arenas's
manual was reprinted in 1727, 1867,1912, and 1982. The
author, like his father, was a master carpenter and
master builder (alarife). He wrote this technical
"how-to" manual (filled with specialized terms) for
his colleagues at a time when traditional geometric for-
mulas had started to be forgotten. I would like to thank
Dr. Lauro Elmo for translating the particularly diffi-
cult section on the muqarnas (mocdrabes), chap. 18,
fols. 23r-24r. For an analysis of the terminology and
geometric structure of the type of Spanish muqarnas
TO PART 1 55
described by Lopez de Arenas, see Fernandez-Puertas
1993; he pointed out that the mocdrabes (a term derived
from muqarbas, which seems to be a corruption of
muqarnas) were composed of four basic types of inter-
locking prisms, the rectangle and three kinds of isosceles
triangles—40, 90, and 135 degrees.
60. See Paccard 1980,1: 216: "The star-shaped poly-
gon is the form that dominates all decoration. . . . It is
obtained by dividing a circle into equal parts."
61. Paccard described el Bouri's muqarnas designs
based on the square module thus: "These complicated
structures are actually based on a square. In this case,
by being turned diagonally, an eight-pointed star
(mthemmen) or an octagon is produced"; see Paccard
1980, 1: 294.
62. Referring to Moroccan plaster muqarnas vaults,
Paccard wrote: "The design of the plaster stalactite
is quite different from that of the wooden stalactite, in
that it is not based on the 90/45 grid. In fact, the nega-
0
tive of the pieces that are used as molds can be arranged
among each other according to wider angles. This tech-
nique permits a tighter fit to the spherical curve and a
greater freedom of execution"; see Paccard 1980, 1: 297.
63. For the specialized vocabulary of Moroccan
geometric patterns, where the main generating circle
of underlying radial grids is called "mother" (oum) and
smaller subsidiary circles surrounding it are known
as "sisters" (oukht), while the radii connecting them are
called "pathways" (zqaq), see Paccard 1980,1: 218-19.
For the modern Iranian vocabulary relating to both
individual geometric design components and their com-
bination in codified girihs, see Firishtah Nazhad 1977.
The names provided by Firishtah Nazhad reveal that the
repeat units of girihs are often designated by the number
of the points of the stars used in them. For example, pat-
terns combining six- and five-pointed stars are referred
to as "girih of six and five" (girih-i shash wa pan]), or of
twelve- and six-pointed stars as "girih of twelve and six,"
(girih-i duwdzdah wa shash). Occasionally more sugges-
tive terms such as "twelve and six heavens" (duwdzdah
wa shash gardun) or "twelve and eight heavens" (duwdz-
deh wa hasht gardun) are used for stellate compositions
replete with heavenly associations. For pattern names
used by contemporary Iranian master builders, see also
Lur'zadeh 1979. Names used for geometric patterns in
Central Asia are mentioned in Notkin 1995.
64. Clarke 1893,100-101.
65. This inventory is reproduced in Oz 1938, no. 21,
fol. 14.
66. The §ehzade mosque's plans and drawings are
mentioned in Celalzade 1981, fol. 377b.
67. Drawings (rusum) of the Ka ba that Sinan had
c
made were kept in the archives of the Office of Royal
Architects at Vefa; see Ca fer Efendi 1987, 54, 56.
c
56 NOTES TO PART 1
68. See Necipoglu 1986, 224-43.
69. See Rogers 1989, 135; and my preliminary analysis
of the Topkapi scroll in Necipoglu 1992b.
70. For a discussion of Bulatov's views, see Golombek
and Wilber 1988, 1: 138, 172.
71. Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 69, 164-69. For
al-Kashi's discussion of the muqarnas, see also Dold-
Samplonius forthcoming; and idem 1992a.
72. See illustrations in Golombek and Wilber 1988, 2:
334, 339, 352-54> 4i5> 4*7-
73. Qagman has pointed out the similarity of the
Topkapi scroll's format and its paper size to a tumar
of calligraphy samples prepared for sultan Mehmed 11
that was signed in one place by a Tabrizi scribe in 1458.
It is described in Qagman 1983,111, no. 10. The rag paper
used in the calligraphy scroll is 34 to 35 centimeters
high; because a larger paper format was unavailable, the
scroll's height was increased by pasting on additional
narrow bands of paper. The type of paper used in the
Topkapi scroll measures approximately 34 centimeters
in height; the lengths vary (the longest pieces range
from 48 cm to 52 cm). Since the leather flap pasted at
the beginning of the Topkapi scroll is 31.5 centimeters
high, the paper's height is adjusted to it at the begin-
ning of the scroll. From 31.5 centimeters the scroll
gradually expands to 33.5 and 34 centimeters.
74. See Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 412-14; 2: 430,
435-
75. According to Golombek it was restored in 1412-
1419; see Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 412. The restora-
tion is dated to 1441-1442 in O'Kane 1986, pis. x l i - x l i i .
76. See Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 372-75, 414-18;
2
- 355-56, 439; and O'Kane 1986, pis. 37b, 38, 39b. The
variants of this popular motif appear in the late Safavid
Mader-i Shah Madrasa in Isfahan, which was built in the
early eighteenth century, and in the Mirza Akbar scrolls
at the Victoria & Albert Museum.
77. Examples appear in the Masjid-i Maydan-i Sang in
Kashan (1460s), in a mosaic tile minbar at the Masjid of
Amir Khizrshah in Yazd (illustrated in Golombek and
Wilber 1988, 2: 462), and in the interior decorations of
the Gur-i M i r at Samarqand.
78. See Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 384-87; 2: pi. xva.
79. For a list of monuments that feature similar relief
tiles, see O'Kane 1987, 70. See also Golombek and Wilber
1988,1: 328-31; 2: pi. xiia.
80. Most of the architectural novelties characterizing
the imperial Timurid style of Khurasan and of Central
Asia were introduced by architects whose nisbas connect
them with such cities as Tabriz, Shiraz, and Isfahan.
For these nisbas, see Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 188.
81. The topographic miniature of Tabriz is reproduced
in Nasuhi976, fols. 27v-28r. The Timurid-Turkmen
architecture of Tabriz is discussed in Golombek and
Wilber 1988,1: 30-31.
82. Ta likizade Mehmed Subhi Qelebi b. Muhammed
c
el-Fenari, Tebriziye (On Tabriz), MS R. 1299, fol. 38,
Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi Kiituphanesi, Istanbul. The his-
torian Khwandamir wrote in the year 1523-1524 that
Tabriz was the most flourishing city of the inhabited
quarter of the world; see Khwandamir 1954, 4: 652-53.
83. Abu Uthman A m r b. Bahr al-Jahiz, Kitab
c c
al-hayawan (Book of animals), cited in Bosch, Carswell,
and Petherbridge 1981, 5-6.
84. Mirkhwand 1891-1894,1: 21. This topos is also
encountered in the twelfth-century work Chahar Maqala
(Four discourses), which points out that books are more
effective as memorials to the glory of past rulers than
painted palaces and charming gardens; see Nizami
c
Aruzi 1978, 30-31.
85. For the Qinili Kosk and the impact of Timurid-
Turkmen prototypes on Ottoman visual culture in the
fifteenth and the early sixteenth centuries, see Necipoglu
1991,136-70; idem 1990b; and idem 1992a. The Topkapi
scroll could also have been brought to Istanbul dur-
ing the late sixteenth century when some parts of west-
ern Iran, including Tabriz, came under Ottoman rule,
but the first half of that century is a more likely date for
its acquisition, given the court's Persianate cultural ori-
entation at that time.
86. Golombek and Wilber 1988, 1: 216, xxvi.
87. For the geometric harmonization of Timurid archi-
tecture in Central Asia, see Kriukov 1964; Zakhidov 1982;
and Bulatov 1988.
88. Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: xxii.
89. Hillenbrand 1989, 99.
90. O'Kane 1987, 74.
91. Except for the isolated thirteenth-century sketch-
book of the French architect Villard de Honnecourt, the
bulk of Gothic drawings fall into the period between the
late fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries. See Shelby
1977; Bucher 1968; idem 1972; idem 1973; idem 1979;
Koepf 1969; Rathe 1926; Muller 1973; idem 1975; and
Recht1989.
92. Bucher 1973, 44-48; Necipoglu 1992b.
93. Kostof 1985, 387, 398.
94. Kostof 1986, 62.
95. Ibid., 85-86.
96. Shelby and Mark 1979,117.
97. Shelby 1977> 78.
98. Bucher 1979,1:10; idem 1973, 48-49.
99. Shelby 1977, 6-7.
100. Ibid., 74.
101. Ibid., 74-77. See also Frankl 1945.
102. Wittkower 1988,113. Golombek and Wilber's
comparison between Qawam al-Din Shirazi and his con-
temporary Brunelleschi seems somewhat forced; see
Golombek and Wilber 1988, 1: xxi.
103. Wittkower 1988,150-54.
104. Bucher 1979, 1: 199.
105. According to Clarke, in Qajar Iran each square of
the grid corresponded to either one or four bricks; the
total number of bricks could be computed by counting
the squares and multiplying the total by the height of
the rooms (often proportionally related to their plan)
after subtracting the openings for windows and doors;
see Clarke 1893,101.
106. Chardin 1711, 2: 80.
107. See al-Kashi 1954; idem 1969; and idem 1977.
108. For the Timurid cubit (gaz), see O'Kane 1987,
34-35; and Kriukov 1964. Pugachenkova explained the
function of the grid-based plans surviving in Tashkent
as follows: "The plans are traced on a checkered surface
permitting an observation of the exact proportion of
parts in relation to the whole. The overall dimensions as
well as the dimension of openings, supporting elements,
and the thickness of walls are all indicated there. Each
square of the grid represents a sort of architectural mod-
ule called giaz [i.e., gaz] or zer [i.e., zira ]> which is one
c
of the principal units of measure used by architects. The
dimension of the giaz is not standardized in Central
Asia, but since it constitutes a modular unit, what mat-
ters is that—independent of absolute dimensions—it
indicates the proportions of diverse architectural ele-
ments drawn on the plan"; see Pugachenkova 1981, 21.
109. For a mathematical explanation of the mason's
method for constructing the muqarnas, see also Dold-
Samplonius forthcoming; and idem 1992a. Al-Kashi's
method for measuring domes is analyzed in idem 1992b;
and idem 1993.
110. Basing her comments on contemporary building
practices in Central Asia, Pugachenkova observed that
besides ground plans (tarh) indicating the outline of
walls and openings, elevations were only occasionally
prepared: "Most often, the elevation of the edifice is not
anticipated in advance; the architect realizes his ideas
directly on the construction site. Nevertheless, it also
happens that—because of the dimensions of a projected
edifice, its originality, or to satisfy the curiosity of a
client—a sort of ground plan, the tarz [i.e., tarz], is pre-
pared; this represents the edifice in elevation, together
with the development of its central and two lateral
facades." She added, however, that the ground plan
sufficed in most cases: "Even for monumental edifices
the plan constitutes the basis of work. Still today in
Central Asia do they not construct complex arches and
vaults or refined ensembles of stalactites, using similar
plans traced on the ground, without a projection of vol-
umes, simply with the indication of vertical sides? It was

thus that one already proceeded in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries"; see Pugachenkova 1981, 21. We know
that three-dimensional models were used in Ottoman
building practice. Some nineteenth-century sources on
the Taj Mahal refer to the preparation of a wooden
model of the mausoleum after Shah Jahan selected one
of the plans submitted on paper. Although models may
have been used for outstanding Timurid projects, stan-
dard buildings would have required only ground plans.
For Ottoman models, see Necipoglu 1986, 236-42; the
reference to the wooden model of the Taj Mahal is in
Nath 1985, 7.
111. Clarke 1893,101.
112. Clarke 1893,175.
113. Clarke and Lewis 1880-1881,168. Examples of
Mirza Akbar's drawings for vault patterns are repro-
duced in this article.
114. Ibid., 173.
115. Spiers 1905, 37-38.
116. Smith 1947, 133-34.
117. Shi rbaf 1982-1983; Lur'zadeh 1979.
c
118. Notkin 1961. Paccard described the construction
in Morocco of plaster muqarnas units cast in molds and
ordered in tiers in similar terms: "The plaster worker
begins at the bottom placing the molds in several rows,
then he pours the plaster. When the plaster of Paris has
set, he uses the molds again for higher rows, until the
cap has been reached. The muqarnas are then carved,
and often covered with painted decorations"; see
Paccard 1980,1: 296-97. Chardin observed that it was
common practice in seventeenth-century Safavid Iran
for carpenters to fully assemble joined woodwork
vaults on the ground before lifting them into place by
means of hoisting machines; see Chardin 1711, 2: 80.
119. Bucher 1973, 47; Frankl 1945. The proceedings
of the meeting of lodges in Regensburg in 1459 read:
"No workman, nor master, nor foreman (Parlier), nor
apprentice shall teach anyone who is not of our profes-
sion and has not worked as a mason, how to derive the
elevation from the plan"; see Bucher 1972, 527 n. 1.
120. Notkin 1995.
121. The contents of these lodge and sketchbooks are
listed in Bucher 1979,1: i i i - v ; Shelby and Mark 1979,
122-31; and Recht 1989, 282-83. The Frankfurt lodge
book, 1560-1572, for example, has 222 projects, among
them 147 vaults, 28 vault schemata, 23 windows, 6 geo-
metric and decorative drawings, and other details
such as sundials, stairs, and gables. Similarly the lodge
book of Wolfgang Rixner (circa 1467-1500, with addi-
tions until 1599) contains 207 images of which there
are 83 vaults, 27 traceries, 26 decorative and sculptural
motifs, and 39 theoretical problems, as well as stairs,
templates, and gables. The Dresden sketchbook from
NOTES
the second half of the sixteenth century, on the other
hand, contains 32 vault designs of complex interpene-
trating ribs with their projection procedures, and Jacob
Feucht's treatise of 1593, intended as a handbook for
Gothic architects, is mostly devoted to vault patterns
and their projections. The Dresden and Feucht drawings
(accompanied by vertical projection lines) provided the
vault plan, the one and only curvature for all the ribs,
and their actual lengths.
122. Bucher 1972, 527; idem 1973, 47; Shelby and Mark
1979,125-26. The method is summarized by Shelby
and Mark as follows: "First, the rib plan (Reihung) of
the vault bay was drawn at full scale on the floor of
the church, building lodge, or tracing house—wherever
there was sufficient room for the task. Then it was deter-
mined what would be the highest point of the vault bay,
and the distance was measured in the rib plan from one
corner of the bay to that point. For example, in a quad-
ripartite vault with semicircular diagonal ribs over a
square bay, this distance would have been simply the
straight line from one corner (the springer) to the center
of the bay (the keystone) on the rib plan. But in the
complex patterns of German Spatgotik the distance
was determined by summing the lengths of the rib pat-
terns from the springer to the highest keystone of
the vault. . . . This distance was then transferred onto
a horizontal base line and became the radius of a
quadrant set out from that line. This quadrant was
the Principalbogen."
123. Shelby and Mark 1979, 125-26.
124. The inscription cited in Notkin 1995 has been
translated into English by Wheeler Thackston, Jr.:
"Ma lum-i yaran-i ahl-i hunar bashad dar shum[a]ra-i in
c
muqarnas muqayyad bayad shud ta az hal-i in kama
haqquhu khabar yabi u napindarl in ghalat karda ast"
(May it be known to the friends who are practitioners of
this craft [art] that in counting this muqarnas it is nec-
essary to pay careful attention so that you may know
about it as it ought to be and not think that this [fellow]
has made a mistake).
125. O'Kane 1987, 36-37, pis. 0.1, 0.2.
126. Hankin 1905, 461-65.
127. Referring to the "universal" role of the Timurid
master builder in supervising all aspects of architectural
design and decoration, Pugachenkova wrote: "He has a
knowledge of diverse architectural and decorative tech-
niques. He is at the same time the author and executor
of the project. He participates in all the phases of
work; the initial conception emanates from his mind;
his organizing talent assures the regular progression
of construction activities; he executes with his own hands
the most delicate pieces of work"; see Pugachenkova
1981, 27.
TO PART 1 57
128. A document ( arzadasht) dated 1420 lists the mul-
c
timedia projects of artists employed in Baysunghur's
scriptorium; for a recent translation of this source into
English, see Thackston 1989, 323-27. The continuation
of this tradition in the Ottoman period is analyzed
in Necipoglu 1990b, 140,167 n. 25. For a discussion and
selected illustrations of decorative patterns from the
Timurid-Turkmen albums in Istanbul and Berlin, see
Lentz and Lowry 1989,189-233.
129. Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 117.
130. A celebrated passage of the fifteenth-century
Tankh-i Khayrat (History of good works) describes the
construction of Timur's Dilgusha Palace in Samarqand
as a process in which the erection of the wall fabric and
its decoration proceeded simultaneously as interrelated
operations. As soon as the walls began to rise, decora-
tors specializing in various crafts came to apply the
revetments. See O'Kane 1987, 34; Golombek and Wilber
1988,1: 91-93-
131. See O'Kane 1987, 41. Timurid-Turkmen master
builders seem to have started out their careers in one
of the building crafts, a training particularly relevant in
an architectural tradition that thrived on decorative
effects. Architects of the Ilkhanid period interchange-
ably used the titles of mason (banna), geometer-
engineer (muhandis), and stucco worker (jissas) in their
signatures. This suggests that they too rose from the
ranks of the building crafts. For these signatures, see
Blair 1986, 39-41.
132. Even the stone-based Mediterranean tradition
of Ottoman architecture, where decoration plays a much
more restrained role, required chief architects such as
Sinan to design appropriate decorative programs for
each project; see Yenisehirlioglu 1985; and Necipoglu
1990b, 154-58.
133. For the element of theatricality in Timurid art
and architecture, see Lentz and Lowry 1989.
134. It would be useful to analyze individual Timurid-
Turkmen monuments in terms of the relationship of
geometric schemes used in their ground plans, vaulting,
and surface revetments. Such analyses can lead to a
better understanding of the relative success or failure
of geometric harmonization in specific cases.
PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC "ARABESQUE"

That thou canst never end, doth make thee great,

And that thou ne'er beginnest, is thy fate.

Thy song is changeful as yon starry frame,

End and beginning evermore the same;

And what the middle bringeth, but contains

What was at first, and what at last remains.

—Goethe, "Hans N a m e h " 1

CHAPTER 4. ORNAMENTALISM AND ORIENTALISM!
THE NINETEENTH- AND EARLY
A great deal has been w r i t t e n about the geometric
o r n a m e n t o f Islamic architecture w i t h o u t t a k i n g
i n t o consideration the role p a t t e r n scrolls played
i n the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n and transmission o f the
distinctive m o d e o f design that came to be k n o w n
as the girih i n the Persian-speaking eastern Islamic
lands. This chapter w i l l analyze the n i n e t e e n t h -
and early t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y European l i t e r a t u r e
o n o r n a m e n t w i t h i n w h i c h the discussion o f
Islamic geometric patterns often was embedded.
T h a t l i t e r a t u r e generally overlapped w i t h the
Orientalist discourse o n the so-called arabesque,
singled o u t as a u n i f y i n g essence o f Islamic visual
c u l t u r e . After t r a c i n g the development o f the ahis-
t o r i c a l discourse o n the arabesque, a category to
w h i c h Islamic geometric patterns belong as a sub-
set, I w i l l t u r n to some o f the recent secondary l i t -
erature t h a t u n c r i t i c a l l y has a p p r o p r i a t e d m a n y o f
the stereotypes constructed m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y
ago, recycling t h e m w i t h a new ideological t w i s t .
This critical review o f d o m i n a n t paradigms i n
m o d e r n scholarship w i l l serve as a b a c k d r o p
for the subsequent parts o f the b o o k where the
girih m o d e is historicized and contextualized.
TWE N T IETH-CENTURY EUROPEAN
A l t h o u g h the European fascination w i t h
Islamic o r n a m e n t had its roots i n the medieval
and Renaissance periods, i t reached its peak i n
the nineteenth century. A lively debate o n the
2
subject o f o r n a m e n t arose i n the wake o f the
I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n w h e n theorists began to
reflect o n the nature o f abstract p a t t e r n i n g as
a language o f pure f o r m and color. O r n a m e n t ,
w h i c h was to be relegated to a d i s t i n c t l y lower
realm by the M o d e r n M o v e m e n t and rediscovered
by p o s t m o d e r n i s m , thus came to play a cen-
t r a l role i n the c r i t i c a l discourse o n design i n
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Europe. As the practical rele-
vance o f abstract Islamic patterns t o the European
search for a p p r o p r i a t e decorative m o t i f s for mass
p r o d u c t i o n became apparent, p u b l i c a t i o n s o n this
specialized subject r a p i d l y m u l t i p l i e d . 3
A n o t h e r factor that fueled the g r o w i n g E u r o -
pean interest i n the decorative aspects o f the
Islamic architectural t r a d i t i o n was the awakening
o f the R o m a n t i c s p i r i t w i t h its search for the pic-
turesque. The R o m a n t i c m o v e m e n t encouraged
n o t o n l y G o t h i c archaeology b u t also the explora-
t i o n o f exotic lands. James Cavanah M u r p h y , for
LITERATURE
example, one o f the early architect-antiquarians
interested i n G o t h i c architecture, was equally fas-
cinated w i t h the m o n u m e n t s o f Islamic Spain as
can be seen i n his The Arabian Antiquities of Spain
o f 1813-1816. The t o p o g r a p h i c i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f late
eighteenth- and early n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p u b l i c a -
tions o n various regions o f the Islamic w o r l d , no
d o u b t an o u t g r o w t h o f earlier travelogues, accen-
t u a t e d the scenic decorative values o f architecture
so appealing to R o m a n t i c sensibilities. These ide-
alized images depicted picturesque m o n u m e n t s ,
often set i n the m i d s t o f i d y l l i c landscapes w i t h
r u i n s a n d i n h a b i t e d by l a n g u i d natives wearing
exotic local costumes. 4
I n the m u l t i v o l u m e w o r k w r i t t e n by orders o f
N a p o l e o n , Description de VEgypte y 1809-1828,
i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f Islamic b u i l d i n g s were once again
s h o w n w i t h natives engaged i n a variety o f a c t i v i -
ties, b u t this encyclopedic w o r k reflected a m o r e
"scientific" a m b i t i o n to r e c o r d , catalog, classify,
and u l t i m a t e l y c o n t r o l the recently colonized lands
o f Egypt. I t was f o l l o w e d by several p u b l i c a t i o n s
o n Egyptian Islamic architecture, such as Pascal
Coste's Architecture arabe; ou, Monuments du
62 PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC " ARABESQUE"

Kaire, mesures et dessines, de 1818 d 1826,1837-1839; Prisse d'Avennes w r o t e that the M u s l i m civiliza- renounce m i m e t i c art. The innate s p i r i t u a l i t y and
P h i l i b e r t Joseph G i r a u l t de Prangey's Monuments t i o n o f Cairo was engendered by the K o r a n , "a m y s t i c i s m o f the Arabs made t h e m favor abstract
arabes d'Egypte, de Syrie et d'Asie Mineure des- faithful e m b o d i m e n t o f the aspirations, ideas, and ornaments capable o f expressing transcendental
sines et mesures de 1842 a 1845, 1846; and A c h i l l e - mores o f the Semitic races, and manifest sanction beauty: " C o n t e m p l a t i v e and ecstatic, the A r a b
C o n s t a n t - T h e o d o r e - E m i l e Prisse d'Avennes's Vart o f customs a p p r o p r i a t e to their character." He distances h i m s e l f f r o m the h u m a n f o r m , n o t to
arabe d'apres les monuments du Kaire depuis le vne
regarded the differences o f style " i n the works o f obey a religious precept, b u t an i n s t i n c t . " The 7

siecle jusqu'd la fin du xvin , e

1869-1877; f o l l o w e d the various races under the sway o f the law o f s p i r i t u a l essence o f Arab art was e m b o d i e d i n the
by his La decoration arabe, 1887. I n contrast t o ear- M u h a m m a d " as " v a r i e d modes o f the same art, arabesque, w i t h its three types o f r h y t h m i c a l l y
lier travelogues these were lavish oversize volumes since all the principles that inspire these races are interlaced variants, vegetal, calligraphic, and geo-
that often i n c l u d e d color plates h i g h l i g h t i n g the derived f r o m the same source." He c o n c l u d e d , m e t r i c . First appearing i n the n i n t h - c e n t u r y
8

p o l y c h r o m y o f Islamic architectural revetments;
they featured m o r e precise measured drawings,
plans, and elevations, accompanied by a large
n u m b e r o f details and o r n a m e n t a l panels.
Like Napoleon's Description de VEgypte, these
p u b l i c a t i o n s generally started w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n
to Egypt's geography, climate, and the various
" t h u s we affirm t h a t i t is to this pure source that
we m u s t t u r n i f we are seriously to study A r a b
a r t , " t h a t is to the " A r a b genius i n a r c h i t e c t u r e "
that p r o d u c e d the m o n u m e n t s discussed i n his
b o o k , t h e i r d e c o r a t i o n , and " t h e i r capricious
ornaments k n o w n as arabesques, d o w n to the
smallest details o f their f u r n i s h i n g s . " Prisse
T u l u n i d m o n u m e n t s o f Cairo, this m o d e o f
abstract o r n a m e n t developed m o r e fully d u r i n g the
F a t i m i d p e r i o d i n the t e n t h and eleventh centuries.
Gayet i d e n t i f i e d the use o f geometric c o m p o s i t i o n s
d o m i n a t e d by polygons as the "essential character
o f all Islamic a r t , " even t h o u g h he recognized
regional variations reflecting racial differences. 9

races m a k i n g up its p o p u l a t i o n , f o l l o w e d by an
e n u m e r a t i o n o f the Islamic dynasties that r u l e d
there u n t i l the t i m e o f the French e x p e d i t i o n ,
before t u r n i n g to a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the m o n u m e n t s
i l l u s t r a t e d i n accompanying plates. This m e t h o d o -
logical framework, based o n the widespread
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y view that architecture and the
decorative arts were d e t e r m i n e d by climate and
racial character, t u r n e d the d o c u m e n t e d b u i l d i n g s
depicted w i t h natives i n t o objects for the e t h n o -
graphic "gaze." Coste, for instance, asserted i n
his i n t r o d u c t i o n t h a t m o n u m e n t s n o t o n l y were
adapted to different climates b u t also reflected
the customs and the p r e d o m i n a n t racial char-
acter o f peoples; i n the case o f Cairo this was "la
peuple arabe." 5
d'Avennes u l t i m a t e l y hoped that the contents o f
his b o o k w o u l d p r o v i d e the " m o d e r n decorative
arts and architecture materials w i t h w h i c h they
may renounce b a n a l i t y . " This practical agenda
6
was reflected i n his book's i l l u s t r a t i o n s , w h i c h are
d o m i n a t e d by architectural fragments and details
o f abstract o r n a m e n t a l panels presented o u t o f
context so that c o n t e m p o r a r y designers c o u l d
derive lessons f r o m t h e m .
A l b e r t Gayet's Vart arabe, 1893, argued that the
abstract d e c o r a t i o n o f A r a b m o n u m e n t s reflected
deeply seated racial characteristics: " T h i s is n o t the
art o f a r e l i g i o n or o f a people, b u t t h a t o f a race."
A c c o r d i n g to Gayet, the Islamic p r o h i b i t i o n o f
figural representation had o n l y reinforced the
i n s t i n c t i v e artistic tendency o f Semitic races to
The arabesque came to be i d e n t i f i e d as the p r i -
m a r y characteristic o f Islamic art by Orientalists
focusing o n the m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o f the Arabs i n
Syria, Egypt, N o r t h Africa, and Spain d u r i n g the
nineteenth century, w h e n artistic styles very often
were defined as reflections o f racial and religious
mentalities. 10
The presence o f figural imagery,
whether i n architectural d e c o r a t i o n , objects, or
m a n u s c r i p t p a i n t i n g , was conspicuously d o w n -
played i n c o n s t r u c t i n g the "otherness" o f the
A r a b o - I s l a m i c visual t r a d i t i o n . Generally classified
i n terms o f its geometric, vegetal, and calligraphic
variants, the so-called arabesque (occasionally
i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h stylized figures and animals) was
assigned a p u r e l y decorative f u n c t i o n t h a t differed
f u n d a m e n t a l l y f r o m the i c o n o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n o f

Western representational a r t . 1 1
The arabesque's
alleged absence o f m e a n i n g facilitated its a p p r o -
p r i a t i o n by m o d e r n European architects and
i n d u s t r i a l designers.
M u c h like the p u b l i c a t i o n s o n Egypt those
o n Islamic Spain, such as Jules G o u r y and O w e n
Jones's Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details
Alhambra, 1842-1845, and G i r a u l t de Prangey's
Essai sur Varchitecture des Arabes et des Mores en
Espagne, en Sidle, et en Barbarie, 1841, featured
lavish plates o f architectural m o n u m e n t s and
o r n a m e n t a l details. Jones, w h o had first visited
Cairo and I s t a n b u l before m o v i n g o n to Spain,
identified the architecture o f the Arabs as "essen-
tially r e l i g i o u s — t h e offspring o f the K o r a n , " just
as G o t h i c architecture is o f the Bible:
The p r o h i b i t i o n to represent a n i m a l life,
caused t h e m to seek for other means
o f d e c o r a t i o n , — i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m the
K o r a n , i n t e r w o v e n w i t h geometrical o r n a -
ments and flowers, n o t d r a w n decidedly
f r o m n a t u r e , b u t translated t h r o u g h the
l o o m ; for i t w o u l d seem t h a t the Arabs,
i n changing t h e i r w a n d e r i n g for a settled
l i f e , — i n s t r i k i n g the tent to p l a n t i t i n a
f o r m m o r e s o l i d , had transferred the l u x -
u r i o u s shawls and hangings o f Cachmere,
w h i c h had adorned t h e i r f o r m e r d w e l l -
ings, to t h e i r n e w , — c h a n g i n g the t e n t -
pole for a marble c o l u m n , and the silken
tissue for gilded p l a s t e r . 12
ORNAMENTALISM AND
This d e s c r i p t i o n o f abstract A r a b o r n a m e n t i n
terms o f three d o m i n a n t elements (calligraphy,
vegetation, and geometric interlaces) o r i g i n a t i n g
i n n o m a d i c tents w o u l d be repeated i n countless
p u b l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g Gayet's Vart arabe, w h i c h
sees the distant m e m o r y o f tents i n p o l y g o n a l geo-
oftht metric patterns. 13
U n l i k e the m o r e scholarly first v o l u m e o f G o u r y
and Jones's Alhambra, w h i c h was accompanied by
the Spanish Arabist Pascual de Gayangos's h i s t o r i -
cal account and t r a n s c r i p t i o n s o f A r a b i c i n s c r i p -
tions translated i n t o English and French, the
second v o l u m e consists o n l y o f c h r o m o l i t h o g r a p h i c
plates d e p i c t i n g decorative fragments detached
f r o m t h e i r architectural setting. I t p r i m a r i l y was
i n t e n d e d , m u c h like G i r a u l t de Prangey's Choix
d'ornements moresques de VAlhambra, 1842, to
supply c o n t e m p o r a r y designers w i t h examples o f
o r n a m e n t to copy or study. M o s t books that dealt
w i t h Islamic architecture i n those years, such
as Charles Felix M a r i e Texier's Description de
VAsie Mineure, 1839-1849, and his Description de
VArmenie, la Perse et la Mesopotamie, 1842; Coste's
Monuments modernes de la Perse, 1867; and Leon
Parvillee's Architecture et decoration turques au
siecle, 1874, featured plates o f decontextualized
architectural ornaments i n various techniques
and styles, e x p l i c i t l y or i m p l i c i t l y addressing a
European professional audience i n an age o f eclec-
t i c i s m and revivalism. B r o k e n d o w n i n t o t h e i r
decorated components such as facades, domes,
minarets, portals, m i h r a b s , lattices, and calli-
graphic or o r n a m e n t a l panels, Islamic b u i l d i n g s
ORIENTALISM 63
were fragmented i n these p u b l i c a t i o n s i n t o
reusable parts, displayed as n e u t r a l objects o f
"consumption." 1 4
The i m p l i e d practical agenda o f these regionally
specialized p u b l i c a t i o n s was articulated m o r e
e x p l i c i t l y i n the European universal encyclopedias
o n o r n a m e n t a l styles. One o f the earliest encyclo-
pedias o n o r n a m e n t , Charles-Ernest Clerget and
M a r t e l ' s Encyclopedic universelle d'ornements,
circa 1840, contained samples o f Greek, R o m a n ,
Egyptian, A r a b , Moresque, Persian, T u r k i s h ,
I n d i a n , Chinese, Japanese, medieval, Renaissance,
and m o d e r n decorative p a t t e r n s . 15
By far the most
i m p o r t a n t and comprehensive encyclopedic w o r k
o n this subject, Jones's The Grammar of Orna-
ment, 1856, was w r i t t e n soon after the Great I n t e r -
n a t i o n a l E x h i b i t i o n o f 1851 i n L o n d o n , w h i c h
encouraged a m o r e rigorous g r o u n d i n g i n the
s t r u c t u r a l g r a m m a r o f o r n a m e n t . Jones classified
Islamic o r n a m e n t i n terms o f the ethnoracial cate-
gories typical o f his t i m e : A r a b i a n , Moresque,
T u r k i s h , Persian, and I n d i a n . This scheme,
repeated i n several later p u b l i c a t i o n s , d i s t o r t e d the
m u l t i e t h n i c c u l t u r e o f most p r e m o d e r n Islamic
xve
dynasties, whose rule had u n i f i e d several geo-
graphic regions w i t h m i x e d p o p u l a t i o n s and
religious m i n o r i t i e s . Together w i t h the h o r i z o n t a l
p a r a d i g m o f an all-encompassing universal M u s l i m
visual t r a d i t i o n , this vertical p a r a d i g m o f regional
ethnic dialects was a m o n g the lasting legacies
o f the n i n e t e e n t h century i n later scholarship
o n Islamic art and architecture.
The Grammar of Ornament was the first serious
6 4 PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC
study to adopt a systematic approach aimed at for-
m u l a t i n g a r a t i o n a l language o f o r n a m e n t a p p r o -
priate for the m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l age. Its central
assumption was that "evidence adduced f r o m
c u l t u r e is as universal and timeless as evidence
f r o m nature; and t h a t , therefore, d e c o r a t i o n can
be described by laws equivalent to the laws o f sci-
ence." 1 6
Jones's universalist tenet that the a p r i o r i
c o n d i t i o n s for good o r n a m e n t were the same for
all epochs and cultures was articulated i n t h i r t y -
seven p r o p o s i t i o n s . These p r o p o s i t i o n s were meant
as guidelines for an abstract language o f p o l y c h r o -
m a t i c o r n a m e n t g o i n g beyond historicisms and
reflecting a p r o t o m o d e r n i s t urge to establish u n i -
versal rules for good design. P r o p o s i t i o n l stressed
the p r i m a c y o f architectural f o r m f r o m w h i c h the
decorative arts "arise" and u p o n w h i c h they are
" a t t e n d a n t . " Jones's c o n v i c t i o n t h a t despite " l o c a l
or t e m p o r a r y character" all h i s t o r i c styles were
based o n "eternal and i m m u t a b l e " principles and
o n " t h e same grand ideas e m b o d i e d i n different
forms, and expressed, so to speak, i n a different
language" was encapsulated i n P r o p o s i t i o n 36:
" T h e principles discoverable i n the works o f the
past belong to us; n o t so the results. I t is t a k i n g
the end for the means." 1 7
Jones's practical agenda led h i m to overlook
the s i g n i f y i n g p o t e n t i a l o f o r n a m e n t a l patterns
b e l o n g i n g to different c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s so that
their u n d e r l y i n g syntactic principles c o u l d be
a p p r o p r i a t e d for m o d e r n needs. I t called for a
study o f patterns for their universal relevance
" ARABESQUE"
rather t h a n as systems o f signification, at the
expense o f their c u l t u r a l associations and contex-
tual meanings. Jones's ahistorical approach to
Islamic o r n a m e n t was n o t different f r o m the way
i n w h i c h he treated other o r n a m e n t a l styles, even
t h o u g h The Grammar of Ornament was heavily
biased i n favor o f the so-called Moresque style
e p i t o m i z e d by the A l h a m b r a , " t h e very s u m m i t o f
perfection o f M o o r i s h art, as is the Parthenon o f
Greek a r t . " The b o o k assigned the m o r e abstract
Moresque and A r a b i a n styles a higher status t h a n
the r e m a i n i n g three " m i x e d styles" ( T u r k i s h , Per-
sian, and I n d i a n ) , w h i c h were characterized by
relatively naturalistic motifs. I n his earlier m o n o -
graphic w o r k o n the A l h a m b r a , Jones had already
noted that the great variety o f i n t r i c a t e Moresque
patterns was derived f r o m a series o f u n d e r l y i n g
geometric grids p r o v i d i n g infinite possibilities for
the i n v e n t i o n o f abstract design. This was trans-
lated i n t o a universal p r i n c i p l e i n P r o p o s i t i o n 8:
" A l l o r n a m e n t s h o u l d be based u p o n a geometrical
construction." 1 8
Jones was fascinated by the geometric basis o f
patterns i n the A l h a m b r a :
However m u c h disguised, the whole o f
the o r n a m e n t a t i o n o f the M o o r s is c o n -
structed geometrically. T h e i r fondness for
geometrical forms is evidenced by the
great use they made o f mosaics, i n w h i c h
t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n had full play. However
c o m p l i c a t e d the patterns may appear, they
are all very simple w h e n the p r i n c i p l e o f
setting t h e m o u t is once u n d e r s t o o d . They
all arise f r o m the intersection o f equidis-
tant lines r o u n d fixed centres . . . i n fact,
geometrical c o m b i n a t i o n s o n this system
may be said to be i n f i n i t e . 19
T h o u g h he d i d n o t explain these geometric p r i n -
ciples o f setting o u t patterns, w h i c h m a n y later
authors w o u l d a t t e m p t to decipher, Jones created
p o l y c h r o m a t i c c o m p o s i t i o n s i n s p i r e d by Islamic
and Pompeian geometric patterns that were gener-
ated by u n d e r l y i n g grids. I n t e n d e d for mosaics and
tiles p r o d u c e d by m o d e r n mechanical processes,
some o f these drawings were p u b l i s h e d i n his
Designs for Mosaic and Tessellated Pavements, 1842
(fig. 78a). Others are preserved at the V i c t o r i a
& A l b e r t M u s e u m i n an u n p u b l i s h e d v o l u m e
o f w a t e r c o l o r and i n k drawings e n t i t l e d "Designs
for Mosaic Tiles" (fig. 7 8 b ) . 20
These drawings
reflect the genetic l i n k Jones detected between
two related h i s t o r i c a l styles o f geometric design,
a l i n k he briefly h i n t e d at i n The Grammar of
Ornament, w h i c h traces the roots o f the geometric
and vegetal arabesque to the G r e c o - R o m a n
tradition. 2 1
The classical origins o f the arabesque were m o r e
fully explored i n the A u s t r i a n art h i s t o r i a n A l o i s
Riegl's Stilfragen, 1893, w h i c h often cites Jones.
I n this celebrated study Riegl d e m o n s t r a t e d i n
D a r w i n i a n terms the genetic m u t a t i o n o f the vege-
tal arabesque r o o t e d i n the classical p a l m e t t e - a n d -
 ORNAMENTALISM AND ORIENTALISM 65

t e n d r i l o r n a m e n t , o n l y briefly discussing the o r i g i n

o f Islamic interlaced geometric patterns i n late
antique floor mosaics a n d ceiling decorations. H e
i n t e r p r e t e d the arabesque as the creation o f an
" O r i e n t a l s p i r i t o f a b s t r a c t i o n " (orientalische Geist
der Abstraktion) t h a t endlessly m u l t i p l i e d m o d u l a r
decorative u n i t s t h r o u g h " i n f i n i t e correspondence"
(unendliche Rapport) to cover whole surfaces i n
w h i c h f o r e g r o u n d a n d b a c k g r o u n d m o t i f s were
no longer distinguishable. Riegl n o t e d that the
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f Hellenistic, late antique, a n d
Byzantine vegetal m o t i f s i n t o a "full-fledged
Islamic arabesque" m o d e had been completed by
the twelfth c e n t u r y after a t u r n i n g p o i n t sometime
a r o u n d the t e n t h o r eleventh c e n t u r y . 22

Riegl's assumption that the arabesque played a

p u r e l y decorative role was a p r o d u c t o f his t i m e
just like his n o t i o n o f artistic i n t e n t i o n (Kunst-
wollen), a pervasive m e n t a l i t y (Geisteshaltung) or
s p i r i t (Geist) m o t i v a t i n g the art o f p a r t i c u l a r
ethnic groups a n d periods. Like n i n e t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y Hegelian art historians w h o i n t e r p r e t e d
o r n a m e n t — w h e t h e r Greek, R o m a n , G o t h i c , o r
Islamic—as the reflection o f a s p i r i t , Riegl saw the
arabesque as a m i r r o r o f c u l t u r a l tendencies. I t
e m b o d i e d an a n t i n a t u r a l i s t i c drive for geometric
abstraction t h a t was an o u t c o m e o f the Islamic 78a. Owen Jones, design for a mosaic pavement. From Jones 78b. Owen Jones, design for a mosaic pavement. From
p r o h i b i t i o n against figural representation (Bild- 1842, pi. x. Photo: Courtesy John Caiman & King, Ltd. his volume of drawings "Designs for Mosaic Tiles," late
verbot). Its figure-ground ambiguities reflected a 1830s or early 1840s, watercolor and ink on paper. By
courtesy of the Board of Trustees of the Victoria & Albert
specifically Islamic Weltanschauung that assigned
Museum, London, Prints and Drawings Department.
absolute power t o a transcendent G o d w h o leveled
all hierarchies. T h e arabesque was thus the crea-
66 PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC " ARABESQUE"

t i o n o f a Kunstwollen that t r a n s f o r m e d naturalistic Islamic m o n u m e n t s o f Egypt. I n the first b o o k Tunisia, Algeria, M o r o c c o , Spain, and Sicily were
classical motifs and b r o u g h t t h e m i n t o a c o m - B o u r g o i n explained that he o m i t t e d the muqarnas better k n o w n to h i m t h a n those o f other Islamic
pletely different c u l t u r a l o r b i t . 2 3
(les stalactites) f r o m his study o f geometric pat- countries f r o m w h i c h m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n had to be
The Grammar of Ornament was f o l l o w e d by an terns because he was addressing the c o n t e m p o r a r y gathered. M o r e o v e r , he was n o t b l i n d to stylistic
avalanche o f encyclopedic p u b l i c a t i o n s o n o r n a - needs o f the i n d u s t r i a l arts: " W e had to c o n f o r m variations between different regions and p e r i o d s . 26

m e n t a l styles that i n c l u d e d chapters o n Islamic to the c o n d i t i o n s c o m m o n to all p u b l i c a t i o n s o f Nevertheless, like his contemporaries B o u r g o i n
patterns. A l b e r t Charles Auguste Racinet's this genre, t h a t is to say, we l i m i t e d o u r subject a t t r i b u t e d a certain timelessness to the art o f
Vornementpolychrome, 1869-1887; H e i n r i c h i n order to render the b o o k m o r e accessible by the O r i e n t , often seen as an ethnographic rather
Dolmetsch's Der Ornamentenschatz, 1887; choosing a m o n g the materials we have collected t h a n a h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c field o f i n q u i r y . I n Les arts
L e o n h a r d Diefenbach's Geometrische Ornamentik, those t h a t appeared to us as the most a p p r o p r i a t e arabes, where he used such categories as race arabe
1892; James Ward's Historic Ornament, 1897; and for f u r n i s h i n g o u r i n d u s t r i a l arts w i t h new ele- and races semitiques or semitisees, he w r o t e , " O n e
Alexander Speltz's Ornamentstil, 1904, are o n l y ments." 2 4
Bourgoin's focus o n the c o m p o s i t i o n a l s h o u l d n o t expect to recover i n the h i s t o r y o f the
some examples o f this p o p u l a r genre t h a t c o n t i n - principles o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns art o f the O r i e n t the equivalent o f that rigorous
ued w e l l i n t o the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y u n t i l M o d - reveals that the tendency to treat the muqarnas as chain o f different phases characteristic o f the art o f
e r n i s m discredited the teaching o f the syntax o f an independent element ( w h i c h eventually was the O c c i d e n t . " 2 7
By casting the art o f the Islamic
historical o r n a m e n t . These universal encyclopedias singled o u t as the most d i s t i n c t i v e artistic creation East as a relatively static native t r a d i t i o n u n t o u c h e d
were c o m p l e m e n t e d by specialized p a t t e r n books o f Islam) o r i g i n a t e d i n the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l i t - by the h i s t o r i c a l processes so central to the
o f Islamic o r n a m e n t featuring plates w i t h b r i e f erature o n o r n a m e n t , a l i t e r a t u r e p r i m a r i l y c o n - c o m p l e x e v o l u t i o n o f European artistic c u l t u r e ,
descriptions, such as E. C o l l i n o t and A d a l b e r t de cerned w i t h surface patterns. This resulted i n B o u r g o i n h i g h l i g h t e d its essential otherness. 28
In
Beaumont's Encyclopedic des arts decoratifs de an a r b i t r a r y separation o f spatial geometric c o n - d o i n g so he repeated a topos o f the O r i e n t a l i s t dis-
VOrient ( w h i c h i n a d d i t i o n to the H i n d u , Russian, structs f r o m the t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l ones w i t h w h i c h course, w i t h its o p p o s i t i o n between the r a t i o n a l
Venetian, Japanese, and Chinese styles i n c l u d e d they are so consistently juxtaposed i n Islamic pat- West, representing a d y n a m i c w o r l d o f progress,
Ornements de la Perse, 1880; Ornements turcs, 1882; tern s c r o l l s . 25
and the s p i r i t u a l East, c o n s t i t u t i n g a static w o r l d
and Ornements arabes, 1883); N i k o l a i Evstafievich B o u r g o i n ' s Les arts arabes begins w i t h an i n t r o - o f stagnation that was denied a true h i s t o r y . 29

Simakov's Vart de VAsie-centrale: Recueil de Fart d u c t i o n to the general characteristics o f " t h e art o f Like Jones before h i m , B o u r g o i n classified Arab
decoratif de VAsie centrale, 1883; and the a n o n y m o u s the M u h a m m e d a n East" (Vart de VOrient mahome- o r n a m e n t i n terms o f three elements—geometric,
Illustrations of Indian Architectural Decorative Work tan) before t u r n i n g to a s t r u c t u r a l analysis o f pla- vegetal, and c a l l i g r a p h i c — n o t i n g that "these three
for the Use of Art Schools and Craftsmen, 1887-1894. nar geometric o r n a m e n t , the m a i n subject o f the varieties are often m i x e d and m i n g l e d . " Tracing
T w o books by Jules B o u r g o i n , Les arts arabes, author's t w o books. B o u r g o i n and his c o n t e m p o - the interlaced patterns (entrelacs) to late antique
1873, and Les elements de Vart arabe: Le trait des raries were w r i t i n g at a t i m e w h e n factual i n f o r m a - o r i g i n s , he i d e n t i f i e d t h e m as the essential charac-
entrelacs, 1879, systematically analyzed for the first t i o n about Islamic architecture was rather l i m i t e d . teristic o f Islamic art i n all r e g i o n s . 30
Eugene-
t i m e the u n d e r l y i n g c o m p o s i t i o n a l principles Painfully aware o f these l i m i t a t i o n s , B o u r g o i n E m m a n u e l V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n to Les
o f geometric patterns, m a i n l y selected f r o m the a d m i t t e d t h a t the Arab m o n u m e n t s o f Egypt, arts arabes a t t r i b u t e d the geometric abstraction

o f such patterns, whose p u r i t y was d i l u t e d by n a t u -
ralistic motifs i n areas w i t h a m i x e d p o p u l a t i o n ,
to religious and racial factors:
One has agreed to give the name " A r a b
a r t " to the art that has spread itself i n
those countries w i t h milieus o f diverse
races t h r o u g h the conquest o f I s l a m , f r o m
Asia to Spain. . . . This art excludes, i f n o t
i n an absolute manner, at least generally,
the representation o f l i v i n g beings, i t thus
l i m i t s its decorative conceptions to forms
b o r r o w e d f r o m geometry and to a lesser
degree f r o m flora, the latter also being
subservient to geometric laws. I t is espe-
cially a m o n g the Semitic peoples that
these tendencies manifest themselves w i t h
energy, at least since M u h a m m e d a n i s m .
I n places where a m i x t u r e o f races exists,
o r n a m e n t a t i o n partakes o f diverse i n f l u -
ences, and representations b o r r o w e d f r o m
organic nature i n t e r m i n g l e w i t h p u r e l y
geometric c o m p o s i t i o n s . 31
V i o l l e t - l e - D u c repeated the generally shared view
that the Arabs t r a n s f o r m e d the entrelacs o f late
antique art i n t o a tapestry-like surface o r n a m e n t
because t h e i r n o m a d i c o r i g i n i n s p i r e d t h e m to take
the tent as a m o d e l for a r c h i t e c t u r e . 32
I n Les elements de Yart arabe B o u r g o i n identified
three m a j o r styles o f o r n a m e n t — G r e e k , A r a b , and
Japanese ( C h i n e s e ) — c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the a n i m a l ,
m i n e r a l , and vegetable k i n g d o m s o f nature, respec-
ORNAMENTALISM AND
tively. W i t h its r i g i d geometric basis Arab art was
analogous to the crystallization o f minerals; its
n o n f i g u r a l , abstract interlaced patterns, m e c h a n i -
cally p r o d u c e d w i t h the aid o f ruler and compass,
c o n s t i t u t e d an a u t o n o m o u s design system w i t h
closed horizons characterized by an i n c o m p a r a b l y
"seductive" elegance. 33
I n Les arts arabes B o u r g o i n
defined this art f o r m as essentially decorative,
guided by the c o m p o s i t i o n a l logic o f geometric
schemes independent o f observed nature and des-
t i t u t e o f iconographic meaning: " O n e can consider
A r a b art as a system o f d e c o r a t i o n founded entirely
u p o n the order o f geometric forms and w h i c h b o r -
rows n o t h i n g or almost n o t h i n g f r o m the observa-
t i o n o f nature; that is to say, this art, very complete
i n itself, is destitute o f n a t u r a l s y m b o l i s m and o f
ideal signification. The i n s p i r a t i o n is abstract and
the execution devoid o f p l a s t i c i t y . " 34
The i m p o r t a n c e that the Islamic architecture o f
Spain and N o r t h Africa placed o n surface decora-
t i o n was j u d g e d by B o u r g o i n as a sign o f i n f e r i o r -
ity. 3 5
A l t h o u g h he recognized the s t r u c t u r a l values
o f m o n u m e n t s i n other regions, he nevertheless
regarded Islamic architecture as essentially decora-
tive. A s i m i l a r view was expressed i n the Discourses
on Architecture by V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , w h o believed
t h a t studies o f Islamic architecture w o u l d c o n t r i b -
ute to the progress o f w o r l d architecture m a i n l y i n
the field o f d e c o r a t i o n :
The Arabs . . . d i d n o t change the R o m a n
s t r u c t u r e , b u t contented themselves w i t h
m o d i f y i n g its envelope; the geometry
ORIENTALISM 67
w h i c h they called to t h e i r aid d i d n o t lead
t h e m to discover new systems o f construc-
t i o n , b u t s i m p l y i n s p i r e d new curves for
their arches, and was the generative ele-
m e n t o f all c o m p o s i t i o n o f o r n a m e n t ; i n
their hands i t became a p l a y t h i n g , and
occupied the eye w i t h endless and marve-
lous c o m b i n a t i o n s o f lines. I n the West,
o n the other h a n d , geometry at once over-
t u r n e d the R o m a n s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h was
no longer sufficiently scientific to meet
the new emergencies o f architecture. . . .
I n order that we may c o m p r e h e n d the dif-
ferences between these two forms o f art,
b o t h o f w h i c h became the slaves o f geome-
try, let us enter the A l h a m b r a and exam-
ine there one o f the last b u i l d i n g s due to
w h a t is called Arabic c i v i l i z a t i o n . . . . I n
the A r a b i c m o n u m e n t , geometry supplied
the vestment; i n the western mediaeval
structure, i t gave the b o d y . 36
This c o m p a r i s o n accentuated the essential
decorativeness o f the A r a b architectural t r a d i t i o n ,
generally seen as the u l t i m a t e source o f regional
variants i n other M u s l i m lands, and overlooked
the s t r u c t u r a l values o f such m o n u m e n t s as those
o f the Seljuqs, Ayyubids, and O t t o m a n s . Its f r a m -
i n g o f Islamic architecture as a p r i m a r i l y decora-
tive t r a d i t i o n , m u c h like the lavishly i l l u s t r a t e d
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p u b l i c a t i o n s o n that subject,
e m b o d i e d an i m p l i c i t value j u d g m e n t that associ-
ated d e c o r a t i o n w i t h f e m i n i n i t y , as opposed t o the
68 PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC
superior masculine vigor o f s t r u c t u r a l forms. This
d i c h o t o m y still dominates p o p u l a r perceptions
o f Islamic architecture and the o n g o i n g " f e m i n i -
z a t i o n " o f the O r i e n t i n various p u b l i c media.
V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n to Les arts arabes
praised the difference o f Bourgoin's analytical
m e t h o d f r o m t h a t o f other p u b l i c a t i o n s w i t h
agreeable collections o f engravings to s k i m
t h r o u g h : " T h e b o o k o f M r . B o u r g o i n is n o t merely
one o f those c o m p i l a t i o n s o f engravings pleasant
to glance t h r o u g h , w h i c h a d o r n the libraries o f
architects and decorators, b u t w h i c h one never
consults; i t is a practical and complete treatise that
uncovers i n its entirety a new order o f c o m p o s i -
t i o n . " V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , whose o w n studies empha-
sized the r a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l principles o f G o t h i c
architecture, appreciated h o w Bourgoin's a n a l y t i -
cal approach b r o u g h t to light the formulas used i n
generating A r a b geometric patterns, formulas that
c o u l d be used i n m o d e r n design practice. To be
able to create anew, i t was necessary to analyze
the i n n e r principles o f forms rather t h a n t h e i r
outer appearance. 37
V i o l l e t - l e - D u c also praised Parvillee's Archi-
tecture et decoration turques as a c o r o l l a r y to
B o u r g o i n ' s b o o k . B o t h works sought r a t i o n a l
geometric principles b e h i n d architectural forms
and decorative m o t i f s . H i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to the
Parvillee v o l u m e praised Bourgoin's and E d m o n d
D u t h o i t ' s w o r k d e m o n s t r a t i n g the geometric basis
o f o r n a m e n t i n the Islamic m o n u m e n t s o f Cairo
and Algeria, respectively. The three books had
shown the r a t i o n a l scientific basis o f seemingly
" ARABESQUE"
fantastic c o m p o s i t i o n s , to the dismay o f the
r o m a n t i c "partisans o f fantasy," w h o considered
this a disastrous invasion o f science i n t o the
d o m a i n o f the arts. Speculating about the i m p a c t
o f the A r a b i c m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences o n artistic
production, Viollet-le-Duc wrote:
W h o does n o t k n o w that the Arabs were
versed i n the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences ever
since an early p e r i o d and that Occidental
Europe p a r t l y owes t h e m the elements
o f these sciences? I t w o u l d be n a t u r a l ,
therefore, to t h i n k that their artistic p r o -
d u c t i o n s were based o n this [scientific]
knowledge, as far as i t i n f o r m e d a per-
fectly clear-cut and sharply defined char-
acter [ o f f o r m s ] . Fantasy, or i f one wishes
i m a g i n a t i o n , c o u l d n o t have conserved i n
the d o m a i n o f the arts such a u n i t y across
the centuries i f formulas had n o t p e r p e t u -
ated themselves a m o n g the artists and
artisans. The b o o k o f M r . Parvillee is one
o f those works that introduces analysis
i n t o artistic p r o d u c t i o n s that appear
entirely fantastic, and w h i c h demonstrate
that b e h i n d fairylike c o m p o s i t i o n s c o l d
science had intervened, that calculation
had prepared the way. I t is for this reason
that we have claimed the privilege o f
w r i t i n g this b r i e f preface. 38
Prisse d'Avennes was the first to observe, i n
Vart arabe, t h a t the unusually c o m p l e x Islamic
geometric patterns had to be based o n a system o f
scientific knowledge t r a n s m i t t e d by treatises o n
applied geometry:
A l l o r n a m e n t a t i o n is based o n geometric
c o n s t r u c t i o n , that o f the Arabs m o r e
t h a n any other; thus, i f one possesses the
Elements o f E u c l i d , one can trace, w i t h -
o u t i n s t r u c t i o n and, so to speak, w i t h o u t
study, the most c o m p l i c a t e d o f the i n t e r -
lace motifs o f Cairo, Baghdad, or Granada.
The Arabs had acquired such a taste for
these plays o f lines that several A r a b trea-
tises o n geometry, analysed by W r o i c k e
[ W o e p c k e ] , c o n t a i n p r o b l e m s o f this
type: "Trace six equal pentagons a r o u n d
a circle," and so o n . For o u r p a r t , we w i l l
refrain f r o m presenting the general o u t -
line o f A r a b art i n this d o m a i n , for that
task has been masterfully p e r f o r m e d by
M r . B o u r g o i n i n his Les arts arabes? 9
B o u r g o i n d i d n o t , however, research the h i s t o r i c a l
methods o f geometric c o n s t r u c t i o n by c o n s u l t i n g
such practical treatises. N e i t h e r d i d he have access
to Islamic p a t t e r n scrolls that w o u l d have revealed
the g r i d systems used i n generating geometric pat-
terns. The formulas he presented were based o n
his o w n observations and were n o t necessarily the
same ones used by those w h o had o r i g i n a l l y cre-
ated the patterns. U s i n g a t a x o n o m i c m e t h o d o f
classification according to i n n e r structure rather
t h a n outer appearance, s i m i l a r to that used by
 ORNAMENTALISM AND ORIENTALISM 6 9

79. Jules Bourgoin, star-

and-polygon pattern
superimposed with a
diagram of its underly-
ing grid network at the
upper left corner. From
Bourgoin 1879, fig. 51.
Photo: Courtesy The
University of California,
Los Angeles.

biologists, he subdivided patterns i n t o eight cate- most o r i g i n a l theoretical studies o n geometric

gories based o n the fundamental geometric ele- o r n a m e n t , Theorie de Vornement, 1873. This w o r k
ments that generated t h e m (hexagons, octagons, a t t e m p t e d to f o r m u l a t e a universal system o f 80. Stuart Durant after
dodecagons, star-rosette c o m b i n a t i o n s o f two repeat p a t t e r n and tessellation t h a t w o u l d serve as David Ramsay Hay,
designs with geometric
types, square-octagon c o m b i n a t i o n s , heptagons, a guide to the decorative arts. Like Jones, B o u r g o i n
grids. Based upon Hay
and pentagons). regarded the applied arts as subservient to m o n u - 1844b, pis. X I I I , 19.
Bourgoin's systematic classification had a prac- m e n t a l architecture and adopted a comparative Photo: Courtesy John
tical purpose; i t addressed a European audience approach to the m a j o r h i s t o r i c a l styles o f o r n a m e n t Caiman & King, Ltd.

o f p r a c t i t i o n e r s . As V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n created by different races i n order to uncover a

to Les arts arabes stated, the b o o k was i n t e n d e d t o syntax t h a t transcended differing stylistic dialects. 41

open up an i n f i n i t e possibility o f new geometric He c o m p a r e d the " s y n t a x " o f o r n a m e n t ( c o n -

c o m p o s i t i o n s , "applicable to architecture, as well
as to w o o d w o r k , to p a i n t e d ornaments, to cabinet-
m a k i n g , to fine i r o n w o r k , to bronzes, to enamels,
to textile designs, wallpaper, e t c . " 40
I n Les ele-
ments de Vart arabe B o u r g o i n r e m i n d e d his readers
that the book's two h u n d r e d drawings o f t w o -
d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns, overlaid at the
upper left corner w i t h d o t t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n lines
s h o w i n g u n d e r l y i n g grids, w o u l d lose their appar-
ent m o n o t o n y w h e n applied to various media and
enlivened by color (fig. 79). A s i m i l a r practice-
sisting o f order, r h y t h m , and scale) to prosody
and defined the " g r a m m a r " o f o r n a m e n t as an
ensemble o f rules and procedures p r o p e r to
each h i s t o r i c a l style characterized by distinctive
forms. 42
His sophisticated p r o t o s t r u c t u r a l i s t
analysis was r o o t e d i n the c o n v i c t i o n that the
decorative arts o f the I n d u s t r i a l Age had to be
based o n a r a t i o n a l skeletal structure e m b o d y i n g
measure (la mesure) and scale (Yechelle), consti-
t u t i n g the shared basis o f h a r m o n i o u s beauty i n
music, poetry, and o r n a m e n t . 43

o r i e n t e d approach is f o u n d i n the i n t e r i o r decora- Bourgoin's p u b l i c a t i o n s were f o l l o w e d by a

t o r and amateur scientist D a v i d Ramsay Hay's series o f others that studied the u n d e r l y i n g gener-
Original Geometrical Diaper Designs, 1844, a collec- a t i n g principles o f Islamic geometric patterns.
t i o n o f Islamic-flavored interlaced geometric pat- One o f t h e m was Christie's Traditional Methods of
terns meant to serve as u n d e r l y i n g c o m p o s i t i o n a l Pattern Designing, w h i c h advocated the s t r u c t u r a l
grids for m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l o r n a m e n t (fig. 80). analysis o f patterns: " T h e s t r u c t u r a l m e t h o d , n o t
Bourgoin's studies o f Arab geometric patterns the element used, is the sole basis o f classifica-
were part o f his broader i n q u i r y i n t o the syntactic tion." 4 4
Christie's m e t h o d f o l l o w e d " t h e lines l a i d
structure o f o r n a m e n t as an abstract language. d o w n by the zoologist, w h o separates i n t o w e l l
W h i l e a professor o f the theory o f o r n a m e n t at the defined categories all l i v i n g and extinct crea-
Ecole des Beaux-Arts i n Paris he w r o t e one o f the tures." 4 5
H i s access to the M i r z a A k b a r scrolls
70 PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE
p r o v i d e d h i m w i t h the o r i g i n a l formulas used i n
setting o u t geometric patterns o n various g r i d sys-
tems (see figs. 3 7 - 3 9 ) . The repeat units o f these
Qajar scrolls s u p p o r t e d Christie's universal defini-
t i o n o f pattern as "a design composed o f one or
m o r e devices, m u l t i p l i e d and arranged i n o r d e r l y
sequence." 46
The b o o k gave m a n y revealing
examples o f h o w Islamic geometric patterns were
generated f r o m m o d u l a r repeat units by processes
such as i n t e r l a c i n g , b r a n c h i n g , i n t e r l o c k i n g , and
c o u n t e r c h a n g i n g . I t d i d n o t , however, discuss the
stellate arch-net and muqarnas vault patterns
i n c l u d e d i n the M i r z a A k b a r scrolls, a conspicuous
o m i s s i o n d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t Christie was once
again addressing a European audience o f i n d u s t r i a l
designers, using a well-defined f o r m a t i n w h i c h
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p a t t e r n i n g had no place.
Several regional studies o n N o r t h Africa and
Spain also analyzed geometric patterns i n terms o f
their u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r a l g r i d systems, such as
J. C o l l i n ' s Etude pratique de la decoration
nale arabe, 1911; A n t o n i o Prieto y Vives and M a n u e l
G o m e z - M o r e n o ' s El lazo: Decoracion geometrica
musulmana, 1921; Jose Galiay Saranana's El lazo,
motivo ornamental destacado en el estilo mudejar,
zu trazado simplicista, 1943; and Basilio Pavon
M a l d o n a d o ' s El arte hispanomusulman en su deco-
racion geometrica, 1975. Similar studies o n geo-
47
m e t r i c o r n a m e n t by Soviet scholars were i n f o r m e d
by the discovery o f the Tashkent scrolls i n the
1930s and o f m o d e r n scrolls used by p r a c t i c i n g
Central Asian master builders. Such authors as
Gaganov, for instance, w o r k e d o u t a s t r u c t u r a l
GEOMETRIC " ARABESQUE"
syntax o f planar geometric o r n a m e n t for c o n t e m -
p o r a r y p r a c t i t i o n e r s , classifying the repeat units
{rapport) o f girihs i n terms o f t h e i r s y m m e t r i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s — l i n e a r or " r i b b o n l i k e , " evenly spread
or " c a r p e t l i k e , " and radial. Baklanov also observed
that girihs were meant to be m u l t i p l i e d by " s i m p l e
r e p e t i t i o n , " " s y m m e t r i c r e p e t i t i o n , " or " r o t a t i o n . "
This echoed a t r i p a r t i t e classification encountered
i n such European p u b l i c a t i o n s as Franz Sales
Meyer's Handbuch der Ornamentik, 1888, w h i c h
d i v i d e d all planar geometric o r n a m e n t i n t o " r i b -
b o n l i k e forms (bands), b o r d e r e d figures (panels),
and u n b o r d e r e d flat p a t t e r n s , " or A l f r e d D w i g h t
Foster H a m l i n ' s A History of Ornament, Ancient
and Medieval, 1916, w h i c h referred to " l i n e a r , "
" a l l - o v e r , " and " r a d i a t i n g " p a t t e r n s . 48
These parallels show that the a i m o f Soviet
scholars was n o t so different f r o m t h a t o f E u r o -
pean encyclopedists o f o r n a m e n t w h o searched
for a universal s t r u c t u r a l language t h a t m i g h t have
polygo- practical c o n t e m p o r a r y applications. This a i m ,
already foreshadowed i n Simakov's c o m p i l a t i o n o f
o r n a m e n t a l patterns i n Vart de YAsie-centrale,
m i n a t e d i n a large n u m b e r o f studies u n d e r t a k e n
d u r i n g the Soviet regime o n the architectural
o r n a m e n t o f C e n t r a l Asian Islamic m o n u m e n t s .
I t is therefore n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t the fragmentary
Tashkent scrolls i n i t i a l l y were studied to derive
practical lessons for c o n t e m p o r a r y usage; i n 1941
Usta S h i r i n M u r a d o v , Boris N i k o l a e v i c h Z a s y p k i n ,
and N . S. Lukasheva w r o t e a t e x t b o o k for artisans
that was i n s p i r e d by these s c r o l l s . 49
The emphasis o f Russian p u b l i c a t i o n s o n the
r a t i o n a l - m a t h e m a t i c a l basis o f architectural design
and o r n a m e n t i n Islamic C e n t r a l Asia prefigured
recent attempts to apply scientific methods o f
analysis to the arts. The threefold classification
o f patterns used by such authors as Gaganov,
Baklanov, Meyer, and H a m l i n is n o t so different
f r o m t h a t used today by crystallographers w h o sci-
entifically analyze patterns i n terms o f t h e i r under-
l y i n g s y m m e t r y groups. The latter i d e n t i f y three
p a t t e r n types i n plane designs: o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l
( l i n e ) , t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l ( p l a n e ) , and finite ( p o i n t
or r a d i a l ) . B o u r g o i n , w h o had observed the crys-
talline c o m p o s i t i o n o f Arab o r n a m e n t , w h i c h
r e m i n d e d h i m o f the i n n e r structure o f i n a n i m a t e
m a t t e r , w o u l d be surprised to find o u t that this
analogy had a direct relevance for mathematicians
investigating crystal symmetry. E d i t h MuTler (a
student o f Andreas Speiser, w h o w r o t e Die Theorie
der Gruppen von endlicher Ordnung, 1927, and Die
mathematische Betrachtung der Kunst, 1944) was
the first systematically to use the m a t h e m a t i c a l
tools o f g r o u p theory i n the analysis o f Islamic
cul- o r n a m e n t . H e r thesis, Gruppentheoretische und
strukturanalytische Untersuchungen der Maurischen
Ornamente aus der Alhambra in Granada, 1944,
opened up new horizons for the scientific clas-
sification o f geometric patterns o n the basis o f
different s y m m e t r y g r o u p s . 50
Her w o r k was f o l -
l o w e d by a n u m b e r o f studies o n the arts, each
study using categorization methods developed by
crystallographers. 51
Rigorous classifications derived f r o m the m a t h -
ematical bases for repeat patterns are f o u n d i n

some recent books and articles that are m o d e r n
counterparts o f n i n e t e e n t h - and early t w e n t i e t h -
century universal encyclopedias o f o r n a m e n t . The
architect Peter S. Stevens's Handbook of Regular
Patterns, 1981, for example, w h i c h illustrates the
three plane p a t t e r n classes ( p o i n t , line, plane) w i t h
examples selected f r o m w o r l d w i d e artistic t r a d i -
tions, familiarizes artists w i t h the technical descrip-
tions o f crystallographers and chemists for a better
structural u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f repeat patterns that
may help t h e m create new designs. These recent
studies replace the unscientific terms decoration
and ornament with " p a t t e r n " ; they refer to t i g h t l y
f i t t i n g geometric figures i n contact that leave no
gaps as regular or semiregular "tessellations"
(planar or spatial) and to u n d e r l y i n g grids as " n e t s "
or "lattices." Regarding earlier attempts at cate-
g o r i z i n g o r n a m e n t a l patterns by such authors as
B o u r g o i n ( w h o g r o u p e d t h e m according to their
geometric elements rather t h a n t h e i r s y m m e t r y
groups) as lacking i n m a t h e m a t i c a l basis, m o d e r n -
day scholars have adopted a detailed system o f
n o t a t i o n to standardize the m a t h e m a t i c a l study o f
repeat patterns called " t i l i n g s and p a t t e r n s . " Some
o f these studies focused exclusively o n the crystal-
lographic analysis o f Islamic geometric patterns,
singled o u t as a treasury for teaching such topics
as tessellation, algebra, t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
symmetry, and color s y m m e t r y . 52
Wasma'a K. C h o r b a c h i , w h o since 1970 has been
arguing for " t h e need for a scientific language and
m e t h o d o l o g y w i t h w h i c h to understand and sys-
tematically categorize Islamic geometric p a t t e r n , "
ORNAMENTALISM AND
n o t e d the necessity to "search for the p r o p e r
scientific languages and tools to generate new
forms and expressions" i n c o n t e m p o r a r y Islamic
design. She w r o t e :
The i m p o r t a n c e o f G r o u p T h e o r y and its
n o t a t i o n a l system for Islamic art lies i n
the fact that it provides a t o o l for exact
cataloging o f the infinite n u m b e r o f geo-
m e t r i c designs used i n Islamic art. I t is
also h e l p f u l as an analytical t o o l i n rec-
o g n i z i n g the s y m m e t r y used w i t h i n a
design. M o r e o v e r , i t provides a precise
language and t e r m i n o l o g y by w h i c h those
w h o are interested i n these patterns can
c o m m u n i c a t e precisely w i t h each other
about these patterns. A l l this m i g h t seem
r e d u n d a n t to the scientists w h o have been
i n v o l v e d i n the study o f s y m m e t r y yet,
for the art historians, i t is still an unac-
knowledged t o o l . 5 3
Such scientific studies p r o v i d e invaluable
insights i n t o the fixed geometric properties o f
s y m m e t r y relationships and the constraints that
designers faced i n the c o m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m and
color. T h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l n o t a t i o n system enables
the scientifically precise d e s c r i p t i o n and classifica-
t i o n o f geometric patterns, b u t such an enterprise
falls beyond the scope o f this b o o k . The master
designers w h o created the Topkapi scroll's varie-
gated patterns were p r o b a b l y less concerned w i t h
the p r o b l e m o f classification t h a n w i t h the inge-
ORIENTALISM 71
nious m a n i p u l a t i o n o f i n h e r i t e d geometric f o r m u -
las. N e i t h e r the a b i l i t y to classify the s y m m e t r y
groups o f given patterns n o r the s t r u c t u r a l analysis
o f their syntax i n o r n a m e n t studies ( w h i c h o n l y
rarely a p p r o x i m a t e the o r i g i n a l formulas used i n
p a t t e r n scrolls) explains the creative processes and
aesthetic aspirations o f their makers. Those p r o -
cesses relied o n the transmission o f a knowledge o f
practical geometry codified i n p a t t e r n scrolls that
p r o v i d e d master builders w i t h a r i c h repertoire o f
t r a d i t i o n a l formulas developed over the centuries.
A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the historical methods o f
geometric design therefore requires a close study
o f s u r v i v i n g p a t t e r n scrolls, practical geometry
manuals, and w r i t t e n p r i m a r y sources relevant to
the theory and praxis o f the girih m o d e . 54
Given that a large p o r t i o n o f the secondary
l i t e r a t u r e we have considered i n this chapter was
directed to a Western professional audience n o t
p a r t i c u l a r l y interested i n a study o f Islamic geo-
m e t r i c patterns per se, the general lack o f concern
for p r i m a r y sources capable o f revealing h i s t o r i -
cal methods and processes o f design is n o t so
surprising. The n i n e t e e n t h - and early t w e n t i e t h -
century European discourse o n o r n a m e n t , char-
acterized by its urge to find universal design
principles, overlapped the equally ahistorical dis-
course o f O r i e n t a l i s m , w i t h its essentialist f i x a t i o n
on the arabesque. I t was these two types o f discourse
i n w h i c h the earliest discussions o f Islamic geo-
m e t r i c patterns were most often embedded.
CHAPTER 5. RECENT STUDIES ON GEOMETRIC
F r o m the early t w e n t i e t h century o n w a r d the study
o f Islamic art and architecture developed i n t o a
specialized academic field i n w h i c h O r i e n t a l i s t ,
archaeological, and m u s e u m or collections research
led to an unprecedented a c c u m u l a t i o n o f i n f o r -
m a t i o n . Corpuses o f epigraphy, archaeological
reports, i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x h i b i t i o n s , detailed regional
studies, and surveys w i t h a general scope, either
l i m i t e d to a p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d or covering the
w h o l e range o f Islamic art and architecture,
increased awareness o f the c h r o n o l o g i c a l , regional,
and ideological complexities o f the M u s l i m visual
heritage. These academic studies, w h i c h grew o u t
o f the O r i e n t a l i s t discourse, increasingly t u r n e d
away f r o m the ethnoracial categories encountered
i n n i n e t e e n t h - and early t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y w r i t -
ings and replaced t h e m w i t h regional, dynastic,
and chronological-stylistic ones. Nevertheless
the n o t i o n o f an all-encompassing category o f
" I s l a m i c " art c o n t i n u e d to d o m i n a t e scholarship.
Such subcategories as A r a b i c , M o o r i s h , T u r k i s h ,
Persian, Central Asian, or I n d i a n generally were
reclaimed by various nationalist discourses that
a t t e m p t e d to construct new self-identities c o n -
ORNAMENT
fined to the borders o f m o d e r n nation-states t h a t
no longer corresponded w i t h those o f previous
dynasties encompassing m u l t i p l e regions, n a t i o n s ,
and subcultures. Despite the g r o w i n g refinement
and sophistication o f academic a r t - h i s t o r i c a l
studies, the O r i e n t a l i s t legacy still lingered.
Specialized p u b l i c a t i o n s dealing w i t h the sub-
ject o f architectural d e c o r a t i o n were n o w for the
most part l i m i t e d to p a r t i c u l a r techniques, m o t i f s ,
periods, or regions. Generously i l l u s t r a t e d p o p u l a r
works such as Sonia P. Seherr-Thoss's Design and
Color in Islamic Architecture, 1968, and Derek H i l l
and Oleg Grabar's Islamic Architecture and Its
Decoration, A.D. 800-1500, 1967, however, signaled
that the earlier interest i n a broader t r e a t m e n t o f
o r n a m e n t had n o t altogether disappeared. Never-
theless w i t h the advent o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l M o d e r n -
ism i n architecture, the p o p u l a r i t y o f universal
encyclopedias o f o r n a m e n t eventually died o u t .
The genre o f professional p a t t e r n books w i t h
Islamic m a t e r i a l was, however, c u r i o u s l y revived
i n the 1970s i n response t o the new M i d d l e Eastern
c o n s t r u c t i o n b o o m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n I r a n and the
Arab lands, t h a t made b o t h Western and n o n -
Western architects c o m p e t i n g for projects search
for ready-made prescriptive formulas. I t was i n
that context that Bourgoin's Arabic Geometrical
Pattern and Design was r e p r i n t e d i n 1973, accom-
panied by several new p u b l i c a t i o n s o n the subject
o f Islamic o r n a m e n t that emphasized geometry.
I n an a t t e m p t to " O r i e n t a l i z e the O r i e n t " these
p u b l i c a t i o n s w i l l f u l l y b l u r r e d stylistic, regional,
and c h r o n o l o g i c a l differences u n k n o w n to earlier
writers. C o n s t r u c t i n g the artistic "otherness" o f
the Islamic East was no longer a project l i m i t e d
to Europeans observing a foreign c u l t u r e . N o w a
m i x e d g r o u p o f Western and n o n - W e s t e r n authors
sought to articulate that "difference" i n response
to the p o s t c o l o n i a l Islamic w o r l d ' s i n t e r n a l search
for d i s t i n c t i v e n a t i o n a l and c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s . 55
I n d o i n g so they i r o n i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e d m a n y
o f the stereotyped categories constructed by the
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t discourse, a m o n g
w h i c h the so-called geometric arabesque came to
enjoy a p a r t i c u l a r p r o m i n e n c e , a s t r i k i n g example
o f O r i e n t a l i s m i n reverse. The new l i t e r a t u r e o n
the arabesque was often framed by an e x p l i c i t l y or
i m p l i c i t l y a n t i m o d e r n i s t discourse that sought to
74 PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC
preserve the "otherness" o f the O r i e n t , w i t h its
timeless t r a d i t i o n s r o o t e d i n an i n n a t e l y s p i r i t u a l
psyche. This represented a reversal o f the p r o t o -
m o d e r n i s t search o f earlier w r i t e r s such as Jones
and B o u r g o i n for universal design principles t r a n -
scending historicisms, an urge t h a t w o u l d u l t i -
mately c u l m i n a t e i n the rejection o f h i s t o r i c a l
o r n a m e n t by i n t e r n a t i o n a l M o d e r n i s m . By c o n -
trast, the new writers o n Islamic o r n a m e n t exhib-
ited a revivalist nostalgia for the architectural
styles o f the past i n a m o d e r n w o r l d whose secular
i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m seemed to threaten the d i s t i n c -
tiveness o f t r a d i t i o n a l M u s l i m c u l t u r e . A recurrent
subtext o f the new secondary l i t e r a t u r e o n geomet-
ric o r n a m e n t was a c r i t i q u e o f the m o d e r n w o r l d
and the s p i r i t u a l p l i g h t o f M u s l i m s i n an i n d u s t r i a l
era d o m i n a t e d by Western c u l t u r e .
This chapter w i l l analyze the ahistorical treat-
m e n t o f Islamic geometric patterns i n some recent
p u b l i c a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the series o f books
that appeared i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the W o r l d o f
Islam festival i n 1976 i n w h i c h the arabesque was
once again singled o u t as the p r i m a r y "essence"
o f Islamic visual c u l t u r e . N o longer l i m i t e d to
regional studies o n Egypt, Syria, N o r t h Africa, or
Spain, these p u b l i c a t i o n s universalized the so-
called arabesque i n t o a pan-Islamic concept t r a n -
scending t i m e and space. Before t u r n i n g to the
books p u b l i s h e d as part o f the festival, I w i l l briefly
summarize the various definitions o f the arabesque
c u r r e n t at the b e g i n n i n g o f this century that pre-
pared the g r o u n d w o r k for later studies.
The entries o n the arabesque i n the t w o editions
o f the Encyclopaedia of Islam encapsulate the prev-
" ARABESQUE"
alent views. Ernst Herzfeld's entry o f 1913 added
a f o u r t h , figural category to the three m o r e c o m -
m o n variants o f the arabesque, that is, vegetal,
geometric, and calligraphic:
The t e r m arabesque i n its w i d e r sense,
as d e n o t i n g the o r n a m e n t o f M u s l i m art
i n general, also comprises a n u m b e r o f
figurative elements. I t w o u l d indeed be
possible to d i s t i n g u i s h these f r o m the ara-
besque, t a k i n g this w o r d i n a n a r r o w sense,
and to class t h e m under the t e r m " i c o n o g -
r a p h y " ; b u t the value o f these figurative
elements is for the most part p u r e l y o r n a -
m e n t a l , w h i l e t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n is fre-
q u e n t l y closely connected w i t h or even
inseparable f r o m the arabesque. 56
Herzfeld n o t e d the a n t i n a t u r a l i s m and geometric
abstraction o f the arabesque, characterized by
"countless r e p e t i t i o n s " and an " i n f i n i t e correspon-
dence" that gave rise to completely covered sur-
faces reflecting a t y p i c a l l y Islamic h o r r o r vacui, a
psychological fear o f e m p t y spaces. This n o t i o n
57
w o u l d be repeated by such authors as Richard
Ettinghausen and by M a u r i c e S. D i m a n d , w h o
w r o t e , " M o h a m m e d a n art is essentially one o f
d e c o r a t i o n , for an e m p t y surface is intolerable
to the M o h a m m e d a n e y e . " 58
Like earlier writers
Herzfeld associated the arabesque, i d e n t i f i e d as
a " d o m i n a n t feature o f supreme a u t h o r i t y for the
w h o l e art o f I s l a m , " w i t h the "character o f the
M u s l i m view o f l i f e " :
A l l p r o v i n c i a l developments, apart f r o m
a few exceptions, change the style o f the
arabesque i n its o u t w a r d features only.
The essential characteristics o f the ara-
besque are preserved t h r o u g h o u t , b o t h as
regards the c o m p o s i t i o n and the elements;
there is therefore o n l y one arabesque i n
a n t i q u i t y as well as i n m o d e r n times, i n
the East and the West, and i n the South as
well as the N o r t h . 5 9
Ernst Runnel's "Arabesque" entry i n the second
e d i t i o n o f the Encyclopaedia of Islam, i 9 6 0 , s u m -
marized his booklet Die Arabeske, 1949, translated
i n t o English i n 1976 by Ettinghausen as The Ara-
besque: Meaning and Transformation of an Orna-
ment (published i n 1977). Rejecting Herzfeld's
b r o a d description o f the arabesque as " a n t i -
q u a t e d , " K t i h n e l adopted Riegl's n a r r o w e r focus
i n Stilfragen o n its vegetal type that c o u l d be i n t e r -
t w i n e d w i t h geometric, calligraphic, and stylized
figural elements. He traced the origins o f the ara-
besque to late a n t i q u i t y and n o t e d that it had
acquired its typical shape i n the n i n t h century
u n d e r the Abbasids, b e c o m i n g m o r e fully devel-
oped i n the eleventh century under the Seljuqs,
F a t i m i d s , and M o o r s , thereafter appearing i n
countless variations impossible to classify " a c c o r d -
i n g to a c h r o n o l o g i c a l order or according to
national-dynastic p r e d i l e c t i o n s . " T h o u g h "Persian,
T u r k i s h and I n d i a n artists u n d e r s t o o d the l a n -
guage o f the arabesque quite as w e l l as A r a b i c -
speaking artists," K i i h n e l i n t e r p r e t e d this m o d e o f
design as the " o u t c o m e o f a p a r t i c u l a r Arab a t t i -

t u d e " that i n f o r m e d parallel developments i n
Arabic p o e t r y and music, as n o t e d i n Johann
Wolfgang v o n Goethe's (1749-1832) West-Ostlicher
Divan, 1820. K u h n e l identified its two aesthetic
principles as " r h y t h m i c a l a l t e r n a t i o n o f m o v e m e n t
always rendered w i t h h a r m o n i o u s effect, and the
desire to fill the entire surface w i t h o r n a m e n t . "
Like most earlier European w r i t e r s o n the subject,
K u h n e l h i g h l i g h t e d the p u r e l y o r n a m e n t a l charac-
ter o f the arabesque: " I t seems unnecessary t o
emphasise that the arabesque never has any sym-
bolic significance b u t is merely one o r n a m e n t
f r o m a large s t o c k . " 60
Its ephemeral decorative
q u a l i t y and its lack o f iconographic specificity is
stressed i n The Arabesque:
Just as the infinite r e p e t i t i o n underlines
the significance o f the i n d i v i d u a l forms
w h i c h do n o t come i n t o sharper focus
t h r o u g h serialization, b u t rather seem to
evaporate, so does the u n i n t e r r u p t e d cov-
ering o f the surface deprive t h e m o f all
objective m e a n i n g . I t is obviously the
decorative i n t e n t i o n that the eye o f the
viewer is n o t arrested by the pleasant
detail, b u t that i t is delighted by the kalei-
doscopic passing o f an ever-changing and
disappearing h a r m o n y o f unreal f o r m s . . . .
One w o u l d entirely m i s u n d e r s t a n d the
character o f the arabesque i f one were to
attach to i t any symbolic f u n c t i o n . . . .
Decisive is a decorative i n t e n t w h i c h is
devoid o f a m e a n i n g f u l p u r p o s e . 61
RECENT STUDIES ON GEOMETRIC
Like Riegl, K u h n e l related the development o f
the vegetal arabesque to an Islamic s p i r i t , speci-
fically to the concept that " n a t u r e does n o t create
o u t o f itself, b u t t h a t i t is the w o r k o f the d i v i n e
creator w h i c h manifests itself i n all happenings and
p h e n o m e n a . " The belief i n the transitoriness o f the
w o r l d led " t o the assumption t h a t i t cannot be the
task o f the artist to arrest reality w h i c h has been
optically perceived or personally experienced since
it c o u l d be counter to the d i v i n e decision to give
permanence to t e m p o r a r y earthly f o r m s . " 6 2
Thus
the d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d artist w h o " c a r r i e d i n h i m s e l f
the Islamic w o r l d v i e w " deliberately reworked nat-
uralistic motifs i n t o unreal forms that gave free
reign to the artistic i m a g i n a t i o n " p l u n g e d i n t o l i n -
ear speculations o f an abstract n a t u r e . " 6 3
Such O r i e n t a l i s t scholars a n d art historians
as Louis Massignon, Georges Marcais, and
Ettinghausen also explained the characteristics o f
abstract o r n a m e n t by reference to the nature o f
Islam. Massignon, for example, l i n k e d the ephem-
eral abstractions o f Islamic art w i t h the p h i l o s o p h y
o f a t o m i s m , according to w h i c h the universe was
composed o f atoms and accidents c o n t i n u a l l y
changed by an o m n i p o t e n t G o d , u n i q u e and i n d i -
visible. A l t h o u g h this hypothesis is n o t u n l i k e l y , as
we shall see i n part 3, Massignon failed to h i s t o r i -
cize i t , presenting i t as a universal e x p l a n a t i o n
regardless o f c o n t e x t . 64
The questions raised
about abstract Islamic o r n a m e n t by Massignon,
Ettinghausen, and others i n c l u d i n g Herzfeld,
D i m a n d , and K u h n e l were p u t i n t o perspective i n
Grabar's The Formation of Islamic Art, 1973, w h i c h
devoted a chapter to "Early Islamic D e c o r a t i o n :
ORNAMENT 75
The Idea o f an Arabesque." Here Grabar discussed
the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m o f assigning mean-
i n g to repetitive abstract patterns that d i d n o t
"seem to have an intellectual or c u l t u r a l c o n t e n t "
b u t to have been aimed at " b e a u t i f i c a t i o n " and
"visual pleasure."
Grabar observed t h a t the arabesque, i n w h i c h
every m o t i f , even i n s c r i p t i o n s , became " o r n a m e n -
t a l i z e d , " endowed the observer w i t h considerable
subjective freedom, given its " a m b i g u i t y " and
"ambivalence." I c o n o g r a p h i c significance c o u l d
occasionally be assigned to i t (especially t h r o u g h
the use o f i n s c r i p t i o n s ) , b u t an essential a m b i g u i t y
still remained: " L i k e the beads o f the h o l y m a n ,
the m e d i t a t i o n i t suggests is n o t i n itself b u t i n the
m i n d o f the beholder." Grabar d i d n o t altogether
dismiss the possibility that " M u s l i m o r n a m e n t
c o u l d n o t reflect some a t t i t u d e o f Islamic c u l -
t u r e as a w h o l e , " comparable to the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between Scholasticism and G o t h i c c o n s t r u c t i o n ;
" t h e m o o d o f the faith and the m o o d o f the o r n a -
m e n t " seemed to share a n u m b e r o f c o m m o n
assumptions. However, doubts about the v a l i d i t y
o f such parallels lingered. He c o n c l u d e d , " I t does
n o t seem possible to f o r m u l a t e for early Islamic
times any sort o f c o r r e l a t i o n between a c o m m o n
d e n o m i n a t o r o f the arts and w h a t appears to have
been the m a i n c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r o f the
contemporary society." 65
Some other scholars were apparently less
t r o u b l e d by the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l problems o f assign-
i n g specifically Islamic meanings to abstract pat-
terns. Foreshadowing several later M u s l i m authors
o n the subject, I s m a i l R. al-Faruqi accused West-
c
76 PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC
ern scholars o f m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g Islamic art as
merely " d e c o r a t i v e " and "contentless," thereby
failing to understand its " s p i r i t " and its " I s l a m i c -
ness." He argued that denaturalized abstract forms
visually represented God's " i n f i n i t y or inexpressi-
b i l i t y " and the M u s l i m profession o f faith, "There
is no G o d b u t G o d . " The Islamic artistic t r a d i t i o n ,
stamped by the "Semitic consciousness" and by
the central n o t i o n of "tawhid" (absolute u n i t y or
oneness o f G o d ) , i n d u c e d " a n i n t u i t i o n o f u n i m a g -
inableness and i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y — i n short, o f i n f i n -
ity." 6 6
A l - F a r u q i defined the arabesque as follows:
Properly u n d e r s t o o d , the Arabesque is
the religious w o r k o f art i n Islam. I t is the
Semitic religious w o r k o f art par excellence
since it produces an aesthetic—not l o g i -
cal—intuition of "not-nature," of "not-
f i n i t u d e , " and o f " i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y , " the
o n l y i n t u i t a b l e categories o f transcendent
reality. Every w o r k o f art i n Islam is a more
or less successful e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n o f i t . 6 7
Asserting that figural representation is against
" t h e v i s i o n o f tawhid as expressed i n the shahada
[profession o f f a i t h ] , " al-Faruqi dismissed m i n i a -
ture p a i n t i n g as o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m " n o n - I s l a m i c "
influences. H e assigned p r i o r i t y to architecture
and the arabesque, since " f i g u r a l p a i n t i n g is o f
miserably less value" to the M u s l i m whose c o n -
sciousness is " c o m p l e t e l y d e t e r m i n e d by A l l a h "
and by the n o t i o n o f tawhid that is " t h e first p r i n -
ciple o f every aspect o f Islamic c i v i l i z a t i o n . " The
" ARABESQUE"
abstract forms o f Islamic art, therefore, have no
f u n c t i o n other t h a n h e l p i n g the believer i n t u i t
" t h e u n i n t u i t a b i l i t y o f that w h i c h can never be
the object o f i m m e d i a t e i n t u i t i o n , " that is, the
absolute transcendence o f a G o d w h o is beyond
t i m e and space. 68
O t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s that stressed the Islamic
meanings o f the arabesque tended to h i g h l i g h t
its mystical, Sufi d i m e n s i o n . This d i m e n s i o n had
already been emphasized i n Gayet's Vart arabe,
1893, where polygonal geometric interlaces were
seen as mystical expressions o f transcendental
beauty, i n v i t i n g the soul to c o n t e m p l a t i o n and
ecstasy. The same idea appeared again i n Probst-
Biraben's "Essai de p h i l o s o p h i c de l'arabesque,"
1905, where abstract p a t t e r n i n g is defined as
" t h e o r n a m e n t a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f mystical M u s l i m
t h o u g h t , its very s y m b o l i s m . " This act o f transla-
t i o n was undertaken by M u s l i m artisans b e l o n g i n g
to Sufi confraternities w h o exalted t h e i r s p i r i t u a l
m e d i t a t i o n s by visually t r a n s c r i b i n g t h e m o n the
walls o f b u i l d i n g s and o n the surfaces o f l u x u r y
objects by means o f an o r n a m e n t a l language. 69
The
r h y t h m i c r e p e t i t i o n o f abstract patterns recalled
the r i t u a l o f dhikr, the tireless r e p e t i t i o n o f ejacu-
l a t o r y litanies by the devotees o f mystical b r o t h e r -
hoods. Probst-Biraben w r o t e :
Gayet, an artist and fine connoisseur, has
perhaps exaggerated the s y m b o l i s m o f
interlaced patterns [entrelacs], b u t has
finely sensed the s p i r i t u a l i t y o f A r a b i n s p i -
r a t i o n , the c o n n e c t i o n o f art w i t h the
M u s l i m mystic desirous o f t r a c i n g phe-
n o m e n a l m u l t i p l i c i t y back to the d i v i n e
u n i t y , and the e m a n a t i o n back to the
i n i t i a l source. 70
The mystical n o t i o n o f " u n i t y i n variety," as
reflected i n the cosmological order o f the universe,
and the d o c t r i n e o f tawhid came to occupy a
central p o s i t i o n i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f the ara-
besque d u r i n g the 1960s and 1970s, c u l m i n a t i n g
w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n s o f the W o r l d o f Islam festi-
val. The role o f Sufism, the esoteric d i m e n s i o n
o f I s l a m , was p a r t i c u l a r l y emphasized i n Nader
A r d a l a n and Laleh Bakhtiar's The Sense of Unity:
The Sufi Tradition in Persian Architecture, 1973.
This b o o k argued that " u n i t y i n m u l t i p l i c i t y , " a
central d o c t r i n e o f Sufism, is w h a t i n f o r m s all the
elements o f Islamic architecture i n I r a n , f r o m geo-
m e t r i c surface decoration and architectural f o r m
to c o m p l e x u r b a n settings. I n the preface Seyyed
Hossein Nasr defined the I r a n i a n Islamic architec-
t u r a l t r a d i t i o n as composed o f timeless " f o r m s that
echo transcendent archetypes" i n t i m a t e l y related
to cosmology and identified its most f u n d a m e n t a l
p r i n c i p l e as the concept o f God's u n i t y {tawhid):
There is n o t h i n g m o r e t i m e l y today t h a n
that t r u t h w h i c h is timeless, t h a n the mes-
sage that comes f r o m t r a d i t i o n and is
relevant n o w because i t is relevant at all
times. Such a message belongs to a n o w
w h i c h has been, is, and w i l l ever be pres-
ent. To speak o f t r a d i t i o n is to speak o f

i m m u t a b l e principles o f heavenly o r i -
gin and o f their a p p l i c a t i o n to different
m o m e n t s o f t i m e and space. . . . Islamic
c i v i l i z a t i o n presents an e m i n e n t example
o f a t r a d i t i o n a l c i v i l i z a t i o n wherein can
be clearly observed the presence o f certain
i m m u t a b l e principles that have d o m i -
nated the whole c i v i l i z a t i o n i n b o t h t i m e
and space. Islamic art is no m o r e t h a n
a reflection i n the w o r l d o f m a t t e r o f
the spirit and even o f the f o r m o f the
Quranic revelation. 71
Nasr's emphasis o n static t r a d i t i o n , as opposed to
dynamic h i s t o r i c a l change, revived a central topos
o f the O r i e n t a l i s t discourse w i t h its typical distinc-
t i o n between historical and t r a d i t i o n a l cultures.
This topos was n o w reversed to privilege unchang-
i n g t r a d i t i o n over m o d e r n i t y and given a new
c o l o r i n g t h r o u g h the n o t i o n o f the archetype, here
applied to the analysis o f Sufism. N o t a b l y the
book's b i b l i o g r a p h y cited C. G. Jung and M i r c e a
Eliade i n a d d i t i o n to such scholars o f Sufism as
H e n r y C o r b i n and Toshikiko I z u t s u .
After i d e n t i f y i n g the Islamic architecture o f
I r a n as a s p i r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n , Nasr p o i n t e d o u t that
" t h i s art has been o n l y too rarely studied w i t h the
a i m o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g its symbolic and metaphysi-
cal significance." To penetrate its i n n e r m e a n i n g
" w o v e n a r o u n d the central d o c t r i n e o f u n i t y "
required " b o t h an o u t w a r d research and an i n n e r
discovery o f the t r a d i t i o n , " n o t u n l i k e a s p i r i t u a l
j o u r n e y t o w a r d t r u t h . C o m p l a i n i n g that the
RECENT STUDIES ON GEOMETRIC
" m o d e r n i z e d classes o f the East since the spread
o f the m o d e r n m e n t a l i t y f r o m the end o f the last
c e n t u r y " have i g n o r e d their o w n architectural
t r a d i t i o n s , Nasr r e c o m m e n d e d the b o o k to the
Westernized p r a c t i c i n g architects o f I r a n "at a
m o m e n t w h e n so m a n y o f t h e m are l o o k i n g des-
perately for guidelines to f o l l o w and have realized
the shortcomings o f i m i t a t i n g Western models
b l i n d l y . " A l t h o u g h the book's search for " p r i -
m o r d i a l and eternally v a l i d " design principles may
i n i t i a l l y recall the m o d e r n i s t search for universal
forms transcending historicisms, i t is neverthe-
less embedded i n an a n t i m o d e r n i s t , t r a d i t i o n a l -
ist discourse. 72
A r d a l a n and Bakhtiar i n t e r p r e t e d geometric
patterns as eternal archetypes that c o u l d lead the
c o n t e m p l a t i v e m i n d f r o m outer appearances to the
esoteric i n n e r realities o f Sufism t h r o u g h s p i r i t u a l
hermeneutics. 73
They w r o t e , "These shapes, as the
personality o f n u m b e r s , are u n d e r s t o o d by t r a d i -
t i o n a l m a n as aspects o f the m u l t i p l i c i t y o f the
Creator." 74
I n f i n i t e l y extendable geometric pat-
terns symbolized the i n n e r esoteric d i m e n s i o n o f
Islam and the Sufi concept o f the "inexhaustible
m u l t i p l i c i t y o f creation, the effusion o f Being
that emanates f r o m the One: m u l t i p l i c i t y w i t h i n
unity." 7 5
A l t h o u g h this may have been true i n
some cases, the authors showed no a t t e m p t to
contextualize t h e i r arguments or to demonstrate
t h r o u g h p r i m a r y sources the ways i n w h i c h geome-
t r y was i n t e r p r e t e d i n specific h i s t o r i c a l settings.
T h e i r universalizing generalizations were based
o n conceptual categories freely b o r r o w e d f r o m a
ORNAMENT 77
wide variety o f Sufi texts w i t h o u t regard to t i m e
and place, or to the c u l t u r a l mechanisms that
i n f o r m e d the assumed c o n n e c t i o n between visual
aesthetics and Sufism.
The radical sectarian shifts t h r o u g h o u t I r a n i a n
h i s t o r y (characterized by such irreconcilable posi-
tions as the r i g i d Sunnism o f the Seljuqs and the
official Twelver Shi ism o f the Safavids) were
c
i r o n e d o u t i n this r o m a n t i c v i s i o n o f an eternal
sense o f u n i t y that was engendered by an innate
s p i r i t u a l psyche, shaped by the u n i q u e I r a n i a n
ecology and t r a d i t i o n . A r d a l a n and Bakhtiar's epi-
logue p r o m i s e d a future I r a n i a n artistic creativity
that w o u l d be part o f a t r a d i t i o n w i t h no apparent
b e g i n n i n g or end: " T h i s b o d y o f knowledge crys-
tallized t h r o u g h the arts, e m b o d i e d i n the t r a d i -
t i o n a l societies, and available today for those w h o
w o u l d 'see,' presents concepts that are p r i m o r d i a l
and eternally v a l i d . " 7 6
W h a t c o u l d be a m o r e
a p p r o p r i a t e e n d i n g for a b o o k published d u r i n g
the regime o f Shah Riza Pahlavi " o n the occasion
o f the t w e n t y - f i f t h centenary o f the f o u n d a t i o n o f
the Persian E m p i r e , " as its title page stated, a b o o k
that rarely m e n t i o n e d any specific dates that m i g h t
d i s r u p t the semblance o f u n i n t e r r u p t e d c o n t i n u i t y
i n an u n c h a n g i n g t r a d i t i o n a l I r a n i a n c u l t u r e
r o o t e d i n ancient civilization?
The central premises o f The Sense of Unity were
i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d w i t h those o f the T r a d i t i o n a l i s t
School f o u n d e d i n Switzerland by Rene G u e n o n
(1886-1951). Adherents o f that school traced
the so-called m o d e r n d e v i a t i o n to Renaissance
secularism, engaged i n a radical c r i t i q u e o f the
78 PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC
c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d , and searched for universal
s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s i n metaphysics, cosmology, and
t r a d i t i o n a l art. The p u b l i c a t i o n s o f Titus B u r c k -
h a r d t , a leading spokesman o f this school w h o was
to become a key figure together w i t h Nasr i n the
W o r l d o f Islam festival, are fully cited by A r d a l a n
and Bakhtiar. Titus B u r c k h a r d t , the grandnephew
o f the celebrated Swiss c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n o f the
Renaissance, Jacob B u r c k h a r d t , was an i n t i m a t e
f r i e n d o f F r i t h j o f Schuon, another disciple o f the
T r a d i t i o n a l i s t School, w h o w r o t e o n esotericism
and the transcendental u n i t y o f religions. B u r c k -
h a r d t had converted to Islam after spending some
years i n M o r o c c o as a y o u n g m a n i n the 1930s,
where ( m u c h like the early Orientalists) he devel-
oped a r o m a n t i c fascination w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l
M a g h r i b i c u l t u r e that still preserved many pre-
m o d e r n elements. There he became i m m e r s e d
i n Sufism, a subject to w h i c h most o f his early
studies were devoted. These works dealt w i t h
esoteric Sufi doctrines ( p a r t i c u l a r l y those o f the
A n d a l u s i a n shaykh I b n a l - A r a b i [1165-1240]),
c
alchemy, astrology, cosmology, and s p i r i t u a l
s y m b o l i s m i n the t r a d i t i o n a l crafts. 77
Burckhardt's m a i n w o r k o n aesthetics, trans-
lated f r o m the French as Sacred Art in East and
West, 1967, discussed the metaphysical aesthetics
o f m a j o r w o r l d religions, i n c l u d i n g Islam. A m o n g
his early articles o n Islamic aesthetics perhaps the
most i n f l u e n t i a l was "Perennial Values i n Islamic
A r t , " 1967, w h i c h argued for the timeless s p i r i t u a l
u n i t y o f the Islamic visual t r a d i t i o n i n all periods
and r e g i o n s . 78
N o t i n g that the arabesque prevented
" ARABESQUE"
the observer f r o m focusing o n any one f o r m ,
B u r c k h a r d t stressed its mystical, c o n t e m p l a t i v e ,
and ahistorical character capable o f b r i d g i n g
the M u s l i m past and present t h r o u g h abstract
forms concerned w i t h " o n l y those elements that
are v a l i d for all t i m e " :
There are two typical forms o f the ara-
besque; one o f t h e m geometrical interlac-
ing made up o f a m u l t i t u d e o f geometrical
stars, the rays o f w h i c h j o i n i n t o an i n t r i -
cate and endless p a t t e r n . I t is a most s t r i k -
i n g symbol o f that c o n t e m p l a t i v e state o f
m i n d w h i c h conceives o f " u n i t y i n m u l t i -
p l i c i t y and m u l t i p l i c i t y i n u n i t y . " . . . The
second f o r m , the arabesque c o m m o n l y
so-called is composed o f vegetable m o t i f s ,
stylized to the p o i n t o f losing all resem-
blance w i t h nature and obeying o n l y the
laws o f r h y t h m transposed i n t o graphic
m o d e , each line u n d u l a t i n g i n c o m p l e -
m e n t a r y phases, and each surface having
its inverse c o u n t e r p a r t . The arabesque is
b o t h logical and r h y t h m i c a l , b o t h m a t h e -
matical and m e l o d i o u s , and this is most
significant for the spirit o f Islam i n its
e q u i l i b r i u m o f love and intellectual s o b r i -
ety. . . . M o r e o v e r , the universal character
o f geometrical o r n a m e n t — t h e f u n d a m e n -
tal elements o f w h i c h are essentially the
same, whether they appear i n a B e d o u i n
r u g or i n a refined u r b a n d e c o r a t i o n —
corresponds perfectly to the universal
nature o f Islam, w h i c h unites the nomads
o f the desert w i t h the learned m a n o f the
city, and this latter-day epoch o f ours w i t h
the t i m e o f A b r a h a m . 7 9
This e x t r a o r d i n a r y passage encapsulates Burck-
hardt's essentialistic approach to Islamic visual
c u l t u r e , an approach that i n f o r m s his rejection
o f h i s t o r i c a l methods o f analysis. He denounced
the analytical m e t h o d o f m o d e r n art h i s t o r y as
u n e q u i p p e d to deal w i t h the s p i r i t u a l d i m e n s i o n
o f Islamic art: " W h a t e v e r is timeless i n a r t — a n d
a sacred art like that o f Islam always contains a
timeless e l e m e n t — i s left o u t by such a m e t h o d . " 8 0
The radical i m p l i c a t i o n is that historical methods
o f analysis developed for post-Renaissance artistic
t r a d i t i o n s i n the West are i n a p p r o p r i a t e for u n d e r -
standing the Islamic visual t r a d i t i o n . This t r a d i t i o n
represented an ahistorical s p i r i t u a l p h e n o m e n o n
accessible o n l y to the i n i t i a t e d believer w h o can
decipher its i n n e r , esoteric meanings:
The study o f Islamic art, i f undertaken
w i t h an open m i n d and w i t h o u t the post-
Medieval prejudices we have m e n t i o n e d ,
is a way o f approach to the s p i r i t u a l back-
g r o u n d o f all Islamic c u l t u r e . . . . The
m a i n s h o r t c o m i n g that one has to avoid
is the academic m e n t a l i t y that considers
all works o f art f r o m earlier centuries as
purely h i s t o r i c a l " p h e n o m e n a " w h i c h
belong to the past and have very l i t t l e to
do w i t h present life. . . . Let us ask w h a t is

timeless i n the art o f o u r s p i r i t u a l ances-
tors. I f we recognize this, we shall also be
able to make use o f i t w i t h i n the inevitable
framework o f o u r o w n age. 81
This statement, based o n the premise that
Islamic c u l t u r e constitutes a m o n o l i t h i c b l o c k
characterized by its timeless c o n t i n u u m between
the seventh and t w e n t i e t h centuries, puts the m o d -
ern M u s l i m observer i n the privileged p o s i t i o n o f
" n a t i v e i n f o r m a n t . " The i m p l i c a t i o n that M u s l i m
believers are better equipped to penetrate the i n n e r
meanings o f their o w n visual c u l t u r e assumes
that the past is m o r e transparent to t h e m . Since
all i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are b o u n d up w i t h one's o w n
h i s t o r i c i t y , however, i t is difficult to believe that
any i n t e r p r e t e r , f r o m whatever b a c k g r o u n d , is
m o r e privileged w i t h objectivity. A sensitive c o n -
textual i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f any given aspect o f the
Islamic visual t r a d i t i o n as a h i s t o r i c a l l y i n f o r m e d ,
d y n a m i c c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n demands equal
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r i g o r i n the use o f p r i m a r y sources
f r o m any scholar engaged i n that field, whether
M u s l i m or n o n - M u s l i m . The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a
visual t r a d i t i o n based o n timeless s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s ,
however, makes such methodological r i g o r irrele-
vant. B u r c k h a r d t stated that the Islamic visual
t r a d i t i o n was f u n d a m e n t a l l y derived f r o m the c o n -
t e m p l a t i o n o f d i v i n e u n i t y (tawhtd) revealed i n the
K o r a n i n d i s c o n t i n u o u s flashes: " S t r i k i n g the plane
o f the visual i m a g i n a t i o n , these flashes congeal
i n t o crystalline forms, and i t is these forms i n t u r n
that constitute the essence o f Islamic a r t . " 8 2
RECENT STUDIES ON GEOMETRIC
Disregarding the specificities o f the historical
and regional developments o f Islamic theology and
m y s t i c i s m , B u r c k h a r d t and the authors o f The
Sense of Unity a t t r i b u t e d a universal significance
to Sufism, w h i c h was n o t equally influential i n all
regions or periods. N e i t h e r the d o c t r i n e o f tawhid
n o r the transience o f the m a t e r i a l w o r l d , i n whose
diverse forms the c o n t e m p l a t i n g believer c o u l d
detect u n d e r l y i n g signs o f transcendental u n i t y ,
were concepts l i m i t e d to Sufi circles. I t is therefore
n o t s u r p r i s i n g that such authors as al-Faruqi and
E d w a r d H . M a d d e n associated abstract Islamic
patterns w i t h S u n n i o r t h o d o x y instead o f Sufi eso-
t e r i c i s m . Nasr's c l a i m that " t o grasp fully the sig-
n i f i c a t i o n o f Islamic art is to become aware that i t
is an aspect o f the Islamic revelation, a casting o f
the D i v i n e Realities (haqd'iq) u p o n the plane o f
m a t e r i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n " c o u l d even be regarded as
anathema f r o m an o r t h o d o x M u s l i m v i e w p o i n t .
Given the completely transcendental nature o f the
creator i t w o u l d be inconceivable for an o r t h o d o x
believer to a t t e m p t to represent G o d or God's rev-
elation i n any f o r m , no m a t t e r h o w abstract. This
is w h y al-Faruqi i n t e r p r e t e d abstract patterns as
visual expressions o f the nonrepresentability o f
G o d , rather than as material manifestations o f s p i r i -
tual t r u t h s accessible to the c o n t e m p l a t i n g mystic.
M a d d e n , w h o recognized that arabesques and
" i n f i n i t e p a t t e r n s " were n o t u n c o m m o n i n Sufi
or S h i i settings where they " c o u l d well be given
c
various esoteric meanings," nevertheless asso-
ciated t h e m p r i m a r i l y w i t h " t h e classical S u n n i
M u s l i m w o r l d v i e w " that blended " t r a d i t i o n a l
ORNAMENT 79
legalism and moderate m y s t i c i s m . " He concluded
that such patterns:
t h o u g h used i n the other contexts, seem
especially S u n n i i n perspective, for they
speak eloquently o f no i n d i v i d u a l , no
u n i t , no person, no h i s t o r i c a l event b u t
rather o f the i n f i n i t e , transcendent One.
S u n n i Islam i n its purest f o r m is a lovely
and lonely w o r l d view; the i n f i n i t e p a t t e r n
and the arabesque i n t h e i r purest forms
m i r r o r that w o r l d view i n a transcenden-
tally beautiful way. 84
A l t h o u g h M a d d e n deemphasized the Sufi d i m e n -
sion o f Islamic art, his views were nevertheless
r o o t e d i n the same T r a d i t i o n a l i s t School that
inspired B u r c k h a r d t and Nasr:
83
T r a d i t i o n a l or religious art is the expres-
sion o f a whole c o m m u n i t y , o f a complete
c u l t u r e , i n contrast to the idiosyncratic
and self-expressive features o f c o n t e m p o -
rary art a n d , indeed, o f m u c h o f Western
art since the Renaissance. D e c o r a t i o n is
f u n d a m e n t a l to all t r a d i t i o n a l art, b u t it
is always symbolic i n nature and never
s o m e t h i n g added as an afterthought. I n
Islamic art the i n f i n i t e p a t t e r n , the ara-
besque, and stylized calligraphy all have
significant symbolic functions wherever
they occur; each i n its o w n way is a s u r r o -
gate i n the physical w o r l d o f such s p i r i t u a l
8o PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC
concepts as Allah's i n f i n i t y , transcen-
dence, and unity. . . .
There can be no d o u b t that the ara-
besque is a f u n d a m e n t a l religious
s y m b o l . . . . I n all cases o f the i n f i n i t e pat-
t e r n — w h i c h has no b e g i n n i n g o r end and
is s e l f - c o n t a i n e d — t h e design is at once
symbolic b o t h o f Allah's i n f i n i t y and u n i t y
i n m u l t i p l i c i t y and at once expressive
b o t h o f H i s transcendence and the c o n -
cept o f al-tawhid. S5
Whatever conclusions they reach, studies
emphasizing the r e l i g i o s p i r i t u a l and c o s m o l o g i -
cal d i m e n s i o n o f Islamic art are characterized by
sweeping generalizations unsubstantiated by c o n -
crete data. The wide m a r g i n o f difference i n t h e i r
symbolic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f the arabesque i n d i -
cates that a p r i o r i connections w i t h mystical and
theological doctrines need to be demonstrated
w i t h respect to specific h i s t o r i c a l contexts. The
ahistorical and essentialist discourse o n Islamic art
reached a p a r t i c u l a r l y b r o a d p u b l i c f o r u m d u r i n g
the W o r l d o f Islam festival i n 1976, organized by
various i n s t i t u t i o n s and governments f r o m b o t h
the Islamic w o r l d and the West to celebrate the
1400th anniversary o f M u s l i m c u l t u r e . The festi-
val recycled m a n y o f the stereotypes that had o r i -
ginated i n the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t
discourse, b u t this t i m e the i n t e n t was to p r o v i d e
concepts easily accessible to n o n - M u s l i m and
M u s l i m audiences alike. H e l d all over B r i t a i n , b u t
m o s t l y centered i n L o n d o n , i t featured an e x h i b i -
t i o n , The Arts of Islam, at the H a y w a r d Gallery,
" ARABESQUE"
accompanied by a series o f related e x h i b i t i o n s ,
films, and p u b l i c a t i o n s . The p u b l i c a t i o n s , all o f
w h i c h appeared i n 1976, i n c l u d e d the e x h i b i t i o n
catalog The Arts of Islam (featuring an i n t r o d u c -
t o r y essay by Titus B u r c k h a r d t ) , B u r c k h a r d t ' s Art
of Islam: Language and Meaning, Nasr's Islamic
Science, and Issam el-Said and Ayse Parman's
Geometric Concepts in Islamic Art.
As Grabar n o t e d i n his critical review o f the
festival, the objects i n the Arts of Islam e x h i b i t i o n
were n o t grouped according to the usual c h r o n o -
logical, regional, iconographic, and stylistic c r i t e -
ria b u t were presented i n terms o f such ahistorical
categories as calligraphy, geometry, and vegetal
o r n a m e n t , "characteristics or attributes w h i c h are
alleged to be p a r t i c u l a r to the artistic creativity o f
the M u s l i m w o r l d , w h i c h make Islamic art dif-
ferent f r o m other arts, and therefore j u s t i f y an
idiosyncratic p r e s e n t a t i o n . " 86
Grabar interprets
the ideological message o f the festival, charac-
terized by its m a r k e d "reluctance to deal w i t h
h i s t o r y , " as follows:
The message was that o f the basic u n i t y
o f Islamic art and by extension o f Islamic
c i v i l i z a t i o n i n the past and, ideally, o f
most M u s l i m s today. By a fascinating
sleight o f h a n d , the p r o f o u n d l y Islamic
theological n o t i o n o f tawhid, o f the abso-
lute oneness o f G o d , was transferred n o t
o n l y to the c o m m u n i t y , the ummah, but
also to the objects and b u i l d i n g s spon-
sored and used by the c o m m u n i t y o f M u s -
l i m s . To the single message o f a u n i q u e
D i v i n e Revelation there corresponds a
visually perceptible artistic creativity o f
comparable unity. A n d t h e n the i d e n t i f i -
c a t i o n o f the principles w h i c h create that
u n i t y acquire automatically a c u l t u r a l l y
normative value. 87
These n o r m a t i v e values reduced the r i c h c o m -
p l e x i t y and m u l t i p l i c i t y o f Islamic visual c u l -
t u r e ^ ) i n t o simple prescriptive formulas meant
to guide c o n t e m p o r a r y architectural projects
i n the M i d d l e East. I t is no surprise, t h e n , that
B u r c k h a r d t ' s catalog i n t r o d u c t i o n i d e n t i f i e d
architecture, represented i n the e x h i b i t i o n w i t h
c o l o r p r o j e c t i o n s , as the m a i n focus o f Islamic
creativity to w h i c h the decorative arts were subor-
dinated, a leitmotif i n many nineteenth-century
publications on ornament. 88
B u r c k h a r d t once again a t t r i b u t e d the u n i t y o f
Islamic art, based o n a " c o m m o n language," to
the p i v o t a l concept o f tawhid, accompanied by the
mystical search for cosmic u n i t y , and the s p i r i t u a l
ethos o f a c u l t u r e permeated w i t h the M u s l i m
revelation. 89
Nasr's i n t r o d u c t i o n to Art of Islam
rejected the Western i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Islamic art
as " d e c o r a t i v e " and praised B u r c k h a r d t ' s a b i l i t y to
penetrate its "essence" by speaking " f r o m w i t h i n
the Sufi t r a d i t i o n o f the profoundest aspect o f wis-
d o m w i t h an a u t h o r i t y w h i c h can o n l y come f r o m
actual experience and realization o f the w o r l d o f
the s p i r i t . " He added:
Islamic art is at last revealed to be w h a t
it really is, namely the earthly crystalliza-

t i o n o f the s p i r i t o f the Islamic revelation
as well as a reflection o f the heavenly
realities o n earth, a reflection w i t h the
help o f w h i c h the M u s l i m makes his j o u r -
ney t h r o u g h the terrestrial e n v i r o n m e n t
and beyond to the D i v i n e Presence Itself,
to the Reality w h i c h is the O r i g i n and
End o f this a r t . 90
B u r c k h a r d t ' s b o o k , d o m i n a t e d by d e c o n t e x t u -
alized i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f abstract o r n a m e n t i n various
techniques, revived such O r i e n t a l i s t stereotypes as
the n o m a d w h o had " l i t t l e feeling for the conven-
tions o f a r c h i t e c t u r e " b u t instead valued geometric
ornaments derived f r o m the woven textiles o f
tents, together w i t h the ethnoracial categories o f
" t h e A r a b , " " t h e T u r k , " and " t h e Persian" that rep-
resented "vastly different-mental types." Neverthe-
less, differences were u n i f i e d by the u b i q u i t y o f the
sacred b o o k since " t h e entire life o f a M u s l i m is
filled w i t h Q u r a n i c f o r m u l a e , prayers, litanies and
invocations i n A r a b i c . " 9 1
B u r c k h a r d t assigned a
central role to the arabesque, another favorite
Orientalist theme revived w i t h the English trans-
l a t i o n o f KuhnePs Die Arabeske (translated by
Ettinghausen i n 1976). U n l i k e K i i h n e l , w h o focused
exclusively o n the vegetal arabesque, however,
B u r c k h a r d t treated all o f its variants w i t h p a r t i c u -
lar emphasis o n the " s p i r i t o f geometry":
For a M u s l i m artist o r — w h a t comes to
be the same t h i n g — a craftsman w h o has
to decorate a surface, geometrical i n t e r -
lacement doubtless represents the most
RECENT STUDIES ON GEOMETRIC
intellectually satisfying f o r m , for i t is an
extremely direct expression o f the idea o f
D i v i n e U n i t y u n d e r l y i n g the inexhaustible
variety o f the w o r l d . 9 2
The special role o f geometry as a m e t a p h o r for
d i v i n e u n i t y was also stressed i n other p u b l i c a t i o n s
associated w i t h the festival. I n his b o o k Islamic
Science, for instance, Nasr claimed t h a t the M u s l i m
"love for mathematics, especially geometry and
n u m b e r , is d i r e c t l y connected to the essence o f the
Islamic message, w h i c h is the d o c t r i n e o f U n i t y
(al-tawhid)." 93
He added, " N o w h e r e is the sacred
character o f mathematics i n the Islamic w o r l d view
m o r e evident t h a n i n art, where w i t h the help
o f geometry and a r i t h m e t i c m a t t e r is ennobled
and a sacred ambiance created w h e r e i n is d i r e c t l y
reflected the u b i q u i t o u s Presence o f the One and
many." 94
A n o t h e r m o n o g r a p h devoted t o the subject o f
geometry was El-Said and Parman's Geometric
Concepts in Islamic Art, whose f o r e w o r d by
B u r c k h a r d t once again l i n k e d the sacred geometry
o f Islamic art w i t h the concept o f tawhid:
A t the basis o f this geometry there lies
the circle w h i c h is an image o f an i n f i -
nite w h o l e and w h i c h , w h e n i t is evenly
d i v i d e d , gives rise to regularly shaped
polygons w h i c h can, i n t h e i r t u r n , be
developed into star-shaped polygons elabo-
rated i n d e f i n i t e l y i n perfectly h a r m o -
nious p r o p o r t i o n s . . . . I n the Islamic
perspective, this m e t h o d o f d e r i v i n g all
ORNAMENT 81
the v i t a l p r o p o r t i o n s o f a b u i l d i n g f r o m
the h a r m o n i o u s d i v i s i o n o f a circle is no
m o r e t h a n a symbolic way o f expressing
T a w h i d , w h i c h is the metaphysical doc-
t r i n e o f D i v i n e U n i t y as the source and
c u l m i n a t i o n o f all diversity. I t is n o t sur-
p r i s i n g , therefore, t h a t M u s l i m artists
s h o u l d have explored all the geometric
systems that depend u p o n the regular
d i v i s i o n o f the c i r c l e . 95
El-Said and Parman's text, w h i c h a t t e m p t e d to
decipher the geometric formulas used i n c o n -
s t r u c t i n g surface patterns, neither showed an
awareness o f s u r v i v i n g scrolls ( p u b l i s h e d by Soviet
scholars and Christie) n o r o f practical geometry
manuals (studied by Franz Woepcke and cited by
such authors as Prisse d'Avennes and Gayet): "To
o u r knowledge, no record has survived to i n s t r u c t
us i n the theory o f designing Islamic geometric
patterns." 96
The authors analyzed a wide variety
o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns generated
by u n d e r l y i n g g r i d systems d o m i n a t e d by the
circle, w i t h its radius c o n s t i t u t i n g the basic u n i t
o f measure. They compared the r e p e t i t i o n o f
m o d u l a r u n i t s i n visual patterns to music, poetry,
and calligraphy, a c o m p a r i s o n c o m m o n l y made
i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y O r i e n t a l i s t w r i t i n g s and
i n o r n a m e n t studies.
Testifying to the sudden p o p u l a r i t y o f this
t o p i c , i n the same year, 1976, two other books
were published o n the geometric arabesque, K e i t h
C r i t c h l o w ' s Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and
Cosmological Approach, featuring an i n t r o d u c t i o n
82 PART 2. THE DISCOURSE ON THE GEOMETRIC
by N a s r , 97
and D a v i d Wade's Pattern in Islamic
Art.98,
Characterized by short texts that briefly
t o u c h e d o n the a p r i o r i religious, mystical, and
cosmological meanings o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l geo-
m e t r i c designs, these works essentially were pat-
t e r n books p r o v i d i n g guidelines for c o n t e m p o r a r y
architects p r a c t i c i n g i n the M i d d l e East. I n that
respect they recall n i n e t e e n t h - and early t w e n t i e t h -
c e n t u r y European p u b l i c a t i o n s o n o r n a m e n t
that left o u t t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l patterns, such as
Bourgoin's Arabic Geometrical Pattern and Design,
w h i c h had been r e p r i n t e d w i t h o u t its text for the
same market i n 1973. T h e i r m a i n difference f r o m
earlier p u b l i c a t i o n s o n the same subject was an
insistence o n the Islamic s y m b o l i s m o f abstract
patterns, no longer presented as merely decora-
tive m o t i f s . Nasr's f o r e w o r d to C r i t c h l o w ' s b o o k
praised i t as the first study by a n o n - M u s l i m
author to explore the m i s u n d e r s t o o d t r a d i t i o n o f
Islamic art, usually regarded as no m o r e t h a n deco-
r a t i o n . C r i t c h l o w , a teacher at the A r c h i t e c t u r a l
Association School o f A r c h i t e c t u r e and the Royal
College o f A r t i n England, had been i n v i t e d i n the
early 1970s to become an associate o f the I m p e r i a l
I r a n i a n Academy o f Philosophy i n Tehran by its
d i r e c t o r , Nasr, and was chosen as a design consul-
tant for a new mosque i n that city. I t was i n those
years that he prepared his b o o k o n Islamic geo-
m e t r i c patterns. I t is therefore n o t s u r p r i s i n g that
his w r i t i n g c o n t a i n e d unmistakable echoes o f
B u r c k h a r d t ' s and Nasr's works o n Islamic m y s t i -
cism and cosmology. 99
To summarize, t h e n , the symbolic i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n o f Islamic geometric patterns can be traced to
" ARABESQUE"
a c o m m o n intellectual m i l i e u . Its recurrent ingre-
dients were an emphasis o n architecture to w h i c h
the decorative arts were s u b o r d i n a t e d , a r o m a n t i c
Sufi universalism ( w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to
M a g h r i b i and I r a n i a n m y s t i c i s m ) , the assumption
o f an i n n e r esoteric d i m e n s i o n o f outer artistic
forms, the stress o n the d o c t r i n e o f tawhid w i t h its
cosmological c o r o l l a r y o f " u n i t y i n m u l t i p l i c i t y , "
and the t o t a l rejection o f h i s t o r i c a l context. The
p u b l i c a t i o n s c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h the W o r l d o f Islam
festival, w h i c h as Grabar n o t e d " s t i l l f o r m the
most coherent statement about Islamic art avail-
able to students or to the general p u b l i c , " 1 0 0
a t t r i b u t e d universalizing symbolic meanings to
geometric patterns w i t h o u t any d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f
the presumed l i n k w i t h mystical and religious doc-
trines i n p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l settings. Therefore,
the s t i l l - p o p u l a r conclusions o f these m e t h o d o l o g i -
cally u n r i g o r o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s , w h i c h occasionally
do c o n t a i n perceptive insights, need to be tested
by carefully framed nuanced contextual studies.
G o m b r i c h was one o f the first to criticize the
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c approach p u b l i -
cized by the Arts of Islam e x h i b i t i o n . I n The
Sense of Order he disputed this e x h i b i t i o n ' s
basic assumptions:
The v i s i t o r m u s t be reassured that there
is m o r e to the arabesque t h a n meets the
eye. The revelation o f symbolic m e a n i n g
resembles an i n i t i a t i o n i n t o the deeper
mysteries o f the t r a d i t i o n . I t is clear . . .
that there is no concrete evidence for
these i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . C e r t a i n l y a c o n t e m -
p l a t i o n o f ordered systems c o u l d have
"religious symbolic c o n n o t a t i o n s . "
W h e t h e r these c o n n o t a t i o n s w o u l d fit i n
perfectly w i t h the tenets o f Islam is a dif-
ferent matter. . . . Here the search for
m e a n i n g coalesces w i t h the tendency . . .
o f l o o k i n g for some p r i n c i p l e o f u n i t y
a m o n g all manifestations o f a c u l t u r e or
p e r i o d . Being characteristic o f A r a b i c
d e c o r a t i o n the arabesque m u s t also par-
take o f the essence o f " I s l a m i c t h o u g h t . " . . .
I n linguistics the quest for the " s p i r i t " o f
a language has been abandoned and so
has the search for the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g
o f roots as a guide to semantics. Instead
interest has begun to centre o n the syn-
c h r o n i c analysis o f h o w a language actu-
ally functions i n any one c o m m u n i t y .
The student o f design w o u l d do w e l l to
follow s u i t . 1 0 1
Stuart D u r a n t ' s Ornament: 1830-1980,1986, simi-
larly c r i t i c i z e d the festival's p u b l i c a t i o n s as being
" a l l t o o i n c l i n e d to a t t r i b u t e mystical significance
to Islamic d e c o r a t i o n . " 1 0 2
I n his M e l l o n Lectures o f 1989, published as The
Mediation of Ornament, 1992, Grabar also rejected
the symbolic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f geometric patterns:
M a n y arguments o f logic and o f fact exist
against this i m m e d i a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
geometry, however appealing i t is to a
curious m i x t u r e o f Western orientalists
and Islamic fundamentalists. The most

i m p o r t a n t objections are several. There
does n o t exist, to m y knowledge, a single
instance j u s t i f y i n g the views that the
M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y , the ummah, as
opposed to i n d i v i d u a l t h i n k e r s , u n d e r -
stood m a t h e m a t i c a l forms as s y m b o l i z i n g
or i l l u s t r a t i n g a M u s l i m c o s m o l o g y .
I n an a t t e m p t to reassert the universal values o f
Islamic geometric design, Grabar proposed that
geometry, like calligraphy and vegetal o r n a m e n t ,
functions as a "perfect i n t e r m e d i a r y , for i t attracts
n o t to itself b u t to other places or to functions
other t h a n itself." He concluded that " g e o m e t r y is
a passage, at best a magnet, to s o m e t h i n g else that
it does n o t i d e n t i f y b u t w h i c h the c u l t u r e deems
desirable." 1 0 4
As an "object o f e m o t i o n a l or psy-
chic i n v o l v e m e n t " that gave the viewer a r e m a r k -
able freedom o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , geometry was
devoid o f c u l t u r a l specificity:
Geometry really works o n l y as an i n t e r -
mediary. As an i n t e r m e d i a r y , i t leaves
the viewer or user a freedom o f choice
no other i n t e r m e d i a r y seems to offer. I n
this respect, as a harbinger o f free choice,
geometry is a most dangerous media-
t o r . . . . The penalty o f freedom i n the arts
is loss o f m e a n i n g . Its reward is accessi-
b i l i t y to all. H u m b l e triangles o n a dress
or i n the weaving o f a basket or the very
sophisticated b r i c k walls o f I r a n i a n towers
share an a b i l i t y to make us w o n d e r w h a t
they mean, because, like m o t h s or b u t t e r -
RECENT STUDIES ON GEOMETRIC
flies, we are attracted to an abstraction
w h i c h seems to be devoid o f c u l t u r a l spe-
cificity. I t is o n l y meant to be b e a u t i f u l . " 1 0 5
Like G o m b r i c h ' s psychology o f decorative art,
Grabar's b o o k h i g h l i g h t e d the universal psycho-
103
logical factors at w o r k i n the perception o f abstract
patterns that mediate sensual pleasure. B o t h
authors viewed such patterns as p r i m a r i l y decora-
tive, a view rejected by writers w h o a t t e m p t to
charge the same patterns w i t h a p r i o r i symbolic
meanings. Grabar's theory o f intermediaries aimed
to bridge the "boundaries between o r n a m e n t and
r e a l i t y " t h r o u g h a psychological f r a m e w o r k o f per-
c e p t i o n w i t h i n w h i c h the viewer and the abstract
image subjectively interact. He deemphasized c u l -
t u r a l l y significant contextual factors, being i n t e r -
ested i n private perceptions o f a universal k i n d . By
d e f i n i t i o n such a universalizing G o m b r i c h i a n psy-
chology o f perception does n o t concern itself w i t h
c u l t u r a l l y constructed codes o f r e c o g n i t i o n and
sign systems at w o r k i n the process o f visual c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n . Grabar expressed d o u b t " w h e t h e r i t is
a p p r o p r i a t e to seek a p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n or
even parallel for the arts o f medieval and p r e m o d -
ern times i n the Islamic w o r l d , " since he f o u n d i t
u n l i k e l y that p h i l o s o p h y , l i t e r a r y theory, theology,
or m y s t i c i s m i n f o r m e d the sphere o f visual aes-
thetics. This freed the field o f Islamic art f r o m the
m o n o p o l y o f specialists to a m u c h w i d e r audience,
g i v i n g the art h i s t o r i a n the " u n i q u e l y interesting
task . . . o f devising the a p p r o p r i a t e contexts, his-
t o r i c a l or c o n t e m p o r a r y , w i t h i n w h i c h Islamic art
s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d . " 1 0 6
ORNAMENT 83
Grabar's psychological theory o f intermediaries,
w h i c h privileged the category o f sensual pleasure,
and other theories that c o n t i n u e to i n t e r p r e t
abstract patterns as r e l i g i o s p i r i t u a l symbols per-
petuate the "decorative versus i c o n o g r a p h i c "
p o l e m i c that has polarized the study o f Islamic
visual c u l t u r e since the nineteenth c e n t u r y . 107
This
b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n , g r o u n d e d i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f a sharp d i c h o t o m y between abstract p a t t e r n -
m a k i n g and m i m e t i c representation i n the Western
t r a d i t i o n o f art, has deeply colored the l i t e r a t u r e
on the "character" o f Islamic a r t . 1 0 8
The o n g o i n g
ideological split i n the secondary l i t e r a t u r e can
o n l y be mediated by a p a r a d i g m shift capable
o f transcending the c u l t u r e - b o u n d o p p o s i t i o n
between iconographic representation and o r n a -
m e n t a l p a t t e r n m a k i n g . A semiotic f r a m e w o r k can
be p a r t i c u l a r l y useful i n addressing the p r o b l e m -
atic issue o f c u l t u r a l specificity and m e a n i n g i n a
visual t r a d i t i o n that employed repetitive abstract
signs whose s i g n i f y i n g p o t e n t i a l was largely c o n -
textual. Such a f r a m e w o r k can help dissolve the
sharp d i c h o t o m y between the " i c o n o g r a p h i c " and
the " d e c o r a t i v e " by investing abstract patterns
w i t h a wide range o f c u l t u r a l l y relevant associa-
tions—even contradictory ones—depending on
specific settings. Before e x p l o r i n g the semiotic
dimensions o f Islamic abstract patterns as context-
b o u n d sign systems open to a p l u r a l i t y o f m u l t i l a y -
ered meanings, however, i t is necessary to analyze
the girih m o d e as a h i s t o r i c a l l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d
p h e n o m e n o n b o u n d by identifiable regional and
c h r o n o l o g i c a l parameters.
8 4
NOTES TO PART 2
1. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, "Hafis Nameh," in
The Poems of Goethe, trans. E. A. Bowring (New York:
Gordon Press, 1974), 892.
2. The German Benedictine monk Theophilus, who
was a practicing craftsman himself, included in his
twelfth-century technical manual De diversis artibus a
section on metalwork explaining "whatever Arabia
adorns with repousse or cast work, or engravings in
relief"; see Theophilus 1986, 4. During the Renaissance
arabesques were used in Venetian-Saracenic metalwork,
and they appeared in pattern books published from
the early sixteenth century onward, such as those of
Francesco di Pellegrino, Jean Gourmont, and Balthasar
Sylvius; see Gombrich 1979, 85-86; and Ward-Jackson
1967.
3. For the nineteenth-century literature on ornament
and its vast bibliography, see Durant 1986. Many of
the works cited below are discussed in Durant's richly
illustrated and useful book. See also Gombrich 1979;
Kroll 1987; Darby 1983; Brett 1992; Creswell 1961; and
idem 1973.
4. See Lewis 1835; Roberts 1837; idem 1842-1849;
Walsh 1838; Daniell 1795-1807; and Hodges 1786. This
illustrated travel literature is analyzed in Bozdogan
1988; and Darby 1983.
5. Coste 1975. For the involvement of colonial powers
in studying and preserving the architectural heritage
of Arab lands, see Reid 1992; and Mitchell 1988.
6. Prisse d'Avennes 1983, 22-23.
7. Gayet 1893, 310, 304-5. See idem, 57: "By proscrib-
ing the human form, the hadith summed up into a
dogma the inclination of spiritualist races; by renounc-
ing it, Arab art yielded to a hereditary repugnance
whose trace reappears at each step in the history of the
people of the Orient."
8. According to Gayet the abstract forms of Arab
art reflected a mystical sensibility. See Gayet 1893,180:
"Each polygon, each arabesque, each inscription . . .
extends itself into that softly resigned mysticism that at
all times has constituted the battleground of Oriental
belief."
9. Gayet 1893, 307. See also idem 1978, where Gayet
argued that the ecstatic mystical reveries of Arab art
were not so characteristic of the "genie des races de
Ylran" (genius of the races of Iran); Persian Islamic art
was less spiritual and more prone to figural represen-
tation, which the Shi i "schismatics" tolerated.
c
10. For the development of the concept of the ara-
besque in Germany, see Kroll 1987.
11. For various definitions of the arabesque, see Riegl
1893 (1992); Herzfeld 1987; Kuhnel i960; and idem 1977.
12. Goury and Jones 1842-1845, commentary on pi. 1.
13. See Gayet 1893, 310: " A n d isn't polygonality the
tracing of the rich and primitive textiles of the tent,
which the Arab, still wandering and semisavage, used
while camping in the desert?"
14. In nineteenth-century publications on Islamic
architecture, linear drawings tended to flatten facades
and architectonic elements, stripping away their spatial
qualities to translate them into decorative patterns that
could be recycled at will. Bozdogan has observed that
the architectural drawings of these books reduced light,
shadow, texture, and depth to an interplay of linear
patterns: "The color and corporeality of the dome of
Mescid-i Shah in Isfahan, for instance, eludes the 1842
survey drawing of Charles Texier no matter how com-
plete and accurate the latter is rendered. . . . Nor is it
possible to capture in a two-dimensional drawing, as in
Owen Jones' pattern book, the precise quality of orna-
ment inside the dome of a mosque when the drawing
by its nature strips away the essential spatiality of this
ornament"; see Bozdogan 1988, 41. For the Orientalist
image as "object of consumption," see idem, 43-45.
15. For another early encyclopedia of ornament,
see Wornum 1856, which discussed Egyptian, Greek,
Roman, Byzantine, Saracenic, Gothic, and modern styles
from the Renaissance onward. Wornum opposed exces-
sive naturalism in ornament, which like music had to be
based on such abstract principles as repetition, measure,
rhythm, and harmony. Friedrich Maximilian Hessemer's
work Arabische und alt-Italienische Bau-Verzierungen,
1842, resembled pattern books with its chromolitho-
graphic plates of ornaments derived from the monu-
ments of Cairo, Alexandria, and Italy.
16. Brett 1992, 90. The second edition of Jones's influ-
ential book was published in 1868 and translated into
German and French.
17. Jones 1982, 8.
18. Ibid., 66, 5.
19. Ibid., 74.
20. Cited in Durant 1986, 89. For Jones's wallpaper
and textile patterns generated by geometric grids like
those of the Alhambra, see Darby 1983, 90.
21. Jones 1982, 56-59.
22. Riegl 1893, see esp. pp. 267, 302-3, 308, 311-15, 326.
See also the annotated English translation of Stilfragen,
Riegl 1893 (1992), esp. pp. 229-305. For the turning
point in the tenth and eleventh centuries, see Allen 1988,
15) 54-56; and part 3, chapter 6, of the present volume.
23. Riegl often cited the works of Jones, Bourgoin,
Gayet, Prisse d'Avennes, and Gottfried Semper, whose
Der Stil in den technischen und tektonischen Kunsten,
1860-1863, emphasized the need to learn the basic prin-
ciples of decoration from non-Western ornamental
traditions. For other Austrian theorists of ornament,
see Kroll 1987, 47-68.
24. Bourgoin 1873a, 4. It has been suggested that
Bourgoin was interested in the grouping of plant cells
and may have used this information to understand
tessellation; see Durant 1986, 65.
25. Among the early works that treat the muqarnas are
Goury and Jones 1842-1845; and Gayet 1893.
26. See Bourgoin 1873a, 1-2, where he noted "a con-
siderable difference between the Moresque art of Spain
and the Arab art of Egypt and of Syria." He speculated
that a similar difference must have existed " i n other
regions of the vast Muslim empire."
27. Ibid., 3.
28. Bourgoin 1879, 5-11. Bourgoin identified three
periods of Arab art: the formative period (Yepoque
Byzantine, up to the twelfth century), the definitive
period (Yepoque arabe, from the twelfth to the fif-
teenth century), and the period of decadence (Yepoque
moderne, from the fifteenth century to the present).
The same biological metaphor of growth and decline,
so widely used by nineteenth-century European histo-
rians of art and architecture, also appears in Prisse
d'Avennes's Vart arabe, where its political implications
are transparent; see Prisse d'Avennes 1983. In the
author's words, the book traces the "formation, flower-
ing, and decay of Muslim civilization in Cairo" up to the
arrival of the French armies who rescued the Arabs from
Ottoman rule, "an epoch during which artistic inspira-
tion was all but extinguished under the Turkish yoke"
and whose few architectural works of merit reflected
"the supreme protest of Arab genius against barbarism."
This view, constructed to legitimize French colonial rule
in Egypt, would be perpetuated within the framework of
Arab nationalism that readily appropriated the racially
defined notion of "Arab genius." Such Orientalists as
Prisse d'Avennes saw the "Arab genius" as the "pure
source" of Islamic visual culture whose stylistic and
regional variants were merely a function of climate and
racial character.
29. The Orientalist discourse accentuated the
unbridgeable distance between two separate worlds and
time frames; it not only implied the superiority of the
West but also rationalized the role of Europe as a cata-
lyst for change in the colonized Arab lands; see Said
1979; Bozdogan 1988; Mitchell 1988; and Qelik 1992.
30. Bourgoin 1873a, 24, 4.
31. Ibid., intro.
32. Ibid., intro.
33. Bourgoin described the geometric character of
Arab art as follows: "Elegance and complexity by geo-
metric involutions more or less distinct or mixed, and
constructed with symmetry. Abstract figures, linear
inflections, and a sort of organic growth: in other words,
purely geometric themes that are graphically translated

by working drawings, and technically executed by being
transferred onto materials, such is the essential basis
of Arab art." While Greek art was inspired by the animal
realm and exhibited beauty and clarity through represen-
tational plastic forms arranged with attention to order,
rhythm, and measure, Far Eastern art reflected the
vegetal realm, imbued with the spontaneous vivacity
of curvilinear floral motifs that defied order and sym-
metry; see Bourgoin 1879, 5-11.
34. Bourgoin 1873a, 3 - 4 .
35. See ibid., 3: "Moresque architecture is an architec-
ture of decoration, it is this that makes it inferior, and
that is why one cannot judge the art of the Orient by
what one knows about Moresque or African countries."
36. Viollet-le-Duc 1875, 457~58.
37. Bourgoin 1873a, intro.
38. Parvillee 1874, 11-12. For Edmond Duthoit, see
Barry Bergdoll, "'The Synthesis of All I Have Seen': The
Architecture of Edmond Duthoit (1834-89)," in Robin
Middleton, ed., The Beaux-Arts and Nineteenth-Century
French Architecture (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982),
216-49.
39. Prisse d'Avennes 1983, 186.
40. Bourgoin 1873a, intro.
41. Bourgoin wrote that monumental architecture
"particularly holds under its dependence the arts and
crafts which are directly linked to i t " ; see Bourgoin
1873b, i i .
42. Ibid., 48, 209-11.
43. See ibid., 33: "These ideas of measure and scale
tend to regularize the expansion or [compositional]
development of forms and of ornaments; this is nec-
essary in itself and for the detail. Morover, in order to
have concordance in the general chord, it is necessary
that a measure, a eurythmy, and a general metrics har-
monize each of the constituent series, subordinating one
to the other, and as a whole to the overall harmony."
44. Cited in Washburn and Crowe 1988, 8-9.
45. Cited in ibid., 8-9.
46. Cited in ibid., 8-9.
47. See also Prieto y Vives 1907; idem 1932; and idem
1932-1935.
48. See Gaganov 1958,183; and Baklanov 1947,102-11.
Meyer and Hamlin are cited in Washburn and Crowe
1988, 7.
49. For studies on ornament, see Rempel' 1961; Denike
1939; and Yuldashev 1957. Such studies not only were
applicable to modern architecture but also helped to
forge regional identities in the modern Soviet republics.
Self-contained diachronic studies on the architectural
ornament of various republics from pre-Islamic times
up to the modern era reinforced artificial national
boundaries and concealed a striking reluctance to
NOTES
engage in contextual interpretations that stressed
religious culture. The practical working methods of
medieval builders and the universal language of the
geometric and mathematical formulas they used conve-
niently neutralized the historical, ideological, and
cultural contexts of monuments built under Muslim
rule. The textbook by Muradov, Zasypkin, and
Lukasheva is mentioned in Bulatov 1988, 264-65.
50. Although Miiller has been credited with having
found at the Alhambra all of the seventeen symmetry
groups possible in one-color plane patterns (known as
plane crystallographic groups), it was not until 1987 that
Spanish mathematicians and topologists were able to
document their presence; see Washburn and Crowe
1988, 5, 20. Finite patterns have a central point axis
around which elements can rotate or through which
mirror axes can pass (other symmetries, such as trans-
lation or glide reflection, are not possible in this
category). One- and two-dimensional patterns with a
single color have respectively seven and seventeen differ-
ent motion classes, consisting of combinations of
the four basic motions possible in the Euclidean plane
(reflection, translation, rotation, glide reflection). To
these seven strip groups and seventeen plane groups can
be added 230 three-dimensional crystallographic groups.
Crystallographers also systematically have explored
the greatly increased number of variants possible with
the addition of two or more colors (dichromatic and
polychromatic) to these symmetry groups. For more
information, see Weyl 1952; followed by Shubnikov and
Koptsik 1974, which summarized the work of Soviet
crystallographers. Until recently the most extensive
study of two-color patterns had been attempted by the
Soviet school of crystallography, made available in
English by Shubnikov et al. 1964. The nearly infinite
variety of patterns with more than two colors has been
explored in Loeb 1971; Wieting 1982; and recently in
Griinbaum and Shephard 1987, which is regarded as the
definitive text for the mathematical theory of patterns.
51. For one example, see Washburn and Crowe 1988,
ix, where the book's purpose is explained as follows:
" I n this book we demonstrate how to use the geometric
principles of crystallography to develop a descriptive
classification of patterned design. Just as specific chemi-
cal assays permit objective analysis and comparison of
objects, so too the description of designs by their geo-
metric symmetries makes possible a systematic study of
their function and meaning within cultural contexts . . .
analysis classifies the underlying structure of decorated
forms; that is, the way the parts (elements, motifs,
design units) are arranged in the whole design by geo-
metrical symmetries which repeat them. . . . We have
attempted to offer a more comprehensive survey of pat-
TO PART 2 85
terns occurring on decorated objects from cultures all
over the world and systematically show how to classify
the finite, one-dimensional, and two-dimensional one-
and two-color designs with the use of flow charts
and other detailed descriptions of symmetry motions
and colors present." See also Hargittai 1986.
52. See Makovicky and Makovicky 1977, 58-68;
Mamedov 1970; idem 1986; and Niman and Norman
1978, 489-91. Makovicky, Makovicky, and Mamedov
applied crystallographic analysis to the study of Islamic
geometric patterns and showed how such abstract
designs are useful as tools for teaching two-dimensional
and color symmetry. Noting that the drawings of
Escher (who acknowledged being influenced by the
Alhambra) have already become crystallographic
classics, Makovicky and Makovicky identified Islamic
geometric patterns as a "treasury for crystallographic
teaching" for which they also recommended the less
complicated Roman, Byzantine, and Romanesque
mosaics and Gothic vaulting patterns. They also pointed
out the usefulness of Bourgoin 1879 for this purpose.
Niman and Norman 1978 was part of a project initiated
in 1976 by the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Hunter
College on the teaching of secondary-school mathe-
matics through works of art, a project whose first part
drew exclusively on Islamic geometric patterns. The
authors encouraged other American math teachers to
use Islamic designs whose "abstractness, inherent logic,
and universality" made them "a particularly valuable
means of teaching topics such as tessellation, algebra
and symmetry."
53. Chorbachi 1989, 757, 774. As an artist Chorbachi
has experimented with developing new geometric
designs inspired by traditional patterns: " I have tried,
visually, to show here that returning to the study of
medieval Islamic tradition does not necessarily mean
to advocate a move from the present century backwards
to medieval times. . . . Rather, the opposite may be the
case, for Islamic tradition is so strong that, i f we are in
touch with the language of the present time and ground
ourselves in this strong old tradition, we can arrive
at an expression that is not only contemporary but that
could be meaningful and valid in the coming century";
see idem, 788.
54. This book is not a study of the symmetrical prop-
erties of the Topkapi scroll's patterns—it is mainly con-
cerned with the cultural and historical contexts in which
they were created, together with their implications for
aesthetic theory. Mathematical analysis of the symmetry
groups to which these patterns belong is a task for which
I am not qualified, but it is a task that I hope others
will undertake in the future. Chorbachi, who made a
pioneering effort to apply the scientific language of
86 NOTES TO PART 2
group theory and crystallography to the study of Islamic
geometric patterns, was also among the first few scholars
to turn to primary sources of scientific manuscripts on
practical geometry written specifically for artisans. She
wrote: " I t is essential to study in detail the scientific
manuscripts and old documents that are now available
to us, for they bring us closest to the true historical pro-
cedure of the Islamic science of design"; see Chorbachi
1989, 776. As such, she moved beyond symmetry issues
to the step-by-step process of design in the medieval era.
For these manuscripts, see Bulatov 1988; and part 4 of
the present volume.
55. See Bozdogan 1988, 44: "A contemporary version
of what Said calls 'Orientalizing the Orient' is, not sur-
prisingly, enjoying growing appeal both for Western
architects/firms competing for corporate jobs in the
non-Western world and for the architects of the non-
Western world in their post-traditional, post-colonial—
and frequently post-Modern—search for national/
cultural identity."
56. Herzfeld 1987, 365.
57. Ibid., 364-67.
58. Dimand 1930, 12; Ettinghausen 1944; idem 1979.
See also Sourdel-Thomine 1965, which repeated the
stereotyped interpretation of Islamic art as an essentially
decorative tradition: " I t is justifiable to define Islamic
art as a whole as an art of decorators and ornamenters,
concerned to decorate every surface with a multiplicity
of figures springing from their own imagination in
accordance with a repertoire of motifs. . . . This art of
the ornamenters thus corresponded to a peculiar regard
for agreements and harmonies, founded, not without
some aridity, on the observation of rules such as the
horror of the void and the continuation of the line, in
a climate which produced also the melodic line of Arab
music and the cadences of its poetry." The author iden-
tified the arabesque "among the most typical aspects of
the art of Islamic countries."
59. Herzfeld 1987, 367.
60. Kuhnel i960.
61. Kuhnel 1977, 8-9.
62. Ibid., 5.
63. Ibid., 6. This statement ignores the fact that not all
artisans practicing in the Islamic world were Muslims.
64. See Massignon 1921, 50-51: "Muslim art derives
from a theory of the universe. . . . This theory is that,
in the world, there is no form in itself, and there is no
figure in itself, God alone being permanent." He added,
"Just as in the scientific point of view that for them
[Muslims] nature does not exist, but is simply an arbi-
trary series of accidents and atoms with no duration, so
too in art we see that the negation of the permanence
of the figure and of the form is precisely the principle."
For a recent elaboration of this theory, see Tabbaa 1985.
Ettinghausen 1944, which explained various tendencies
of Islamic art by reference to Islam's essential character-
istics, was criticized in Aga-Oglu 1954.
65. Grabar 1987, 178-94.
66. See al-Faruqi 1970a; idem 1970b; idem 1973; and
idem 1989. Terry Allen, by contrast, disagreed with
the view that the arabesque expressed "the secret inner
workings of some 'Islamic m i n d ' " and went as far as
asserting that "there is nothing 'Islamic' about Islamic
art"; see Allen 1988,15.
67. al-Faruqi 1970b, 78-79.
68. al-Faruqi 1989, 261-69. For a further elaboration
of the same themes, see al-Faruqi 1985.
69. Gayet described'Arab artisans as follows: "They
are first of all spiritualists; they see with the soul,
whereas their so admired rivals of the imitative school
see with their eyes and never the beyond"; see Gayet
1893,181. See also Probst-Biraben 1907, 17-23. More
recently Biirgel has also interpreted the arabesque in
mystical terms, as a visual expression of joy and ecstasy.
Moreover, he has associated the arabesque with magic:
"Magical or quasi magical influences are ascribed to
these three arts (poetry, music, painting) in countless
cases related in sources from premodern Islam. Does
not the idea suggest itself of interpreting the patterns of
harmony and symmetry, of mirrorlike repetitions of
motifs in chains or clusters or arabesques, as something
closely related to the 'sympathetic' chains, the talismans
of the magician?"; see Biirgel 1988, 22.
70. Probst-Biraben 1907, 20.
71. Ardalan and Bakhtiar 1973, i x - x i i .
72. Ibid., x i - x i v .
73. Ibid., 21-27.
74. Ibid., 40.
75. Ibid., 3, 6.
76. Ibid., 129.
77. For additional* biographical and bibliographical
details, see Burckhardt 1987, 3-9.
78. Reprinted in ibid., 219-30.
79. Ibid., 227.
80. Ibid., 220.
81. Ibid., 217.
82. Ibid., 230.
83. Nasr 1987,13.
84. Madden 1976.
85. Ibid.
86. Grabar 1988a, 147-48.
87. Ibid., 150.
88. Burckhardt observed that Islamic art was primar-
ily aimed at creating a spiritual ambience that would
encourage contemplation; this is why architecture
played a central role, with the traditional crafts and
calligraphy subordinated to its needs; see Burckhardt
1976b, 27; idem 1987, 228; and idem 1976a, 29.
89. See Burckhardt 1976b, 32: "The Muslim is not
fascinated by the drama of individual artistic creation;
rather his soul vibrates through the idea of the unity
and immensity of God which are reflected in the cosmic
order and also in the artefacts shaped by the hand of
man."
90. Burckhardt 1976a, x v - x v i . See idem, 46: "But the
most profound link between Islamic art and the Quran
is of another kind: it lies not in the form of the Quran
but in its haqiqah, its formless essence, and more particu-
larly in the notion of tawhid, unity or union, with its
contemplative implications; Islamic art—by which we
mean the entirety of plastic arts in Islam—is essentially
the projection into the visual order of certain aspects or
dimensions of Divine Unity."
91. Ibid., 45. According to Burckhardt, diversity
was created by different "ethnic environments" that
exemplified "the phenomenon of diversity in unity,
or of unity in diversity"; see idem, 117.
92. Ibid., 63.
93. Nasr 1976, 75.
94. Ibid., 78.
95. El-Said and Parman 1976, i x - x .
96. Ibid., 7. The lack of awareness of surviving scrolls
in this study is particularly surprising given that the
Mirza Akbar scrolls were displayed in one of the exhibits
coordinated with the World of Islam festival. For the
catalog of that exhibition, entitled Science and Technol-
ogy in Islam, see Harrow and Wilson 1976.
97. Nasr praised the works of Burckhardt and Schuon
and reiterated the notion of spiritual concepts reflected
in Islamic art: "Islamic spirituality could not but de-
velop a sacred art in conformity with its own revealed
form as well as with its essence. The doctrine of unity
which is central to the Islamic revelation combined with
the nomadic spirituality which Islam made its own
brought into being an aniconic art wherein the spiritual
v/orld was reflected in the sensible world not through
various iconic forms but through geometry and rhythm,
through arabesques and calligraphy which reflect
directly the worlds above and ultimately the supernal
sun of Divine Unity." He stated that the Pythagorean-
Platonic tradition was the origin of using numbers and
geometric figures as keys to the structure of the cosmos
and as symbols of the archetypal world and wrote:
"Thanks to the efforts of a small number of authorities,
foremost among them F. Schoun and T. Burckhardt,
Islamic art is gradually coming to be understood for
what it is, namely a means of relating multiplicity to
Unity by means of mathematical forms which are
seen, not as mental abstractions, but as reflections of

the celestial archetypes within both the cosmos and the
minds and souls of men"; see Critchlow 1976, 6.
98. Wade believed the Islamic ethos found its con-
summate artistic expression in the application of elabo-
rate geometricism to the infinite pattern. He wrote that
geometric patterning based on scientific developments
should be seen as "integral to the Islamic spirit": "Its
widespread usage suggested that this mode of expression
satisfies something essential in Islam. These patterns in
their infinite form reflect the basic Islamic creed of the
indivisibility of God. Endlessly repeating themselves
in elaborate complexity these mandalas of Islam are
a reflection of the One God whose influence is not
'centred' in a divine manifestation, as in Christianity,
but whose presence is an even and pervasive force
throughout His creation. . . . This art is also a science,
but the distinction is irrelevant to Islam, where archi-
tecture and geometric ornament develop hand in
hand with the advances made in mathematics"; see
Wade 1976, 7. Wade also emphasized the Platonic
and Pythagorean origin of Islamic geometric patterns;
his brief introduction is followed by an analysis of the
underlying grids of a large number of two-dimensional
patterns.
99. Critchlow 1976, 6. Critchlow freely assigned
cosmic meanings to Islamic geometric patterns. For
example, the hexagon "is related archetypally to the six
days of the Creation"; see idem, 156; and twelve "gives
the number of hours in a full daily cycle, one half being
dominated by the sun, the other by the moon"; see
idem, 160. In addition eight-, sixteen-, and thirty-two-
pointed stars "can be taken to be cosmically related on
the one hand, to the four-fold division of the seasons
etc., the eight-fold division relating to the orbital cycle
of retrograde loops as seen in the orbit of Mars, and
the subsequent divisions by multiples of the primary
archetype of four and eight"; see idem, 161. For a recent
elaboration of these cosmological interpretations, see
Critchlow 1988.
100. Grabar 1988, 150.
101. Gombrich 1979, 225.
102. Durant 1986, 143. For a critique of mystical and
cosmological interpretations of Islamic geometric pat-
terns, see also Chorbachi 1989. After analyzing the falla-
cies of publications on this subject during the 1970s,
Chorbachi observed: "The symbolic mystical interpreta-
tions that have proliferated in these books on Islamic
geometric design, pattern and ornament are based on a
modern understanding of Islamic literature. There is no
documented evidence that such interpretations were
given to the art forms when they were created hundreds
of years ago"; see idem 1989, 760.
103. Oleg Grabar 1992,151.
NOTES TO PART 2 87
104. Ibid.
105. Ibid., 154.
106. Ibid., 233-34.
107. This polemic continues to divide recent studies
on the arabesque, studies that tend to repeat earlier
stereotypes. Among the works that see the arabesque as
an essentially decorative element are Sourdel-Thomine
1965; and Sandler 1976. Allen was also reluctant to assign
iconographic significance to the arabesque and to geome-
try, which he admitted probably conveyed some associa-
tions in at least some cases: "Whatever these may have
been, the use of the arabesque and geometry always
serves the purpose of increasing the visual richness of an
object or building, and I believe this to be their pri-
mary purpose"; see Allen 1988, 54, 56. See also idem, 2:
"Ironically the idea of the 'Islamicness' of Islamic art has
been picked up by Muslims unaware of how deeply
rooted it is in a highly culture-bound Western view of
the 'East.'" Such authors as Nasr, Lois al-Faruqi, and
Isma il al-Faruqi continued to assign specifically Islamic
c
meanings to the arabesque. The recent appearance in
Iran of several practice-oriented publications on geo-
metric patterns, with "how-to" instructions addressing
professional architects charged with designing build-
ings appropriate for the new Islamic regime, once again
reflects the perception of geometric patterns as sym-
bolic stamps of cultural and religious identity in some
Muslim circles; see Firishtah Nazhad 1977; Lur'zadeh
1979; Shi rbaf 1982-1983; and Buzurgmihri 1982.
c
108. This dichotomy informed Gombrich's different
treatment of abstract patterns and representational
art in two separate works; see Gombrich i960; and
idem 1979.
PART 3 . THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC
HORIZONS OF THE GEOMETRIC MODE

To underrate Baghdad is to underrate Rome.

—Ernst Herzfeld 1
CHAPTER 6. GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE
The geographical and c h r o n o l o g i c a l parameters
o f the so-called geometric arabesque were n o t
systematically explored i n the secondary litera-
ture discussed i n the previous section. A l t h o u g h
n i n e t e e n t h - and early t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p u b l i -
cations o n the subject often suffered f r o m the
l i m i t e d a m o u n t o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n available at
that t i m e , m o r e recent ahistorical studies o n the
r e l i g i o s p i r i t u a l and cosmological s y m b o l i s m o f the
arabesque w i l l f u l l y overlooked the accumulated
b o d y o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n the regional and c h r o n o -
logical complexities o f Islamic visual c u l t u r e to
u n d e r l i n e a unified essence t h a t transcended
t i m e and space.
As we have seen, the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y litera-
t u r e o n the subject concentrated o n the m o r e
accessible m o n u m e n t s o f A r a b c i v i l i z a t i o n i n
Syria, Egypt, N o r t h Africa, and Spain. T h a t is
w h y Riegl's exemplary analysis o f the arabesque
i n Stilfragen, w h i c h frequently quotes the works o f
Jones, Gayet, Prisse d'Avennes, and B o u r g o i n , was
l i m i t e d to examples p r i m a r i l y selected f r o m A r a b
m o n u m e n t s . Like B o u r g o i n , Riegl a d m i t t e d the
l i m i t a t i o n s o f available i n f o r m a t i o n and post-
THE MONGOLS
p o n e d the study o f regional variations beyond
the A r a b w o r l d to future generations whose task i t
w o u l d be to "investigate the d i s t i n c t i o n s w i t h i n
the geographically far-flung regions o f Islamic c u l -
ture and to establish the nature o f the v a r i a t i o n . "
Given his agenda to trace the genetic c o n t i n u i t y
o f vegetal o r n a m e n t f r o m a n t i q u i t y to the present,
Riegl preferred to adopt an "all-encompassing
perspective" rather t h a n to "seek or establish
d i s t i n c t i o n s . " He w r o t e :
2
Surely f u r t h e r study o f the h i s t o r y o f
Islamic art w i l l eventually enable us to
recognize and isolate the characteristics
o f i n d i v i d u a l local schools. Today we
are still preoccupied w i t h establishing the
c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r o f the develop-
m e n t as a w h o l e , a development whose
roots . . . went back to the c o m m o n expe-
rience o f late a n t i q u e - B y z a n t i n e art,
i.e., the art t h a t d o m i n a t e d all o f these
regions across three c o n t i n e n t s w h e n
Islam first emerged. 3
A b o u t two decades later Herzfeld and F r i e d r i c h
Sarre's p u b l i c a t i o n s o n the Samarra excavations
opened up new h o r i z o n s t h a t f i r m l y established
the I r a q i Abbasid o r i g i n o f the ornaments seen i n
the n i n t h - c e n t u r y mosque o f I b n T u l u n at C a i r o ,
previously viewed as a local Egyptian development
o f the arabesque t h a t m a t u r e d under F a t i m i d rule
between the late t e n t h and t w e l f t h centuries. 4
A r t h u r U p h a m Pope and Phyllis Ackerman's m o n u -
m e n t a l Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times
to the Present, 1938-1939, also shifted the center
o f gravity i n artistic i n n o v a t i o n f r o m Egypt and
the M a g h r i b to the eastern Islamic lands. I n his
discussion o f the " g e o m e t r i c style," whose post-
eleventh-century development i n the I r a n i a n
w o r l d he a t t r i b u t e d to the a r r i v a l o f the Seljuqs,
Pope w r o t e : "West Islamic geometric o r n a m e n t ,
so familiar to Europeans, has t o o often been
accounted n o t merely the representative o f style,
b u t even its supreme expression. But c o m p a r e d
w i t h the best I r a n i a n examples i t betrays a certain
meagerness (for all its i n t r i c a c y ) and artificiality."
The c o m p l e x i t y o f m u l t i p l e orders o f super-
i m p o s e d geometric p a t t e r n i n g seen i n I r a n i a n
92 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL,
architecture made the arabesques o f the western
Islamic w o r l d appear "relatively deficient i n i n t e l -
lectual capacity and aesthetic j u d g m e n t . " Pope
argued: " T h e best geometric o r n a m e n t i n I r a n is
different and superior. I t is, i n the first place, n o t
the p r o d u c t o f mere craftsmen, b u t , i n the finer
examples, is evidently the direct use o f m a t h e -
m a t i c a l d i s c i p l i n e . " A t t r i b u t i n g the creation o f
5
geometric patterns to m a t h e m a t i c a l l y t r a i n e d
b u i l d e r s , he observed:
The i n v e n t i o n s o f the Persian geometers
are inexhaustible, b u t the principles are
constant and all subject to d e f i n i t i o n
i n logical terms. For these patterns are
the objective and visual records o f laws
embedded i n the m i n d itself, logic
expressed i n linear relations, yet i n d i -
v i d u a l i z e d by a p e n e t r a t i n g aesthetic
selectivity that endows t h e m w i t h
beauty and e m o t i o n . 6
N e w studies o n the arts and architecture o f
I r a n , I r a q , A n a t o l i a , Central Asia, Afghanistan,
and I n d i a p r o v i d e d a m o r e balanced v i s i o n o f the
geographical and c h r o n o l o g i c a l variety w i t h i n
the vast Islamic domains. This c o n t r i b u t e d to a re-
d e f i n i t i o n o f the scope o f the so-called arabesque,
leading some scholars t o place its o r i g i n i n the
n i n t h - c e n t u r y beveled style o f Abbasid Samarra
and others i n the t e n t h - and eleventh-century east-
ern Islamic w o r l d f r o m where i t spread t o the west
between the t w e l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h centuries w h e n
CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
it experienced its f u l l f l o w e r i n g . Nevertheless
7
the i n f o r m a t i o n made available by new research
and archaeological f i e l d w o r k d i d n o t result i n a
detailed analysis o f the development o f the ara-
besque and the mechanisms o f its d i s s e m i n a t i o n .
I n this section I w i l l focus o n the geometric m o d e ,
the m a i n subject o f the T o p k a p i scroll, o u t l i n i n g
its spatial and t e m p o r a l h o r i z o n s together w i t h its
c o n t e x t u a l associations as far as is possible given
the serious gaps i n the early Islamic archaeological
record.
W i t h its p u r e l y geometric vocabulary the girih
was o n l y one o f m a n y abstract modes o f design
that flourished i n the medieval Islamic w o r l d i n
response to the constrictions placed o n the scope
o f figural representation, w h i c h f r o m the very
b e g i n n i n g was excluded f r o m religious m o n u -
ments and i l l u m i n a t e d Korans. A l t h o u g h figural
representation had a r i c h life o f its o w n t h r o u g h -
o u t Islamic history, i t was consistently relegated
to profane contexts i n architecture, the decorative
arts, and m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g . This meant that
n o n f i g u r a l modes o f representation t h a t exclu-
sively relied o n a vocabulary o f i n a n i m a t e forms
had to be f o r m u l a t e d , forms t h a t often f o u n d t h e i r
way i n t o n o n r e l i g i o u s contexts as w e l l . The i n t i -
mate c o n n e c t i o n between i n a n i m a t e designs and
the religious contexts for w h i c h they were o r i g i -
nally i n t e n d e d makes i t l i k e l y t h a t they w o u l d have
been i n f o r m e d by the d o m i n a n t theological o r i e n -
tations o f the settings where they were created.
These s h i f t i n g o r i e n t a t i o n s officially adopted to
s u p p o r t d i f f e r i n g claims o f legitimacy i n specific
courts, w h i c h also happened to be the m a i n
centers o f artistic p r o d u c t i o n , no d o u b t colored
the canonical visual i d i o m s that stamped p u b l i c
religious m o n u m e n t s .
Even t h o u g h there is no evidence i n the p r i m a r y
sources to s u p p o r t the stereotyped n o t i o n t h a t
n o n f i g u r a l visual i d i o m s were considered the
"essence" o f the arts i n Islamic lands, religious
constraints d i d place an unprecedented emphasis
o n t h e m . This s h o u l d n o t , however, i m p l y t h a t
the development o f the so-called arabesque was
an a u t o m a t i c one, given the availability o f a wide
range o f n o n f i g u r a l i d i o m s n o t necessarily l i m i t e d
to an abstract vocabulary o f geometric, vegetal,
and calligraphic forms. I t was o n l y three t o four
centuries after the b i r t h o f the new r e l i g i o n t h a t
the abstract modes o f design i d e n t i f i e d i n Europe
as the arabesque were favored, c u l m i n a t i n g by the
late t e n t h and eleventh centuries i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y
geometric schemes.
I t is o n l y n a t u r a l to assume t h a t the girih, a
h i g h l y codified mode o f geometric p a t t e r n i n g w i t h
a distinctive repertoire o f algebraically definable
elements, was preferred for some reason over
other forms o f n o n f i g u r a l design. The p a r t i c u l a r
kind o f geometry used lies at the heart o f the p r o b -
l e m . The girih m o d e , w i t h its t w o - and three-
dimensional formulations compiled in surviving
examples o f p a t t e r n scrolls, is characterized by its
self-consciously l i m i t e d vocabulary o f f a m i l i a r ,
almost emblematic, star-and-polygon c o m p o s i -
tions generated by invisible g r i d systems that e l i m i -
nated a b r o a d spectrum o f alternative geometric
 GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE THE MONGOLS 93

81. Detail of mosaic panel depicting

a river landscape with trees and
buildings, from the west portico of the
courtyard, Umayyad Great Mosque,
Damascus, 705-715. Photo by author.

designs. W h a t made i t so appealing to the sensibili-

ties o f the medieval Islamic w o r l d and w h a t were
the circumstances o f its invention?
The spotty archaeological record makes i t d i f f i -
cult to p i n p o i n t the girth's t i m e and place o f o r i g i n
and the processes o f its d i s s e m i n a t i o n . Interlaced
geometric patterns, c o m m o n l y used i n w i n d o w
lattices, floor mosaics, and wooden ceilings d u r i n g
the U m a y y a d p e r i o d (661-750), were h a r d l y a
p r o m i n e n t feature o f early Islamic architectural
d e c o r a t i o n before the late t e n t h century. The n o n -
figural decorative vocabulary o f U m a y y a d religious
m o n u m e n t s was p r e d o m i n a n t l y representational,
w i t h its B y z a n t i n i z i n g landscapes, architectural
depictions, jeweled crowns, and identifiable fruits
and trees (figs. 81-83). These elements were syn-
thesized w i t h Sasanian and pagan A r a b motifs
i n t o a distinctive i m p e r i a l U m a y y a d visual i d i o m
whose geometric and vegetal patterns c o n t i n u e d to
e x h i b i t a genetic l i n k to Hellenistic, late antique,
and Byzantine prototypes. This l i n k was still appar-
ent i n the n o n f i g u r a l decorative vocabulary o f the
83. Detail of interior mosaics depicting
early Abbasid p e r i o d . Some examples f r o m t h a t vase, vegetal scroll, crown, and winged
p e r i o d i n c l u d e the juxtaposed geometric and vege- motifs, Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, 692.
tal motifs o f the marble m i h r a b and w o o d e n m i n -
bar at the Great Mosque i n Qairawan (believed
to have been i m p o r t e d i n the n i n t h century f r o m 82. Detail of interior mosaics depicting
Abbasid Baghdad) and c o n t e m p o r a r y carved jar, crown, and floral motifs, Dome of
w o o d e n panels w i t h s i m i l a r m o t i f s o r i g i n a t i n g the Rock, Jerusalem, 692. Photo:
Courtesy Eva Baer.
from Takrit i n Iraq. 8

The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f classicizing vegetal and

geometric patterns i n t o the beveled style o f the
Abbasid capital Samarra (838-892) c o n s t i t u t e d a
94 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS

84. Dado, style A, Samarra, ninth

century, stucco. Cairo, Museum of
Islamic Art, I3849.

85. Panel, style B, Samarra, ninth century, stucco.

Berlin, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preufiischer
Kulturbesitz, Museum fur Islamische Kunst. Photo:
Copyright Bildarchiv Preufiischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin.

86. Panel, style C, Samarra, ninth century, stucco.

Berlin, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preufiischer
Kulturbesitz, Museum fur Islamische Kunst. Photo:
Copyright Bildarchiv Preufiischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin.

87. Panel with birdlike motif, Egypt, late

ninth century, wood. Paris, Musee du
Louvre, Departement des Antiquites
Orientales, inv. 6023.

radical i n n o v a t i o n (figs. 8 4 - 8 7 ) . The new visual
i d i o m r a p i d l y spread f r o m the Abbasid capitals o f
Samarra and Baghdad to the caliphal provinces
and to such semi-independent courts as t h a t o f
the T u l u n i d s ( 8 6 8 - 9 0 5 ) i n Egypt. I t deliberately
abstracted vegetal and geometric designs derived
f r o m classical prototypes t h a t had been assimilated
by the Byzantine, Sasanian, and U m a y y a d i m p e r i a l
styles, t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m i n t o i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g
reciprocal shapes t h a t dissolved t r a d i t i o n a l figure-
g r o u n d relations. Its contiguous a m o r p h o u s
shapes, capable o f c o n t i n u a l m e t a m o r p h o s i s i n t o
one another, recalled the i n t e r m e d i a t e state o f
p r i m o r d i a l m a t t e r between formlessness and
f o r m . A m b i g u o u s c u r v i l i n e a r patterns, w i t h
beveled edges creating u n d u l a t i n g surfaces, some-
times featured geometric frames t h a t c o m p a r t -
mentalized elements d i s t a n t l y evoking vegetation
and occasionally animate forms recalling b i r d s .
The deliberate elusiveness o f the beveled style,
w h i c h resisted being resolved i n t o i n t e l l i g i b l e
forms w i t h clearly delineated c o n t o u r s , seems to
have reflected a concern w i t h r u p t u r i n g the classi-
cal ideal o f mimesis. I t has, i n fact, been s h o w n
that its abstract patterns were direct translations
or r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f classical prototypes, reflect-
i n g a p r o g r a m m a t i c process o f abstraction whose
rationale has so far escaped e x p l a n a t i o n . U n l i k e
such scholars as Josef Strzygowski and Ernst Diez,
w h o a t t e m p t e d to trace the Samarran beveled style
to T u r k i c n o m a d i c influences f r o m C e n t r a l Asia,
Herzfeld and Ettinghausen l i n k e d i t w i t h some
t r a n s i t i o n a l Abbasid works, p a r t i c u l a r l y t w o capi-
GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE THE
tals discovered i n Raqqa, one o f w h i c h already
displays an abstract t r e a t m e n t o f shapes w i t h
beveled edges, w h i l e the other still preserves its
Hellenistic f o r m . 9
I t may n o t be a coincidence t h a t this seemingly
self-conscious change i n visual representation
came about at a t i m e w h e n the Abbasid c o u r t was
intensely engaged i n theological and p h i l o s o p h i c a l
debates about the unstable nature o f m a t t e r i n the
physical w o r l d , related to such broader issues as
God's absolute transcendence o f m a t t e r and the
status o f the r a t i o n a l h u m a n soul as an i n c o r p o r e a l
substance u n c o n s t r a i n e d by m a t t e r . These debates
were triggered by the t r a n s l a t i o n o f Greek p h i l o -
sophical texts and c u l m i n a t e d w i t h the accep-
tance o f M u t a z i l i s m as an official d o c t r i n e by the
c
Abbasid caliphs between 813 and 848, a d o c t r i n e
that w o u l d c o n t i n u e to be i n f l u e n t i a l i n Baghdadi
c o u r t circles under B u y i d (945-1055) patronage
u n t i l its adherents were systematically persecuted
by the Great Seljuqs (1038-1194) w h o occupied
Baghdad i n 1055. A l t h o u g h establishing the pos-
sible c o r r e l a t i o n between M u t a z i l i sensibilities
c
and the beveled aesthetic falls beyond the scope o f
m y i n q u i r y , i t is nevertheless t e m p t i n g to postulate
that this official ideology i n f o r m e d the character
o f abstract visual i d i o m s f o r m u l a t e d at t h a t t i m e
i n the A b b a s i d c o u r t m i l i e u .
The M u t a z i l a school affirmed the p r i m a c y
c
o f h u m a n reason and free w i l l together w i t h the
absolute transcendence and oneness o f G o d , w h o
was completely beyond a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c a t t r i -
butes and the physical w o r l d . A n t h r o p o m o r p h i c
MONGOLS 95
expressions used i n the K o r a n w i t h reference t o
G o d were, therefore, i n t e r p r e t e d i n a m e t a p h o r i c a l
sense by the adherents o f the M u t a z i l a school w h o
c
developed a new cosmology based o n the d u a l i s m
o f essence ( a t o m ) and existence (accident). This
a t o m i s t i c view o f m a t t e r , space, and t i m e — c o n -
ceived by A b u a l - H u d h a y l , w h o died i n Samarra
i n the 840s, and elaborated by o t h e r s — e x p l a i n e d
all p h e n o m e n a i n the physical w o r l d t h r o u g h the
inherence o f accidents i n the atoms t h a t composed
m a t t e r . This was an ephemeral and perishable
m a t e r i a l w o r l d i n perpetual flux where a n y t h i n g
visible r e m a i n e d o n l y accidentally b o u n d to its
apparent f o r m . 1 0
The v i s i o n o f a c o n t i n u a l l y fluctuating a t o m i s t i c
w o r l d open to endless p e r m u t a t i o n by incessant
accidents may w e l l have i n f o r m e d the Samarran
beveled aesthetic w i t h its deliberate a m b i g u i t y i n
representing n a t u r a l forms, caught as i f they were
i n an ambivalent zone between i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y and
u n i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y , being and b e c o m i n g , actuality
and p o t e n t i a l i t y . Was this peculiar m o d e o f repre-
sentation meant to be a visual c o m m e n t a r y o n the
i m p e r m a n e n c e o f m a t t e r as mere p o t e n t i a l i t y and
as the unstable s u b s t r a t u m o f forms? C o u l d the
deceptiveness o f visual p e r c e p t i o n i m p l i e d by the
w i l l f u l o b s c u r i t y o f the beveled style have expressed
the M u t a z i l i c o n t e m p t for m a t t e r (liable to c o n -
c
t i n u a l l y change f o r m ) , thereby u n d e r l i n i n g the
p r i m a c y o f the r a t i o n a l h u m a n soul and o f
intellectual v i s i o n over seeing w i t h one's eyes?
I t is n o t u n l i k e l y t h a t the M u t a z i l a t h e o r y o f
c
the a t o m i s t i c universe c o u l d have engendered a
9 6 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL,
new way o f representing the m a t e r i a l w o r l d .
I f so, i t was the m e r g i n g o f Greek p h i l o s o p h y
w i t h M u s l i m theology i n a h i s t o r i c a l l y specific
c o n t e x t — r a t h e r t h a n a supposedly universal
Islamic m e n t a l i t y — t h a t may have i n s p i r e d the
Samarran beveled style, seen by m a n y as the first
example o f the arabesque. Massignon d i d l i n k
the ephemeral character o f Islamic art w i t h the
atomistic t h e o r y o f the universe developed by
M u s l i m theologians, b u t he failed to place his
generalized c o m m e n t s i n context and t o d i s t i n -
guish between various c o m p e t i n g a t o m i s t i c theo-
ries. H i s r e d u c t i o n i s t c o r r e l a t i o n o f a loosely
defined theological w o r l d v i e w w i t h an assumed
u n i t y o f artistic expression thus helped perpetuate
the p r o b l e m a t i c v i s i o n o f a m o n o l i t h i c and
ahistorical Islamic visual c u l t u r e . 11
The representational n o n f i g u r a l vocabulary
used i n decorating the religious architecture o f the
Umayyads, w h o had sought to visualize the abso-
lute power o f G o d , his k i n g d o m , and his t h r o n e by
such concrete images as jeweled crowns and i d y l l i c
landscapes w i t h heavenly mansions, m u s t have
i m p l i e d an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c v i s i o n t h a t was vehe-
m e n t l y rejected by the M u t a z i l a s c h o o l .
c 12
The
polemics o f this school against a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m
(tashbth) completely divested G o d o f eternal
attributes (ta tTl),
c
an extreme p o s i t i o n t h a t was
criticized by such o r t h o d o x scholars as A h m a d
b. H a n b a l ( d . 855). I n keeping w i t h t h e i r denial o f
God's attributes, the M u t a z i l a rejected the eter-
c
n i t y o f his speech, declaring the K o r a n t o be an
accident created i n t i m e and thus open t o i n t e r -
AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
p r e t a t i o n w i t h respect to its outer and i n n e r
meanings. Influenced by the Hanbalis and other
t r a d i t i o n i s t s , the Abbasid caliph a l - M u t a w a k k i l
(r. 847-861) rejected M u t a z i l i s m and its t h e o r y
c
o f the created K o r a n , to w h i c h the Shi is also sub-
c
scribed. H i s o p p o s i t i o n to M u t a z i l i s m and S h i i s m
c c
(exemplified by his d e s t r u c t i o n o f the S h i i shrinec
o f the i m a m al-Husayn i n Karbala) c o n s t i t u t e d
a break w i t h the past t h a t i n i t i a t e d a new ethos
o f o r t h o d o x y . The h i s t o r i a n a l - M a s u d i ( d . 956)
c
described the caliph's policy:
W h e n the Caliphate came to M u t a w a k k i l ,
he abolished free t h o u g h t , p h i l o s o p h i c a l
disputes and the things w h i c h had occu-
p i e d men's m i n d s under M u t a s i m , W a t h i q
c
and M a m u n [caliphs w h o had accepted
c
M u t a z i l i s m as the official d o c t r i n e o f the
c
Abbasid state]. He re-established o r t h o -
doxy and submission to t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i -
gious values, and insisted t h a t the heads
o f the schools o f T r a d i t i o n s h o u l d teach
that T r a d i t i o n and devote themselves to
the p r o p a g a t i o n o f the Sunna and practices
sanctioned by the c o m m u n i t y o f I s l a m . 1 3
This o r t h o d o x t r e n d also characterized the
reign o f the Abbasid caliph a l - M u h t a d i ( 8 6 9 - 8 7 0 ) ,
w h o according to a l - M a s u d i " h a d made austerity
c
and r e l i g i o n the t w i n aims o f his l i f e . " Due t o his
p u r i t a n i c a l s i m p l i c i t y the caliph b r o k e musical
i n s t r u m e n t s , rejected l u x u r y objects, and o b l i t e r -
ated p a i n t e d figures f r o m decorated r o o m s . The
o r t h o d o x p o l i c y o f the Abbasid caliphs was perpetu-
ated i n Baghdad, where they relocated their capi-
tal i n the late n i n t h century. I t c u l m i n a t e d i n the
S u n n i r e s t o r a t i o n t h a t began to assert itself m o r e
strongly d u r i n g the B u y i d p e r i o d f r o m the reign o f
a l - Q a d i r (r. 991-1031) o n w a r d . The S h i i Buyids,
c
under whose tutelage the Abbasid caliphs remained
for m o r e t h a n a century between 945 and 1055 u n t i l
the o c c u p a t i o n o f Baghdad by the S u n n i Great
Seljuqs, favored a c o m b i n a t i o n o f M u t a z i l i and
c
S h i i doctrines against w h i c h a l - Q a d i r fought to
c
restore the power o f the caliphate. To this end he
issued a manifesto i n 1011 c o n d e m n i n g the Fatimids
i n Egypt whose propaganda had penetrated the
S h i i quarters o f Baghdad. After f o r b i d d i n g the
c
teaching o f M u t a z i l i and S h i i doctrines i n 1017,
c c
he p r o m u l g a t e d the f o l l o w i n g year an official the-
ology i n s p i r e d by H a n b a l i ideas t h a t c o n d e m n e d
all u n o r t h o d o x doctrines. I n 1029 a l - Q a d i r once
again denounced M u t a z i l i s m , p a r t i c u l a r l y attack-
c
i n g its d o c t r i n e o f the created K o r a n and affirm-
i n g its status as an uncreated record o f God's
eternal speech. 14
S u n n i o r t h o d o x y was f i r m l y consolidated
d u r i n g the reign o f the Great Seljuqs, a T u r k i s h
dynasty based i n I r a n and I r a q that associated its
legitimacy w i t h the freeing o f the Abbasid caliphs
f r o m B u y i d tutelage i n 1055. This p e r i o d p r o -
duced such o r t h o d o x theologians as A b u al-Hasan
a l - A s h a r i ( d . 935-936) and al-Ghazali, w h o c o n -
c
t r i b u t e d to the r e s t o r a t i o n o f S u n n i s m d u r i n g the
eleventh century. U n l i k e the S h i i Buyids w h o had
c
persecuted the A s h a r i theological school, f o u n d e d
c

by a l - A s h a r i , the Seljuqs gave official s u p p o r t
c
to i t . The founder o f this o r t h o d o x school o f the-
ology, w h o p u b l i c l y denounced the M u t a z i l i c
doctrines to w h i c h he had previously subscribed,
professed to f o l l o w the p o s i t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n i s t s
such as I b n H a n b a l , b u t defended his d o g m a t i c
theses t h r o u g h the type o f r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t
employed b y the M u t a z i l a .
c
The A s h a r i theological school (generally allied
c
w i t h the legal school o f al-Shafi i) a t t e m p t e d t o
c
mediate between opposing views b y its c o m p r o -
m i s i n g m i d d l e p a t h , o r via media. I t recognized
the eternal attributes o f G o d w i t h o u t accepting
a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m , declared the K o r a n to be
uncreated, and stressed God's o m n i p o t e n c e at the
expense o f h u m a n free w i l l . I t also m o d i f i e d the
atomistic cosmology o f the M u t a z i l a to vindicate
c
the absolute power o f G o d , the u n i q u e creator
whose w i l l alone guaranteed the perceived sense o f
order i n the universe b y preserving the accidental
c o m b i n a t i o n o f atoms t h r o u g h c o n t i n u o u s i n t e r -
ference. This cosmology, refined b y the A s h a r i c
theologian al-Baqillani ( d . 1013), ascribed to God's
direct i n t e r v e n t i o n n o t o n l y the c o m i n g o f things
i n t o being b u t also t h e i r persistence i n being f r o m
one instant t o another. I t was used to s u p p o r t
"arguments f r o m design" t h a t inferred God's exis-
tence t h r o u g h the w o n d e r f u l design and c o m p o s i -
t i o n observed i n the d i v i n e creation. The universe
reflected the w i s d o m and knowledge o f an a l l -
p o w e r f u l G o d w h o had d i r e c t l y created i t i n t i m e
w i t h o u t any intermediaries, a t h e o r y differing
f r o m the M u t a z i l i and S h i i view o f the universe
c c
GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE THE
as an eternal e m a n a t i o n existing i n d e p e n d e n t l y
of G o d . 1 5
A l - G h a z a l i , the A s h a r i theologian w h o w o r k e d
c
under Seljuq patronage, was according to I b n
K h a l d u n " t h e first scholar to w r i t e i n accordance
w i t h the new theological a p p r o a c h . " 1 6
K n o w n for
his radical m i s t r u s t o f h u m a n reason and his c o n -
sequent c o n d e m n a t i o n o f the views o f speculative
philosophers t h a t were i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h o r t h o -
d o x I s l a m , al-Ghazali f o r m u l a t e d a new synthesis
o f A s h a r i S u n n i s m . This synthesis, a b l e n d o f t r a -
c
d i t i o n a l legalism, p h i l o s o p h i c a l sciences, and m o d -
erate Sufism, encapsulated the " S h a r i a - m i n d e d " c
ethos o f the age o f " S u n n i r e v i v a l " t h a t eventually
marginalized M u t a z i l i , S h i i , and other u n o r t h o -
c c
d o x doctrines t h a t had p o l i t i c a l l y fragmented the
M u s l i m w o r l d i n the previous century. Despite
the o p p o s i t i o n i t faced d u r i n g the Seljuq p e r i o d
f r o m the M a t u r i d i school ( w h i c h was p a r t i c u l a r l y
p o p u l a r a m o n g the Hanafi T u r k s , a school t h a t
also defended o r t h o d o x y by r a t i o n a l methods b u t
f o u n d some o f the A s h a r i positions too conser-
c
vative) and f r o m the H a n b a l i t r a d i t i o n i s t s ( w h o
rejected r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t a t i o n as an objectionable
i n n o v a t i o n ) , the A s h a r i school became the d o m i -
c
n a n t theological school i n the Arabic-speaking
parts o f the late Abbasid caliphate. F r o m t h a t t i m e
w e l l i n t o the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y and beyond, the
A s h a r i school w o u l d become almost equated
c
w i t h S u n n i o r t h o d o x y i n the A r a b w o r l d , w h i l e
the M a t u r i d i school r e m a i n e d d o m i n a n t i n the
Hanafi regions extending f r o m A n a t o l i a and
Central Asia to I n d i a . 1 7
MONGOLS 97
I t was i n this context o f S u n n i revival d u r i n g
the hegemony o f the Great Seljuqs t h a t the girih
m o d e suddenly flourished. T h o u g h its f u l l p o t e n -
tial for architectural revetments does n o t seem t o
have been realized u n t i l the eleventh century, the
earliest f o r m u l a t i o n o f its design principles p r o b a -
b l y t o o k place i n late t e n t h - c e n t u r y Baghdad f r o m
w h i c h i t spread t o other courts. The appearance o f
p r e d o m i n a n t l y geometric revetments i n Islamic
architecture is usually traced to the t e n t h - c e n t u r y
" b r i c k style" o f n o r t h e r n - n o r t h e a s t e r n I r a n and
Central Asia, f r o m where i t is t h o u g h t to have
m i g r a t e d westward. However, this hypothesis is
largely based o n the accidental survival o f the ear-
liest b r i c k b u i l d i n g s w i t h geometric revetments i n
those regions, i n contrast to the disappearance o f
m o n u m e n t s f r o m the p e r i o d o f B u y i d and Seljuq
tutelage i n the Abbasid capital Baghdad.
Early examples o f the b r i c k style f r o m the
t e n t h century, such as the Samanid mausoleum i n
Bukhara and the B u y i d p o r t a l o f the Jurjir mosque
i n Isfahan, are d o m i n a t e d b y simple rectilinear
geometric patterns that show no sign o f the i n t e r -
laced stars and polygons typical o f the girih mode.
Such patterns appear o n the facade o f the A r a b c
c
A t a mausoleum (977-978) at T i m i n Uzbekistan,
a Q a r a k h a n i d m o n u m e n t whose i n t e r i o r has
muqarnas u n i t s at its t r a n s i t i o n zone to the d o m e
that signal the l i n k between t w o - and three-
d i m e n s i o n a l geometric forms (fig. 88). The facade
o f another Q a r a k h a n i d mausoleum (1012-1013) i n
Uzgend i n upper Ferghana (fig. 89), b u i l t for the
ruler Nasr b. A l i , also displays early examples o f
c
9 8 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS

88. Elevation drawing of entrance facade, 89. Detail of geometric brickwork on the
mausoleum of Arab Ata, Tim, 977-978,
c c
main facade of a royal mausoleum, Uzgend,
ink on paper. Photo: Courtesy Harvard ca. 1012-1013. Photo: Copyright Ernst
University, Fogg Art Museum, Fine Arts Wasmuth Verlag GmbH & Co.
Library, Visual Collections. Tiibingen/Berlin.

1

interlaced s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n ornaments i n b r i c k ,
seen o n the eleventh-century b r i c k m i n a r e t o f that
city as w e l l . Such geometric patterns, often accom-
panied b y the muqarnas, are consistently used o n
the b r i c k m o n u m e n t s and minarets o f the Seljuq
domains after appearing i n full-fledged f o r m at
t w o ' t o m b towers i n K h a r r a q a n (1067-1068 and
1093) (figs. 90, 91). They are seen a r o u n d the same
t i m e at the Great M o s q u e i n the Seljuq capital
Isfahan, w i t h its two stellate d o m e chambers fea-
t u r i n g muqarnas zones o f t r a n s i t i o n (1072-1092
and 1088) and its various t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y a d d i -
tions. The i n i t i a l austerity o f the geometric i d i o m
i n b r i c k was soon loosened w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n
o f color i n the t o m b towers o f Maragha and
Nakhchivan i n northwestern Iran including
G u n b a d - i S u r k h (1147-1148), G u n b a d - i Q a b u d
(1196-1197), and M u ' m i n a K h a t u n (1186), whose
elaborately superimposed, m u l t i l a y e r e d geometric
strapwork patterns and muqarnas u n i t s are h i g h -
l i g h t e d w i t h turquoise-glazed b r i c k s . 18
T h a t the earliest examples o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l
revetments e m p l o y i n g the new geometric i d i o m
s h o u l d appear i n such seemingly u n r e l a t e d m a r -
ginal areas as T i m , U z g e n d , and K h a r r a q a n is
probably accidental. These revetments can reasona-
b l y be i n t e r p r e t e d as regional echoes o f i n n o -
vations o r i g i n a t i n g i n the late Abbasid capital
Baghdad, about w h i c h Herzfeld once w r o t e : " O n e
m u s t n o t u n d e r r a t e Baghdad, the seat o f the
caliphate and one o f the seats o f the Seljuq sul-
tanate, as a c u l t u r a l center d o w n t o its conquest
by H u l a g u i n 656 H . (1258 A . D . ) . TO u n d e r r a t e
GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE THE MONGOLS 99
90. Detail of geometric
brickwork on the
entrance facade of the
East Tomb Tower (1),
arch, spandrels, and
inscriptions below
dome, Kharraqan, 1067.
Photo: Courtesy David
Stronach.
Baghdad is t o u n d e r r a t e R o m e . " Baghdad, w i t h
its n o w - v a n i s h e d late Abbasid and Seljuq m o n u -
ments, is the most l i k e l y place f r o m w h i c h t w o -
and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric revetments
c o u l d have spread to n e i g h b o r i n g courts. This
hypothesis goes against the a r g u m e n t o f such
scholars as Diez, O k t a y Aslanapa, and Selcuk
91. Detail of geometric
M u l a y i m , w h o a t t r i b u t e d the d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f brickwork on one of the
geometric revetments t o the n o m a d i c tastes the facades of the West
Tomb Tower (11), full
Turks i n t r o d u c e d f r o m Central Asia t o I r a n and
view below dome,
A n a t o l i a . Pope, b y contrast, i n t e r p r e t e d the geo- Kharraqan, 1093. Photo:
m e t r i c m o d e that flourished d u r i n g the Seljuq Courtesy David
p e r i o d as an I r a n i a n creation rather t h a n a T u r k i c Stronach.
one. These e t h n o n a t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s fall
apart u n d e r close s c r u t i n y and fail t o explain w h y
and h o w s i m i l a r geometric patterns spread so
r a p i d l y all the way f r o m the eastern Islamic
lands t o S p a i n . 19
W h i l e the Great M o s q u e i n Isfahan is n o d o u b t
a m a t u r e example o f the I r a n i a n Seljuq b r i c k
i d i o m , its affinity w i t h Baghdad, where the Seljuqs
were s i m u l t a n e o u s l y engaged i n b u i l d i n g activities,
s h o u l d n o t be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . As A l l e n p o i n t e d
o u t , "Baghdad was still the center o f i n n o v a t i o n i n
the A b b a s i d a r c h i t e c t u r a l t r a d i t i o n , even i f the
c
city was slowly d e c l i n i n g i n i m p o r t a n c e . " W i t h o u t
d e n y i n g the significance o f the Seljuq capital
Isfahan, A l l e n argued t h a t " i t makes sense t o see
the n o r t h d o m e o f the Isfahan mosque as a sample
o f w h a t was b e i n g b u i l t i n Baghdad at the same
t i m e . " H e regarded the h i g h q u a l i t y o f t h i r t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y b r i c k b u i l d i n g s s u r v i v i n g i n Baghdad as
the final a r g u m e n t for the c o n t i n u e d i m p o r t a n c e
100 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL,
o f that city as a c u l t u r a l center. Such late Abbasid
m o n u m e n t s i n Baghdad as the M u s t a n s i r i y a (1233)
and the so-called t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Abbasid
Palace ( w i t h its sophisticated geometric revet-
ments featuring superimposed s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n
patterns and stellate muqarnases that d o m i n a t e
the geometrized vegetal motifs they frame) d e m o n -
strate the c o n t i n u i n g vigor o f the geometric m o d e
after the t e r m i n a t i o n o f Seljuq rule i n I r a n and
Iraq. 2 0
Besides spreading t h r o u g h o u t I r a n and I r a q
d u r i n g the eleventh and twelfth centuries the geo-
m e t r i c m o d e extended further east beyond the
Seljuq d o m a i n s , appearing i n regions r u l e d by
other S u n n i dynasties w h o acknowledged the
suzerainty o f the Abbasid caliphs. I t c o n t i n u e d to
be used i n the Q a r a k h a n i d t e r r i t o r i e s i n C e n t r a l
Asia (e.g., the three royal mausoleums i n Uzgend
[1012-1013,1152, and 1187], the Namazgah mosque
i n Bukhara [1119], and the fragmentary, t w e l f t h -
century M a g h a k - i A t t a r i mosque i n B u k h a r a ) . I t
c
also appeared i n Afghanistan and I n d i a d u r i n g the
reigns o f the staunchly S u n n i Ghaznavid and
G h u r i d dynasties (e.g., the m i n a r e t o f M a s u d 111 c
[1099-1115] i n Ghazna and the t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y
G h u r i d arch at Lashkari Bazar i n Bust). After the
demise o f the Great Seljuqs i n 1194 p r e d o m i n a n t l y
geometric architectural revetments c o n t i n u e d to
spread i n regions r u l e d by S u n n i dynasties allied
w i t h the rejuvenated Abbasid caliphate. This was
p a r t i c u l a r l y the case w i t h the splintered Seljuq
successor states that r u l e d i n A n a t o l i a , n o r t h e r n
M e s o p o t a m i a , Syria, and Egypt (e.g., R u m Seljuqs
AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
[1077-1307], A r t u q i d s [1102-1408], Zangids [1127-
1222], Ayyubids [1169-fifteenth c e n t u r y ] , and
M a m l u k s [1250-1517]).
The p r i n c e l y rulers o f these states, w h o had no
c l a i m for legitimacy other than the official sanc-
t i o n granted by the Abbasid caliphs i n the f o r m
o f titles and d i p l o m a s o f investiture, played an
i m p o r t a n t role i n p e r p e t u a t i n g the S u n n i revival o f
the Great Seljuqs i n an age that w o u l d increasingly
t u r n to Sufism o n the eve o f the Crusades, f o l -
l o w e d by the M o n g o l invasions. The Z a n g i d and
A y y u b i d p o l i c y o f h o l y warfare (jihad) directed
against the crusaders and the Fatimids restored
S u n n i power i n Syria and Egypt, just as the Great
Seljuqs had o v e r t h r o w n the Buyids i n the east
a c e n t u r y earlier. Interlaced geometric patterns
accompanied by muqarnas friezes are p r o m i n e n t l y
displayed o n the earliest k n o w n examples o f
wooden minbars associated w i t h the p o l i t i c a l l e g i t i -
macy o f the Seljuq successor states that revived the
Abbasid khutba, that is, the Friday s e r m o n d u r i n g
w h i c h the name o f the r e i g n i n g caliph i n Baghdad
was p r o n o u n c e d f r o m the m i n b a r as a sign o f
homage. These i n c l u d e the m i n b a r o f the A l a ' al-
c
D i n mosque i n the A n a t o l i a n Seljuq capital o f
Konya (1155) and the ones installed by the Seljuq
atabeg ( t u t o r assigned to Seljuq princes g o v e r n i n g
i n the provinces) N u r a l - D i n Z a n g i at his mosque
i n H a m a (1163-1164) and at the Great Mosque o f
A l e p p o (1169). (The latter was reinstalled at the
Aqsa mosque i n Jerusalem by the A y y u b i d ruler
Salah a l - D i n [1138-1193] after the conquest o f that
city f r o m the crusaders i n 1187.) 21
Geometric strapwork and the muqarnas, n o t
w i d e l y used i n the F a t i m i d t e r r i t o r i e s o f Syria and
Egypt before, suddenly proliferated i n those
regions under Z a n g i d , A y y u b i d , and M a m l u k rule.
The carved stone decorations o f F a t i m i d religious
m o n u m e n t s and their accompanying w o o d w o r k
had been d o m i n a t e d by vegetal patterns, i n t e r -
t w i n e d w i t h floriated Kufic i n s c r i p t i o n s . Just as the
muqarnas is o n l y rarely used i n F a t i m i d religious
architecture, so are interlaced s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n
patterns, w h i c h appear i n a few isolated examples.
Geometric patterns that hesitantly t r i c k l e d i n t o
Egypt f r o m Syria were n o t typical o f the p r e d o m i -
n a n t l y vegetal F a t i m i d decorative vocabulary. As
Jonathan B l o o m observed, muqarnas vaults and
portals w i t h true muqarnas hoods w o u l d r e m a i n
u n k n o w n i n Egypt u n t i l they were i n t r o d u c e d
f r o m Syria by the M a m l u k s i n the m i d - t h i r t e e n t h
century. The hospital (1154) and funerary madrasa
(1167-1168) o f N u r a l - D i n Z a n g i are the earliest
b u i l d i n g s i n Damascus that i m p o r t e d the I r a q i
conical muqarnas d o m e and p o r t a l w i t h a m u q a r -
nas h o o d , framed by a m a t c h i n g b o r d e r o f i n t e r -
laced star-and-polygon p a t t e r n s . 22
T w o - and
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric revetments c o n -
t i n u e d to be elaborated by the Ayyubids w h e n they
succeeded the Zangids and by the M a m l u k s , w h o
perpetuated the S u n n i legacy o f t h e i r A y y u b i d
masters by m a i n t a i n i n g i n Cairo a line o f Abbasid
caliphs t o legitimize their rule after the M o n g o l
sack o f Baghdad i n 1258.
The geometric m o d e also permeated the
A n a t o l i a n m o n u m e n t s o f the R u m Seljuqs, a

dynasty that boasted direct royal descent f r o m the
Great Seljuqs, u n l i k e other n e i g h b o r i n g Seljuq
successor states m o s t l y f o u n d e d by f o r m e r atabegs
or by slaves and descendants o f atabegs. Geometry
appears m o r e conspicuously i n A n a t o l i a t h a n i n
the m o n u m e n t s o f Syria and Egypt b u i l t a r o u n d
the same t i m e . The emblematic t w o - and three-
d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns p r o m i n e n t l y
displayed o n the early t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y stone
portals o f R u m Seljuq m o n u m e n t s , w i t h their
muqarnas hoods framed by borders o f interlaced
stars and polygons, advertised the c o n n e c t i o n
o f the r u l i n g dynasty w i t h I r a n and I r a q . Given
the close affinity o f these geometric patterns w i t h
the ones decorating the c o n t e m p o r a r y b r i c k
m o n u m e n t s o f t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Baghdad, they
also may have alluded to the alliance between
the R u m Seljuq sultanate and the late Abbasid
caliphate, an alliance that echoed the earlier Great
Seljuq p a t t e r n . 2 3
The notable resistance to the geometric m o d e i n
areas d o m i n a t e d by the legacy o f the F a t i m i d and
the Spanish U m a y y a d caliphs provides s u p p o r t
for the close association o f its emblematic forms
w i t h the rival Abbasid caliphate and its vassals o r
allies. I t is therefore n o t a coincidence that geo-
m e t r i c patterns and the muqarnas spread f r o m the
east t o N o r t h Africa and Spain d u r i n g the reign
o f the A l m o r a v i d s (1056-1147), w h o p o l i t i c a l l y
u n i t e d these two regions and recognized the
Abbasid caliphs as the s p i r i t u a l leaders o f Islam.
The few s u r v i v i n g examples o f A l m o r a v i d m o n u -
ments where such t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE T H E MONGOLS
geometric patterns appear together w i t h r i c h l y
i n t e r t w i n e d vegetal m o t i f s i n c l u d e the Q a r a w i y y i n
mosque i n Fez, w h i c h was remodeled i n 1135-1144,
and the Q u b b a i n Marrakesh bearing an i n s c r i p -
t i o n f r o m the reign o f A l i b. Yusuf (r. 1106-1142).
c
I n r e t u r n for i n c l u d i n g the name o f the Abbasid
caliph o n their coinage and i n the khutba, the
A l m o r a v i d s were recognized by the caliph as the
legitimate rulers o f the M a g h r i b . This Berber
dynasty, w h i c h f o l l o w e d the M a l i k i legal school
that was p r o m i n e n t i n the M a g h r i b , espoused a
S u n n i revival o f its o w n directed against the S h i i c
heritage o f the Fatimids and their vassals, w h o had
previously d o m i n a t e d N o r t h Africa. The m i l i t a n t
ethos o f this dynasty that targeted the C h r i s t i a n
reconquest o f M u s l i m Spain paralleled the p o l i c y
of jihad against the crusaders adopted by the
Zangids and the Ayyubids i n a s i m i l a r p o l i t i c a l c l i -
mate where S h a r i a - m i n d e d S u n n i o r t h o d o x y was
c
enforcing its redefined n o r m s . The local dynasties
that succeeded the A l m o r a v i d s w o u l d f i r m l y estab-
lish S u n n i s m i n the M a g h r i b . As I b n K h a l d u n
n o t e d i n the f o u r t e e n t h century, the "heretics and
i n n o v a t o r s " had so successfully been e l i m i n a t e d
by t h e n that students no longer had to study " t h e
science o f speculative p h i l o s o p h y " that had once
been useful i n a r g u i n g against heretical d o c t r i n e s . 24
T h o u g h they dissociated themselves f r o m
the Abbasids, the Berber A l m o h a d s ( f r o m al-
Muwahhidun, "those a f f i r m i n g God's oneness"),
w h o succeeded the A l m o r a v i d s i n N o r t h A f r i c a
and Spain (1130-1269), f u r t h e r e d the consolida-
t i o n o f S u n n i o r t h o d o x y . T h e i r r e f o r m i s t founder,
101
I b n T u m a r t ( d . 1130), had been influenced by the
A s h a r i theology o f al-Ghazali t h a t approached
c
r e l i g i o n t h r o u g h logic and encouraged the d i f f u -
sion o f moderate Sufism. A d o p t i n g the Ghazalian
synthesis o f Sufi-oriented S u n n i s m , I b n T u m a r t
espoused a fundamentalist f o r m o f asceticism that
c o n d e m n e d l u x u r y and a i m e d to restore the p u r i t y
o f early Islam. A l m o h a d i s m placed severe restric-
tions o n a r c h i t e c t u r a l o r n a m e n t , p u r g i n g the
extravagant A l m o r a v i d revetment aesthetic by
r e d u c i n g i t to b o l d l y enlarged geometrized basic
essentials w i t h precise and well-defined linear
patterns o n p l a i n backgrounds, accompanied by
the u b i q u i t o u s muqarnas. A l m o r a v i d m o n u m e n t s
were either destroyed or their densely i n t e r t w i n e d
ornate decorations were covered w i t h p l a i n w h i t e
p l a s t e r — i n the case o f the Q a r a w i y y i n mosque i n
Fez, fearful i n h a b i t a n t s whitewashed its p o l y c h r o -
m a t i c plaster ornaments featuring gilded paintings
the n i g h t before the A l m o h a d conquerors, w h o
preached austerity, entered their mosque for
the Friday prayer. The visual asceticism o f the
A l m o h a d s was n o t u n l i k e that o f the Cistercians,
a r t i c u l a t e d i n the Apologia, circa 1123-1127, o f
B e r n a r d o f Clairvaux (1090-1153) that opposed
l u x u r i o u s monastic art just a r o u n d the same
time. 2 5
Before the i n f i l t r a t i o n o f A l m o r a v i d and
A l m o h a d influences f r o m N o r t h Africa, the a r c h i -
tectural d e c o r a t i o n o f m o n u m e n t s sponsored
by the Spanish Umayyads (756-1031), and the
eleventh-century Taifa kings o f Spain w h o e m u -
lated t h e m , had been d o m i n a t e d by a Byzantiniz-
102 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL,
i n g vegetal vocabulary to w h i c h geometric m o t i f s
were s u b o r d i n a t e d . The classical flavor o f pre-
eleventh-century Islamic architectural o r n a m e n t
i n this region, a l l u d i n g to the prestigious seventh-
and e i g h t h - c e n t u r y Syrian Umayyad i m p e r i a l
heritage o f the Spanish U m a y y a d caliphate, a r t i c u -
lated a separate dynastic i d e n t i t y that resisted the
Samarran beveled aesthetic and later Abbasid
decorative i d i o m s . The geometric m o d e and the
muqarnas o n l y reached M u s l i m Spain after its
u n i f i c a t i o n w i t h N o r t h Africa under the Berber
dynasties between the late eleventh and t h i r t e e n t h
centuries. The relative novelty o f this m o d e for the
A n d a l u s i a n traveler I b n Jubayr (b. 1145) can be
deduced f r o m his enthusiastic d e s c r i p t i o n i n 1182
o f N u r a l - D i n ' s j o i n e d w o o d w o r k m i n b a r at the
Great Mosque o f A l e p p o . 26
T w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns
u n d e r w e n t an i n t e r n a l development i n N o r t h
Africa and Spain, c u l m i n a t i n g i n the refined p o l y -
c h r o m a t i c revetment aesthetic o f the A l h a m b r a .
Reacting to the ascetic decorative vocabulary o f
their A l m o h a d predecessors, the Nasrids w h o
r u l e d i n Andalusia r e i n t r o d u c e d l u x u r i o u s and
r i c h l y gilded i n t r i c a t e revetments to p r o c l a i m t h e i r
different dynastic identity. As Grabar n o t e d , the
A l h a m b r a stood "at the end o f a h i s t o r i c a l devel-
o p m e n t " and represented "despite all its perfec-
t i o n , a f o r m a l dead e n d " that "crystallized the
possibilities as well as the l i m i t s " o f a medieval
Islamic decorative t r a d i t i o n . Sponsored by the
c u l t u r a l l y isolated N a s r i d dynasty, w h i c h w o u l d
eventually be expelled f r o m Spain, the A l h a m b r a
AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
featured precious geometric reveries that were
r o m a n t i c a l l y embedded i n the m e m o r y o f a g l o r i -
ous past age. 27
These i n t r i c a t e o r n a m e n t a l fan-
tasies that so fascinated the Orientalists were
perpetuated w i t h o u t m u c h creative renewal i n the
M u d e j a r style o f Spain and i n the architecture o f
M o r o c c o u n t i l m o d e r n times. Paccard's w o r k o n
the t r a d i t i o n a l crafts practiced i n M o r o c c o p r o -
v i d e d the Arabic names given today by master
builders to arabesques composed o f c u r v i l i n e a r
vegetal patterns (al-tawrjq, "leafed") and polygo-
nal geometric interlaces (al-tastir, "delineated or
r u l e d w i t h l i n e s " ) , accompanied by calligraphy
and the muqarnas. The same masters referred
to star-and-polygon patterns as uqda (Arabic, c
" k n o t " ) , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the t e r m girih (Persian,
" k n o t " ) that is m o r e c o m m o n i n the Islamic
east. 28
After the M o n g o l invasion o f A n a t o l i a i n 1248,
f o l l o w e d by the sack o f Baghdad i n 1258, a novel
decorative vocabulary i n f i l t r a t e d the eastern
Islamic lands d u r i n g the second h a l f o f the t h i r -
teenth century, w h e n the geometric i d i o m lost its
i n i t i a l p u r i t y and was d i l u t e d by a host o f new pat-
terns. The abstract repertory o f medieval Islamic
patterns was n o w enriched by an i n f l u x o f East
Asian motifs thanks to contacts b r o u g h t about by
the Pax M o n g o l i c a w h e n Yuan C h i n a and I l k h a n i d
I r a n were j o i n e d together for m o r e t h a n h a l f a cen-
t u r y under M o n g o l rule. As vassals o f the Great
K h a n , the M o n g o l - I l k h a n i d s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o I r a n
and A n a t o l i a novel chinoiserie m o t i f s (e.g., blos-
soms, lotuses, peony scrolls, c l o u d bands, lobed
panels, dragons, phoenixes, and other auspicious
m y t h i c a l creatures) that w o u l d forever t r a n s f o r m
the eastern Islamic decorative language. 29
Vegetal,
geometric, calligraphic, and figural patterns n o w
became integrated i n t o a new visual i d i o m testify-
i n g to the dynamic synthetic capacities o f Islamic
art. This t r a n s f o r m a t i o n d i d n o t escape the per-
ceptive eye o f Riegl, w h o n o t i c e d the appearance o f
m o r e naturalistic tendencies i n the vegetal o r n a -
m e n t o f later Islamic art. This he a t t r i b u t e d to the
"Asiatic tribes o f T u r k i c o r i g i n " w h o r u l e d A n a t o l i a
and the I r a n i a n w o r l d . Herzfeld and K u h n e l also
noted the e v o l u t i o n o f the arabesque t o w a r d
greater realism i n the p o s t - M o n g o l eastern Islamic
lands influenced by Central and Eastern A s i a . 30
Referring to the vegetal arabesque, K u h n e l w r o t e :
I n the m i d d l e o f the t h i r t e e n t h century, its
p o s i t i o n was so strong that i t escaped the
danger o f being swept away by the flood
o f Far Eastern motifs w h i c h came w i t h the
M o n g o l invasion. However, f r o m n o w o n
the arabesque no longer exclusively r u l e d
the i m a g i n a t i o n o f the designers whose
creative power had become newly ferti-
lized w i t h other ideas. 31
The so-called geometric arabesque, t h e n , had
emerged sometime a r o u n d the late t e n t h and early
eleventh centuries i n the eastern Islamic lands
f r o m where i t spread between the eleventh and
early t h i r t e e n t h centuries. We have seen that this
process o f dissemination before the arrival o f

the M o n g o l s was i n t i m a t e l y correlated w i t h the
dynamics o f the S u n n i revival, a l t h o u g h the nature
o f that c o r r e l a t i o n does n o t appear to have been
articulated i n the w r i t t e n p r i m a r y sources. The
crystalline perfection o f clearly delineated, legible
geometric forms represented a new visual i d i o m
radically different f r o m the a m b i g u o u s l y u n d u l a t -
i n g c u r v i l i n e a r aesthetic o f n i n t h - c e n t u r y Samarra.
As i n Samarra entire surfaces c o n t i n u e d t o be cov-
ered i n tilelike fashion w i t h i n f i n i t e l y extendable
repeat u n i t s whose ingeniously i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g
abstract shapes, w h i c h seemed capable o f c o n t i n -
ual metamorphosis i n t o one another, once again
b l u r r e d f i g u r e - g r o u n d d i s t i n c t i o n s . N o w , however,
their f o r m a l t a x o n o m y was severely l i m i t e d t o
algebraically definable, angular geometric shapes
such as triangles, quadrangles, circles, polygons,
star polygons, and their fragments. These shapes
f o r m i n g i n t r i c a t e geometric interlaces owed their
distinctive appearance t o the use o f d y n a m i c radial
g r i d systems whose r o t a t i o n a l symmetries were far
m o r e complex t h a n their late antique and early
Islamic counterparts, w h i c h were based o n simpler
rectilinear grids w i t h diagonal coordinates.
The novel interlaced s t a r- a n d - po l y go n patterns,
consisting o f p e r i o d i c tilings (or tessellations)
whose lines (or edges) met at vertices c o n s t i -
t u t i n g " k n o t s , " f o u n d b o t h planar and spatial
expressions. I t was as i f the amorphousness o f the
beveled style suddenly became d i s c i p l i n e d i n t o
intelligible linear patterns obeying the r h y t h m s
o f an i m p l i c i t geometric order that governed the
c o m p o s i t i o n s o f i n t e r r e l a t e d geometric, vegetal,
GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE THE
and calligraphic patterns alike. This order was
made m o r e explicit i n geometric interlaces gener-
ated b y u n d e r l y i n g networks o f g r i d lines, some
parts o f w h i c h appeared i n the final p a t t e r n w h i l e
others were e l i m i n a t e d b y erasure. The r e s u l t i n g
c o m p o s i t i o n s , created b y an intractable process o f
selection and r e j e c t i o n , concealed p a r t l y invisible
grids t h a t resisted decipherment and as such testi-
fied t o the i n g e n u i t y o f their designer.
The clarity o f sharply delineated p o l y g o n a l pat-
terns w i t h a h i d d e n geometric basis, as opposed t o
the deliberate obscurity o f the enigmatic Samarran
style, i n t r o d u c e d a new structure o f l e g i b i l i t y t o
abstract o r n a m e n t . Ingeniously interlaced geomet-
ric patterns n o w manifested an u n d e r l y i n g sense
o f order w i t h their m a t h e m a t i c a l l y g r o u p e d and
i n f i n i t e l y extendable star systems clustered like
orbits a r o u n d m u l t i p l e foci. C o u l d they have been
i n t e n d e d as abstract visual analogues for the
r h y t h m i c order o f a d i v i n e l y created a t o m i s t i c u n i -
verse, constantly kept i n check b y an a l l - p o w e r f u l
G o d whose w i s d o m was manifested i n the wonders
o f creation? A c c o r d i n g to the p h i l o s o p h e r and
physician I b n Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198), the
adherents o f the A s h a r i school w h o " h e l d t h a t
c
all things c o u l d be different f r o m w h a t they are,"
nevertheless recognized that " i n the products
o f art, t o w h i c h they compared the products o f
n a t u r e , there exist order and p r o p o r t i o n , and this
was called w i s d o m , and they called the Creator
wise." A l - A s h a r i w r o t e : " W e l l - m a d e works can be
c
wisely ordered o n l y b y one w h o is k n o w i n g . T h a t
is clear f r o m the fact t h a t a m a n w h o lacks skill
MONGOLS 103
and knowledge cannot weave patterned brocade
or execute fine p o i n t s o f c r a f t s m a n s h i p . " 32
By i m p l i c a t i o n the d i v i n e l y created A s h a r i c
a t o m i s t i c universe (shared b y the M a t u r i d i school)
was permeated w i t h a h a r m o n y that resonated w i t h
t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns,
generated b y undecipherable grids evoking a sense
o f wonder. Since G o d and the contents o f God's
eternal speech e m b o d i e d i n the uncreated K o r a n
were beyond i m i t a t i o n , artists had n o recourse b u t
to t u r n t o the abstract i m i t a t i o n o f the created
realm o f nature extending f r o m the upper l i m i t s
o f the heavens t o the earth below, a realm replete
w i t h the i n d i r e c t signs and portents o f God's wis-
d o m and i n f i n i t e power. Geometrized n o n f i g u r a l
arabesques apparently m o d e l e d o n i n a n i m a t e m a t -
ter and vegetation, t h a t is, o n two o f the three
k i n g d o m s o f nature (al-mawdlid al-thaldtha, "min-
eral, vegetable, and a n i m a l " ) , seemed t o evoke a
new sense o f order missing f r o m the unstable
a t o m i s t i c m a t e r i a l w o r l d o f the M u t a z i l a .
c 3 3
I t is t e m p t i n g to correlate the stringent geome-
t r i z a t i o n o f n o n f i g u r a l p a t t e r n i n g , t h r o u g h the
logical coherence and crystalline clarity o f a linear
geometric language, w i t h the p u r i t a n sensibilities
o f the age o f S u n n i revival d u r i n g w h i c h i t flour-
ished. I b n K h a l d u n , w h o like al-Ghazali attacked
speculative p h i l o s o p h y , described geometry as a
m e n t a l astringent capable o f clearing error f r o m
one's m i n d like soap:
I t s h o u l d be k n o w n t h a t geometry e n l i g h t -
ens the intellect and sets one's m i n d r i g h t .
104 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL,
A l l its proofs are very clear and orderly. I t
is h a r d l y possible for errors to enter i n t o
geometrical reasoning, because i t is w e l l
arranged and orderly. T h u s , the m i n d that
constantly applies itself to geometry is n o t
likely to fall i n t o error. . . . O u r teachers
used to say that one's application to geome-
t r y does to the m i n d w h a t soap does to a
garment. I t washes o f f stains and cleanses
it o f grease and d i r t . The reason for this is
that geometry is w e l l arranged and orderly,
as we have m e n t i o n e d . 34
This statement reflects the d i s t i n c t i o n such o r t h o -
d o x scholars as al-Ghazali had d r a w n between
those p h i l o s o p h i c a l sciences such as mathematics
and logic, w h i c h were i n n o c u o u s f r o m a religious
p o i n t o f view, and others such as physics and
metaphysics, w h i c h contained the b u l k o f the here-
sies and errors o f the speculative p h i l o s o p h e r s .
The " p u r e " forms o f geometry, associated w i t h
the certainty o f proofs, must have made geometric
abstraction a p a r t i c u l a r l y appealing visual i d i o m
d u r i n g the age o f the S u n n i revival w h e n religious
o r t h o d o x y was defended t h r o u g h logical a r g u m e n -
t a t i o n to make faith "clearer" by an appeal to rea-
son. The u n a m b i g u o u s language o f geometry t h a t
expressed logic i n linear relations can, therefore,
be seen as a visual analogue o f the new quest for
certainty aimed to e l i m i n a t e the doubts and uncer-
tainties previously raised by p h i l o s o p h i c a l specula-
t i o n . The official S u n n i ideology had n o w closed
its doors to r a t i o n a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s u b s t i t u t -
AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
i n g a clearly manifest d o g m a t i c theology sup-
p o r t e d by logical a r g u m e n t a t i o n and t r a d i t i o n .
Reason no longer reigned supreme i n this new
o r t h o d o x b l e n d o f d o g m a t i c theology, t r a d i t i o n a l
legalism, and moderate m y s t i c i s m b u t became
s u b o r d i n a t e d to s u b r a t i o n a l experiential categories
such as i n s p i r a t i o n , insight, i n t u i t i o n , and love
i n the metaphysical quest for t r u t h . Geometric
abstraction, therefore, resonated n o t o n l y w i t h the
p u r i t a n i s m o f the t r a d i t i o n i s t s b u t also w i t h the
m y s t i c i s m o f the Sufis, permeated w i t h echoes o f
N e o p l a t o n i s m . The h a r m o n i o u s l y p r o p o r t i o n e d
forms o f geometry, capable o f p u r i f y i n g the m i n d
and p u r g i n g one's u n d e r s t a n d i n g f r o m error,
moreover had the u n i q u e power o f m e d i a t i n g the
m a t e r i a l and sensible worlds t h r o u g h t h e i r i n t e r -
m e d i a r y status between the t w o , as we shall see i n
part 5. T h o u g h they remained b o u n d to the mater-
ial w o r l d o f accidents, the m e n t a l l y abstracted
35
forms o f geometry were seen as capable o f i n d u c -
i n g the s p i r i t to contemplate higher levels o f
u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a noetic q u a l i t y t h a t m u s t have
been p a r t i c u l a r l y appealing i n a context that
blended S u n n i s m w i t h elements o f m y s t i c i s m .
The t i m e and place i n w h i c h the girih o r i g i n a t e d
cannot conclusively be p r o v e n w i t h the present
state o f the archaeological r e c o r d , b u t the i n d i r e c t
evidence strongly p o i n t s to the late Abbasid c o u r t
i n Baghdad, the center where the aesthetically
related field o f calligraphy became codified. I t was
i n Baghdad that the p r o p o r t i o n a l system o f the six
A r a b i c canonical scripts, first codified by the
A b b a s i d vizier and calligrapher I b n M u q l a ( 8 8 6 -
940), was perfected by the B u y i d p e r i o d calligra-
pher and i l l u m i n a t o r A l i b. H i l a l ( I b n al-Bawwab,
c
d. 1022), w h o further refined the " p r o p o r t i o n e d
s c r i p t " (al-khatt al-mansub) r o o t e d i n the p r i n -
ciples o f geometric design. The geometric system
o f p r o p o r t i o n i n g devised by I b n M u q l a had been
based o n the m o d u l a r use o f rhombus-shaped dots
created by the reed pen, w i t h each letter standard-
ized i n p r o p o r t i o n a l r e l a t i o n to the straight line
o f the alif. H i s relatively angular semikufic Koranic
script was i m p r o v e d by the fully cursive one o f
I b n al-Bawwab that c o n t e m p o r a r y critics j u d g e d
to be m o r e legible and m o r e elegant. The latter's
p r o p o r t i o n a l s y s t e m — f u r t h e r refined i n Baghdad
d u r i n g the reign o f the last Abbasid caliph by the
calligrapher Yaqut a l - M u s t a s i m i ( d . 1298-1299) —
c
was generated by the use o f the circle and its d i a m -
eter ( s u b d i v i d e d i n t o m o d u l a r dots) as a u n i t o f
measure (fig. 9 2 ) . 36
The invisible geometry t h a t governed the
p r o p o r t i o n s o f these new scripts codified i n the
chancelleries o f Baghdad recalls the u n d e r l y i n g
geometric schemes used i n generating abstract
geometric and vegetal patterns w i t h w h i c h they are
often juxtaposed o n manuscripts, objects, and
b u i l d i n g s . The use o f the circumference and radius
o f the circle as a p r o p o r t i o n i n g device i n b o t h I b n
al-Bawwab's cursive Koranic script and i n girih
patterns represents related aesthetic p h e n o m e n a
that seem to have o r i g i n a t e d i n the same m i l i e u .
The new cursive script and interlaced patterns
composed o f stars and polygons appear juxtaposed
for the first t i m e i n a K o r a n at the Chester Beatty
 GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE THE MONGOLS 105

92a, b. Muhammad b. A l i b. Sulayman al-Rawandi, dia-

c

grams showing the derivation of cursive Arabic letters

from the module of the circle and its diameter sub-
divided by dots. From his Rabat al-sudur wa ayat al-
surur (Solace of hearts and signal for gladness), 1238,
ink on paper. Photo: Copyright cliche Bibliotheque
Nationale de France, Paris, MS Persan 438.
io6 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS

93. Illuminated frontispiece. From the Ibn al-Bawwab

Koran, Baghdad, 1000-1001, colored inks and gold on
paper. Reproduced by the courtesy of the Trustees of
the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, MS K.16, fol. 8r.

L i b r a r y i n D u b l i n , whose c o l o p h o n states t h a t i t
was w r i t t e n i n Baghdad d u r i n g 1000-1001 by the
calligrapher and i l l u m i n a t o r A l i b. H i l a l (fig. 93).
c
Even t h o u g h this c o l o p h o n is t h o u g h t by some to
be apocryphal, i t is safe to date the m a n u s c r i p t ,
p o p u l a r l y k n o w n as the I b n al-Bawwab K o r a n , to
the early eleventh century. Its f r o n t i s p i e c e s — o n
w h i c h the cursive Koranic script, interlaced geo-
m e t r i c s t r a p w o r k patterns, and abstract vegetal
motifs h a r m o n i o u s l y i n t e r t w i n e — a r e t h o u g h t to
have been executed by the same h a n d . This sug-
gests that the girih m o d e c o u l d have made its first
appearance i n m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m i n a t i o n , a h y p o t h e -
sis strengthened by the w e l l - k n o w n i m p a c t that
patterns d r a w n o n paper i n royal scriptoria had
o n the decorative arts and architectural revetments
o f later periods. Several early Korans w i t h fully
cursive scripts feature s i m i l a r angular geometric
interlaces whose c o m p a r t m e n t s c o n t a i n abstract
vegetal patterns, a c o m b i n a t i o n that came to be
a standard characteristic o f f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
M a m l u k and I l k h a n i d i l l u m i n a t e d K o r a n s . 37
As Yasser Tabbaa n o t e d , the new Koranic script
codified by I b n al-Bawwab c o n s t i t u t e d "a final
break w i t h the majestic b u t ambiguous script o f
the first three Islamic centuries, replacing i t w i t h a
r o b u s t l y cursive and perfectly legible s c r i p t . " He
related this development to the religious and
p o l i t i c a l climate o f B u y i d Baghdad, where the
S u n n i revival i n i t i a t e d by a l - Q a d i r had affirmed
the uncreated nature o f the K o r a n to oppose the
S h i i and M u t a z i l i view t h a t regarded i t as having
c c
been created i n t i m e and therefore open to r a t i o -
GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE THE
nalistic or esoteric i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Tabbaa p o i n t e d
o u t the difference between the n o t i o n o f a mys-
terious created K o r a n w i t h two levels o f m e a n i n g
i n t e n d e d to "be i n t e r p r e t e d by those w h o k n o w for
those w h o do n o t " and o f an uncreated eternal one
whose "clearly manifest t r u t h cannot be f u r t h e r
i n t e r p r e t e d . " He c o n v i n c i n g l y argued t h a t the I b n
al-Bawwab K o r a n "represents the creation o f a
perfectly cursive and easily legible script suitable
for expressing the clear and explicit nature o f the
W o r d o f G o d . " Tabbaa concluded t h a t "at the
t i m e o f its i n c e p t i o n and p a r t i c u l a r l y its a d o p t i o n
t h r o u g h o u t the o n l y recently S u n n i Islamic
w o r l d , " the p r o p o r t i o n e d script " l i t e r a l l y reflected
the t r i u m p h o f a theological view and all its p o l i t i -
cal ramifications. The actual i m a g e — n o t just
the c o n t e n t — o f the W o r d became the s y m b o l
o f the most i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e o f the S u n n i
revival, a m o v e m e n t that redefined the course o f
medieval I s l a m . " 3 8
I t is p r o b a b l y n o t a coincidence t h a t the geo-
m e t r i c m o d e that emerged i n the same context was
also characterized by the linear clarity and precise
logic o f its forms. P r e d o m i n a n t l y geometric i n t e r -
laces are often accompanied o n w o o d e n m i n b a r s
and religious m o n u m e n t s w i t h d i s c i p l i n e d vegetal
patterns, cursive scripts, and the muqarnas, all o f
t h e m governed by s i m i l a r u n d e r l y i n g geometric
grids. Tabbaa's observation t h a t the cursive scripts
o f I b n M u q l a and I b n al-Bawwab had v i r t u a l l y no
i m p a c t o n Korans p r o d u c e d i n F a t i m i d Egypt,
where the earlier type o f kufic script c o n t i n u e d
i n use u n t i l the establishment o f the A y y u b i d
MONGOLS 107
dynasty, is i n keeping w i t h the p a t t e r n o f dissemi-
n a t i o n f o l l o w e d by t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
girihs t h a t s i m i l a r l y echoed the r h y t h m s o f the
S u n n i revival. The same p a t t e r n o f dissemination
guided the spread o f cursive m o n u m e n t a l i n s c r i p -
t i o n s , w h i c h eventually supplanted the F a t i m i d
floriated kufic script between the eleventh and
thirteenth centuries. 39
Given the close affinity between t w o - and three-
d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns, i t is n o t surpris-
i n g t h a t several scholars have recently posited a
Baghdadi o r i g i n for the muqarnas. Tabbaa, for
example, accepted I r a q as the most likely place for
the emergence o f the muqarnas vault, the earliest
s u r v i v i n g example o f w h i c h appears i n the I m a m
D u r (1075-1090) near Samarra, a hypothesis
f u r t h e r strengthened by the fact that i t was a very
c o m m o n feature o f the cityscape o f medieval
Baghdad. A l l e n s i m i l a r l y identified the muqarnas
vault as an i n v e n t i o n o f Abbasid architecture,
"devised i n I r a n or I r a q and copied all over the
Islamic w o r l d . " He regarded I m a m D u r ' s "sugar-
l o a f d o m e " as representing the o r i g i n a l use o f the
f o r m that was subsequently adapted to squinches
and cornices. T a k i n g the evidence o f some p a i n t e d
stucco muqarnas u n i t s discovered at a b a t h i n
Fustat, w h i c h recall the possibly t e n t h - c e n t u r y
p a i n t e d stucco muqarnas niches excavated at
N i s h a p u r , D o r i s Behrens-Abouseif reached a
s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n . She argued t h a t i f the Fustat
muqarnas u n i t s are to be a t t r i b u t e d to the Abbasid
rather t h a n the F a t i m i d p e r i o d as c o m m o n l y
assumed, i n t h a t case "Baghdad as the capital o f
io8 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL,
the Abbasid e m p i r e , c o u l d w e l l be the place o f
o r i g i n o f the mukarnas" 40
I f so, Baghdad emerges as the m a i n center for
synchronous developments i n interrelated fields o f
geometric design, the center f r o m w h i c h artistic
i n n o v a t i o n s r a p i d l y spread to those courts c u l t u r -
ally and p o l i t i c a l l y c o m m i t t e d to the S u n n i revival.
The trajectory o f the girih mode over t i m e and
space, t h e n , was far m o r e complex t h a n assumed
i n the l i t e r a t u r e o n the arabesque, w h i c h tended
to m i n i m i z e the visual difference between various
abstract i d i o m s and to associate t h e m w i t h a
loosely defined religious m e n t a l i t y responsible
for the overall u n i t y o f Islamic art. We have seen,
however, that there was n o single i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f Islam, o r o f its central d o c t r i n e o f tawhid, that
remained uncontested. Such controversial issues as
the nature o f G o d (framed w i t h i n a wide spectrum
defined b y the opposing poles o f a n t h r o p o m o r p h -
ism and the complete divestment o f a t t r i b u t e s ) ,
the role o f h u m a n reason, and the createdness ver-
sus uncreatedness o f the atomistic m a t e r i a l w o r l d
and o f the K o r a n c o n s t i t u t e d significant p o i n t s o f
departure for sectarian differences i n a p o l i t i c a l l y
and ideologically d i v i d e d medieval M u s l i m w o r l d .
Rather t h a n a single d o c t r i n e and cosmology
that gave rise to u n i f o r m i t y i n artistic expression
t h r o u g h o u t the Islamic w o r l d , there was a m u l t i -
p l i c i t y o f c o m p e t i n g doctrines and cosmologies
that i n f o r m e d the f o r m u l a t i o n o f diverse visual
i d i o m s i n different c o u r t milieus.
I have o n l y briefly o u t l i n e d some o f the d o m i -
nant theological o r i e n t a t i o n s that were part o f the
AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
context i n w h i c h the geometric m o d e i n i t i a l l y
emerged and spread, i n order to give a sense o f the
ideological c o m p l e x i t y o f religious dogma that
often went h a n d i n h a n d w i t h p o l i t i c s . N o d o u b t
a m o r e detailed analysis o f c o n t e m p o r a r y legal,
theological, p h i l o s o p h i c a l , and mystical sources
w i l l i n the future c o n t r i b u t e to a m o r e nuanced
reading o f the subtle correspondences between
d o m i n a n t official ideologies and visual i d i o m s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y since the S u n n i revival was b y n o
means u n i l i n e a r . We have seen that Sufism, w i t h
w h i c h so m a n y authors a u t o m a t i c a l l y correlated
the arabesque, was n o t yet a p r o m i n e n t c u l t u r a l
force a m o n g the r u l i n g elites w h o p a t r o n i z e d art
and architecture at the t i m e the girih first appeared.
Even t h o u g h it had started to penetrate i n t o o r t h o -
dox circles and to be f o r m a l l y organized i n t o c o n -
fraternities f r o m the twelfth century o n w a r d , its
i m p a c t o n visual aesthetics at that t i m e appears
to have been rather l i m i t e d . M u c h m o r e t h a n the
s p i r i t u a l i s m o f Sufism, i t was the S h a r i a - m i n d e d
c
s c r i p t u r a l i s m o f the S u n n i revival that d o m i n a t e d
the m i l i e u where the girih came i n t o being.
M o r e o v e r , the type o f moderate Sufism t h a t
prevailed i n o r t h o d o x circles at t h a t t i m e was very
different f r o m the m o r e d a r i n g teachings o f I b n
a l - A r a b i o r Shihab a l - D i n al-Suhrawardi (1153-
c
1191) w i t h w h i c h m o d e r n authors often l i n k the
arabesque. A l - S u h r a w a r d i , the I r a n i a n master o f
i l l u m i n a t i o n (ishraq) w h o developed a p h i l o s o p h y
o f d i v i n e l i g h t as the sole substance o f being, was
after all charged w i t h heterodoxy and k i l l e d b y the
order o f the A y y u b i d ruler Salah a l - D i n . T h o u g h
I b n a l - A r a b i , w h o settled i n A y y u b i d Damascus
c
after having visited the R u m Seljuq c o u r t i n
Konya, d i d n o t suffer a s i m i l a r fate, he certainly
was n o t free o f o r t h o d o x hostilities. For example,
I b n Taymiyya (1263-1328), the reactionary H a n b a l i
theologian o f the M a m l u k p e r i o d , w o u l d vehe-
m e n t l y c o n d e m n I b n al- Arabi's m o n i s m , w h i c h
c
regarded the existence o f created things as n o t h i n g
b u t the very essence o f the creator. S i m i l a r l y I b n
K h a l d u n f o u n d his mystical w r i t i n g s meaningless
and heretical. I b n al- Arabi's teachings w o u l d gain
c
m u c h w i d e r currency d u r i n g the p o s t - M o n g o l era,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the T u r c o - I r a n i a n w o r l d , b u t they
were far f r o m u n a n i m o u s l y accepted i n o r t h o d o x
circles d u r i n g the h i g h tide o f the S u n n i r e v i v a l . 41
The geometric mode seems t o have represented
a new visual order p r o j e c t i n g a shared ethos o f
u n i f i c a t i o n a r o u n d the religious a u t h o r i t y o f the
Abbasid caliphate, the locus o f o r t h o d o x y and
the u l t i m a t e source o f legitimacy for the frag-
m e n t e d S u n n i states. I t was as i f the ideological
alliance between the Abbasid caliphs and the semi-
independent S u n n i rulers o f the decentralized
medieval Islamic w o r l d was expressed t h r o u g h the
r a p i d d i s s e m i n a t i o n f r o m Baghdad o f emblematic
signs that acted as a semiotic b o n d visually u n i t i n g
distant r e g i o n s . 42
Just before the M o n g o l sack o f
Baghdad, w h i c h shattered this b r i e f sense o f u n i t y
that lasted between the eleventh and early t h i r -
teenth centuries, the Abbasid caliph al-Nasir
l i - D i n A l l a h (r. 1180-1225) restored the secular
power o f the caliphate after centuries o f B u y i d and
Seljuq d o m i n a t i o n . H i s r e l i g i o p o l i t i c a l p r o g r a m
 GEOMETRIC PATTERNING BEFORE THE MONGOLS 109

was aimed at o r i e n t i n g all M u s l i m s to the Abbasid o f r a p p r o c h e m e n t w o u l d be perpetuated i n the

caliphate as the sole s p i r i t u a l and secular center p o s t - M o n g o l T u r c o - I r a n i a n w o r l d t h r o u g h o u t the
o f the Islamic w o r l d . To this end he a t t e m p t e d fifteenth century u n t i l the r e p o l a r i z a t i o n o f S u n n i -
to b r i n g about a r a p p r o c h e m e n t o f opposing S h i i differences along p o l i t i c a l lines w i t h the
c

d o g m a t i c trends i n Islam and thereby create a
c o m p r o m i s e between the Sunnis and Shi is. A l -
Nasir's new ideological o r i e n t a t i o n was m o r e
sixteenth-century rise o f the three early m o d e r n
c
empires, the S u n n i - H a n a f i O t t o m a n s and Mughals
versus the Twelver S h i i Safavids. A c c o r d i n g
c

concerned w i t h equating all Islamic confessions to Biancamaria Scarcia A m o r e t t i , p r i o r to that

than w i t h u n i f y i n g the Sunnis against the Shi is, c
r e a l i g n m e n t , the " p r o m i s c u o u s " religious t o p o g r a -
M u t a z i l i s , or the i n v a d i n g Christians. The caliph's
c
p h y o f the p o s t - M o n g o l eastern Islamic w o r l d that
propagandist U m a r al-Suhrawardi ( d . 1234), a
c
extended all the way f r o m A n a t o l i a to I n d i a was
Sufi theologian o f the Shafi i school, energetically
c
characterized by a certain ambivalence, "so that
s u p p o r t e d the u n i o n o f Sunnism and moderate b e l o n g i n g to the S h i i rather t h a n to the S u n n i
c

S h i i s m by p o s i t i n g that Sufism, a m e d i a t i n g
c
bridge between those two poles, c o u l d be sanc-
t i o n e d by the caliphate. This view, w h i c h t u r n e d
the Abbasid caliph i n t o the focal p o i n t o f the
Shari a and Sufism, consolidated the synthesis i n i -
c
tiated i n the Seljuq p e r i o d by al-Ghazali. After
years o f distrust by the r u l i n g powers, o r t h o d o x
confession w o u l d seem to be a m a t t e r o f religious
sensibility rather t h a n one o f ideological diver-
gences or different j u r i d i c a l rites." I n this t o l e r a n t
setting deeply i m b u e d w i t h Sufism, w h i c h helped
bridge religious differences, i t was n o t u n c o m m o n
for I l k h a n i d , T i m u r i d , and T u r k m e n rulers to
waver between Sunnism and S h i i s m according to c

Sufism thus f o u n d its way i n t o S u n n i circles w i t h personal c o n v i c t i o n s . 44

an official sanction by the c a l i p h a t e . 43
Al-Nasir's
reign therefore prepared the g r o u n d for the rising
fortunes o f Sufism d u r i n g the p o s t - M o n g o l era,
w h e n the t r a d i t i o n a l h o s t i l i t y between the Sunnis
and Shi is w o u l d become m u c h less acute after
c
the fall o f the Abbasid caliphate i n Baghdad.
The T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
context i n w h i c h the T o p k a p i scroll seems to have
been c o m p i l e d was, t h e n , a very different setting
f r o m the staunchly o r t h o d o x , p u r i t a n m i l i e u o f the
S u n n i revival i n w h i c h the geometric m o d e had
i n i t i a l l y flourished.

D u r i n g the M o n g o l - I l k h a n i d p e r i o d the m i t i -
gation o f the S u n n i - S h i i dispute i n the eastern
c

Islamic w o r l d was accompanied b y the strengthen-

i n g o f Twelver S h i i s m , the increasing appearance
c

o f S h i i trends i n Sufism, and a leaning t o w a r d

c

moderate S h i i s m i n S u n n i circles. This climate

c
CHAPTER 7. THE POST - MONGOL SYNTHESIS
The c o n t i n u e d life o f the girih m o d e i n the post-
M o n g o l era seems to have been p r o p e l l e d by its
o w n f o r m a l m o m e n t u m as i t became assimilated
i n t o w o r k s h o p t r a d i t i o n s t h r o u g h the codified
repertories o f scrolls. N o w merged w i t h the
Chinese-flavored aesthetic synthesis o f the M o n -
gols and t h e i r successors, i t was accompanied by
a wide variety o f m o t i f s . Whatever o r i g i n a l associ-
ations i t may have carried w i t h the S u n n i revival
were largely forgotten and substituted w i t h new
ones. The M o n g o l invasions b r o u g h t about a c u l -
t u r a l split between the T u r c o - I r a n i a n realms i n
the east (extending f r o m A n a t o l i a to the borders
o f C h i n a ) and the Arab-speaking ones i n the west
(extending f r o m the M a m l u k t e r r i t o r i e s t o N o r t h
Africa and Spain), a split reflected i n the different
decorative vocabularies t h a t prevailed i n each
r e g i o n . The a n t i n a t u r a l i s t i c abstract language o f
geometric, vegetal, calligraphic, a n d figural
patterns was perpetuated i n the A r a b w o r l d , w h i c h
had successfully resisted m i l i t a r y invasion by the
M o n g o l forces. A l t h o u g h the M a m l u k s , situated
at the t r a n s i t i o n a l zone between the eastern a n d
western Islamic lands, selectively i n c o r p o r a t e d
some o f the new floral chinoiserie motifs i n t o t h e i r
t r a d i t i o n a l decorative vocabulary that conserva-
tively preserved its visual l i n k w i t h the caliphal
" g o l d e n age," the p o s t - M o n g o l aesthetic synthesis
o f the east had very l i t t l e i m p a c t i n N o r t h Africa
and Spain, where a separate c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y was
c u l t i v a t e d by local dynasties t h a t nostalgically
c l u n g to the past. This nostalgic c u l t u r a l o r i e n t a -
t i o n was p o l i t i c a l l y expressed by the c o n t i n u e d
role o f the Abbasid caliphs stationed at M a m l u k
Cairo i n d i s t r i b u t i n g titles to such loyal rulers as
the Nasrids and the slave sultans o f D e l h i .
The p o s t - M o n g o l visual i d i o m t h a t stamped the
decorative arts and a r c h i t e c t u r a l revetments o f the
eastern Islamic w o r l d spread i n I r a n , I r a q , A n a t o l i a ,
and Central Asia d u r i n g the late t h i r t e e n t h and
f o u r t e e n t h centuries under the hegemonic rule
o f the I l k h a n i d s . Pope w r o t e i n reference to this
p e r i o d , w h e n o l d patterns were assimilated w i t h
new ones, that the Far East c o n t r i b u t e d "ideas and
forms m a r k e d b y a new n a t u r a l i s m and a new k i n d
o f elegance" t h a t resulted i n the j u x t a p o s i t i o n
o f e x t r e m e s — " t h e most relentless geometry is set
beside the most exuberant f l o r i a t i o n . " He w e l -
c o m e d this r e v o l u t i o n a r y change:
The M o n g o l shock just came at the
m o m e n t w h e n i t was necessary to renew
the w h o l e substance o f I r a n i a n d e c o r a t i o n
i f i t were n o t to become m o r i b u n d , for
indeed the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y had done
l i t t l e m o r e t h a n m a r k t i m e . Regeneration
was effected, n o t by complete s u b s t i t u t i o n ,
b u t by s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n , so t h a t c o n t i n u -
i t y was n o t b r o k e n b u t rather sustained
by fresh suggestions, and saved f r o m laps-
i n g by i n e r t i a . 45
The M o n g o l - I l k h a n i d synthesis c o n t i n u e d to be
elaborated between the late f o u r t e e n t h and early
sixteenth centuries by the T i m u r i d and T u r k m e n
dynasties. Geometric schemes i n use since the
eleventh century were t r a n s f o r m e d by the m a n i p u -
l a t i o n o f t h e i r i n h e r i t e d g r a m m a r i n terms o f scale
(successively f r a g m e n t i n g t r a d i t i o n a l m o t i f s i n t o
112 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC
smaller elements or, conversely, m a g n i f y i n g t h e m
i n an unprecedented m a n n e r ) , c o m p o s i t i o n , color
scheme, m a t e r i a l , technique, placement, s u r p r i s i n g
j u x t a p o s i t i o n s , and contrasting c o m b i n a t i o n s w i t h
c u r v i l i n e a r patterns (vegetal, floral, figural, or cal-
l i g r a p h i c ) that expanded the set o f designs to a
v i r t u a l l y infinite n u m b e r . C o m p l e x radial c o m -
positions displaced simpler ones based o n recti-
linear or diagonal grids, w h i l e designs generated
by squared grids i n t e n d e d for transference to
banna'ibrick masonry t o o k o n a new p r o m i n e n c e .
F o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y advances i n t i l i n g techniques
that c u l m i n a t e d w i t h the development o f mosaic
faience had w i d e n e d the color scheme o f tile revet-
ments and facilitated the r e n d e r i n g o f c u r v i l i n e a r
patterns w i t h greater precision. Eventually the l i n -
ear strapwork interlaces o f the Seljuq and I l k h a n i d
periods were d o m i n a t e d by the i n t e r l o c k i n g stars
and polygons o f the Topkapi scroll, w h i c h empha-
size i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g color fields m o r e t h a n linear
i n t e r l a c i n g . The scroll's strictly angular geometry
also e l i m i n a t e d the curvilinear geometric i n t e r -
laces o f earlier periods that were no longer favored
i n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n tile w o r k .
The i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f the geometric girih mode
i n t o a broader decorative vocabulary is d o c u -
m e n t e d i n several Safavid texts t h a t seem to be
based o n a T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n classification o f pat-
terns. For example, the Qanun al-suwar (Canons o f
p a i n t i n g ) , w r i t t e n sometime between 1576 and 1602
by the Safavid c o u r t painter and l i b r a r i a n Sadiqi
Bek ( w h o had studied p a i n t i n g i n the 1540s at the
royal s c r i p t o r i u m o f Tabriz under M u z a f f a r - A l i ) ,
c
HORIZONS
classifies genres o f p a i n t i n g under two m a i n cate-
gories, decorative and representational. The repre-
sentational category is f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d i n t o two
t y p e s — f i g u r a l p a i n t i n g (suratgari) and a n i m a l
design (janvdr-sdzi)—and the abstract art o f deco-
rators (naqqashi) is described as consisting o f
seven f u n d a m e n t a l modes (asl, l i t . , "base," or
" r o o t " ) w i t h m a n y variations (far , c
lit., "branch"):
I speak here o f the seven bases {asl) o f
decoral art [that is, o f its seven basic pat-
terns or design m o d e s ] . Yet i t s h o u l d be
u n d e r s t o o d that there are m a n y variations
(far )
c
as well. M y o w n master [Muzaffar-
C
A1T], i n g u i d i n g me, cited the basic pat-
terns as follows: first come islimi (the
ivy-and-spiral [ o r v i n e - a n d - t e n d r i l ] pat-
tern) and khatai (the Chinese floral pat-
t e r n ) . You may t h e n take as your t h i r d and
f o u r t h , abr [ c l o u d l i k e or m a r b l e d p a t t e r n ]
and vdq [grotesque p a t t e r n featuring the
head-bearing tree]. This leaves mlufar (the
lotus) and farangi (the Frankish p a t t e r n )
as y o u r fifth and s i x t h . A n d w i t h all these
i n m i n d , do n o t yet o v e r l o o k the seventh,
band-i rumi (the A n a t o l i a n k n o t p a t t e r n ) .
Once y o u have grasped the basic p r i n -
ciples i n v o l v e d i n these seven patterns,
y o u s h o u l d have no difficulty w i t h the
variations. 46
A n o t h e r sixteenth-century Safavid author, M i r
Sayyid-Ahmad M a s h h a d i , slightly m o d i f i e d this
sevenfold classification o f patterns used by deco-
rators and i l l u m i n a t o r s , w h i c h echoed the sixfold
classification o f calligraphic modes developed i n
Abbasid Baghdad (to w h i c h a seventh category,
ta lTq, was added i n the p o s t - M o n g o l p e r i o d ) : "Just
c
as i n calligraphy the Six Pens are basic, i n this craft
there are seven f u n d a m e n t a l modes {asl): islami
[Islamic, a c o r r u p t i o n o f islimi], khatai, farangi,
fisali, abr, vdq, and girih"47
The girih or band-i rum! was, t h e n , o n l y one o f
the available o p t i o n s i n this b r o a d repertory o f
design modes that c o u l d be used either alone or i n
various c o m b i n a t i o n s w i t h one another. T i m u r i d
and T u r k m e n i l l u m i n a t o r s , w h o made full use o f
this varied repertory i n m a n u s c r i p t p a i n t i n g , also
prepared patterns for the decorative revetments o f
specific b u i l d i n g projects as we have already seen.
These patterns c o m p l e m e n t e d the p u r e l y geomet-
ric ones c o m p i l e d by master builders i n girih
scrolls, c o n t r i b u t i n g to the greater n a t u r a l i s m o f
the p o s t - M o n g o l revetment aesthetic. Despite the
w i d e r variety o f available patterns, however, a r c h i -
tectural revetments and decorative v a u l t i n g c o n -
t i n u e d to be d o m i n a t e d by geometric schemes well
i n t o the early sixteenth century.
A l t h o u g h the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n dynasties, the
M a m l u k s , and the Nasrids were able to sustain the
i n n o v a t i v e m o m e n t u m o f the girih m o d e by enliv-
ening i t w i t h p o l y c h r o m y and i n t r i c a t e elabora-
t i o n s , the early m o d e r n Islamic empires that
d o m i n a t e d the M u s l i m w o r l d between the six-
teenth and eighteenth centuries seem to have felt
that geometric p a t t e r n i n g had reached a dead end.
 THE POST-MONGOL SYNTHESIS 113

The O t t o m a n s , Safavids, and M u g h a l s , w h o i n i - 94. Interior view of the

tially shared the i n t e r n a t i o n a l T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n tile-covered sanctuary
dome, Masjid-i Shah,
artistic heritage o f the fifteenth-century eastern
Isfahan, 1611-1638.
Islamic w o r l d , w o u l d eventually develop their o w n Photo: Courtesy Fogg
abstract i d i o m s o f architectural revetment repre- Fine Arts Films.
senting differentiated dynastic tastes confined to
relatively a u t o n o m o u s c u l t u r a l zones. These dis-
tinctive decorative i d i o m s no longer assigned
geometry the privileged role i t had enjoyed i n
architectural revetments f r o m the late t e n t h
t h r o u g h the early sixteenth century.
I n the course o f the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries geometric p a t t e r n i n g was increasingly
s u b o r d i n a t e d to the naturalistic floral i d i o m s o f
the O t t o m a n s and Mughals, o n the one h a n d , and
to the relatively m o r e abstract c u r v i l i n e a r vegetal
interlaces o f the Safavids, o n the other. As Pope
n o t e d , the Safavid p e r i o d represented the " u l t i -
mate t r i u m p h o f the floral style" i n I r a n : " T h e geo-
m e t r i c style is n o w largely supplanted by a r i c h
arabesque and floral o r n a m e n t i n w h i c h f o r m a l
elements are h a p p i l y c o m b i n e d w i t h the s e m i n a t u -
ralistic and w i t h every i n t e r m e d i a t e degree o f c o n -
v e n t i o n a l i z a t i o n " (figs. 94, 9 5 ) . 48
The preference o f
the Twelver S h i i Safavids for floriated vegetal
c

scrolls may well have been triggered by the specific

association these forms had acquired at that t i m e
w i t h the Prophet's son-in-law A l i b. A b i Talib
c

( d . 661), the revered first i m a m o f the Shi is. The c

calligrapher and painter Dost M u h a m m a d ' s pref-

ace to the a l b u m o f the Safavid p r i n c e B a h r a m
M i r z a i n 1544 identified the vegetal arabesque as
an i n v e n t i o n o f A l i , w h o was " t h e first person to
c
114 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL,
95. Exterior view of the tile-covered sanctuary
dome, Masjid-i Shah, Isfahan, 1611-1638.
Photo: Courtesy J. Powell, Rome.
CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
a d o r n w i t h p a i n t i n g and i l l u m i n a t i o n the w r i t i n g
o f the W o r d . . . . A few leaves (barg), k n o w n i n
the parlance o f painters as islami, were i n v e n t e d
by h i m . " 4 9
The same t r a d i t i o n is repeated i n M i r
Sayyid-Ahmad's preface to another a l b u m , p r e -
pared i n 1564-1565, where b o t h the kufic script
and the vegetal arabesque are associated w i t h A l i .
I t is explained t h a t the latter i n v e n t e d the islimi or
islam! mode u p o n being challenged i n a c o m p e t i -
t i o n by the infidel Chinese painters w h o designed a
tray filled w i t h naturalistic t u l i p s and roses:
W h e n the k i n g o f s a i n t h o o d [ A l i ] saw
c
that d r a w i n g , he seized the pen f r o m t h e m
in inimitability.
He drew a c h a r m i n g isldmi that astonished
the people o f Cathay.
W h e n that p r o t o t y p e fell i n t o t h e i r hands,
all other designs were lesser i n t h e i r v i e w .
This apocryphal t r a d i t i o n o f u n k n o w n o r i g i n
demonstrates h o w abstract designs c o u l d be
charged w i t h specific c o n t e x t u a l c o n n o t a t i o n s
that were n o t necessarily relevant t h r o u g h o u t the
M u s l i m w o r l d . Perhaps the Safavids (like the
F a t i m i d s before t h e m ) were n o t so keen o n adopt-
i n g the geometric girih because o f its p r o m i n e n c e
i n m o n u m e n t s associated w i t h S u n n i memories.
The O t t o m a n classical synthesis t h a t emerged
a r o u n d the m i d d l e o f the sixteenth century
replaced the abstract Persianate decorative vocabu-
lary o f the early O t t o m a n p e r i o d w i t h a s e m i n a t u -
ralistic floral i d i o m p r o j e c t i n g a new, independent
dynastic i d e n t i t y (fig. 96). The earlier geometric,
vegetal, and chinoiserie motifs o f the i n t e r n a t i o n a l
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n style were n o t altogether aban-
d o n e d , b u t they n o w became marginalized by
designs i n c l u d i n g carnations, hyacinths, t u l i p s ,
s p r i n g blossoms, and grapevines that recreated a
c
garden atmosphere i n d o o r s . P r e d o m i n a n t l y c u r v i -
linear patterns accompanied by cursive calligraphy
replaced angular geometry i n the novel I z n i k tile
revetments, whose v i v i d l y c o l o r e d , identifiable
flowers w i t h stems stood o u t i n b r i g h t contrast
against a w h i t e b a c k g r o u n d as i f to defy the figure-
g r o u n d ambiguities so valued before. A l t h o u g h the
O t t o m a n h i s t o r i a n Mustafa Ali's late sixteenth-
century b i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k o n calligraphers and
painters still referred t o specialists o f geometric
p a t t e r n i n g (girih-bend) a m o n g the i l l u m i n a t o r s o f
the O t t o m a n c o u r t , t h e i r specialization had fallen
50
o u t o f favor. 51
The girih c o n t i n u e d to d o m i n a t e the
relatively m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l media o f j o i n e d w o o d -
w o r k , carved marble grilles, and the muqarnas,
b u t i t no longer enjoyed its earlier p r o m i n e n c e .
The M u g h a l s o f I n d i a , w h o were the direct
descendants o f the T i m u r i d dynasty, w o u l d also
create t h e i r o w n n o n f i g u r a l seminaturalistic floral
i d i o m i n the seventeenth century after having
extensively used the girih i n t h e i r earlier m o n u -
ments (figs. 97, 98). The early M u g h a l style had
been d o m i n a t e d by T i m u r i d - t y p e plaster carvings
and tile revetments whose geometric patterns were
sometimes translated i n t o the local m e d i u m o f tes-
sellated stone mosaics (khdtim-bandi). Eventually
these t r a d i t i o n a l Persianate st ar - an d - po ly g o n c o m -
 THE POST-MONGOL SYNTHESIS 115

96. Sixteenth-century arched Iznik tile panels

reused in the northwest gallery, Mosque of
Sultan Ahmed i, Istanbul, 1609-1617. Photo:
Courtesy Walter B. Denny.

positions and t h e i r accompanying abstract vegetal

interlaces were supplanted b y m o r e naturalistic
stemmed flowers, partly inspired b y European bota-
nies and floral p a t t e r n books. Executed i n w h i t e
marble reliefs and i n the Italianate pietra dura
technique {parchin-kdri, l i t . , "clenched w o r k " ) ,
these seminaturalistic floral patterns were n o w
accompanied b y floriated vegetal interlaces dis-
playing a Baroque flavor n o t u n l i k e the arabesques
i n p r i n t e d p a t t e r n books that the European g o l d -
smiths and decorators w h o were employed i n the
M u g h a l c o u r t may have possessed. O f course, the
geometric girih c o n t i n u e d t o live o n i n i n t r i c a t e l y
carved stone w i n d o w screens (jali), inlaid floors,
plasterwork, and s i m p l i f i e d muqarnas reliefs, b u t
it certainly lost its f o r m e r c e n t r a l i t y . 52

Geometric revetments, p r o n e t o m o n o t o n y w i t h
their repetitive patterns governed b y fixed f o r m u -
las, were thus unable t o survive the c o m p e t i t i o n
o f new floral i d i o m s invented i n the early m o d e r n
age. T h e i r p o s i t i o n o f p r i m a c y remained u n c h a l -
lenged o n l y i n Uzbek Central Asia where the l e g i t i -
m i z i n g prestige o f the T i m u r i d past assured t h e i r
c o n t i n u e d life, i n the b a c k w a r d - l o o k i n g architec-
t u r e o f the M a g h r i b , and i n the eighteenth- a n d
97. Pietra durainlay decoration on pillar base,
Diwan-i Khass, Red Fort, Delhi, 1639-1648.
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m o n u m e n t s o f Qajar I r a n Photo: Copyright Asian Art Archives of the
where geometric revetments enjoyed a revival University of Michigan.
f r o m the late Safavid p e r i o d o n w a r d . T h a t revival
w o u l d spread like an epidemic t h r o u g h o u t the
M u s l i m w o r l d i n the late n i n e t e e n t h and early 98. Detail offlorallow relief marble dado
panel, Taj Mahal, Agra, 1631-1647. Photo:
t w e n t i e t h centuries under the i m p a c t o f O r i e n t a l i s t
Copyright Asian Art Archives of the University
p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t i d e n t i f i e d the arabesque as a of Michigan.
typical i n g r e d i e n t o f Islamic architectural o r n a -
116 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
m e n t . The so-called geometric arabesque still
continues to enjoy p o p u l a r i t y i n the revivalist
c o n t e m p o r a r y architectures o f such countries as
M o r o c c o and p o s t r e v o l u t i o n I r a n , where i t is
p r o m o t e d as a f u n d a m e n t a l aspect o f t r a d i t i o n a l
Islamic a r c h i t e c t u r e . 53
This b r i e f o u t l i n e helps us historicize the geo-
m e t r i c girih m o d e , w i t h its h i g h p o i n t falling
between the early eleventh and m i d - t h i r t e e n t h cen-
turies and its last creative impulse manifested i n
the f o u r t e e n t h - to early sixteenth-century m o n u -
ments o f N a s r i d Spain, M a m l u k Egypt, and the
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n east. T h o u g h always present,
geometry had n o t been i n the f o r e f r o n t d u r i n g the
f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d o f Islamic visual c u l t u r e between
the seventh and late t e n t h centuries, and i t lost
its i n n o v a t i v e v i g o r i n the post-sixteenth-century
early m o d e r n era, despite its c o n t i n u e d life i n
N o r t h A f r i c a , I r a n , and Central Asia. I t d i d n o t
constitute a timeless essence o f Islamic visual
c u l t u r e , as most o f the l i t e r a t u r e o n the subject
assumed, b u t was o n l y one o f m a n y abstract deco-
rative modes available. I t was n o t i n d e p e n d e n t l y
i n v e n t e d i n different places as the mysterious
visual manifestation o f a M u s l i m s p i r i t u a l m e n -
tality; i t was developed i n a specific t i m e and
place and spread f r o m there to other places. The
T o p k a p i scroll, datable to the late fifteenth- or
sixteenth-century I r a n i a n w o r l d , therefore, repre-
sents a final regional c u l m i n a t i o n o f the girih,
w h i c h enjoyed a longue duree p o p u l a r i t y i n the
medieval Islamic lands just before i t became m a r -
ginalized d u r i n g the early m o d e r n era. The scroll's
c o m p i l a t i o n coincided w i t h the last burst o f crea-
t i v i t y t h a t the late G o t h i c style experienced i n c o n -
t e m p o r a r y Europe before its elaborate geometric
fireworks were displaced by the n u m e r i c a l a r i t h -
metic approach o f the Renaissance. I n contrast to
Europe, where the Renaissance largely swept away
the G o t h i c architectural i d i o m , whose v i r t u o s o
geometric elaborations i t rejected w i t h a ven-
geance, the remnants o f the girih m o d e c o n t i n u e d
to live o n i n various degrees o f i n t e n s i t y i n post-
medieval Islamic visual c u l t u r e , w h i c h d i d n o t
experience a m a j o r paradigmatic shift comparable
to the Renaissance. Nevertheless the p r e d o m i -
n a n t l y floral visual i d i o m s o f the early m o d e r n
Islamic empires seemed to signal the end o f a me-
dieval era and the b e g i n n i n g o f a new one whose
" p r o t o m o d e r n " ethos calls for a detailed contex-
t u a l analysis falling beyond the scope o f this b o o k .
Neither the few r e m a i n i n g early medieval m o n u -
ments n o r the w r i t t e n texts p r o v i d e m u c h i n f o r -
m a t i o n about the o r i g i n a l associations o f the
girih at the t i m e o f its i n c e p t i o n , associations t h a t
appear to have shifted w i t h changing collective
memories over t i m e and space. Later sources f r o m
the p o s t - M o n g o l p e r i o d p r o v i d e a better sense o f
the range o f meanings t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
geometric patterns c o u l d carry. The Safavid clas-
sifications o f animate and i n a n i m a t e modes o f
abstract design referred to above suggest t h a t artis-
tic c r e a t i o n , w h i c h c o u l d h a r d l y a i m to m a t c h the
creation o f G o d (al-sani , c
"the divine artist"), took
the different realms o f n a t u r e as its u l t i m a t e m o d -
els. C o n t r a r y to the widespread assumption t h a t
the so-called arabesque was the symbolic transla-
t i o n o f the Islamic revelation i n t o visual f o r m ,
most p r i m a r y sources l i m i t the subject m a t t e r o f
art to the realms o f n a t u r e , given the complete
transcendence o f G o d and o f the message o f the
K o r a n . They often stress the parallelism between
God's creation o f the universe and the artist's
modest creations t h a t t r a n s f o r m raw m a t t e r , a
p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous parallelism addressed i n sev-
eral h a d i t h t h a t w a r n the painter about the f u t i l i t y
o f a t t e m p t i n g to rival G o d t h r o u g h lifelike, n a t u -
ralistic representations. 55
I t is w r i t t e n i n the Rasd'il (Epistles) o f the
Brethren o f P u r i t y ( I k h w a n al-Safa'), believed
to have been composed by a g r o u p o f authors
w i t h S h i i leanings w h o were active i n late t e n t h -
c
century B u y i d Baghdad, t h a t skillful artisans
54
s h o u l d i m i t a t e God's creation to "assimilate His
w i s d o m . . . as m u c h as this is possible to m a n . "
The object o f artistic c r e a t i o n , t h e n , was " t o i m i -
tate the science o f the C r e a t o r " and to " r e p r o d u c e
the signs o f H i s art i n the n a t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . "
I n t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n to the epistle o n music the
B r e t h r e n w r o t e , " I n this Epistle music acts as a
focus whose purpose is to explain and i l l u m i n a t e
the wonders o f c r e a t i o n , the p h e n o m e n a o f n a t u r e ,
and matters l y i n g w i t h i n the d o m a i n o f h u m a n
c r e a t i o n . " A b d e l h a m i d I . Sabra's observation t h a t
" t h e B r e t h r e n were a i m i n g t h e i r teaching at the
class o f craftsmen and generally educated people"
endows t h e i r w r i t i n g s w i t h a special significance.
The epistles o f the B r e t h r e n o f P u r i t y , a f r a t e r n i t y -
like society o f B u y i d g o v e r n m e n t secretaries and

officials w h o preferred to r e m a i n a n o n y m o u s , were
not o n l y studied by the philosopher and physician
I b n Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037) b u t also by such
S u n n i writers as al-Ghazali and even the strict
H a n b a l i theologian I b n Taymiyya. This shows that
their teachings, to w h i c h we shall r e t u r n i n part 5,
were n o t l i m i t e d to S h i i circles.
c 56
A s i m i l a r role is assigned to art i n the S u n n i
scholar M u h a m m a d al-Dawwani's (1424-1503) late
fifteenth-century p o p u l a r ethical treatise, adapted
largely f r o m earlier S h i i texts i n c l u d i n g the ethics
c
o f the M o n g o l - I l k h a n i d m a t h e m a t i c i a n and
astronomer Nasir a l - D i n al-Tusi (1210-1274).
W r i t t e n i n the A q q o y u n l u c o u r t , this w o r k brings
us close to the m i l i e u where the T o p k a p i scroll
seems to have been c o m p i l e d :
N o w nature is superior to art, for i t is
derived f r o m the highest o f sources, w i t h -
out the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f h u m a n j u d g m e n t ;
whereas art proceeds solely f r o m such
i n t e r v e n t i o n . N a t u r e t h e n is the peda-
gogue and preceptor o f art; and as the
perfection o f things secondary lies i n their
resemblance to originals, the perfection o f
art m u s t lie i n its resemblance to nature,
w h i c h resemblance i t may a t t a i n by a n t i c i -
p a t i n g or p o s t p o n i n g means, and arrang-
i n g t h e m generally i n their a p p r o p r i a t e
course: so that that perfection w h i c h ,
under Providence, is effected by the
agency o f n a t u r e , may be accomplished
by art under the guidance o f h u m a n
THE POST-MONGOL
w i l l ; and this w i t h a peculiar v i r t u e
b e l o n g i n g o n l y to a r t . 5 7
N o matter h o w abstract, t h e n , artistic creation
had to be modeled o n the p h e n o m e n a o f n a t u r e ,
a concept repeated i n a wide variety o f sources.
For example, M i r Sayyid-Ahmad's preface to the
Safavid a l b u m o f paintings and calligraphy m e n -
t i o n e d above described artists w h o specialized i n
the seven basic modes o f abstract i l l u m i n a t i o n ,
i n c l u d i n g the girih, as d e r i v i n g t h e i r prototypes
f r o m nature, the creation o f the d i v i n e artist:
W h a t marvelous wielders o f pens o f
sorcery w h o bestow life w i t h magic-
m a k i n g pens!
Latched o n t o every created t h i n g , they
reproduce the likeness o f every t h i n g .
They f o l l o w God's craft f r o m the compass
o f the spheres to the surface o f the earth.
W i t h their gazes fixed o n c r e a t i o n , they
take an image f r o m every p r o t o t y p e . 58
Just as painters derived abstract modes o f
i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m the prototypes o f n a t u r e , a r c h i -
tects are often described as i m i t a t i n g the order o f
the cosmos i n t h e i r b u i l d i n g s . The late sixteenth-
and early seventeenth-century biographies o f
the O t t o m a n architects Sinan and M e h m e d , for
example, start by c o m p a r i n g G o d to an a r c h i -
tect, an image w i d e l y used i n the Islamic w o r l d ,
B y z a n t i u m , and the L a t i n West alike. Sinan's auto-
b i o g r a p h y composed by the p o e t - p a i n t e r Sa i c
SYNTHESIS 117
begins w i t h a section that thanks the d i v i n e creator
(sani )
c
w h o l a i d the f o u n d a t i o n s o f the seven sto-
ries, b u i l t the nine-arched d o m e o f heaven, and
created the palace (kasr) o f the b o d y o f A d a m
" w i t h o u t ruler or compass" s i m p l y t h r o u g h the
c o m m a n d "Be!" The same text draws an i m p l i c i t
parallel between the cosmos and Sinan's m o n u -
m e n t a l mosques c r o w n e d by domes o f heaven,
a parallel t h a t also i n f o r m e d the architectonic
s t r u c t u r e and decorative programs o f earlier
Byzantine c h u r c h e s . 59
M e h m e d ' s b i o g r a p h y composed by Ca fer c
Efendi, Risdle-i M'fmariyye (Treatise o n architec-
t u r e ) , begins w i t h a similar d e d i c a t i o n : "Let there
be endless thanks and numberless praises o f that
G o d w h o created m e n , w h o opened the d o o r o f
the palace o f w i s d o m and w h o i n accordance w i t h
the c o m m a n d Be! A n d i t is,' . . . created . . . this
l
great w o r k s h o p , perfect i n f o r m as an ideal o f the
m i n d , c o n t a i n i n g and c o m p r i s i n g seven lower lev-
els and seven upper levels." A detailed d e s c r i p t i o n
o f the cosmos is followed by praise o f the d i v i n e
architect's w o n d r o u s creation: " W h a t is this vault
o f heaven, and w h a t is this surface o f the world?
W h a t is this lofty arch, and w h a t is this lofty p a v i l -
ion? H o w is i t that such an edifice was a r t f u l l y
made w i t h o u t drawings [plans] and w i t h o u t geome-
t r y and w i t h o u t a [ t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l ] m o d e l ? " 60
The Sultan A h m e d mosque (1609-1617) designed
by M e h m e d is described i n similar terms, its d o m e
compared to the i l l u m i n a t e d vault o f heaven, its
m i h r a b to rainbows, and its arched galleries to
m o u n t a i n s , i n d i c a t i n g that its m i c r o c o s m i c struc-
Il8 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL,
ture was considered replete with allusions to
nature.
G i v e n the " n a t u r a l i s t i c " references e n c o d e d i n
buildings, their surfaces—covered w i t h t w o - and
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l girih patterns d o m i n a t e d by
t h e g e o m e t r y o f stars a n d p o l y g o n s — c o u l d e a s i l y
trigger c o s m o l o g i c a l associations. As B o u r g o i n and
others n o t e d , p o l y g o n a l interlaces seemed to evoke
the crystalline h a r m o n i c s t r u c t u r e o f a m a t h e m a t i ­
cally o r d e r e d i n a n i m a t e m a t e r i a l w o r l d . A m o n g
g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s t h o s e f e a t u r i n g stars r e s o n a t e d
w i t h heavenly allusions. The u n d e r l y i n g orbitlike
c o n c e n t r i c g r i d s o f s t e l l a t e girih patterns p u n c t u ­
ate t h e surfaces t h e y c o v e r w i t h p u l s a t i n g n o d a l
r o t o c e n t e r s m a r k e d b y stars, w h o s e e q u i d i s t a n t
r a d i i e m a n a t i n g l i k e l i g h t rays c r e a t e a n effect r e m i ­
n i s c e n t o f t h e e m a n a t i o n o f l i g h t i n a s t a r r y sky.
T h e e x t e n d e d lines o f m u l t i p l e star centers i n t e r ­
l i n k to f o r m p o l y g o n s a n d s u b s i d i a r y star clusters
charged w i t h a vaguely representational character.
I n s t e a d o f b e i n g precise r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f stars
a n d h e a v e n l y o r b i t s as t h e y w o u l d a p p e a r i n c o n ­
t e m p o r a r y a s t r o n o m i c a l t r e a t i s e s , h o w e v e r , these
girihs are s i m p l y g e o m e t r i c a b s t r a c t i o n s w o r k i n g
o n the level o f a suggestive analogy or m e t a p h o r .
T h e y recall the D u t c h artist Piet M o n d r i a n ' s
(1872-1944) speculation i n a letter a b o u t the m u l ­
t i p l i c i t y o f stars i n t h e n i g h t s k y a n d t h e f o r m a l
r e l a t i o n s t h a t l i n e s b e t w e e n these s t a r s c o u l d m a k e
m a n i f e s t : " T h e s t a r r y s k y s h o w s us i n n u m e r a b l e
p o i n t s n o t all equally emphasized: one star t w i n k l e s
m o r e t h a n a n o t h e r ; a n d n o w again these u n e q u a l
l i g h t values engender f o r m s . " 6 1
AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
T h e h e a v e n l y a s s o c i a t i o n s o f s t e l l a t e girih pat­
t e r n s are c a p t u r e d i n s o m e t e x t u a l d e s c r i p t i o n s ;
f o r e x a m p l e , i n 1544 D o s t M u h a m m a d r e f e r r e d t o
the g i l d e d g e o m e t r i c interlaces o f a Safavid i l l u m i ­
n a t o r as " m a d e f r o m t h e rays o f s h o o t i n g s t a r s "
t h a t create "abodes o f b u r n i s h e d g o l d i n his s u n ­
bursts." 6 2
T h e n a m e s a s s i g n e d t o s t e l l a t e girihs by
c o n t e m p o r a r y I r a n i a n m a s t e r b u i l d e r s are also
s u g g e s t i v e ; t h e y refer t o c o m p o s i t i o n s w i t h t w e l v e -
a n d s i x - p o i n t e d stars as " t w e l v e a n d s i x h e a v e n s "
(duwäzdah wa shash gardün) or to those w i t h
t w e l v e - a n d e i g h t - p o i n t e d s t a r s as " t w e l v e a n d
e i g h t h e a v e n s " (duwäzdah wa hashtgardün). The
c o n c h l i k e fluted s e m i d o m e s o r d o m e l e t s f r o m
w h i c h m o s t s t a r - s t u d d e d m u q a r n a s t i e r s are r a d i ­
a l l y g e n e r a t e d l i k e rays c a s c a d i n g f r o m a c e n ­
t r a l s o u r c e o f l i g h t are r e f e r r e d t o as s u n figures
(shamsa) b y t h e s a m e b u i l d e r s (see figs. 6 7 - 6 9 ) . 6 3
T h a t t w o - a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l girih patterns
c o u l d also be c h a r g e d w i t h s p e c i f i c h e a v e n l y r e f e r ­
ences t h r o u g h a c c o m p a n y i n g p o e t i c o r K o r a n i c
i n s c r i p t i o n s is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s
i n the A l h a m b r a . H e r e the stellate plaster m u q a r ­
nas d o m e o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y H a l l o f T w o
Sisters a n d t h e w o o d e n artesonado vault o f the
n e i g h b o r i n g H a l l o f A m b a s s a d o r s (also b u i l t i n
t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) , c o m p o s e d o f seven tiers
o f s i x - a n d e i g h t - p o i n t e d stars i n t e r l o c k i n g w i t h
p o l y g o n s , c a n b o t h be i d e n t i f i e d as a n a l o g u e s t o
the heavens b y means o f t h e i r carefully chosen
inscriptions. This confirms the kinship between
s p a t i a l a n d p l a n a r g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s t h a t are
j u x t a p o s e d i n girih scrolls.
I t has b e e n r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e A l h a m b r a ' s
artesonado v a u l t was m e a n t to a l l u d e t o the seven
heavens referred to i n an a c c o m p a n y i n g K o r a n i c
i n s c r i p t i o n : " B l e s s e d is H e i n w h o s e h a n d is t h e
K i n g d o m . . . . W h o created seven heavens o n e
u p o n a n o t h e r . T h o u seest n o t i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f
t h e A l l - M e r c i f u l a n y i m p e r f e c t i o n . R e t u r n t h y gaze;
seest t h o u a n y fissure? T h e n r e t u r n t h y gaze a g a i n ,
a n d a g a i n , a n d t h y gaze c o m e s b a c k t o t h e e d a z z l e d ,
aweary" (67: 1 - 4 ) . 6 4
The layering o f the vault i n
s u p e r i m p o s e d tiers a n d the fitting together w i t h ­
o u t a n y gaps o f c o n g r u e n t stars a n d p o l y g o n s c a n
t h u s be i d e n t i f i e d as a m e t a p h o r f o r t h e w o n d r o u s
design o f the heavens created b y the w i s d o m o f
God. This Koranic quotation implies that God's
c r e a t i o n is s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f a p a t t e r n m a k e r c o n ­
cerned w i t h the p r o b l e m o f t i g h t l y fitting together
h a r m o n i o u s l y p r o p o r t i o n e d c o n g r u e n t shapes a n d
c l o s e l y p a c k e d g e o m e t r i c s o l i d s w i t h o u t a n y gaps.
The bedazzlement o f the weary beholder, unable
to decipher the ingenious u n d e r l y i n g order o f the
d i v i n e l y created universe, parallels the aesthetic
effect o f girih p a t t e r n s w h o s e i n t e r l o c k i n g stars
a n d polygons c o n t i n u o u s l y seem to m e t a m o r ­
phose i n t o one another w i t h o u t revealing their
hidden geometry.
Grabar i n t e r p r e t e d the m u q a r n a s d o m e o f the
H a l l o f T w o Sisters as a n i m a g e o f t h e r e v o l v i n g
v a u l t o f h e a v e n o n t h e basis o f t h e A n d a l u s i a n p o e t
I b n Z a m r a k ' s (1333-1393) A r a b i c p o e m i n s c r i b e d
a r o u n d i t s base, w h i c h is p i e r c e d w i t h w i n d o w s
creating an i n t e r p l a y o f l i g h t a n d shade, diffused i n
subtle g r a d a t i o n s b y m u q a r n a s shells a r r a n g e d i n a

m u l t i t i e r e d stellate c o m p o s i t i o n . 65
H e w r o t e , " I t is
as t h o u g h the cupola was u n d e r s t o o d as a r o t a t i n g
one, reflecting the daily cycle o f l i g h t and darkness
and the changing positions o f constellations." The
relevant parts o f the p o e m read:
I n here is a cupola w h i c h by its height
becomes lost f r o m sight; beauty i n i t
appears b o t h concealed and visible.
The constellation o f G e m i n i extends a
ready h a n d [ t o help i t ] and the f u l l m o o n
o f the heavens draws near to whisper
secretly to i t .
A n d the b r i g h t stars w o u l d like to estab-
lish themselves f i r m l y i n i t rather t h a n
to c o n t i n u e w a n d e r i n g about i n the
vault o f the sky.
A n d h o w m a n y arches rise up i n its vault
s u p p o r t e d by c o l u m n s w h i c h at n i g h t are
embellished by l i g h t !
You w o u l d t h i n k that they are heavenly
spheres whose orbits revolve, overshadow-
i n g the p i l l a r o f dawn w h e n i t barely
begins to appear after having passed
t h r o u g h the sky.
W h e n they are i l l u m i n a t e d by the rays o f
the sun y o u w o u l d t h i n k that they are
made o f pearls by reason o f the q u a n t i t y
o f celestial bodies i n t h e m . 6 6
THE POST-MONGOL
These references to l i g h t suggest t h a t the super-
i m p o s e d tiers o f stellate muqarnas vaults c o u l d
be read as abstract analogues for the m u l t i l a y e r e d
heavens studded w i t h g l i t t e r i n g celestial bodies
and i m b u e d w i t h b r i l l i a n t l i g h t . This visual anal-
ogy frequently was heightened by color schemes
d o m i n a t e d by blues and gold and by the p i e r c i n g
o f muqarnas vaults w i t h w i n d o w s along t h e i r base
or w i t h r o u n d openings o n each tier, fitted w i t h
glass bulbs f r o m w h i c h real rays o f l i g h t p o u r e d i n .
T h a t the association w i t h l i g h t was relatively c o m -
m o n is suggested i n a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the sixteenth-
c e n t u r y I b r a h i m Pasha Palace o v e r l o o k i n g the
H i p p o d r o m e i n I s t a n b u l as t o u c h i n g the stalac-
t i t e d heavenly spheres (carh-i mukarnas); its vaults
were so elaborately decorated that the sun's rays
w o u l d n o t suffice for the girihs o f their m u q a r -
nases (mukarnaslarinun girihlerine zamir-i dfitdb
yitismez). 67
Given the Koranic association o f light w i t h G o d
expressed i n the L i g h t Verse, the r a d i a t i n g rays o f
t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l girihs that t r a n s f o r m
the surfaces o f b u i l d i n g s i n t o v i b r a t i o n s o f l i g h t
and color (a f u n c t i o n o f l i g h t ) were also open to a
wide range o f religious resonances. I t is, therefore,
n o t s u r p r i s i n g that the elaborate muqarnas p o r t a l
o f the madrasa complex o f Sultan Hasan i n Cairo
quotes the L i g h t Verse (24: 3 6 - 3 7 ) . The muqarnas
h o o d may have been a metaphor for the e m a n a t i o n
o f l i g h t i n the universe created by G o d , the a r t i s t i -
cally representable i n a n i m a t e realm o f nature and
n a t u r a l phenomena.
The N e o p l a t o n i c d o c t r i n e o f e m a n a t i o n , w h i c h
SYNTHESIS 119
regarded the o r i g i n o f the universe as an eternal
r a d i a t i o n o f l i g h t f r o m a first p r i n c i p l e (the One,
or p u r e l i g h t ) , had become a cornerstone o f Islamic
p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h o u g h t i n the t e n t h and early elev-
enth centuries, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n M u t a z i l i and S h i i
c c
circles. M a j i d Fakhry p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the emana-
t i o n i s t w o r l d v i e w " t o w h i c h the M u s l i m p h i l o s o -
phers adhered almost w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n " was
developed i n the w r i t i n g s o f such t h i n k e r s as
al-Farabi, I b n Sina, and the Brethren o f P u r i t y ,
b e c o m i n g f u r t h e r elaborated i n Shihab a l - D i n
al-Suhrawardi's mystical p h i l o s o p h y o f i l l u m i -
n a t i o n . The heterodox i m p l i c a t i o n s o f this view
u p h o l d i n g the eternity o f the m a t e r i a l w o r l d w o u l d
be attacked by the polemicists o f the S u n n i revival,
w h o restored the Koranic concept o f a universe
created i n t i m e w i t h o u t any intermediaries by
an o m n i p o t e n t and o m n i p r e s e n t G o d whose
knowledge extends to " t h e smallest particle i n
heaven or o n e a r t h " (34: 3 ) . 68
Nevertheless, j u s t as the M u t a z i l i a t o m i s t i c
c
cosmology w o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e d by the A s h a r i c
school i n m o d i f i e d f o r m , r e f o r m u l a t e d themes o f
N e o p l a t o n i c cosmology and metaphysics crept
i n t o Sufism. A l t h o u g h al-Ghazali c r i t i c i z e d such
M u s l i m philosophers as al-Farabi and I b n Sina
w h o w r o t e about the spontaneous generation o f
the universe f r o m a p u r e l i g h t source, he d i d
adopt t h e i r m e t a p h o r o f l i g h t i n his Mishkdt al-
Anwdr ( N i c h e o f l i g h t s ) , a mystical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f the L i g h t Verse as an allegorical reference
to the l i g h t o f d i v i n e revelation, reflecting an
amalgam o f N e o p l a t o n i c and Sufi doctrines. I n
120 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL,
d o i n g so, he shifted the philosopher's emphasis
o n reason t o an experiential f o r m o f i n t u i t i v e
i l l u m i n a t i o n i n the quest for d i v i n e k n o w l e d g e .
H i s new S u n n i o r t h o d o x synthesis therefore
i n v o l v e d a selective "process o f a s s i m i l a t i o n " that
b l u r r e d the lines between t r a d i t i o n i s t theology,
p h i l o s o p h y , and m y s t i c i s m , e n d i n g i n a complete
" n a t u r a l i z a t i o n " o f the i m p o r t e d Greek sciences
in Muslim soil. 7 0
The persisting echoes o f N e o p l a t o n i c l i g h t
i m a g e r y — t h e epitome o f clarity, b r i l l i a n c e , p u r i t y ,
and detachment f r o m m a t e r i a l d e f i l e m e n t — m a y
have i n f o r m e d the p r e - M o n g o l associations o f the
girih whose c o n t i n u i n g life i n the p o s t - M o n g o l
eastern Islamic w o r l d was n o u r i s h e d b y an increas-
i n g receptiveness t o all types o f Sufism, ranging
f r o m o r t h o d o x t o u n o r t h o d o x . The long-lasting
p o p u l a r i t y o f the girih i n this m i d d l e p e r i o d o f
Islam (a t e r m conceived b y M a r s h a l l H o d g s o n ,
w h o subdivides i t i n t o the early m i d d l e p e r i o d
[950-1250] and later m i d d l e p e r i o d [1250-1500])
seems t o signal a p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h the sublime
aesthetics o f l i g h t and p r o p o r t i o n , w h i c h was
also shared i n the medieval C h r i s t i a n w o r l d as
we shall see i n part 5.
Even t h o u g h the specific associations o f t w o -
and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns d u r i n g
the S u n n i revival d o n o t seem t o have been a r t i c u -
lated i n c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t t e n sources, these pat-
terns were d o m i n a t e d b y stellate c o m p o s i t i o n s
f r o m the very b e g i n n i n g . I n Samarra the I m a m
D u r ' s early stucco muqarnas d o m e (circa 1085), for
example, forms a m u l t i t i e r e d e i g h t - p o i n t e d star
CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC HORIZONS
c u l m i n a t i n g i n a conch w i t h eight sectors. Stellate
c o m p o s i t i o n s also characterize the t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y
69
conical muqarnas domes c r o w n i n g the so-called
t o m b o f Zubayda i n Baghdad and N u r a l - D i n ' s
madrasa and hospital complexes i n Damascus. T h e
t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y flat w o o d e n muqarnas vault o f the
Capella Palatina i n N o r m a n Palermo, o n the other
h a n d , features p r o m i n e n t e i g h t - p o i n t e d stars alter-
n a t i n g w i t h e i g h t - p a r t i t e conches, embellished
w i t h figural personifications o f the planets, zodia-
cal signs, and constellations. I t was l i k e n e d i n a
t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y h o m i l y b y the m o n k Philagathos
to " t h e sky at n i g h t w h e n a host o f stars t w i n k l e
d o w n t h r o u g h the clear s k y . " 71
Philagathos
described this muqarnas vault as follows: " Y o u
do n o t tire o f c o n t e m p l a t i n g the roof, a cause o f
wonder and marvel t o those w h o see i t or hear
about i t . Embellished as i t is w i t h delicate carvings,
w h i c h are executed as differently shaped coffers
and s h i n i n g w i t h gold f r o m all sides, i t imitates the
clear sky o f heaven, i l l u m i n a t e d b y the c h o i r o f
stars." 72
This a n t i n a t u r a l i s t i c , abstract i m i t a t i o n o f
the n i g h t sky bearing n o resemblance t o the actual
structure o f the heavens i l l u s t r a t e d i n c o n t e m p o -
rary a s t r o n o m i c a l texts was once again conceived
as a loosely i n t e r p r e t e d analogy, rather t h a n a pre-
cisely w o r k e d o u t symbolic representation.
The Seljuq h i s t o r i a n I b n B i b i described the
d o m e d halls o f the early t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
Kubadabad Palace i n A n a t o l i a i n s i m i l a r terms,
referring t o " t h e i r vaulted domes that rivaled the
muqarnas o f the highest heavens," w h i c h o u t o f
jealousy for the t u r q u o i s e and azure decorations
o f these gilded palatial domes t u r n e d t h e i r o w n
t u r q u o i s e - c o l o r e d appearance i n t o i n d i g o blue a n d
saffron y e l l o w . 73
T h e t e r m muqarnas is also used i n
the Persian poetry o f N i z a m i o f Ganja (1140-1202)
and Hafiz ( d . 1390) as an a t t r i b u t e o f the heavens,
b u i l t i n layers (tabaqa) i n l a i d w i t h glistening stars.
F o l l o w i n g the same t r a d i t i o n the fifteenth-century
T i m u r i d h i s t o r i a n Sharaf a l - D i n A l i Yazdi c o m -
c
pared the arched portals o f a palace i n the Dilgusha
Garden at Samarqand t o " t h e stalactited r o o f
[taq-i muqarnas] o f the celestial s p h e r e , " 74
just
as the c o n t e m p o r a r y historians A b d al-Razzaq
c
al-Samarqandi, Dawlatshah, and K h w a n d a m i r
consistently referred to the sky as a "stalactited
vault o r r o o f " (taq-i muqarnas, saqf-i muqarnas). 75
This p o p u l a r analogy m u s t have accentuated
the i m p l i c i t heavenly associations o f muqarnas
vaults, also expressed i n the i n s c r i p t i o n s o f several
T i m u r i d m o n u m e n t s . A n o w - l o s t muqarnas-
d o m e d p a v i l i o n (gunbad-i muqarnas) i n Yazd, for
instance, was inscribed w i t h a p o e m b y Sa di c
( d . 1292) that praised G o d as the creator (sani ) o f c
the universe, the sun, the m o o n , and the stars. 76
The fact that this famous Persian poet was a
student o f U m a r al-Suhrawardi, the p r o m o t e r
c
o f o r t h o d o x Sufism at the late Abbasid caliph
al-Nasir's c o u r t , brings us closer t o the Baghdadi
m i l i e u where the geometric m o d e reached its f u l l -
fledged expression just before the M o n g o l inva-
sion. T h e heavenly m e t a p h o r must have become
m o r e explicit w i t h the increasing p o p u l a r i t y o f
the radially s y m m e t r i c a l Shirazi type o f stellate
muqarnas that dominates the vault projections

o f the Topkapi and Tashkent scrolls. These star-
studded muqarnas vault projections d o recall the
T i m u r i d a s t r o n o m e r - m a t h e m a t i c i a n al-Kashi's
praise o f the heavens: "Thanks and [praise] a n d
i n c o m p a r a b l e glory is due t o the / Power [the
Creator] w h o has i n l a i d the layers o f the heavens
w i t h glistening pearls, w i t h s h o o t i n g [stars],
and g l i t t e r i n g jewels / the planets and the fixed
[stars]." 77
Some extant i n s c r i p t i o n s o n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
m o n u m e n t s s u p p o r t the cosmological associations
o f muqarnas vaults that i n d i r e c t l y seemed t o glo-
r i f y the d i v i n e creator b y i n v i t i n g the gaze to c o n -
template the wonders o f creation. For example, the
m u q a r n a s - h o o d e d entrance p o r t a l o f the Shad-i
M u l k Aqa mausoleum (1371-1383) i n the Shah-i
Z i n d a complex i n Samarqand carries the f o l l o w i n g
i n s c r i p t i o n : " T h i s r o o f f u l l o f muqarnas [saqf-i pur
muqarnas] and this gilded vault [tdq-i zarnigdr] I
Are an expression o f beauty [zayn], I C a l l i n g t o
m i n d t h a t all o f the decor and art y o u see i n this
w o r l d / Is by favor o f the Creator, the O m n i p o t e n t . "
This q u a t r a i n , w h i c h attributes the beauty o f the
cosmos t o its d i v i n e creator, is f o l l o w e d b y two
others referring to death, b u r i a l , and the t r a n -
sience o f life i n the m a t e r i a l w o r l d . They end w i t h
the declaration: " D o n o t expect f u l f i l l m e n t i n this
t r a n s i t o r y w o r l d / W h i l e the arch and the s u m m i t
stand, such w i l l be the case," an allusion t o the
cosmos, echoing the references t o architecture
made i n the first q u a t r a i n . 78
The increasing emphasis o f T i m u r i d m o n u m e n -
tal i n s c r i p t i o n s o n the transitoriness o f life o n
THE POST-MONGOL
earth (see cat. no. 51a), together w i t h references t o
God's absolute power and w i s d o m as manifested
i n the d i v i n e creation, reflect the mystical ethos o f
this p e r i o d , characterized by the r i s i n g status o f
Sufi poetry i n the f o u r t e e n t h and fifteenth cen-
turies. 79
This ethos is best captured i n the deeply
mystical p o e t r y o f A b d al-Rahman Jami (1414-
c
1492), the greatest o f all T i m u r i d poets, whose
two disciples M i r A l i Shir N a w a ' i (1441-1501) and
c
Sultan Husayn Bayqara (1438-1507) were a m o n g
the foremost patrons o f late T i m u r i d art and
architecture i n H e r a t . 80
C o n t e m p o r a r y biographies
o f poets, such as those b y N a w a ' i and Dawlatshah,
testify to the widespread p o p u l a r i t y o f Persian
poetry and Sufism a m o n g different strata o f late
T i m u r i d society, ranging f r o m professional poets
and the r u l i n g elite to soldiers, the c o m m o n
people, and the bazaar folk. The increasing use
o f i n s c r i p t i o n s q u o t i n g mystical Persian poetry
o n T i m u r i d b u i l d i n g s seems t o have addressed
this g r o w i n g literate p o p u l a t i o n , w h i c h made
Dawlatshah c o m p l a i n , " W h e r e v e r y o u listen, y o u
hear the m u r m u r o f a poet, and wherever y o u
l o o k , y o u see a L a t i n o r a Z a r i f i o r a N a z i r i . " 8 1
The g r o w i n g t r e n d i n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n a r c h i -
tecture t o c o m p l e m e n t A r a b i c epigraphy w i t h
Persian p o e t r y h i g h l i g h t e d a new k i n d o f dialogue
between visual and verbal signs. The way i n w h i c h
p o e t r y c o u l d e n r i c h the c o m m u n i c a t i v e p o t e n t i a l
o f accompanying abstract patterns i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l
revetments is captured b y an i n s c r i p t i o n o n the
entrance p o r t a l o f the D a r b - i I m a m i n Isfahan.
This p o r t a l , w h i c h features a tile mosaic muqarnas
V
SYNTHESIS 121
h o o d c o m b i n e d w i t h stellate arch-net squinches, is
flanked by mosaic tile relief panels o f i n t e r l o c k i n g
stars and polygons i n two different layers (see
fig. 63) that recall similar designs i n c l u d e d i n the
Topkapi scroll (see cat. nos. 38, 49). Its poetic
i n s c r i p t i o n reads: "There is a m e t a p h o r for this i n
the r e v o l u t i o n o f the dome o f the heavens. . . . See,
w i t h the eye o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , h o w t h a t [ b u i l d -
ing] whose ivan passed above the seventh heaven
[ S a t u r n ] , fell to the e a r t h . " 8 2
This i n s c r i p t i o n once
again h i g h l i g h t s the parallelism between the m u l t i -
tiered r e v o l v i n g heavens and the vaulted b u i l d i n g ,
charging its abstract revetments w i t h heavenly
allusions displayed for the i n s i g h t f u l gaze. The
widespread use i n the I r a n i a n w o r l d o f such
poetic i n s c r i p t i o n s , permeated w i t h cosmic themes,
can be deduced f r o m the fifteenth-century local
histories o f Yazd where they are q u o t e d and f r o m
the extant Persian f o u n d a t i o n i n s c r i p t i o n o f the
Q i n i l i Kosk at the Topkapi Palace i n I s t a n b u l ,
w h i c h was b u i l t i n the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n i d i o m . 8 3
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n b u i l d i n g s completely cov-
ered w i t h p o l y c h r o m a t i c geometric patterns, angu-
lar and cursive i n s c r i p t i o n s , as w e l l as vegetal and
floral m o t i f s , c o u l d induce i n receptive observer-
users a c o n t e m p l a t i v e m o o d t h r o u g h their endless
r e p e t i t i o n o f A r a b i c pious phrases, accompanied
by longer poetic i n s c r i p t i o n s i n Persian. Square
kufic pious aphorisms, most o f t h e m i n A r a b i c ,
a b o u n d i n the Topkapi scroll, where they are
juxtaposed w i t h girih patterns f o r bannai brick
masonry. These phrases, so p r o m i n e n t i n T i m u r i d
architectural revetments, supplied abstract pat-
122 PART 3. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND SEMANTIC
terns w i t h extra cues. W e l l - k n o w n Koranic phrases
such as "Praise be t o G o d ! , " " G o d is Great!,"
"There is no god b u t G o d , " or the repeated names
o f Allah, Muhammad, and AlT created a visually
c
h a r m o n i o u s setting full o f religious reminders (see
cat. nos. 1, 40, 41, 43, 45, 5 i b - c , 5ie-g> 5ii> 68b,
69a, 71, 72a, 75-77, 91). T h e i r visual r e p e t i t i o n has
been c o m p a r e d w i t h verbal repetitions k n o w n
i n Sufi practice as dhikr ( l i t . , " r e m e m b r a n c e , " or
"commemoration"). 8 4
This r i t u a l r e p e t i t i o n o f a
litany, designed to i n t e n s i f y mystical m e d i t a t i o n ,
was seen as a m e t h o d o f r e m i n d i n g oneself o f
God's greatness and the marvels o f the d i v i n e
creation. The c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f abstract patterns
m o d e l e d o n nature c o u l d be channeled i n t o spe-
cific directions by such i n s c r i p t i o n s c a p t u r i n g the
Sufi sensibilities o f the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n w o r l d .
Like the A l h a m b r a ' s p o l y c h r o m a t i c revetments
that endlessly repeat the N a s r i d heraldic m o t t o ,
"There is no C o n q u e r o r b u t G o d , " the f o r m u l a i c
pious aphorisms p r o m i n e n t l y displayed o n the
facades o f T i m u r i d b u i l d i n g s i m b u e d abstract
patterns w i t h specific moods. I n the A l h a m b r a
repeated short phrases readable i n a furtive " m o n -
o p t i c " Glance were also accompanied by longer
poems i n A r a b i c r e q u i r i n g the concentrated
effort o f the Gaze. As Jones w r o t e , the A l h a m b r a ' s
" M o r e s q u e o r n a m e n t s " t h a t addressed themselves
" t o the eye by t h e i r o u t w a r d beauty, at once excited
the intellect by the difficulties o f deciphering t h e i r
curious and c o m p l e x i n v o l u t i o n s , and delighted
the i m a g i n a t i o n w h e n read, by the beauty o f the
sentiments they expressed and the music o f t h e i r
HORIZONS
c o m p o s i t i o n . " He added t h a t these ornaments
c o u l d c o n t a i n different subjective meanings:
To the artist and those p r o v i d e d w i t h a
m i n d to estimate the value o f the beauty
to w h i c h they gave a life they repeated,
Look and learn. To the people they p r o -
claimed the m i g h t , majesty, and good
deeds o f the k i n g . To the k i n g h i m s e l f
they never ceased declaring t h a t there was
none p o w e r f u l b u t G o d , t h a t He alone
was conqueror, and that to H i m alone was
for ever due praise and g l o r y . 85
T h r o u g h the added " p o i n t e r s " o f i n s c r i p t i o n s
and other contextual factors, the otherwise a m b i g -
uous t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l patterns o f the
girih c o u l d trigger specific associations, b u t i t is
h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t these patterns were assigned
w i t h fixed iconographic meanings wherever or
whenever they appeared. N o w h e r e i n the w r i t t e n
p r i m a r y sources can one f i n d any evidence for the
a p r i o r i c l a i m t h a t geometric patterns were u n i -
versally u n d e r s t o o d as symbols o f the concept o f
tawhid that endowed m u l t i p l i c i t y w i t h u n i t y . These
evocative patterns c o u l d trigger religious, meta-
physical, or mystical speculations, b u t they were
by no means symbolic or iconic "representations"
o f t h e m . Such r e d u n d a n t and deliberately a m b i g u -
ous polysemous signs were susceptible to a m u l t i -
p l i c i t y o f subjective i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and a wealth
o f resonances n o t l i m i t e d to r e l i g i o n . They c o u l d
also evoke a sense ofbeauty, w o n d e r , power, and
w e a l t h , depending o n the context and the i n c l i n a -
tions o f the viewer. Like the classical orders, t w o -
and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l girih patterns c o u l d s u p p o r t
m u l t i p l e c o n n o t a t i o n s , even c o n t r a d i c t o r y ones,
t h o u g h t h e i r slightly representational character,
betrayed by the consistent use o f stars, was c o n -
ducive to p a r t i c u l a r kinds o f resonances.
I t was this flexibility o f the girih as a m u l t i l a y -
ered c o n t e x t u a l sign system t h a t assured its l o n g
life, a f l e x i b i l i t y i n keeping w i t h the m u c h - n o t e d
a m b i g u i t y o f Islamic patterns based o n a looser
associational system o f signification rather t h a n
o n a r i g i d l y codified iconographic one. Geometric
patterns, sometimes charged w i t h specific mean-
ings t h r o u g h accompanying i n s c r i p t i o n s or other
p o i n t e r s , thus occupied an i n t e r m e d i a r y zone
between the " d e c o r a t i v e " and the " s y m b o l i c . " This
rescues t h e m f r o m being relegated i n t o the realm
o f meaningless d e c o r a t i o n , merely aimed to please
or to satisfy the assumed h o r r o r vacui o f the
M u s l i m subject. I t also justifies a semiotic reading
sensitive t o the v a r y i n g contextual factors over-
l o o k e d by essentialist symbolic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
To summarize, t h e n , the geographical, c h r o n o -
logical, and semantic h o r i z o n s o f the girih were
m u c h m o r e flexible t h a n assumed i n the secondary
l i t e r a t u r e t h a t a t t r i b u t e d timeless religious, m y s t i -
cal, or cosmological meanings to the arabesque
irrespective o f context. Since the girih's associa-
tions d u r i n g the age o f S u n n i revival are less d o c u -
m e n t e d t h a n the ones i t came to acquire i n later
periods, we have a t t e m p t e d to deduce t h e m by
t u r n i n g to the c u l t u r a l context o f late Abbasid
 THE POST-MONGOL SYNTHESIS 123

Baghdad where this m o d e o f design seems to
have o r i g i n a t e d . The s t r i k i n g parallelism between
the geometric m o d e and the ethos o f the S u n n i
revival, however, goes beyond just an assumed
Zeitgeist. M o r e t h a n s i m p l y a collective w o r l d v i e w
or Weltanschauung i n f o r m i n g an i n t r i n s i c analogy
between the arts, r e l i g i o n , and p h i l o s o p h y , c o m p a -
rable to the one posited i n E r w i n Panofsky's Gothic
Architecture and Scholasticism, 1951, i t was the c o n -
crete circumstances o f artistic p r o d u c t i o n i n the
courts o f late Abbasid Baghdad t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d
to the i n i t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f the girih m o d e .
The c o d i f i c a t i o n i n Baghdad o f the canonical
A r a b i c scripts according to a geometric system o f
p r o p o r t i o n i n g was n o t o n l y related to theological
and p o l i t i c a l controversies about the nature o f the
K o r a n b u t also to the p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f the m a t h e -
matical sciences i n that city. D u r i n g the t e n t h and
eleventh centuries the professional m a t h e m a t i -
cians o f the Baghdad school disseminated t h e o r e t i -
cal advances i n their field by s i m p l i f i e d practical
manuals addressing the a p p l i c a t i o n o f m a t h e m a t -
ics to everyday needs. Just as the t r i c k l i n g d o w n o f
the speculations o f philosophers i n t o p o p u l a r
m y s t i c i s m w o u l d have made t h e m m o r e accessible
to the arts and crafts, i t was the p o p u l a r i z a t i o n
o f the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences t h a t facilitated the
a p p l i c a t i o n o f geometry to design.
t i n u e d w e l l i n t o the eleventh century. D u r i n g his
m o r e t h a n two decades o f p o l i t i c a l experience i n
B u y i d Baghdad this celebrated m a t h e m a t i c i a n had
developed close connections w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
secretaries, l a n d surveyors, merchants, architects,
artisans, and calligraphers whose special needs
he addressed i n several practice-oriented manuals
and i n theoretical and practical mathematics
courses t h a t had m a n y a u d i t o r s . 86
One o f these
practical manuals, e n t i t l e d Kitab fimd yahtdju
ilayhi al-sani c
min a mdl al-handasa
c
( A b o u t that
w h i c h the artisan needs to k n o w o f geometric c o n -
structions) is t h o u g h t by Woepcke to have been
c o m p i l e d f r o m class notes by a p u p i l o f al-Buzjani.
This m a n u a l , to w h i c h I w i l l r e t u r n i n part 4, seems
to have been based o n applied geometry exercises
solved i n class meetings. Its text refers to sessions
that al-Buzjani presided over where professional
geometer-engineers and artisans w o u l d propose
differing solutions to given p r o b l e m s . The m a n u a l
addressed the p e r c e p t i o n t h a t practitioners i n v a r i -
ous fields o f design r e q u i r e d better g r o u n d i n g i n
the methods o f constructive g e o m e t r y . 87
A s i m i l a r i n t e r a c t i o n between theoreticians and
p r a c t i t i o n e r s is also d o c u m e n t e d i n the Abbasid
court's royal ateliers just before B u y i d rule was
established i n Baghdad. I t is r e p o r t e d t h a t w h e n
the caliph a l - M u t a d i d ( r . 8 9 2 - 9 0 2 ) b u i l t his p a l -
c
area, recalling the c o u r t workshops and scriptoria
(kitdbkhana or kutubkhdna) o f the p o s t - M o n g o l
p e r i o d , appears to have had a w i d e r i n t e r d i s c i p l i n -
ary h o r i z o n capable o f encouraging a lively dia-
logue between theory and praxis. I t m u s t have
facilitated a direct exchange between intellectual
and artistic p r o d u c t i o n i n the very locus o f the
c o u r t where r e l i g i o p h i l o s o p h i c a l debates were
being f o r m u l a t e d i n t o official doctrines. The spa-
tial p r o x i m i t y o f court-sponsored activities i n dif-
ferent fields explains the intersection o f aesthetic
and extra-aesthetic discourses that resulted i n
artistic practices d i r e c t l y r e s p o n d i n g to d o m i n a n t
ideologies, possibly under the guidance o f erudite
advisers. F r o m the Baghdadi c o u r t m i l i e u , w h i c h
encouraged the cross-fertilization o f ideas and
practices across various disciplines, the girih easily
c o u l d have spread to n e i g h b o r i n g courts whose
local rulers acknowledged the suzerainty o f the
Abbasid caliphs. I t c o n t i n u e d to be elaborated and
further developed i n t o regional dialects i n these
diverse courts, n o u r i s h e d by the availability o f
practical geometry manuals that left an u n m i s t a k -
able stamp o n the geometric repertory and design
methods o f girih scrolls.

The m a t h e m a t i c i a n and astronomer A b u ace at Baghdad i n 901, he designated an area for

al-Wafa' al-Buzjani ( 9 4 0 - 9 9 8 ) , w h o had emigrated the teaching o f all the crafts [kull sind at) c
and the
f r o m his h o m e t o w n i n N i s h a p u r to Baghdad i n various branches o f theoretical and technical sci-
9 5 9 - 9 6 0 , was one o f the scholars i n v o l v e d i n this ences (al- ulum
c
al-nazariya wa al- amaliya),
c
pro-
systematic process o f p o p u l a r i z a t i o n t h a t c o n - v i d i n g i t w i t h generous financial s u p p o r t . 88
This
124
NOTES T O PART 3
1. Herzfeld 1942, 40.
2. Riegl 1893 (1992), 298.
3. Ibid., 281.
4. For Samarra, see Sarre and Herzfeld 1911-1920;
Herzfeld 1912; idem 1916; idem 1923; idem 1927; and
idem 1948.
5. Pope and Ackerman 1938-1939, 3: 2743-44.
6. Ibid., 3: 2753.
7. For the beveled style, see Herzfeld 1923; Creswell
1932-1940, 2: 286-88; Dimand 1937; idem 1952;
Ettinghausen 1952; Ettinghausen and Grabar 1987,101-5;
and Allen 1988, 1-15, 50-57. Kuhnel stated that the
arabesque was already formed in the ninth century
and became more fully developed under the Seljuqs,
Fatimids, and the Moors; see Kuhnel 1977, 561. Marcais
dated the appearance of polygonal arabesques to the
tenth century, observing that they particularly flour-
ished in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries when they
spread from the east to Andalusia; see Marcais 1947, 49.
Allen dated the formation of the true arabesque to the
tenth and eleventh centuries, attributing its develop-
ment to a sort of evolutionary drift of forms away from
their late antique sources. This resulted in the creation
of self-referential abstract patterns that reflect "the pur-
suit of visually complex ornament"; see Allen 1988, 6, 54.
8. For Qairawan, see Creswell 1989, 324-26. The
woodwork from Takrit is discussed in Dimand 1937, 293.
9. Strzygowski 1917, 88-98; Diez 1917, 68; Herzfeld
1923; Ettinghausen 1952. For the Samarran beveled style
and further bibliography, see part 3, n. 7, above. The
Raqqa capitals are illustrated in Allen 1988, figs. 33, 34.
10. For the Mutazila school and its cosmological theo-
c
ries, which were by no means monolithic, see Gimaret
1993; Fakhry 1983, 37-42; and Van Ess 1992, 31-428.
Most of the writings of the Mutazila school have disap-
c
peared. Ibn al-Nadim listed a large number of Mu tazili
c
works on the subjects of atom and accident that capture
the preoccupation with developing a new atomistic cos-
mology; see Ibn al-Nadim 1970,1: 380-435.
11. Massignon 1921.
12. For an interpretation of the Umayyad Dome of the
Rock as a representation of God's throne, see a forth-
coming study by Julian Raby, "The Dome of the Rock
and the Last Day," in Jeremy Johns, ed., Bayt al-Maqdis:
c
Abd al-Malik's Jerusalem, vol. 9, bk. 2 of Oxford Stud-
ies in Islamic Art (New York: Oxford Univ. Press).
The Umayyad attempt to physically represent God's
throne as it would appear during the Last Judgment in
Jerusalem must have been regarded as anathema by the
Abbasids, whose theologians were engaged in a heated
debate about the nature of God's throne as a metaphor
because of its anthropomorphic implications. The
increasing preference in the Abbasid period for abstrac-
tion over naturalistic representation is captured in sev-
eral hadith, such as the one transmitted by Ibn Abbas
c
(the grandfather of the Abbasids) that urges the painter
to "decapitate animals so that they do not seem to be
alive and try to make them look like flowers" and others
warning that whoever draws lifelike figures competing
with God's creation will have to breathe life into them in
hell. Ibn Abbas's hadith is quoted in relation to the
c
beveled Samarran style in Grabar 1983c, 110. For relevant
hadith, see al-Faruqi 1989, 262-63; and Van Reenen
1990. See also Griffith 1985; and Hodgson 1964.
13. al-Masudi 1989, 239.
c
14. Ibid., 306. Al-Qadir's policies are summarized in
Sourdel 1978; see also Tabbaa 1991. For the Sunni revival,
see Makdisi 1973.
15. Watt i960; al-Baqillani 1957; al-Ashari 1953.
c
16. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 3: 52.
17. For religion in the Seljuq and Mongol periods, see
Bausani 1968. For the Maturidi school, see Madelung
1991.
18. For the "brick style," see Ettinghausen and Grabar
1987, 217-24; Oleg Grabar 1992, 142-48; and Mulayim
1982. The geometric patterns of the Kharraqan tomb
towers are analyzed in Stronach and Young 1966. For
the geometry and early chronology of star patterns, see
Lee 1987.
19. Herzfeld 1942, 40; Diez 1917; Aslanapa 1971;
Mulayim 1982; Pope and Ackerman 1938-1939, 3: 3745.
The earliest surviving cursive monumental inscriptions,
often juxtaposed with geometric and vegetal arabesques,
are also from the easternmost regions of the Islamic
world, where they appeared toward the end of the reign
of the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud (998-1030) and con-
tinued to be used in later Ghaznavid and Ghurid inscrip-
tions. Tabbaa wrote: "In the absence of any supporting
evidence, it is difficult to say whether cursive official
inscriptions were used"b)y Abbasid caliphs in the first
c
half of the eleventh century. But in view of the large-
scale destruction of most early and medieval monu-
ments in Baghdad, it is possible that such inscriptions
once existed and may have provided a model for the
Ghaznevid development"; see Tabbaa 1994,128.
20. Allen 1988, 72-75. For late Abbasid structures
in Baghdad, see Strika and Khalil 1987, esp. pp. 14-15,
42-45, 66-74. The Mustansiriya and the so-called
Abbasid Palace in the citadel of Baghdad are analyzed
in Schmid 1980.
21. For a description and photograph of the Aqsa
minbar before it was burned by a Christian fanatic, see
Tabbaa 1986, 230-35. Tabbaa interpreted this minbar as
an ex-voto for the impending capture of Jerusalem.
22. Star-and-polygon patterns are seen in such rare
examples as the portable wooden mihrabs of the shrines
(mashhad) of Sayyida Nafisa (made in the 1130s or 1140s)
and Sayyida Ruqayya (1154-1160) in Cairo and the
wooden minbars of the mashhad of al-Husayn at
Ascalon (1091-1192) and of the Amri mosque at Qus
(1155-1156). For Fatimid woodwork and the introduc-
tion of the muqarnas in Egypt, see Lamm 1936; and
Bloom 1988. The Iraqi origin of the Damascene build-
ings is argued in Tabbaa 1985.
23. For the Anatolian monuments, see Ogel 1963;
Aslanapa 1971; and Mulayim 1982.
24. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 3: 54.
25. For the Almohads, see Shatzmiller 1993;
Brunschvig 1958; Huici Miranda 1956-1957; and Le
Tourneau 1969. Bernard of Clairvaux's Apologia is
analyzed in Rudolph 1990a.
26. Ibn Jubayr 1907, 253. For this minbar, later moved
to the Aqsa mosque, see part 3, n. 21, above.
27. Grabar 1978,182,195-201, 205. The Nasrid dynasty
reestablished ties with the Abbasid caliphs, whom they
recognized as the spiritual heads of Sunni Islam like the
Almoravids before them.
28. Paccard 1980,1: 145,154. For the Persian terminol-
ogy, see Lentz and Lowry 1989,169.
29. Star-and-polygon patterns that dominated
Anatolian Seljuq architectural revetments in the first
half of the thirteenth century were replaced with a
predominantly vegetal mode of ornament after the
Mongol invasion of Anatolia in 1243; see Ogel 1963; and
Mulayim 1982. Chinese motifs in post-Mongol Iranian
and Turkish art are analyzed in Rawson 1984,145-98.
30. Riegl 1893 (1992), 299, 305; Kuhnel 1977, 12;
Herzfeld 1987, 367.
31. Kuhnel 1977,11-12.
32. Ibn Rushd 1954,13; al-Ashari 1953,12-13. The
c
Harranean astronomer al-Battani (d. 929) wrote that
astronomy could lead people to reflect on the unity,
majesty, wisdom, and power of God and quoted verses
from the Koran to support this view. Similarly, Ibn
Rusta's universal geography, circa 903-913, described
the celestial spheres as signs of the elegant wisdom and
power of God, citing Koranic verses about the divine
creation. For al-Battani, see Sayih i960,15-16; and Ibn
Rusta 1955,1-6. Such speculations on macrocosm and
microcosm eventually grew into a special literature
emphasizing the overwhelming greatness and wonders
of divine creation, a theme already stressed in the
Koran. For such cosmological works that developed in
the tenth century, see Anton M. Heinen's commentary
in his edition of al-Suyuti 1982. Post-tenth-century
works, which popularized the view that a greater aware-

ness of the wonders of creation could lead to an
acknowledgment of God's greatness, recommended
contemplation (tafakkur) of the phenomena of nature
and the signs (ayat) through which God manifested
his power and wisdom. For example the earliest known
treatise on Sufism, written by al-Hujwiri (d. 1070s),
states: "The mark of muhadarat is continual meditation
upon God's signs, while the mark of mukdshafat is
continual amazement at God's infinite greatness"; see
al-Hujwiri 1976, 373. From the twelfth century onward
cosmological works on the wonders of creation ( Aja'ib
c
al-makhluqdt) were popular.
33. Allen speculated that vegetal and geometric ara-
besques "probably conveyed some sort of weak asso-
ciation," but he was reluctant to assign meanings
unsupported by contemporary textual evidence. He
wrote: "Is there iconographic content to the arabesque
and geometry? From a modern standpoint it is tempting
to wonder if the arabesque, firmly identified with the
vine scroll, somehow refers to the vegetal world, and
geometric designs allude somehow to the laws of nature
that govern the cosmos, or to the rules of construction
by which man constructs such things as buildings. But
these are anachronistic ideas when applied to the tenth
and eleventh centuries, and there is no contemporary
evidence to justify projecting them backward in time.
It would be useful to study the distribution of arabesque
and geometric designs in the art of this period to see
if some pattern emerges that might bear on their asso-
ciations, since there probably are some associations,
in at least some cases"; see Allen 1988, 54, 56.
34. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 2:130-31.
35. In the tenth century Abu al-Hasan al- Amiri simi-
c
larly referred to mathematics as "free from contradic-
tions and doubts"; see Rosenthal 1975, 65.
36. For the proportioned script, see commentary by
Sabra in Ibn al-Haytham 1989, 2: 99; Abbot 1939; Soucek
1979; Schimmel 1984; Oleg Grabar 1992, 47-92; and
Tabbaa 1991. The Seljuq historian al-Rawandi has a chap-
ter on the derivation of letters from the circumference
of the circle and its diameter subdivided into ten modu-
lar dots—he noted that all other geometric figures
derive from the circle and its diameter; see al-Rawandi
1957-1960, 2: 403-11.
37. For the Ibn al-Bawwab Koran, see Ettinghausen
i977> 170-73; and Rice 1955. For later Korans, see
Deroche 1983; James 1980; and idem 1988.
38. Tabbaa 1991,133,142-43.
39. Ibid., 141.1 would like to thank Dr. Tabbaa for
sending me the galley proofs of the second part of his
article on Arabic writing in the summer of 1993 before it
was published. In it he traced the parallel transforma-
NOTES
tion of monumental inscriptions from angular to cur-
sive, "a transformation that postdated the Qur'anic one
by nearly one century but that seems to have been, at
least in part, propelled by similar conditions." In this
study, Tabbaa first linked the creation of the floriated
kufic script under the Fatimids with political and theo-
logical issues. Then he traced the gradual spread from
approximately 1075 to 1175 of cursive monumental
inscriptions in Iran, Syria, upper Mesopotamia, North
Africa, and Egypt, connecting this process with the
Sunni revival; see Tabbaa 1994. The time lag observed in
the emergence of the cursive script in Korans and its use
in official monumental inscriptions parallels the case of
the girih, a mode of design that seems to have made its
earliest appearance in illuminated Korans.
40. Tabbaa 1985, 63; Allen 1988, 85-87; Behrens-
Abouseif 1993, 501-2.
41. Bausani 1968.
42. A similar conclusion is reached with respect to
the spread of the cursive script from Baghdad in Tabbaa
1994.
43. Hartmann 1975.
44. For religion in the Seljuq and Mongol periods, see
Bausani 1968. The religious topography of Iran in the
Timurid-Turkmen and Safavid periods is discussed in
Amoretti 1986.
45. Pope and Ackerman 1938-1939, 3: 2754, 756> 2
2762-63.
46. "The Canons of Painting by Sadiqi Bek," trans-
lated as an appendix in Dickson and Welch 1981,1:
259-69; I have slightly modified the translation, adding
the bracketed explanations. This passage from p. 262
is cited and analyzed with examples in Lentz and Lowry
1989, i69ff.
47. Mir Sayyid-Ahmad Mashhadi's text (included
in the Amir Ghayb Beg Album, H. 2161, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi, Istanbul, dated 1564-1565) is translated in
Thackston 1989, 356. Another variant of this classifica-
tion appears in a seventeenth-century Safavid text;
see Qazi Ahmad 1959,178: "As in writing there are six
basic styles, so in the art of painting seven manners are
known: islimi, khata'i, farangj, fisalT, abr, akrah, salami."
This shows that the names of the seven modes varied
considerably.
48. Pope and Ackerman 1938-1939, 3: 2756, 2763.
49. Dost Muhammad's preface is translated in
Thackston 1989, 343.
50. Thackston 1989, 353, 355, 339. One wonders
whether the Fatimid preference for the floriated kufic
script and for vegetal patterns was informed by a similar
set of Shi i associations.
c
51. For the girih specialists in the Ottoman court, see
TO PART 3 125
c
Ali 1926, 68. One of them, Taj al-Din, who is referred
to as "girih-bend," was conscripted from Damascus by
Selim 1 (r. 1512-1520). The other, Mehmed Beg, who was
a student of the painter Osman was described as the
>
most talented among the girih masters (girih-bendlerun
ekserinden yek); he had arrived at the Ottoman court
in the early part of Suleyman I'S reign (r. 1520-1566).
For the creation of the Ottoman classical style, see
Necipoglu 1990b; and idem 1992a.
52. For Mughal inlay decoration, see Koch 1988; and
idem 1991.
53. See Paccard 1980; al-Buzjani 1990-1991;
Buzurgmihri 1982; Firishtah Nazhad 1977; and Shirbaf
c
1982-1983.
54. For the "protomodern" ethos of the early modern
Islamic world, characterized by a preoccupation with
challenging the past without completely rejecting its cul-
tural heritage, see Necipoglu 1993a.
55. For such hadith, see part 3, n. 12, above.
56. Ikhwan al-Safa' 1978, 56, 44, 6. For the audience of
the Brethren of Purity, see Ibn al-Haytham 1989, 2:100;
the accessibility of their work in Sunni circles is
discussed in Kraemer 1986,165-78.
57. al-Dawwani 1839,146-47. See also al-Tusi 1964.
58. Translated in Thackston 1989, 356.
59. Sai 1989, 44,136,158,171.
c
60. Cafer Efendi 1987,18-20. I have slightly modified
c
Crane's translation.
61. Cited in Cheetham 1991, 59-60.
62. Translated in Thackston 1989, 349.
63. For these terms, see Firishtah Nazhad 1977.
64. This allusion was first noted by Nykl and
Bargebuhr; see Grabar 1978,142.
65. Parts of the poem are repeated in the Hall of the
Abencerrajes across the Court of the Lions; see Grabar
1978,144-50. For the dome of heaven in various archi-
tectural traditions, see Lehmann 1945; Smith 1950; and
L'Orange 1982.
66. Grabar 1978,145.
67. Lokman b. Seyyid Huseyin el-Asuri el-Hiiseyni,
Surname (Book of festivities), MS H. 1344, fol. 4v,
Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi Ktituphanesi, Istanbul.
68. Fakhry 1983, 27; see also chaps. 1, 4, 5, and 8.
69. Ibid., 248. See also al-Ghazali 1952.
70. For the concept of "naturalization," see Sabra
1987b, 223-43.
71. For the heavenly iconography of the ceiling in
Palermo, see Simon-Cahn 1985; the homily is cited
on p. 3.
72. Translated in Gelfer-Joergensen 1986,160-61.
73. Ibn Bibi 1959,148.
74. Translated in Thackston 1989, 85.
126 NOTES TO PART 3

75. See Khwandamir 1954, 3: 394, where he referred

to " gunbad-i firuze-i muqarnas-i gardun" translated as
"the turquoise-stalactited dome of the celestial sphere"
in Thackston 1989, 103. Similarly, in his biographical
work on poets, Dawlatshah referred to "haft taq-i
muqarnas" cited (together with other textual refer-
ences to muqarnases) in Abd al-Razzaq al-Samarqandi
c

1843, 497-
76. Jafari i960,140-41.
c

77. al-Kashi i960, 19.

78. Translated in Golombek and Wilber 1988, 1: 139.
79. For the increasing use of Persian poetic inscrip-
tions in Timurid architecture, see O'Kane 1989.
80. For Jami's Al-Durra al-fakhira (The precious
pearl), a treatise that analyzes questions that Islamic
theologians, philosophers, and Sufis had long debated,
with a decided preference for the Sufi perspective (either
because it reconciles the opposing views of the theolo-
gians and philosophers, or because it avoids the prob-
lems that their doctrines entail), see Jam! 1979. See also
Nawa'T 1984,1965-1968.
81. Cited in Subtelny 1983,124. See also O'Kane 1989.
82. Translated in Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 385.
83. For two histories of Yazd, see Jafari i960; and
c

al-Katib 1966. For the Persian inscription of the Qinili

Kosk, which compares its "emerald dome" decorated
with stars to the dome of heaven and the kiosk itself to
a heavenly mansion touching the constellations, see
Necipoglu 1991, 216. Heavenly metaphors also abound
in Khwandamir's Humayunnama (Book of Humayun) in
which the Mughal ruler Humayun's building activities
are discussed; see Khwandamir 1940.
84. Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 210.
85. Jones 1982, 66.
86. For al-Buzjani's career and works, see Ibn
al-Nadim 1970, 2: 667-68; Woepcke 1855; Yushkevich
1964, 270-77. The cultural milieu of Buyid Baghdad
is discussed in Mottahedeh 1980; and Kraemer 1986.
87. See al-Buzjani, Kitab fima yahtdju ilayhi al-sani
c

min a mal al-handasa, MS Ayasofya 2753, Siileymaniye

c

Kutiiphanesi, Istanbul. For a Persian translation of this

Arabic manuscript (MS Persan 169, sec. 23, fols. 141V-
179V, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris), see al-Buzjani
1990-1991. Woepcke based his observations on the Paris
manuscript; see Woepcke 1855. Surviving manuscripts of
al-Buzjani's practical geometry are listed in Sezgin 1974,
321-25. For meetings in which professional mathemati-
cians and practitioners of the crafts exchanged ideas, see
Ozdural 1995.
88.1 would like to thank Dr. Howyda al-Harithy for
this reference in al-Maqrizi 1987, 2: 362-63.
PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

Ars sine scientia nihil est (Art without science is nothing).

—Jean M i g n o t , consultant o n the fabric o f M i l a n c a t h e d r a l 1

CHAPTER 8. THEORY AND PRAXIS: USES OF PRACTICAL
The context o f the T o p k a p i scroll can be b r o a d -
ened by l i n k i n g its geometric language w i t h
the h i s t o r i c a l development o f the m a t h e m a t i c a l
sciences, the discipline i n w h i c h p r e m o d e r n
Islamic architectural practice was embedded.
U n l i k e the L a t i n West the Islamic w o r l d gained
access to the Elements of Geometry by the Greek
m a t h e m a t i c i a n E u c l i d (circa 3 3 0 - 2 6 0 B . C . ) as early
as the eighth century w h e n i t was translated i n t o
A r a b i c for the Abbasid caliph H a r u n al-Rashid
(r. 7 8 6 - 8 0 9 ) , f o l l o w e d by a second t r a n s l a t i o n
made for his son a l - M a ' m u n (r. 813-833). By 9 8 7 -
988, w h e n the bookseller I b n a l - N a d i m c o m p i l e d
i n Baghdad his Fihrist ( I n d e x ) , an annotated cata-
l o g o f books available i n the A r a b i c language, the
m a j o r classics o n mathematics had been translated
and augmented by new A r a b i c works. The Fihrist's
list o f books w r i t t e n by "geometricians, a r i t h m e t i -
cians, musicians, calculators, astrologers, makers
o f i n s t r u m e n t s , and persons interested i n mechan-
ics and d y n a m i c s " testifies to the vast a m o u n t
o f knowledge accumulated i n the sciences o f the
q u a d r i v i u m ( a r i t h m e t i c , geometry, music, and
a s t r o n o m y ) . These m a t h e m a t i c a l works m u s t have
GEOMETRY
had as great an i m p a c t o n Islamic architectural
practice as those t h a t became available i n post-
t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Europe w o u l d have o n G o t h i c
design; the latter i n c l u d e d Euclid's Elements
translated by A d e l a r d o f Bath f r o m A r a b i c i n t o
L a t i n circa 1126, translations o f other works by
Greek and M u s l i m authors, and practical geome-
try manuals. 2
A r a b i c science flourished i n the early n i n t h cen-
t u r y w h e n Baghdad t u r n e d i n t o the c o s m o p o l i t a n
intellectual center o f the Abbasid empire w i t h the
establishment i n 832 o f the Bayt al-hikma (House
o f w i s d o m ) by a l - M a ' m u n , the same caliph w h o
p r o c l a i m e d M u t a z i l i s m an official d o c t r i n e . This
c
scientific i n s t i t u t i o n , whose p r i n c i p a l a c t i v i t y
was the t r a n s l a t i o n o f Greek texts, is believed
to have been m o d e l e d o n the Sasanian academy
i n Jundishapur, a m a j o r school o f Hellenistic
l e a r n i n g t h a t was still f l o u r i s h i n g i n the eighth
c e n t u r y w h e n i t p r o v i d e d the Abbasid c o u r t i n
Baghdad w i t h physicians and astronomers. The
Greco-Hellenistic t r a d i t i o n o f l e a r n i n g devel-
oped i n the school o f A l e x a n d r i a was n o t o n l y
transferred to Jundishapur, b u t also to such cen-
ters as A n t i o c h , Edessa, and H a r r a n before its
last remnants reached Baghdad i n the n i n t h
century. H a r r a n i n n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a
was the center o f the pagan Sabaeans, a sect o f
star-worshipers w h o had synthesized the late
antique N e o p l a t o n i c heritage o f the A l e x a n d r i a n
school w i t h Pythagorean-Hermetic elements and
Babylonian astrology. As late as the t e n t h century
they were n o t e d for t h e i r artistic skills, astrolabe
makers, and their temples constructed i n the f o r m
o f p u r e geometric shapes dedicated t o the P r i m a l
Cause and the celestial bodies. H a r r a n played
an i m p o r t a n t role i n the transmission o f Greek
science. I t n o t o n l y p r o v i d e d the Abbasid c o u r t
w i t h such famous translators as the astronomer-
m a t h e m a t i c i a n T h a b i t b. Q u r r a ( 8 2 6 - 9 0 1 ) , u n d e r
whose guidance the Sabaeans translated n u m e r o u s
Greek works o n mathematics and a s t r o n o m y
i n t o A r a b i c , b u t also p r o d u c e d leading scientists
specializing i n m a t h e m a t i c a l and a s t r o n o m i c a l
studies. Scholars f r o m different parts o f the
M u s l i m w o r l d c o n t i n u e d to frequent H a r r a n to
study a s t r o n o m y and mathematics w e l l i n t o the
eleventh century after w h i c h the Sabaeans were
132 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
persecuted and their temples destroyed. 3
A c c o r d i n g t o H u n a y n b . Ishaq ( d . 877), the
A r a b i c translator o f Greek works attached t o the
Bayt al-hikma, the t r a d i t i o n s o f the late school o f
A l e x a n d r i a were still very m u c h alive a m o n g the
scholars and physicians o f Baghdad d u r i n g the
n i n t h century. T h e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o Arabic o f
works i n Greek, Syriac, Persian, and Sanskrit
had already started d u r i n g the reign o f H a r u n
al-Rashid, b u t this a c t i v i t y became intensified i n
his son a l - M a ' m u n ' s Bayt al-hikma. A l t h o u g h this
caliphal i n s t i t u t i o n does n o t seem t o have sur-
vived the o r t h o d o x reaction o f a l - M u t a w a k k i l , its
c u l t u r a l repercussions p r o v e d irreversible. T h e
translations i t generated were far f r o m a m a r g i n a l
experiment. They c o n t r i b u t e d t o the assimilation
o f classical science and p h i l o s o p h y i n t o medieval
Islamic c u l t u r e , even i n the t r a d i t i o n i s t circles o f
the S u n n i revival where n i n t h - and t e n t h - c e n t u r y
intellectual developments colored by heterodox
M u t a z i l i or S h i i o r i e n t a t i o n s were r e f o r m u l a t e d
c c
according to o r t h o d o x sensibilities.
After the i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f translations was over,
o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s were made i n such m a t h e - ^
m a t i c a l disciplines as astronomy, optics, algebra,
and t r i g o n o m e t r y that encouraged the develop-
m e n t o f geometry i n previously u n k n o w n direc-
tions p r o m i s i n g new applications i n a n u m b e r o f
fields, i n c l u d i n g architecture and the decorative
arts (e.g., arch and d o m e profiles, geometric pat-
t e r n i n g , and the m u q a r n a s ) . T h e systematic p o p u -
4
l a r i z a t i o n o f theoretical mathematics i n Baghdad
t h r o u g h practical manuals also facilitated its r a p i d
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
d i s s e m i n a t i o n t o other Islamic courts. By the
eleventh century the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences h a d
become so widespread and achieved so m u c h pres-
tige that even some rulers boasted expertise i n
t h e m . For example the Ghaznavid ruler M a s u d 1
was n o t o n l y skilled i n geometry b u t c o u l d also
draw architectural plans w i t h his o w n hands. T h e
ruler o f Saragossa i n Spain, Yusuf a l - M u ' t a m i n
b. H u d (r. 1081-1085), c o m p i l e d his o w n geometry
treatise using the extensive c o l l e c t i o n o f m a t h e -
m a t i c a l works i n his l i b r a r y . I t was i n this recep-
5
tive setting that the girih i n i t i a l l y spread d u r i n g
the eleventh century w h e n its basic r e p e r t o r y
became elaborated i n different ways i n various
local courts t h a t had acquired a taste for geometry.
The unprecedented emphasis o f the Baghdad
school o n balancing theoretical knowledge w i t h
practical a p p l i c a t i o n had an undeniable i m p a c t
o n Islamic visual c u l t u r e . T h e close relationship
between t h e o r y and praxis can be deduced f r o m
various encyclopedic classifications o f knowledge,
i n w h i c h the applied sciences consistently occupy
an i m p o r t a n t place alongside t h e i r theoretical
counterparts. One o f the earliest examples o f such
classifications, the Ihsa al- ulum c
(Survey o f the
sciences), was w r i t t e n i n the first h a l f o f the t e n t h
century by al-Farabi, the r e n o w n e d p h i l o s o p h e r
whose father may have belonged t o the T u r k i s h
b o d y g u a r d o f the Abbasid caliphs. T h e w r i t i n g s
o f al-Farabi, w h o for m a n y years had settled i n
Baghdad before j o i n i n g i n 942 the entourage o f the
H a m d a n i d ruler Sayf al-Dawla i n A l e p p o , connect
h i m w i t h the late A l e x a n d r i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
Greek p h i l o s o p h y (an amalgam o f N e o p l a t o n i s m
and A r i s t o t e l i a n i s m ) d o m i n a n t i n the Abbasid
capital at t h a t t i m e . H i s Ihsa s u b d i v i d e d the m a t h e -
m a t i c a l sciences i n t o seven specialized fields
c
( a r i t h m e t i c , geometry, optics, astronomy, music,
weights, and mechanics), each o f w h i c h had b o t h
theoretical (al-nazari) and practical (al- amali)
c
branches. A m o n g t h e m practical geometry dealt
w i t h lines and figures o n a piece o f w o o d w h e n
used by a carpenter, o n a piece o f i r o n w h e n
used by a s m i t h , o n a w a l l w h e n used by a mason,
and o n a p l o t o f l a n d w h e n used b y a surveyor.
A l - F a r a b i concluded that practical geometry thus
f o u n d an a p p l i c a t i o n i n every craft. 6
The i m p a c t o f al-Farabi's w r i t i n g s o n such late
t e n t h - c e n t u r y authors as the Brethren o f P u r i t y
and the Khurasanian philosopher A b u al-Hasan
a l - A m i r i ( d . 992) manifests itself i n their s i m i l a r
c
classifications o f m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences. For
example, the collection o f encyclopedic epistles,
or Rasail, o f the Brethren (an anonymous g r o u p
i n s p i r e d b y an eclectic m i x t u r e o f N e o p l a t o n i c ,
Pythagorean, H e r m e t i c , and Sabaean t h o u g h t ) also
divides mathematics i n t o theoretical and practical
parts. I t stresses the role o f practical geometry i n
developing those skills r e q u i r e d i n all the crafts,
w h i l e theoretical geometry is identified as the gate-
way t o higher levels o f theoretical knowledge, c u l -
m i n a t i n g i n metaphysics. 7
A l - A m i r i , w h o enjoyed
c
the patronage o f the B u y i d vizier I b n a l - A m i d c
( d . 971) w h i l e he lived i n I r a n (he visited Baghdad
at least twice i n the 970s) i d e n t i f i e d five branches
o f mathematics ( a r i t h m e t i c , geometry, astronomy,

music, and mechanics), describing geometry as a
practical field w i t h m a n y applications:
Geometry follows a r i t h m e t i c i n value and
i m p o r t a n c e . I t is easier to u n d e r s t a n d
because i t is concerned w i t h sensual p r o -
totypes, and i t is m o r e far-reaching, for
w i t h o u t its aid the a r i t h m e t i c i a n cannot
extract i r r a t i o n a l roots, n o r the surveyor
determine the shapes o f sites, n o r h u m a n
reason calculate the extent o f the seas and
the height o f m o u n t a i n s . Besides i t is
useful to all gifted architects, carpenters,
sculptors and goldsmiths and used for the
manufacture o f a s t r o n o m i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s
as, for example, spheres [spherical astro-
labes?], astrolabes, a r m i l l a r y spheres
and sun clocks. 8
This account o f the uses o f practical geometry
i n fields such as l a n d surveying, architecture,
the decorative arts, and mechanical engineering
once again underlines the i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n
between theory and praxis. Al-Farabi's earlier
statement t h a t practical geometry provides an
a p p l i c a t i o n i n every craft is p a r t i c u l a r l y significant
because al-Buzjani's late t e n t h - c e n t u r y m a n u a l o n
that subject, the A mdl al-handasa,
c
which directly
addressed the needs o f artisans, is believed to have
been m o d e l e d o n an earlier geometry treatise
a t t r i b u t e d to al-Farabi. I n b o t h al-Farabi's and
9
al-Buzjani's treatises the circle, o n w h i c h the
spherical forms and m o t i o n s o f the celestial bodies
THEORY
are based, occupies a p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n , as i t
d i d i n the geometrically shaped Sabaean t e m p l e s .
The circle, w h i c h came to be regarded as the most
beautiful o f all geometric figures by the end o f the
Hellenistic era, is used i n al-Buzjani's treatise to
generate all o f the regular polygons i n a plane as
well as the sphere, the source o f the five regular
polyhedrons (Platonic solids) and two o f the
twelve semiregular polyhedrons ( A r c h i m e d e a n
solids) w i t h w h i c h the w o r k culminates.
The practical geometries o f al-Farabi and
al-Buzjani b u i l t u p o n the heritage o f the late
A l e x a n d r i a n school. The N e o p l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h e r
Proclus (410-485), w h o had studied there, regarded
E u c l i d as a m e m b e r o f the ancient Platonic acad-
emy and considered the u l t i m a t e purpose o f the
Elements ( w h i c h ends w i t h the five regular p o l y -
hedrons) to be the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the five cosmic
elements w i t h w h i c h Plato's (circa 428-347 or 348
B . C . ) Timaeus correlates the regular p o l y h e d r o n s .
The Abbasid p h i l o s o p h e r a l - K i n d i ( d . circa 866),
w h o integrated N e o p l a t o n i s m i n t o the official
M u t a z i l i theology, w r o t e an epistle, Risdla
c
ft
al-sabab alladhi lahu nasabat al-qudama' al-ashkdl
al-khamsa ild al-ustuqusdt ( A b o u t the reason w h y
the ancients related each o f the five p o l y h e d r o n s to
the elements), that shows h o w deeply N e o p l a t o n i c
cosmology had permeated the Baghdadi m i l i e u . 1 1
A l t h o u g h the s y m b o l i s m o f the Platonic solids is
n o t a r t i c u l a t e d i n al-Buzjani's practical geometry,
this m a t h e m a t i c i a n - a s t r o n o m e r , w h o w r o t e the
treatise Kitdb ma rifa c
al-dawd'ir min al-falak (Book
o n the knowledge o f the circle f r o m the heavens),
AND PRAXIS 133
was no d o u b t aware o f the cosmic associations o f
10
geometric figures. Given the i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y l i n k
between a r i t h m e t i c , geometry, astronomy, and
music, an interchange between those fields was
n a t u r a l . Especially since most mathematicians i n
the medieval Islamic w o r l d were to some degree
i n v o l v e d w i t h astronomy, the p r e d o m i n a n t use
o f o r b i t l i k e radial grids i n generating girihs may
p a r t l y have been i n s p i r e d by a m e n t a l i t y t h a t
assigned the most privileged place a m o n g geomet-
ric figures t o the c i r c l e . 12
A l - B u z j a n i ' s A mdl
c
al-handasa was b r o u g h t to
l i g h t i n the 1850s by the h i s t o r i a n o f science Franz
Woepcke, w h o studied its early eleventh-century
Persian t r a n s l a t i o n i n c l u d e d i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l
anthology preserved at the B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e
i n Paris, MS Persan 169. 13
Its direct relevance for
the c o m p o s i t i o n o f Islamic geometric patterns
was first n o t e d by Prisse d'Avennes ( w h o m e n t i o n s
Woepcke's s t u d y ) , f o l l o w e d by several m o d e r n
scholars (figs. 9 9 - 1 0 2 ) . This relevance becomes
apparent i n an a n o n y m o u s Persian treatise,
appended to the Persian t r a n s l a t i o n o f al-Buzjani's
text i n the Paris m a n u s c r i p t , w h i c h thus far is the
o n l y k n o w n practical m a n u a l that provides " h o w -
t o " i n s t r u c t i o n s for d r a w i n g t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l
girih patterns. The a n o n y m o u s treatise, e n t i t l e d
FT taddkhul al-ashkdl al-mutashabiha aw
al-mutawdfiqa ( O n i n t e r l o c k i n g s i m i l a r or c o n g r u -
ent figures), hereafter referred to by its shorter
t i t l e , A mal
c
wa ashkdl ( C o n s t r u c t i o n s and figures),
shows t h a t the girih m o d e was conceived as a sys-
t e m o f p r o p o r t i o n a l l y related geometric patterns
134 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

99. Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani, folios showing text and

geometric figures. From his Kitdb fimdyahtdju ilayhi
al-sdni min a mdl al-handasa (About that which the
c c

artisan needs to know of geometric constructions), a

late tenth-century Arabic manual of practical geometry,
copied for Ulugh Beg's royal library in Samarqand,
fifteenth century, red and black ink on paper. Istanbul,
Suleymaniye Kutuphanesi, MS Ayasofya 2753, fols. 20, 21.
THEORY AND PRAXIS 135

100. Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani, folios showing text and

geometricfigures.From his Kitdb fimdyahtdju ilayhi
al-sdn'f min a mdl al-handasa (About that which the
c

artisan needs to know of geometric constructions), a

late tenth-century Arabic manual of practical geome-
try, copied for Ulugh Beg's royal library in Samar-
qand,fifteenthcentury, red and black ink on paper.
Istanbul, Siileymaniye Kiitiiphanesi, MS Ayasofya 2753,
fols. 34, 35-
136 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

101. Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani, folios showing text and

geometricfigures.From his Kitdb fimdyahtaju ilayhi
al-sdni min a mdl al-handasa (About that which the arti-
c c

san needs to know of geometric constructions), a late

tenth-century Arabic manual of practical geometry,
copied for Ulugh Beg's royal library in Samarqand,
fifteenth century, red and black ink on paper. Istanbul,
Suleymaniye Kutiiphanesi, MS Ayasofya 2753, fols. 40, 41.
THEORY AND PRAXIS 137

102. Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani, folios showing text and

geometricfigures.From his Kitdb fimdyahtdju ilayhi
al-sdni min a mdl al-handasa (About that which the arti-
c c

san needs to know of geometric constructions), a late

tenth-century Arabic manual of practical geometry,
copied for Ulugh Beg's royal library in Samarqand,
fifteenth century, red and black ink on paper. Istanbul,
Suleymaniye Kutiiphanesi, MS Ayasofya 2753, fols. 48, 49.
138 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
h a r m o n i o u s l y i n t e r l o c k i n g w i t h one another.
Dates r a n g i n g f r o m the early eleventh to the early
t h i r t e e n t h century have been proposed by various
scholars for this treatise to w h i c h I w i l l r e t u r n i n
the next c h a p t e r . 14
Its i m p o r t a n c e lies i n d o c u -
m e n t i n g an i n t i m a t e l i n k between the type o f prac-
tical geometry p o p u l a r i z e d i n late t e n t h - c e n t u r y
Baghdad by such mathematicians as al-Buzjani
and the later scroll t r a d i t i o n .
A l - B u z j a n i ' s A mdl al-handasa
c
contains an
i n t r o d u c t i o n t h a t is a slightly m o d i f i e d version o f
the one a t t r i b u t e d to a l - F a r a b i . 15
This i n t r o d u c t i o n
discusses the three basic i n s t r u m e n t s necessary
for geometric constructions, t h a t is, the r u l e r ,
set square (angle b ra c k e t) , and compass w i t h a
single o p e n i n g . I n simple language the rest o f
al-Buzjani's m a n u a l teaches the m e t h o d o f draw-
i n g regular geometric figures ( b o t h plane and
solid), subdividing them proportionally into con-
gruent parts, and c i r c u m s c r i b i n g or i n s c r i b i n g
t h e m w i t h i n one another t h r o u g h the use o f these
basic i n s t r u m e n t s , w i t h no recourse to a r i t h m e t i c
or to m e t r i c considerations. Since al-Buzjani was
p r o v i d i n g s i m p l i f i e d " h o w - t o " procedures derived
f r o m advanced m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y for artisans,
he d i d n o t a t t e m p t to s u p p o r t t h e m by scientific
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and proofs.
The m a n u a l begins w i t h such basic problems as
the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r i g h t angle; the bisection o f
a square or circle; the d i v i s i o n o f a r i g h t angle i n t o
equal parts; the t r i s e c t i o n o f an angle; d r a w i n g a
line parallel t o , perpendicular t o , or at a certain
angle to a given line; d e t e r m i n i n g the center
o f a circle or its arc; d i v i d i n g the circumference
o f a circle i n t o equal arcs; d r o p p i n g a tangent to a
circle f r o m a given p o i n t ; d r a w i n g a tangent to a
circle t h r o u g h a p o i n t o n i t ; trisecting the arc o f
a circle; d u p l i c a t i n g a cube and a sphere; and c o n -
s t r u c t i n g b u r n i n g m i r r o r s (a subject b e l o n g i n g to
mechanics, w h i c h is a subfield o f practical geome-
try). 1 6
F r o m these general problems al-Buzjani
m o v e d o n to the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f regular polygons
inscribed i n circles (see figs. 9 9 , 1 0 0 ) , other c o n -
structions i n v o l v i n g circles and arcs, and the c o n -
s t r u c t i o n o f p o l y g o n a l figures inscribed i n various
figures. H e t h e n t u r n e d to the p r o p o r t i o n a l d i v i -
sion o f triangles, quadrilaterals (see fig. 101), p o l y -
gons, and circles. H i s m a n u a l also deals w i t h
d i v i d i n g a square i n t o a given n u m b e r o f smaller
squares and c o m p o s i n g a square f r o m a given
n u m b e r o f smaller squares (see fig. 102), finally
t u r n i n g to the d i v i s i o n o f the sphere's surface i n t o
a given n u m b e r o f polygons by i n s c r i b i n g i n i t
the five regular polyhedrons and t w o o f the twelve
semiregular polyhedrons.
I n short, al-Buzjani's practical geometry o u t -
lines basic mechanical methods for c o n s t r u c t i n g ,
p r o p o r t i o n a l l y s u b d i v i d i n g , and s y m m e t r i c a l l y
m u l t i p l y i n g geometric figures, f u r t h e r s i m p l i f i e d
by the use o f o n l y a single o p e n i n g o f the c o m -
pass. 17
I t reduces complex problems t h a t involve
conic sections, such as the t r i s e c t i o n o f an angle
or the d o u b l i n g o f a cube, t o simple mechanical
procedures p r o v i d i n g a p p r o x i m a t e solutions.
A l - B u z j a n i ' s constructions o f plane and solid
geometry ( w h i c h freely drew o n the findings o f
earlier Greek and A r a b mathematicians) had direct
relevance for applied fields r e l y i n g o n a geometric
system o f p r o p o r t i o n i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y mechanics,
l a n d surveying, architectural design, and the deco-
rative a r t s . 18
Operations such as the d i v i s i o n o f
squares, rectangles, triangles, polygons, and circles
i n t o congruent parts c o u l d have obvious applica-
tions i n the laying o u t o f u r b a n schemes, g r o u n d
plans, elevations, and o r n a m e n t a l c o m p o s i t i o n s .
M o r e o v e r , the a p p r o x i m a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f regu-
lar polygons by s u b d i v i d i n g circles i n t o equal arcs
is precisely the m e t h o d used i n generating t w o -
and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l st ar - an d - po ly g o n patterns
i n later scrolls (see figs. 9 9 , 1 0 0 ) .
The d y n a m i c axes o f s y m m e t r y o n t o w h i c h
radial grids o f concentric circles are superimposed
i n these scrolls were also d r a w n according to
al-Buzjani's m e t h o d o f p r o p o r t i o n a l l y d i v i d i n g
rectangles and squares ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the
frames o f repeat u n i t s ) i n t o congruent parts
w i t h diagonals and oblique cuts (see figs. 101, 102).
This m e t h o d o f p r o p o r t i o n a l d i v i s i o n , treated i n
Euclid's b o o k On Divisions of Figures, also seems
to reflect the influence o f Cutting Lines in Ratio
and Cutting Surfaces in Ratio, by A p o l l o n i u s o f
Perga (circa 241-197 B . C . ) . These two works c o m -
p l e m e n t e d A p o l l o n i u s ' s i n f l u e n t i a l treatise o n
conic sections t h a t had been translated i n t o Arabic
i n n i n t h - c e n t u r y Baghdad under the supervision
o f the Banu M u s a (Sons o f Musa) b r o t h e r s , the
three famous Abbasid geometer-engineers w h o are
r e p o r t e d to have sent t h e i r agents to B y z a n t i u m to
collect scientific m a n u s c r i p t s . 19
Star-and-polygon

patterns, based o n the h a r m o n i c properties o f
circles a p p r o x i m a t e l y d i v i d e d i n t o equal arcs and
composed i n quadrangular repeat u n i t s p r o p o r -
t i o n a l l y cut i n t o c o n g r u e n t parts b y d y n a m i c axes
o f s y m m e t r y ( a r o u n d w h i c h elements rotate or
t h r o u g h w h i c h m i r r o r axes pass), were f u r t h e r
explored i n A mal c
wa ashkal, the a n o n y m o u s trea-
tise o n i n t e r l o c k i n g s i m i l a r or c o n g r u e n t figures,
as we shall see i n the f o l l o w i n g chapter.
The geometric c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f a l - B u z j a n i and
those i n c l u d e d i n the a n o n y m o u s treatise are the
o n l y ones k n o w n to have d i r e c t l y addressed a r t i -
sans, suggesting a degree o f literacy at least a m o n g
t h e i r masters. A r i t h m e t i c and geometry were t w o
i n d e p e n d e n t b u t interchangeable modes o f expres-
sion for the same m a t h e m a t i c a l concepts, one
based o n the language o f n u m b e r s , the other o n
geometric f o r m s . The latter, m u c h m o r e c o n d u -
cive t o the visual t h i n k i n g a n d graphic i m a g i n a -
t i o n o f designers w h o w o r k e d w i t h basic tools,
seems to have played a central role i n medieval
Islamic a r c h i t e c t u r a l practice and the decorative
arts. Besides elevating the status o f architecture
and the crafts by g i v i n g t h e m a respectable scien-
tific f o u n d a t i o n , the abstract language o f geome-
t r y p r o v i d e d an aesthetic basis for design.
Islamic encyclopedias consistently classify
architecture a n d the crafts together w i t h m e c h a n -
ics as subcategories o f practical geometry.
Al-Farabi's Ihsa, for instance, lists architecture
a m o n g the geometric branches o f the science o f
mechanics ( ilm al-hiyal),
c
w h i c h also i n c l u d e d l a n d
surveying or m e n s u r a t i o n (Him al-misaha) a n d the
THEORY
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m i l i t a r y machines, musical i n s t r u -
ments, b u r n i n g m i r r o r s , sundials, and ingenious
mechanical devices. The t e r m hiyal ( p i . o f hila,
" r u s e , " " d e c e p t i o n " ) h i g h l i g h t e d the status o f geo-
m e t r i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s as c u n n i n g artifices reflecting
the i n g e n u i t y o f t h e i r creators. As such i t is part
o f the same semantic field as the Greek t e r m metis
(associated w i t h mechanics and techne), the " c u n -
n i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e " possessed by artisans, m e c h a n -
ics, and architects (e.g., Daedalus). Just l i k e its
L a t i n c o u n t e r p a r t scientia de ingeniis, t h e n , ilm
c
al-hiyal stressed the i n t e l l e c t u a l character o f inge-
nious devices and artifices encompassed by the
mechanical sciences. The c o n n e c t i o n between
architecture and mechanics, r o o t e d i n the ancient
works o f A l e x a n d r i a n authors such as the first-
c e n t u r y scientist H e r o , the p h i l o s o p h e r P h i l o
(circa 13 B . C . - c i r c a A . D . 50), and the geometer
Pappus ( f l . circa A . D . 320), had also been stressed
i n the R o m a n architect V i t r u v i u s ' s Ten Books on
Architecture, circa 25 B . C . V i t r u v i u s ' s a r c h i t e c t u r a l
treatise, w h i c h includes sections o n l a n d survey-
i n g , a s t r o n o m i c a l devices, b u r n i n g m i r r o r s ,
sundials, water clocks, water wheels, h o i s t i n g
machines, catapults, ballistae, a n d siege machines,
encapsulates the same Greek t r a d i t i o n o f applied
mechanics t h a t p r o v i d e d the basis for medieval
Islamic a r c h i t e c t u r a l p r a c t i c e . 20
The eighth b o o k o f Pappus o f Alexandria's
h a n d b o o k o f geometry, w h i c h is devoted to the sci-
ence o f mechanics, divides i t i n t o theoretical and
practical branches, classifying architecture u n d e r
applied mechanics. This b o o k , an i n t r o d u c t i o n
AND PRAXIS 139
to the science o f mechanics, w h i c h was translated
i n t o A r a b i c for the Banu M u s a b r o t h e r s , describes
the subjects encompassed by t h a t science:
The mechanicians o f H e r o n ' s day say t h a t
mechanics can be d i v i d e d i n t o a theoreti-
cal and a manual \) ax V, the theoretical part
is composed o f geometry, a r i t h m e t i c a l
a s t r o n o m y and physics, the m a n u a l
o f w o r k i n metals, c o n s t r u c t i o n , carpen-
t e r i n g , and the art o f p a i n t i n g , and the
practical execution o f these matters. The
m a n w h o has been t r a i n e d f r o m his y o u t h
i n the aforesaid sciences as w e l l as prac-
ticed i n the aforesaid arts, and i n a d d i t i o n
has a versatile m i n d , w i l l be, they say
the best i n v e n t o r o f mechanical devices
and b u i l d e r . 21
I t is remarkable to find a d e f i n i t i o n o f the ideal
a r c h i t e c t u r a l e d u c a t i o n i n a geometry m a n u a l
referring to a c u r r i c u l u m for the science o f
mechanics a t t r i b u t e d to H e r o o f A l e x a n d r i a , an
expert o n stereometry. The person w h o mastered
the c u r r i c u l u m was called mechanicus or mecha-
nikos (recalling the A r a b i c t e r m for geometer-
engineer, muhandis), a t i t l e associated w i t h several
late R o m a n and Byzantine architects i n c l u d i n g
I s i d o r u s o f M i l e t u s and A n t h e m i u s o f Tralles, the
architects o f the Hagia Sophia i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .
A n t h e m i u s , a mechanicus w h o applied geometry
to s o l i d m a t t e r , is also r e p o r t e d to have possessed
some knowledge o f p a i n t i n g a n d sculpture, sug-
140 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
gesting t h a t he may have played a role i n conceiv-
i n g the decorative p r o g r a m o f the c h u r c h as w e l l .
Pappus o f Alexandria's classification o f a r c h i -
tecture and crafts such as carpentry and m e t a l -
w o r k a m o n g the subjects o f practical mechanics
was inherited by Islam, as al-Farabi's and a l - A m i r i ' s c
t e n t h - c e n t u r y classifications s h o w . 23
Later Islamic
sources c o n t i n u e to m e n t i o n the role o f prac-
tical geometry i n the t r a i n i n g o f architects and
artisans. The b i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k o f the Persian
author A b u al-Hasan al-Bayhaqi (1100-1169/1170),
for example, cites a saying by the astronomer-
m a t h e m a t i c i a n al-Isfizari ( d . 1123), w h o regarded
the science o f geometry as the basis and f o u n d a -
t i o n o f architecture that the architect and the
bricklayer had to follow. A n o t h e r e n t r y about the
geometer a l - H a k i m A b u M u h a m m a d a l - A d l i c
a l - Q a j i n i establishes a hierarchy based o n the
differing levels o f geometric knowledge r e q u i r e d
f r o m the designing architect and the mason exe-
c u t i n g his designs; the architect w i t h his practical
knowledge o f geometry follows after the t h e o r e t i -
cal g e o m e t r i c i a n , and the b r i c k l a y i n g mason
comes last. The same hierarchy is m e n t i o n e d
i n the t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y ethical digest o f Nasir
a l - D i n al-Tusi w h o h i m s e l f was a m a t h e m a t i c i a n .
Here again the practical geometry o f the architect
is contrasted w i t h the superior theoretical k n o w l -
edge o f the geometer, w h i l e the craftsman is
ranked l o w e s t . 24
Late medieval and early m o d e r n Islamic classifi-
cations o f the sciences elaborate earlier ones; they
cite a d d i t i o n a l fields o f practical geometry t h a t
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
augment the seven-fold list p r o v i d e d by al-Farabi.
2 2
For example, the Irshdd al-qdsid ildasna al-maqdsid
ft anwd c
al- ulum
c
(Guidance for h i m w h o tends to
the highest purpose i n the various sciences) o f I b n
a l - A k f a n i , the I r a q i physician and encyclopedist
w h o died i n Cairo i n 1348, m e n t i o n s ten applied
branches o f geometry. These consisted o f optics,
b u r n i n g m i r r o r s , centers o f gravity, m e n s u r a t i o n ,
mechanics, clocks, m i l i t a r y machines, the c o n -
s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s , the l o c a t i o n o f h i d d e n
waters, and p n e u m a t i c devices, k n o w n as the
science o f ingenious devices. The O t t o m a n ency-
clopedist Taskoprizade (1495-1560) c o u n t e d fifteen
applied branches o f practical geometry, a d d i n g
n a v i g a t i o n , s w i m m i n g , pulleys used i n construc-
t i o n , catapults, and equalizing t i m e to the fields
already cited by I b n a l - A k f a n i . 25
Taskoprizade, I b n
K h a l d u n , I b n a l - A k f a n i , and the M a m l u k scholar
al-Qalqashandi (1355-1418) all stressed the connec-
t i o n between architecture and practical geometry
b u t d i d n o t once m e n t i o n its debt to a r i t h m e t i c .
T h a t architectural design methods were p r e d o m i -
n a n t l y geometric is also d o c u m e n t e d i n scrolls
whose girihs were created by m a n i p u l a t i n g basic
geometric figures and n o t by a r i t h m e t i c calcula-
tions i n v o l v i n g n u m b e r s .
The b r a n c h o f practical geometry t h a t dealt
w i t h the f o u n d a t i o n , c o n s t r u c t i o n , and aesthetics
(husn) o f m o n u m e n t s was k n o w n as ilm c
al- uqud
c
al-abniya ( l i t . , " t h e science o f ' k n o t s ' o f b u i l d -
ings," f r o m aqd, p i . uqud, " k n o t s , " " v a u l t , " or
c c
" a r c h , " t h a t is, the science o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l c o n -
s t r u c t i o n s ) . This science was concerned w i t h the
b u i l d i n g o f cities, f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , beautiful m o n u -
ments, elevated bridges, subterranean i r r i g a t i o n
canals (qandt), and dams. Taskoprizade p o i n t e d
o u t t h a t its most o u t s t a n d i n g works were two early
eleventh-century books, one by the I r a q i m a t h e -
m a t i c i a n I b n a l - H a y t h a m (Alhazen, 965-1039),
w h o after unsuccessfully a t t e m p t i n g to construct
a d a m o n the N i l e settled i n F a t i m i d Cairo where
he w r o t e his famous o p t i c a l treatise, and the other
by the Persian mathematician-engineer a l - K a r a j i
( d . circa 1019-1020), w h o held a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
positions i n Baghdad and I r a n where he w r o t e
several treatises i n c l u d i n g one o n hydraulic water
supplies and the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f qandts. 27
Several
chapters dealing w i t h the science o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
were also i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a n o w - l o s t I l k h a n i d
encyclopedic w o r k , a t t r i b u t e d to Rashid a l - D i n .
I n this t w e n t y - f o u r - c h a p t e r w o r k , the f o u r t h and
fifth chapters discussed canals, ditches, and dams;
chapters 20 and 21 covered the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
26
cities, b u i l d i n g s , fortresses, ships, bridges, and
mechanical devices used as b u i l d i n g a i d s . 28
I t is unclear to w h a t extent these works were
i n s p i r e d by classical prototypes such as the
architectural treatise by V i t r u v i u s , w h i c h is n o t
m e n t i o n e d i n I b n a l - N a d i m ' s t e n t h - c e n t u r y list
o f books i n A r a b i c . A l t h o u g h m a n y medieval
V i t r u v i u s manuscripts have been d o c u m e n t e d i n
Europe, they are n o t yet k n o w n to have circulated
i n the M u s l i m w o r l d . The o n l y exception seems to
be an early fifteenth-century L a t i n V i t r u v i u s codex
f r o m the l i b r a r y o f the H u n g a r i a n k i n g M a t t h i a s
C o r v i n u s (1440-1490) i n Budapest t h a t was i n c o r -

p o r a t e d i n t o the O t t o m a n c o l l e c t i o n o f i m p e r i a l
manuscripts at the T o p k a p i Palace after sultan
Suleyman I'S conquest o f t h a t c i t y . 29
I t is u n f o r t u -
nate t h a t I b n al-Haytham's Kitdb al-abniya wa
al- uqud
c
( B o o k o f b u i l d i n g s and c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) a n d
al-Karaji's Kitdb uqud al-abniya
c
( B o o k o f architec-
t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) m e n t i o n e d b y Taskoprizade
have n o t survived. T h e latter, w h i c h dealt w i t h the
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s , bridges, a n d engineer-
i n g , was described b y I b n a l - A k f a n i as a w o r k
exclusively based o n practical g e o m e t r y . 30
Ibn
al-Haytham's lost w o r k , o n the other h a n d , was
referred t o b y the physician and biographer I b n A b i
Usaybi a (1203-1270) as Maqala ft ijarat
c
al-hufur
wa al-abniya bi-jami c
al-ashkal al-handasiya (Trea-
tise o n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f ditches a n d b u i l d i n g s
w i t h all the figures o f geometry j o i n e d t o g e t h e r ) ,
a w o r k c o n c l u d i n g w i t h the three conic sections,
namely, the parabola, hyperbola, a n d ellipse. 31
These lost treatises r e l y i n g o n practical geometry,
therefore, appear t o have been i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h
geometric constructions t h a t i n c l u d e d conic
sections, constructions p r o b a b l y adapted t o s i m -
plified mechanical procedures.
I b n K h a l d u n testified t o the use o f conic sections
i n architecture and those crafts dealing w i t h bodies:
C o n i c sections are a b r a n c h o f geometry.
This discipline is concerned w i t h the study
o f the figures a n d sections o c c u r r i n g i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h cones. I t proves the p r o p -
erties o f cones b y means o f geometrical
proofs based u p o n elementary geometry.
THEORY
Its usefulness is apparent i n practical
crafts that have t o do w i t h bodies, such
as carpentry and architecture. I t is also
useful for m a k i n g remarkable statues
[ m o n u m e n t s ] and large objects [hayakil,
"effigies," or "edifices"] a n d for m o v -
i n g loads a n d t r a n s p o r t i n g large objects
[hayakil] w i t h the help o f mechanical
contrivances, engineering [ t e c h n i q u e s ] ,
pulleys a n d similar t h i n g s . 32
This statement is c o n f i r m e d i n a n i n t h - c e n t u r y
treatise o n the m e n s u r a t i o n (misaha) o f para-
boloids by T h a b i t b. Q u r r a , w h i c h includes a dis-
cussion o f the "parabolic d o m e " (al-qubba al-
mukafiya) created b y r o t a t i n g different sections
o f a parabola, accompanied b y drawings o f d o m e
profiles (figs. 103-106). Treatises o n the mensura-
t i o n o f parabolas and paraboloids were w r i t t e n
by such mathematicians as I b r a h i m b . Sinan
( 9 0 9 - 9 4 6 ) , al-Sijzi ( 9 6 9 - 9 9 9 ) , A b u Sahl a l - Q u h i
(fl. 9 8 0 - 1 0 0 0 ) , a n d I b n a l - H a y t h a m , some o f t h e m
i n c l u d i n g sections o n arches, vaults, a n d domes.
A l - S i j z i , for example, w r o t e a w o r k exclusively
dealing w i t h the m e n s u r a t i o n o f domes, e n t i t l e d
Risala ft khawass al-qubba al-za'ida wa al-mukafiya
(Epistle about the characteristics o f h y p e r b o l i c a n d
parabolic d o m e s ) . 33
The m a n y A r a b i c treatises o n conic sections,
w r i t t e n after A p o l l o n i u s o f Perga's Conica was
translated, often deal w i t h p r o b l e m s o f practical
application. 34
T h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o architectural
practice ( p a r t i c u l a r l y designing p o i n t e d arches,
A N D PRAXIS 141
vaults, a n d domes) and t o the decorative arts
awaits assessment b y historians o f science so that
the ways i n w h i c h theory a n d praxis interacted can
be u n d e r s t o o d m o r e clearly. A n u m b e r o f t e n t h -
and eleventh-century mathematicians also are
k n o w n t o have w r i t t e n treatises o n d r a f t i n g i n s t r u -
ments t h a t facilitated the sketching o f conic sec-
tions for scientists (al- alim) c
and artisans (al-sani )c
alike. 35
T h e existence o f such treatises supports
I b n K h a l d u n ' s statement t h a t the conic sections,
w h i c h he i d e n t i f i e d as a b r a n c h o f practical
geometry, were relevant for architectural a n d
artisanal practice, a statement c o n f i r m e d by I b n
al-Haytham's lost architectural treatise, w h i c h
ended w i t h the three conic sections.
One o f these drafting i n s t r u m e n t s is described
i n the mechanical engineer I s m a i l b . al-Razzaz
c
al-Jazari's Kitdb ft ma rifat c
al-hiyal al-handastya
( B o o k o n the knowledge o f ingenious mechanical
devices), w r i t t e n i n the first years o f the t h i r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y for the A r t u q i d prince o f D i y a r b a k i r
(fig. 107). This was a special drafting i n s t r u m e n t
w i t h the a i d o f w h i c h " t h e c e n t r e - p o i n t o f three
p o i n t s o n the surface o f a sphere o r o n a h o r i z o n -
tal surface [ p r o v i d e d t h a t they are n o t i n a straight
line] can be d e t e r m i n e d " and w i t h w h i c h " o t h e r
angles i n [general use], acute or obtuse, m a y also
be d e t e r m i n e d . " I t consisted o f a h o r i z o n t a l brass
ruler w i t h a semicircular p r o j e c t i o n at its center
(a sextant whose arc was pierced w i t h holes corre-
s p o n d i n g t o different angles) a n d a perpendicular
alidade ( A r a b i c , al- idada,
c
the revolving radius o f a
graduated circle, the revolving upper a r m o r index
142 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
103. Thabit b. Qurra, drawing of a dome profile. From
his Kitdb ft misahat al-mujassamdt al-mukafiya (Book
on the mensuration of parabolic bodies), copied by al-
Sijzi in 969, ink on paper. Photo: Copyright cliche
Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris, MS Arabe 2457,
fol. n8r.
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
104. Thabit b. Qurra, drawings of dome profiles. From
his Kitdb f 1 misahat al-mujassamat al-mukafiya (Book
on the mensuration of parabolic bodies), copied by al-
Sijzi in 969, ink on paper. Photo: Copyright cliche
Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris, MS Arabe 2457,
fol. 119V.
 THEORY AND PRAXIS 143

105. Thabit b. Qurra, drawings of dome profiles. From

his Kitdb fi misdhat al-mujassamdt al-mukdfiya (Book
on the mensuration of parabolic bodies), copied by al-
Sijzi in 969, ink on paper. Photo: Copyright cliche
Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris, MS Arabe 2457,
fols. 121V, 122r.
144 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

106. Thabit b. Qurra, drawings of dome profiles. From

his Kitab ft misahat al-mujassamdt al-mukdfiya (Book
on the mensuration of parabolic bodies), copied by al-
Sijzi in 969, ink on paper. Photo: Copyright cliche
Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris, MS Arabe 2457,
fol. i2ir.

o f an astrolabe o r any graduated i n s t r u m e n t show-
ing the degrees o f an arc). I t set o u t r i g h t angles
w h e n the alidade was at r i g h t angles t o the h o r i -
zontal ruler; shifting the alidade's p o s i t i o n b y
aligning i t w i t h the angles m a r k e d o n the arc o f the
sextant allowed the setting o u t o f various acute and
obtuse angles (each c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n p r o p o r t i o n t o
two segments o f the sextant's semicircular a r c ) . 36
The same i n s t r u m e n t , identified as an angle-
bracket r u l e r (gunyd-i mistara o r mistara-i gunya)
is described b y the a n o n y m o u s author o f A mdl wa c
ashkdl (fig. 108). Here i t is m e n t i o n e d i n connec-
t i o n t o the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r i g h t triangle whose
hypotenuse equals the sum o f its perpendicular
and shortest side, and i t is specified t h a t I b n
a l - H a y t h a m had w r i t t e n a treatise about the c o n -
s t r u c t i o n o f such a triangle based o n the intersect-
i n g conic sections o f a hyperbola and parabola.
This c o n s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e d the use o f the angle-
bracket r u l e r , t h a t is, a ruler w i t h a central perpen-
dicular alidade t h a t c o u l d be t i l t e d according t o
different angles i n d i c a t e d o n a p r o t r u d i n g g r a d u -
ated arc resembling a p r o t r a c t o r . T h a t this i n s t r u -
m e n t was i n s p i r e d b y astrolabes and quadrants
giving angle readings i n ratios o f arcs is suggested
by its i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f an alidade and a sextant. I t
facilitated d r a w i n g geometric c o m p o s i t i o n s based
o n conic sections c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o rare p r o p o r -
tions and angles. W i t h its help some o f the m o r e
unusual angles used i n girih patterns, generally
. d r a w n w i t h set squares c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o m o r e
c o m m o n r i g h t angles (e.g., 30-60-90 o r 35-45-90
THEORY A N D PRAXIS 145
107a. Isma il b. al-Razzaz al-Jazari, draw-
c
ing of an instrument for setting out
different angles. From his Kitdb ft ma ri-
c
fat al-hiyal al-handasiya (Book on the
knowledge of ingenious mechanical
devices), early thirteenth century, water-
color and ink on paper. From al-Jazari
i974> i97>fig-151. Courtesy: The Bodleian
Library, University of Oxford, MS Greaves
27, fol. 108v.
degrees), c o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d . This i n s t r u m e n t ,
37
107b. Isma il b. al-Razzaz al-Jazari,
c
t h e n , enabled artisans t o cope w i t h conic sections diagram showing how to determine
the center of three points marked on a
whose c o m p l i c a t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n was n o t o n l y
circle with the instrument depicted in
i m p r a c t i c a l , b u t p r o b a b l y beyond t h e i r practical figure 107a. From his Kitdb fi ma rifat
c
knowledge o f geometry. al-hiyal al-handasiya (Book on the
The repeat u n i t s o f geometric girih patterns
knowledge of ingenious mechanical
devices), early thirteenth century,
c o n t a i n e d i n the a n o n y m o u s A mdl c
wa ashkdl watercolor and ink on paper. From
treatise were based o n specific p r o p o r t i o n a l rela- al-Jazari 1974,197,fig.152. Courtesy:
tionships as its title implies (figs. 109-114). T h e The Bodleian Library, University of
Oxford, MS Greaves 27, fol. i09r.
" h o w - t o " i n s t r u c t i o n s i n Persian t h a t accompany
these girihs usually start w i t h the standard phrase:
" T h e way o f d r a w i n g [tariq-i kashidan] and the
r a t i o o r p r o p o r t i o n [nisbat] o f this c o n s t r u c t i o n
[ aqd]
c
is as f o l l o w s " (see the texts i n figs. 112,
114). 38
T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f geometric construc-
tions as aqd, the A r a b i c equivalent o f the t e r m
c
girih, suggests a direct l i n k between the lost early
eleventh-century uqud ( p i . o f aqd) treatises b y
c c
I b n a l - H a y t h a m and al-Karaji i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h geo-
m e t r i c schemata and the later T o p k a p i scroll. I t is
t e m p t i n g t o speculate t h a t the examples ot aqd
c
i n c l u d e d i n the a n o n y m o u s treatise were n o t so
different f r o m the ones used i n architectural trea-
tises. This hypothesis is strengthened b y the fact
that the science o f uqud al-abniya
c
was a sub-
category o f practical geometry and t h a t I b n
al-Haytham's vanished treatise o n this subject
i n c l u d e d all the figures o f geometry j o i n e d together.
I f t h a t was the case, i t is n o w o n d e r t h a t later
scrolls c o m p i l e d b y master builders consist o f
p u r e l y geometric patterns generated b y " k n o t s "
f o r m i n g variegated g r i d networks.
146 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

108. Angle-bracket ruler. From the anonymous treatise

Fi taddkhul al-ashkdl al-mutashdbiha aw al-mutawdfiqa
(On interlocking similar or congruent figures), elev-
enth to thirteenth century, red and black ink on paper.
Photo: Copyright cliche Bibliotheque Nationale de
France, Paris, MS Persan 169, fol. i9ir.
 THEORY AND PRAXIS 147

no. Repeat unit for a star-and-polygon pattern. From

the anonymous treatise FTtadakhul al-ashkdl al-
mutashdbiha aw al-mutawafiqa (On interlocking similar
or congruent figures), eleventh to thirteenth century,
red and black ink on paper. Photo: Copyright cliche
Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris, MS Persan 169,
fol. 195V.

109a. Repeat unit for a star-and-polygon pattern. From 109b. Diagram of uninked grid lines used in generating
the anonymous treatise FTtadakhul al-ashkdl al- figure 109a. Drawing by Elizabeth Dean Hermann.
mutashdbiha aw al-mutawafiqa (On interlocking similar
or congruent figures), eleventh to thirteenth century,
ink on paper. Photo: Copyright cliche Bibliotheque
Nationale de France, Paris, MS Persan 169, fol. i96r.
148 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
111. Repeat unit for a star-and-polygon pattern. From
the anonymous treatise Fitadakhul al-ashkdl al-
mutashdbiha aw al-mutawdfiqa (On interlocking similar
or congruent figures), eleventh to thirteenth century,
red and black ink on paper. Photo: Copyright cliche
Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris, MS Persan 169,
fol. i92r.
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
112. Repeat unit for a star-and-polygon pattern. From
the anonymous treatise Fitadakhul al-ashkal al-
mutashdbiha aw al-mutawdfiqa (On interlocking similar
or congruent figures), eleventh to thirteenth century,
red and black ink on paper. Photo: Copyright cliche
Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris, MS Persan 169,
fol. 194V.
 THEORY AND PRAXIS 149

113a. Repeat unit for a star-and-polygon pattern with 113b. Diagram of uninked grid lines used in generating
swastikas. From the anonymous treatise Fitaddkhul figure 113a. Drawing by Elizabeth Dean Hermann.
al-ashkdl al-mutashdbiha aw al-mutawdfiqa (On
interlocking similar or congruent figures), eleventh to
thirteenth century, red ink and brownish green wash on
paper. Photo: Copyright cliche Bibliotheque Nationale
de France, Paris, MS Persan 169, fol. i99r.
150 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

114. Repeat units of pat- The embeddedness o f architectural practice and

terns, two of which are the allied decorative arts i n practical geometry can
composed with squares,
also be surmised f r o m al-Jazari's early t h i r t e e n t h -
rhombuses, and octa-
gons. From the anony- c e n t u r y treatise where the casting o f a m e t a l -
mous treatise FT w o r k d o o r w i t h i n t e r l o c k i n g geometric pieces is
taddkhul al-ashkdl al- described (figs. 115-117). The i m p o r t a n t place
mutashdbiha aw al-
mutawafiqa (On given to this d o o r (made for the A r t u q i d royal
interlocking similar palace o f D i y a r b a k i r ) i n al-Jazari's treatise o n
or congruent figures), ingenious mechanical devices, one o f the earliest
eleventh to thirteenth manuals o f practical mechanics to have survived,
century, red and black
ink on paper. Photo: shows that Pappus o f Alexandria's d e f i n i t i o n o f
Copyright cliche this field was fully assimilated by medieval Islamic
Bibliotheque Nationale c u l t u r e . Al-Jazari was a master craftsman fully
de France, Paris,
conversant w i t h the branches o f his trade, w h i c h
MS Persan 169, fol. i94r.
i n c l u d e d architecture, m e t a l w o r k , and carpen-
try. H i s cast-brass d o o r featured a g r i d n e t w o r k
(shabaka, l i t . , " n e t " ) o f hexagonal and octagonal
stars [khdtim, l i t . , "signet r i n g " ) j o i n e d by r h o m -
b o i d a l filler units. I t was decorated w i t h h o l l o w
domes, "leaves o f various k i n d s w i t h i n t e r t w i n e d
stems," and " w r i t i n g i n the Kufic script w i t h i n t e r -
t w i n e d letters" featuring " i n t e r t w i n e d leaves." For
each geometric u n i t o f the l a t t i c e w o r k al-Jazari
prepared a w o o d e n template (mithdl) and, "as the
founders do i n f o u n d r y , " cast the pieces i n closed
m o l d boxes w i t h green sand. The door's i n t e r -
l o c k i n g s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns, resembling
those o n "carpenter's w o r k for f i l l i n g i n j o i n e r y "
(kdrzawdn, lit., "tongue-and-groove joined w o r k " ) ,
r e q u i r e d a knowledge o f practical g e o m e t r y . 39

Al-Jazari w a r n e d the reader that his w r i t t e n

description is less i n f o r m a t i v e t h a n the drawings
accompanying i t : " T h i s is [best] u n d e r s t o o d
 THEORY AND PRAXIS 151

115. Isma il b. al-Razzaz al-Jazari, schematic design for a

c

cast metalwork door with star-and-polygon patterns.

From his Kitab fi ma rifat al-hiyal al-handasiya (Book
c

on the knowledge of ingenious mechanical devices),

Diyarbakir, 1206, watercolor and ink on paper. Istanbul,
Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi Kutuphanesi, MS A. 3472,
fols. i65v-i66r.

116. Isma il b. al-Razzaz

c

al-Jazari, diagrams
showing the details for
the individual units of a
cast metalwork door
with star and polygon
patterns. From his Kitab
fi ma rifat al-hiyal al-
c

handasiya (Book on the

knowledge of ingenious
mechanical devices),
Diyarbakir, 1206, water-
color and ink on paper.
Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi Kutuphanesi,
MS A. 3472, fol. i67r.

117. Isma il b. al-Razzaz

c

al-Jazari, diagrams
showing the details for
the individual units of a
cast metalwork door
with star-and-polygon
patterns. From his Kitab
fi ma rifat al-hiyal
c

al-handasiya (Book on
the knowledge of
ingenious mechanical
devices), Diyarbakir,
1206, watercolor and
ink on paper. Istanbul,
Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi
Kiitiiphanesi, MS A. 3472,
fol. 167V.
152 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
by s t u d y i n g the d r a w i n g , n o t f r o m w h a t I have
described, for I have abbreviated the descrip-
tion." 4 0
The i m p o r t a n c e o f technical drawings
i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g practical craft knowledge is
revealed i n a fascinating passage where al-Jazari
described the schematic d r a f t i n g m e t h o d he used
to make his designs m o r e legible:
I n d r a w i n g i t [the p i c t u r e o f the d o o r ] I
have n o t aimed for completeness. M y p u r -
pose was to present a [general] arrange-
m e n t so t h a t i t can be u n d e r s t o o d i n the
whole and i n detail. One realises t h a t
there is obscurity i n the representations o f
solid bodies, b u t i n the i m a g i n a t i o n one
can fit one t h i n g to another, view i t f r o m
an angle, dissect i t , and thus assemble i t
step by step. A l l the drawings w h i c h I have
made are simple, so that they give a clear
p i c t u r e . I show a d r a w i n g o f part o f w h a t
I have described, as I have done w i t h the
drawings i n the other chapters, split i n t o
its separate p a r t s . 41
Al-Jazari's schematic drawings, like the ones
i n c l u d e d i n girih scrolls, w o u l d have to be trans-
lated i n t o full-scale templates and were capable
o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g the basic i n f o r m a t i o n necessary
for artisans already equipped w i t h e m p i r i c a l w o r k -
shop experience. I t is n o t a coincidence that
al-Jazari c o m p a r e d his m e t a l w o r k d o o r t o j o i n e d
w o o d w o r k , the so-called Kassettenstil (Persian,
kunda-kdri, "tongue-and-groove j o i n t i n g " ) , i n
w h i c h precious pieces o f w o o d and m o t h e r - o f -
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
pearl cut i n p o l y g o n and star shapes were i n t r i -
cately fitted together. This technique no d o u b t
r e q u i r e d a g r o u n d i n g i n practical geometry, as is
c o n f i r m e d by the example o f A b u al-Fadl b. A b d c
a l - K a r i m a l - M u h a n d i s ( d . 1202-1203), the carpen-
ter and stonemason responsible for m a k i n g the
doors o f the A y y u b i d ruler a l - M a l i k a l - A d i l ' s
c
hospital i n Damascus, w h o had studied E u c l i d
to acquire excellence i n the geometric art o f
w o o d j o i n e r y . I b n K h a l d u n c o n f i r m e d that carpen-
ters had to be t r a i n e d i n practical geometry, just
like architect-engineers w h o used i t i n design-
i n g b u i l d i n g s and i n s t r u m e n t s (constructed
according to geometric p r o p o r t i o n s ) for l i f t i n g
water and for m o v i n g heavy loads o f b u i l d i n g
materials. 42
He w r o t e :
I n view o f its o r i g i n , carpentry needs a
g o o d deal o f geometry o f all k i n d s . I t
requires either a general or a specialized
knowledge o f p r o p o r t i o n and measure-
m e n t , i n order to b r i n g the forms [ o f
things] f r o m p o t e n t i a l i t y i n t o actuality i n
the p r o p e r manner, and for the knowledge
o f p r o p o r t i o n s one m u s t have recourse to
the geometrician. Therefore, the leading
Greek geometricians were all master car-
penters. E u c l i d , the author o f the Book
of the Principles, o n geometry, was a car-
penter and was k n o w n as such. The same
was the case w i t h A p o l l o n i u s , the author
o f the b o o k o n Conic Sections, and
Menelaus, and o t h e r s . 43
I b n K h a l d u n was repeating a t r a d i t i o n , whose o r i -
gin has n o t yet been explained, t h a t l i n k e d these
two famous geometers o f the A l e x a n d r i a n school
w i t h the v o c a t i o n o f carpentry. I n several b i o -
graphical sources b o t h E u c l i d and A p o l l o n i u s
o f Perga appear w i t h the epithet " t h e carpenter"
(al-najjdr), an epithet that may s i m p l y have
reflected c o n t e m p o r a r y Islamic craft practices. 44
Ca fer's Risdle-i
c
Mfmdriyye, w h i c h discusses the
career o f the O t t o m a n architect M e h m e d , shows
that practical geometry (handasa) and mensura-
t i o n (misdha, the science o f measurement dealing
w i t h lengths, surfaces, and volumes o f geometric
figures) c o n t i n u e d to play a central role i n the
t r a i n i n g o f architects and carpenters i n the early
m o d e r n era. This treatise includes a substantial
section o n the science o f geometry, i d e n t i f i e d as
the c o m m o n basis for the crafts o f architecture,
m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l - i n l a i d w o o d w o r k , and music,
i n all o f w h i c h M e h m e d was t r a i n e d d u r i n g his
apprenticeship at the royal workshops o f the
T o p k a p i Palace's outer garden. The author traced
the origins o f this science to the p h i l o s o p h e r
Pythagoras w h o "collected b o t h the science o f
geometry and the science o f mathematics i n t o
a b o o k . " I t was also Pythagoras w h o had sys-
tematized the science o f music: " H e discovered,
arranged a n d classified r h y t h m i c patterns f r o m
the crashing o f the waves o f the s e a . " 45
A n episode recounted i n the Risdle shows that
manuscripts o f practical geometry were used to
educate apprentices i n the craft workshops o f the
T o p k a p i Palace. I t describes h o w a y o u t h read a
b o o k o f geometry a l o u d i n the w o r k s h o p o f the

m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l workers: "As he read each section,
he w o u l d t u r n and narrate and explain i t to t h e m .
By chance, the b o o k w h i c h he was reading was
about the science o f g e o m e t r y . " 46
When Mehmed
(apprenticed at that t i m e to the n e i g h b o r i n g w o r k -
shop o f musicians) heard " t h e i n t e l l i g e n t y o u t h . . .
reading the b o o k w h i c h thus described geometry
and a r c h i t e c t u r e , " he decided to switch to the
study o f the "arts o f w o r k i n g o f m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l
and o f a r c h i t e c t u r e . " After d e m o n s t r a t i n g his skill
by s t r i k i n g a p l a n k w i t h an adz o n a m a r k e d spot,
he was accepted i n t o the b r o t h e r h o o d to learn
these two arts, u p o n w h i c h the y o u n g m a n reading
the b o o k said: " I f this boy t u r n s t o w a r d this art
w i t h this s k i l l , let me also teach h i m the science o f
geometry, and transcribe and present h i m w i t h a
copy o f the b o o k i n m y h a n d so that as l o n g as he
lives he w i l l have i n his hands a t o k e n f r o m m e . "
This episode confirms that " h o w - t o " manuals
o f applied geometry c o n t i n u e d to be used by l i t e r -
ate master masons and master craftsmen w h i l e
the i n f o r m a t i o n contained i n t h e m was o r a l l y
t r a n s m i t t e d to apprentices as part o f their w o r k -
shop t r a i n i n g .
The Risdle asserted that "as l o n g as a person
does n o t understand this rare and agreeable
science [i.e., g e o m e t r y ] , he is n o t capable o f the
finest w o r k i n g i n m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l , n o r can he be
an expert skilled i n the art o f a r c h i t e c t u r e . " 48
Ca fer h i m s e l f c o m p i l e d a treatise o f practical
c
geometry based o n the discussions he had over-
heard w h i l e he was i n the service o f M e h m e d
d u r i n g the latter's tenure as chief c o u r t architect
(1606-1618): "Because we have been connected
THEORY
w i t h h i m for m a n y years u n t i l the present t i m e ,
for the most part closely, w h e n certain subjects
c o n c e r n i n g the science o f geometry were being
discussed, this h u m b l e servant t o o k and w r o t e
d o w n everything. I n accordance w i t h this, he set
d o w n and composed a treatise c o n c e r n i n g the
science o f g e o m e t r y . " 49
U n f o r t u n a t e l y Ca fer's treatise has n o t yet sur-
c
faced, b u t its contents dealing w i t h practical geome-
t r y can be surmised f r o m the b r i e f chapter o n
the same subject he i n c l u d e d i n the Risdle, w h i c h
refers to m o d u l a r c u b i t measures, geometric
methods o f m e n s u r a t i o n used i n l a n d surveying,
and geometric figures used "above all i n the art o f
m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l w o r k i n g . " I t is clear that he was
n o t concerned w i t h theoretical geometry and its
proofs b u t w i t h a practical geometry based o n a
4 7
knowledge o f basic figures and t h e i r properties.
H e w r o t e : " N o w , i n the science o f geometry
there are several forms. W h e n these are mastered,
the rest is easy." He identified these as the circle,
semicircle, small arc o f the circle lesser t h a n the
semicircle, large arc o f the circle bigger t h a n
the semicircle, t r i a n g u l a r forms, quadrangles,
pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, octagons, nona-
gons, decagons, and so o n and added, " T h e art
o f m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l inlay makes use o n l y o f forms
derived f r o m the science o f g e o m e t r y . " 50
M e h m e d ' s mastery i n m a n i p u l a t i n g geometric
forms i n the craft o f m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l - i n l a i d car-
p e n t r y c u l m i n a t e d i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l works w h e n he
became the chief architect o f the O t t o m a n c o u r t .
The Sultan A h m e d mosque he b u i l t i n I s t a n b u l is
described i n the Risdle as a w o n d e r o f geometry:
AND PRAXIS 153
Because i t is n o t possible t o relate h o w
vast a b u i l d i n g this noble mosque is, h o w
solidly its f o u n d a t i o n s and structure were
made, we have n o t described these. I n
t r u t h , one w h o wishes to understand these
matters s h o u l d first become greatly skilled
and w e l l versed i n the science o f geometry.
After t h a t , i t is necessary to study and
p o n d e r i t for m a n y days and m o n t h s and
years and for m u c h t i m e i n order to c o m -
p r e h e n d i n w h a t m a n n e r and i n w h a t
ways its various designs and i n t e r l o c k i n g
decorations were p u t t o g e t h e r . 51
M e h m e d had n o t o n l y studied at the T o p k a p i
Palace's i m p e r i a l garden under a master carpenter
and various j o u r n e y m e n (halife) b u t also under
the r e n o w n e d O t t o m a n chief architect Sinan w h o
often came there w h i l e he occupied t h a t post
between 1538 and 1588: " A n d each t i m e the Great
A r c h i t e c t came to the I m p e r i a l Gardens, he
[ M e h m e d ] studied the science o f geometry and
the art o f architecture w i t h h i m and o t h e r s . " 52
Sinan's role as a teacher is also i m p l i e d i n his
e n d o w m e n t deed (waqfiyya), w h i c h refers to h i m
as " t h e royal professor" (mu allim-i
c
hdkdni); his
mastery i n geometry is expressed i n the same
source by his title " E u c l i d i u s o f the A g e . " 5 3
Sinan,
t o o , was i n i t i a l l y t r a i n e d by a master carpenter i n
the craft o f carpentry (neccdr), which introduced
h i m t h r o u g h the use o f ruler (hencdr) and c o m -
pass (pergdr) to geometry, the g r o u n d w o r k o f a r c h i -
tecture. I n the autobiography he dictated to Sa i, c
Sinan t h a n k e d his master for t r a i n i n g h i m i n the
154 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
craft o f carpentry and t h e n poetically described his
apprenticeship p e r i o d :
R e m a i n i n g i n the service o f m y master like
a compass w i t h one leg fixed, I t u r n e d m y
a t t e n t i o n to center and circumference
[i.e., d r a w i n g circles]. T h e n , just as a c o m -
pass draws an arc, so I desired t o t o u r
countries. For a w h i l e i n the service o f the
sultan [Selim 1] I cruised the A r a b a n d
Persian lands, d e r i v i n g m y food f r o m the
pinnacle o f each i w a n , a n d m y l o d g i n g
f r o m the corner o f each r u i n . 5 4
T h a t Sinan's mosques were seen i n the O t t o m a n
w o r l d as masterpieces o f applied geometry is cap-
t u r e d i n a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the Suleymaniye mosque
(1550-1557) b y the seventeenth-century traveler
Evliya Qelebi w h o p u t the f o l l o w i n g words i n t o the
m o u t h o f a European architectural expert d i s t i n -
guished i n the science o f geometry: " B o t h the i n t e -
r i o r and exterior o f this mosque have been b u i l t
i n a c h a r m i n g manner; i n the whole o f Frankistan
[Europe] we d i d n o t see such an exemplary b u i l d -
i n g perfect i n terms o f the science o f geometry
[ ilm-i
c
hendese]." T h e prestige o f geometry i n
O t t o m a n architectural practice is also reflected i n
the late sixteenth-century c o u r t h i s t o r i a n L o k m a n
b. Seyyid Hiiseyin's account o f the g u i l d proces-
sions i n I s t a n b u l d u r i n g a royal c i r c u m c i s i o n cere-
m o n y i n 1582. Here, an u n n a m e d skilled architect
(mi mdr)
c
and engineer (muhendis) w h o prepared a
p a i n t e d and gilded t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l o f the
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
Suleymaniye mosque for the parade is praised for
his E u c l i d - l i k e mastery o f geometry and his a b i l i t y
to reproduce the universe and the vault o f the
heavens i n his imaginative designs (tarh) drawn
w i t h compasses. T h a t this architect-engineer was
most l i k e l y Sinan h i m s e l f can be deduced f r o m a
later procession o f guilds d u r i n g the c i r c u m c i s i o n
festivities o f 1675 for w h i c h the chief royal a r c h i -
tect (mi mdr
c
ago) had prepared two models o f
kiosks placed i n gardens w i t h jets o f water; these
were paraded i n f r o n t o f the sultan o n separate
wheel-carts. 55
Sinan was p e r p e t u a t i n g the R o m a n o - B y z a n t i n e
t r a d i t i o n o f m i l i t a r y architect-engineers that the
O t t o m a n s had filtered t h r o u g h the p r i s m o f t h e i r
o w n architectural heritage and new influences
f r o m Renaissance Italy. Early i n his career he par-
t i c i p a t e d i n various b u i l d i n g projects i n a d d i t i o n
to c o n s t r u c t i n g w o o d e n warships, fortresses, a n d
bridges t h a t prepared h i m for the masterpieces he
w o u l d create as chief royal architect. I n those years
he c o n t i n u e d t o b u i l d bridges, aqueducts, a n d
water channels, projects that occupy as i m p o r t a n t
a place i n the architect's a u t o b i o g r a p h y as r e l i -
gious and secular m o n u m e n t s . Like his successors
D a v u d ( d . 1599), Dalgic A h m e d ( d . 1608), a n d
M e h m e d , w h o had first served as superintendents
o f waterworks (suyoli naziri) before they were p r o -
m o t e d t o the office o f chief architect, Sinan was
deeply i n v o l v e d w i t h h y d r a u l i c engineering. H i s
career, therefore, is i n keeping w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l
Islamic classification o f architecture as a sub-
field o f applied mechanics, a classification t h a t
explains w h y the lost architectural treatises o f I b n
a l - H a y t h a m a n d al-Karaji i n c l u d e d sections o n the
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f fortifications, bridges, dams, a n d
i r r i g a t i o n works.
As chief royal architect, Sinan occupied the
highest bureaucratic p o s i t i o n i n the centrally orga-
nized O t t o m a n c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y , where mas-
ter masons, masons, and the practitioners o f
various b u i l d i n g - r e l a t e d crafts ( i n c l u d i n g carpen-
ters and the ceramic tile makers o f I z n i k ) were
directly placed under his supervision. T h e rela-
tively h i g h social status o f O t t o m a n master masons
(ustdd) can be deduced f r o m L o k m a n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n
o f t h e i r g u i l d procession i n 1582 w h e n they were
accompanied b y o r d i n a r y masons (bennd). While
the latter paraded w i t h their w o r k i n g tools a n d
c u b i t measures (arsun), the masters p r o u d l y
marched e m p t y - h a n d e d , wearing expensive silk
brocade caftans (kemhdve serdser) and large t u r -
bans. They w e n t about g i v i n g f i r m a n l i k e orders t o
c o n s t r u c t i o n workers (irgdd), " n o t one o f t h e m
being i n v o l v e d i n m a n u a l labor [el iscisi]" himself.
These master masons, " w h o had never even d r i v e n
a n a i l " refused t o be ordered a r o u n d and w o u l d
n o t listen t o any c o m m a n d "even i f one were t o
drive i t i n t o t h e i r ears w i t h a screw." Sinan, w h o
held a m a j o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e post, enjoyed even
greater prestige t h a n the master masons under
his c o m m a n d . Nevertheless, his image differed
f r o m t h a t o f his contemporaries i n Renaissance
Italy where the s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f architecture t o
mechanics was renounced t o such a degree that " i n
m a n y parts o f I t a l y a m a n is called a mechanic i n

scorn and degradation, and i n some places people
are offended even t o be called e n g i n e e r . " 56
The similar geometric basis o f the t r a i n i n g
o f architect-engineers i n M u g h a l I n d i a is d o c u -
m e n t e d i n w r i t t e n sources that often refer t o t h e m
as E u c l i d - l i k e skilled geometers. 57
For example, the
architect Ustad A h m a d L a h o r i ( d . 1649), w n
ticipated i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the Taj M a h a l ,
was at once a skilled engineer and learned i n the
sciences o f geometry, a r i t h m e t i c , and astronomy.
This architect, w h o received the title " W o n d e r o f
the Age" f r o m his p a t r o n Shah Jahan, is described
i n a collection o f poems b y his son L u t f A l l a h
M u h a n d i s as acquainted w i t h Euclid's Elements
and w i t h the second-century astronomer and
m a t h e m a t i c i a n Ptolemy's Almagest, through which
the mysterious " m o v e m e n t s o f the planets a n d
stars had become k n o w n t o h i m . " 5 8
Ahmad Lahori
had descended f r o m a family o f T i m u r i d architects
o r i g i n a t i n g i n H e r a t ; his two sons and grandsons
also f o l l o w e d the profession o f t h e i r forefathers.
L u t f A l l a h , w h o used the pen name M u h a n d i s ,
was an architect-engineer and m a t h e m a t i c i a n w h o
composed a practical treatise o n a r i t h m e t i c filled
w i t h geometric diagrams. A h m a d Lahori's other
son, A t a ' A l l a h , also w r o t e several practice-
c
oriented treatises o n the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences
and translated a Sanskrit text o n algebra i n t o
Persian for Shah Jahan i n 1634-1635. 59
He, too,
was an architect and b u i l t the M u g h a l queen
Rabi a al-Dawrani's ( d . 1657) t o m b at Awrangabad,
c
m o d e l e d o n the Taj M a h a l . T h e f a m i l y profes-
sion was perpetuated b y yet another generation
w i t h L u t f Allah's son Khayr A l l a h w h o composed
i n 1731 a practical m a t h e m a t i c a l treatise c o n t a i n -
i n g geometric d i a g r a m s . 60
This f a m i l y o f architects p r a c t i c i n g i n M u g h a l
I n d i a appears t o have perpetuated a late T i m u r i d
t r a d i t i o n — t o w h i c h the T o p k a p i scroll b e l o n g s —
o
P a r _
e n r i c h i n g i t w i t h local c o n t r i b u t i o n s . A h m a d
Lahori's mastery o f the "secrets" o f the Almagest
recalls a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the fifteenth-century
T i m u r i d architect Ustad Qawam a l - D i n Shirazi as
" t h e greatest architect o f the age" w h o was also an
"expert at a s t r o n o m y . " The latter had presented an
ephemeris as a gift t o the T i m u r i d ruler S h a h r u k h ,
u p o n w h i c h his p a t r o n allegedly recited the f o l -
l o w i n g line o f poetry: "You d i d the w o r k o f the
earth so w e l l t h a t y o u t o o k u p the heavens t o o . "
These two architects' p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h astron-
o m y reflects the d y n a m i c interchange between the
various branches o f the q u a d r i v i u m . I t also testi-
fies to the persistence o f the ideal image o f the
architect c u l t i v a t e d i n Persian l i t e r a t u r e , w h i c h
was permeated w i t h ancient Near Eastern m y t h o l -
ogy and frequent allusions t o the astrological
secrets c o m m a n d e d b y architects and artisans.
N i z a m i ' s Haft Paykar (Seven p o r t r a i t s ) , for
example, describes the learned architect, w h o b u i l t
for the Sasanian p r i n c e Bahram G u r (r. A . D . 4 2 0 -
438) a seven-domed palace r e p r o d u c i n g the struc-
t u r e o f the heavens, as possessing an o u t s t a n d i n g
knowledge o f geometry, astronomy, m e d i c i n e , cal-
ligraphy, and p a i n t i n g . S i m i l a r l y N i z a m i ' s Khusraw
wa Shirin describes the legendary sculptor Farhad
as a master o f geometry w h o surpassed E u c l i d and
THEORY AND PRAXIS 155
studied the Almagest before t a k i n g u p the chisel.
These two p o p u l a r r o m a n t i c epics w o u l d inspire
new versions, i n c l u d i n g the ones w r i t t e n b y the
I n d o - M u s l i m poet A m i r Khusraw D i h l a w i (1253-
1325) and b y the late T i m u r i d poets Jami a n d
N a w a ' i , where the same image o f the ideal a r c h i -
tect is encountered. The t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a r c h i -
tect Badr a l - D i n T a b r i z i , w h o b u i l t the t o m b o f
M a w l a n a Jalal a l - D i n R u m i i n Seljuq Konya, is
described i n similar terms; he possessed a k n o w l -
edge o f the sciences o f a s t r o n o m y and m a t h e m a t -
ics besides alchemy, chemistry, and p h i l o s o p h y . 62
These n o d o u b t idealized l i t e r a r y descriptions
echo Pappus o f Alexandria's and V i t r u v i u s ' s
accounts o f the ideal c u r r i c u l u m o f the architect
6 1
or mechanicus.
V i t r u v i u s ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f the w e l l - r o u n d e d
architect's b a c k g r o u n d also encompassed a k n o w l -
edge o f m a n y sciences, i n c l u d i n g astronomy, used
i n o r i e n t i n g b u i l d i n g s and c o n s t r u c t i n g sundials:
" L e t h i m be educated, s k i l l f u l w i t h the p e n c i l ,
i n s t r u c t e d i n geometry, k n o w m u c h h i s t o r y , have
f o l l o w e d the philosophers w i t h a t t e n t i o n , u n d e r -
stand music, have some knowledge o f m e d i c i n e ,
k n o w the o p i n i o n s o f j u r i s t s , and be acquainted
w i t h a s t r o n o m y and the t h e o r y o f the h e a v e n s . " 63
V i t r u v i u s qualified his statement b y a d m i t t i n g
that since i t is impossible t o be an expert i n a l l
these fields, a modest knowledge o f t h e i r practical
principles w o u l d suffice for the architect:
For i n the m i d s t o f all this great variety
o f subjects, an i n d i v i d u a l cannot a t t a i n
156 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
to perfection i n each, because i t is scarcely
i n his power to take i n and c o m p r e h e n d
the general theories o f t h e m . . . . As for
m e n u p o n w h o m nature has bestowed
so m u c h i n g e n u i t y , acuteness, and m e m -
o r y t h a t they are able to have a t h o r o u g h
knowledge o f geometry, astronomy, music
and the other arts, they go beyond the
functions o f architects and become pure
mathematicians. 64
Scientist-architects, such as the professional
mathematicians Isidorus o f M i l e t u s ; A n t h e m i u s
o f Tralles; Gabriele Stornaloco, w h o was called i n
d u r i n g the p l a n n i n g o f the M i l a n cathedral i n 1391;
and Sir C h r i s t o p h e r W r e n (1632-1723), w h o was
a professor o f a s t r o n o m y at O x f o r d , have been the
exception rather t h a n the rule i n the h i s t o r y o f
Western architecture. This was also the case i n the
Islamic w o r l d , except for such rare examples as
Baha' a l - D i n A m i l i (1564-1621), the remarkable
c
Safavid theologian w h o was n o t o n l y an accom-
plished architect b u t also k n o w n for his dozens
o f works o n various branches o f the m a t h e m a t i c a l
sciences, i n c l u d i n g astronomy, a r i t h m e t i c , and
i r r i g a t i o n . Theoretically sophisticated early medie-
val mathematicians such as the Banu M u s a b r o t h -
ers, I b n a l - H a y t h a m , and al-Karaji d i d get i n v o l v e d
i n c o n s t r u c t i o n projects such as b u i l d i n g dams,
digging i r r i g a t i o n channels, laying o u t new cities,
and advising builders, b u t the m o r e c o m m o n
breed o f architect-engineers w i t h a w o r k i n g k n o w l -
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
edge o f practical geometry and applied mechanics
rarely i n c l u d e d distinguished scientists. 65
Q a w a m a l - D i n Shirazi and the members o f
A h m a d Lahori's f a m i l y were literate and d i d pos-
sess a w e l l - r o u n d e d knowledge o f the various
branches o f the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences, b u t t h e i r
knowledge i n these fields appears to have been
largely practical rather t h a n theoretical. The level
o f a r i t h m e t i c knowledge c o m m a n d e d by T i m u r i d
architects, however, remains controversial. Bulatov,
for example, argued that Central Asian master
builders had a considerable knowledge o f advanced
c o m p u t a t i o n and t r i g o n o m e t r y u p to the end o f
the T i m u r i d era. Others, such as Rempel' and
Pugachenkova, have regarded Central Asian a r c h i -
tects as h i g h l y qualified master builders w h o d i d
n o t necessarily c o m p r e h e n d the theoretical or
n u m e r i c a l bases o f the practical geometry they so
s k i l l f u l l y used. W h i l e Rempel' and Pugachenkova
based t h e i r conclusions o n the graphic methods
reflected i n the geometric drawings o f the Tashkent
scrolls, B u l a t o v saw the existence o f treatises o n
applied a r i t h m e t i c by such mathematicians as
M u h a m m a d b. M u s a a l - K h w a r e z m i , a l - B u z j a n i ,
and al-Kashi ( w h i c h c o n t a i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l refer-
ences) as evidence for a deeper knowledge o f a r i t h -
metic c o m p u t a t i o n a m o n g a r c h i t e c t s . 66
To resolve this controversy we m u s t t u r n t o the
contents o f Islamic manuals o n practical a r i t h m e -
tic and assess whether they w o u l d have been use-
ful for the purposes o f designing architects. T h e i r
earliest s u r v i v i n g example was w r i t t e n i n n i n t h -
century Baghdad by the m a t h e m a t i c i a n and astron-
omer a l - K h w a r e z m i , attached to a l - M a ' m u n ' s Bayt
al-hikma. I n the words o f its author, this w o r k was
confined to " w h a t is easiest and most useful i n
a r i t h m e t i c , such as m e n constantly require i n cases
o f inheritance, legacies, p a r t i t i o n , lawsuits, and
trade, and i n all t h e i r dealings w i t h one another,
or where the measuring o f lands, the digging o f
canals, geometrical c o m p u t a t i o n s , and other
objects o f various sorts and kinds are concerned."
The treatise's first p a r t , dealing w i t h problems
arising f r o m the d i v i s i o n o f inheritances and trade,
involves o n l y a r i t h m e t i c and linear equations. Its
shorter second part addresses the practical a p p l i -
cations o f m e n s u r a t i o n (misaha), t h a t is, the
a p p r o x i m a t e calculation o f the areas o f various
plane and solid geometric figures by c u b i t mea-
sures: " K n o w t h a t the m e a n i n g o f the expression
one by one is m e n s u r a t i o n : one c u b i t [dhird ] c
[in
length] by one c u b i t [ i n w i d t h ] . " Here rules are
given to f i n d the areas o f such figures as the circle,
cone, cylinder, p y r a m i d , and t r u n c a t e d p y r a m i d .
T h a t practical m e n s u r a t i o n is o n l y concerned w i t h
s i m p l i f i e d formulas becomes apparent i n the three
different p i values a l - K h w a r e z m i p r o v i d e d for cal-
c u l a t i n g the circle, one used i n " p r a c t i c a l life,
t h o u g h i t is n o t quite exact," and the other two
used by geometers and a s t r o n o m e r s . 67
The second part o f al-Khwarezmi's treatise
applied algebra ( w h i c h involves b o t h a r i t h m e t i c
and geometric proofs) to geometric p r o b l e m s ,
an area where the mathematicians o f the Islamic

w o r l d are k n o w n to have o u t s t r i p p e d their Greek
and I n d i a n counterparts. The use o f algebra i n
geometry and the s o l u t i o n o f algebraic p r o b l e m s
w i t h the aid o f geometry w o u l d be explored
by m a n y A r a b i c - w r i t i n g m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . For
example, one o f the earliest M u s l i m algebraists
w h o l i v e d i n the second h a l f o f the n i n t h century,
A b u K a m i l Shuja , w r o t e a m e n s u r a t i o n treatise o n
c
the pentagon and decagon that solved p r o b l e m s
by a p p l y i n g algebraic methods to geometry. Since
Islamic encyclopedias consistently define a r c h i -
tecture and practical mechanics as branches o f
applied geometry, the geometric proofs o f algebra
were d i r e c t l y relevant to these fields. A l - B u z j a n i ' s
late t e n t h - c e n t u r y m a n u a l o n applied a r i t h m e t i c
entitled Kitdb al-manazil fima yahtaju ilayhi
al-kuttdb wa al- ummal
c
min ilm al-hisab ( B o o k o f
c
the stations o n w h a t the scribe and secretary needs
o f the science o f a r i t h m e t i c ) contains chapters
o n practical geometry that extend al-Khwarezmi's
a p p l i c a t i o n o f algebra to geometric p r o b l e m s i n t o
new fields. Its first two parts deal w i t h simple
a r i t h m e t i c operations (e.g., r a t i o , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ,
and d i v i s i o n ) . Its t h i r d p a r t applies these opera-
tions to the m e n s u r a t i o n o f plane and s o l i d geo-
m e t r i c figures, i n c l u d i n g the spherical or conical
d o m e (qubba). The r e m a i n i n g f o u r parts address
such practical p r o b l e m s as the payment o f w o r k ,
t a x a t i o n , inheritance a p p o r t i o n m e n t s , shares
related to harvest, exchange o f currency, c o m m e r -
cial transactions, and c o n s t r u c t i o n estimates for
b u i l d i n g s and dams. The last section contains cal-
THEORY
culations o f wages for m o r t a r i n g and b r i c k l a y i n g ,
as well as o f streams filling a w e l l . 6 8
U n l i k e al-Buzjani's m a n u a l o n practical geome-
try, w h i c h addresses the p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f various
crafts, this one o n applied a r i t h m e t i c reflects the
concerns o f scribes and secretaries, as its title
implies. The use o f a r i t h m e t i c i n l a n d surveying,
i n m a k i n g correct estimates o f b u i l d i n g costs,
and i n the d i g g i n g o f i r r i g a t i o n channels belonged
to the realm o f expertise r e q u i r e d f r o m the w e l l -
r o u n d e d secretary. I b n Qutayba ( 8 2 5 - 8 8 9 ) , the
p o l y g r a p h w h o was b o t h a theologian and a w r i t e r
o f adab (the s u m o f knowledge necessary for gen-
eral c u l t u r e and for p a r t i c u l a r offices), described
the skills that the perfect secretary s h o u l d possess:
The Persians always used to say, " H e w h o
is n o t knowledgeable about d i v e r t i n g
water i n t o channels, d i g g i n g o u t courses
for i r r i g a t i o n streams, and b l o c k i n g u p
disused well-shafts; about the changes i n
the l e n g t h o f the days as they increase and
decrease, the r e v o l u t i o n o f the sun, the
r i s i n g places o f the stars and the state o f
the new m o o n as i t begins to wax, and
its subsequent phases; about the various
weights i n use; about the measurement
o f triangles, four-sided figures and p o l y -
gons; about the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f bridges
and aqueducts, i r r i g a t i o n machines and
water wheels; and about the materials
used by various artisans, and the fine
AND PRAXIS 157
p o i n t s o f financial a c c o u n t i n g — s u c h a
person m u s t be considered o n l y p a r t l y -
qualified as a secretary." 69
I n a d d i t i o n to boasting l i n g u i s t i c , calligraphic, and
l i t e r a r y skills, t h e n , the ideal secretary and a d m i n -
istrator (whose urbane c u l t u r e o f " p o l i t e l e a r n i n g "
was reflected i n the literary genre o f adab) was
expected to have some practical competence i n
mathematics to deal w i t h a c c o u n t i n g , t a x a t i o n ,
inheritances, cadastral surveys, and measuring
allocations o f water i n i r r i g a t i o n channels (a m a j o r
f u n c t i o n o f the state i n the i r r i g a t e d oases o f I r a n ,
I r a q , and C e n t r a l Asia).
The extensive knowledge o f applied m a t h e m a t -
ics i n B u y i d Baghdad, where the m a i n bearers o f
h u m a n i s t i c c u l t u r e were the scribes, secretaries,
l i t e r a t i , and h i g h officials o f state chancelleries and
courts, can be deduced f r o m the biographies o f
such personages as the vizier I b n A b b a d ( d . 995),
c
w h o was devoted t o s t u d y i n g logic, mathematics,
music, a s t r o n o m y , and m e d i c i n e . The vizier I b n
a l - A m i d ' s mastery o f the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences
c
was described by the c o n t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h e r
and h i s t o r i a n I b n Miskawayh:
H e was sole master o f the secrets o f cer-
t a i n obscure sciences w h i c h no one p r o -
fesses, such as mechanics, r e q u i r i n g the
most abstruse knowledge o f geometry,
and physics, the science o f a b n o r m a l
m o t i o n s , the dragging o f heavy weights,
158 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
and the centers o f gravity, i n c l u d i n g the
execution o f m a n y operations w h i c h the
ancients f o u n d impossible, the f a b r i c a t i o n
o f w o n d e r f u l engines for the s t o r m i n g o f
fortresses, stratagems against strongholds
and stratagems i n campaigns, the adop-
t i o n o f w o n d e r f u l weapons, such as arrows
w h i c h c o u l d permeate a vast space, and
produce remarkable effects, m i r r o r s w h i c h
b u r n e d a very l o n g way off. He c o u l d , for
his amusement, scratch the f o r m o f a face
o n an apple i n an h o u r — a face so fine that
another c o u l d n o t do i t w i t h all the a p p r o -
priate i n s t r u m e n t s i n a n u m b e r o f days. 70
These references explain w h y al-Buzjani's
treatise o n applied a r i t h m e t i c addresses the
bureaucratic concerns o f scribes, secretaries, and
accountants. The use o f a r i t h m e t i c i n m a k i n g cor-
rect estimates o f b u i l d i n g costs and wages was a
task often assigned to clerks responsible for the
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and financial aspects o f construc-
t i o n projects. The d i v i s i o n o f labor between such
bureaucratic overseers and designing architects
responsible for c o n s t r u c t i o n is better d o c u m e n t e d
f r o m the I l k h a n i d p e r i o d o n w a r d , even t h o u g h i n
some instances architects were also charged w i t h
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e tasks. The T i m u r i d s , for example,
generally differentiated a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s u p e r i n -
tendents (sarkdrhd or sarkdrdn) f r o m architects
(mi mdrdn
c
or ustdddn), j u s t as the O t t o m a n s dis-
t i n g u i s h e d between the b u i l d i n g supervisor (bind'
emini) and the architect (mi mdr). c
Similarly i n
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
M u g h a l I n d i a i t was the chief b u i l d i n g supervisor
(mir Hmdrat) w h o had to be "versed i n accoun-
tancy or alternatively, e m p l o y an a c c o u n t a n t " to
ascertain the n u m b e r o f stones or bricks r e q u i r e d
according to fixed u n i t s o f measurement, to deter-
m i n e the builder's wages, and to k n o w the prices
of building materials. 71
Therefore, practical m a n u -
als o n a r i t h m e t i c seem to have been m o r e useful
for the concerns o f b u i l d i n g supervisors t h a n
for architects whose design methods p r i m a r i l y
relied o n geometry. There were, o f course, some
examples o f architects w h o were b o t h skilled i n
a r i t h m e t i c and capable o f acting i n an a d m i n i s t r a -
tive capacity as b u i l d i n g supervisors, b u t such
skills were o f l i t t l e relevance for the processes o f
a r c h i t e c t u r a l design.
F o l l o w i n g the example set by a l - K h w a r e z m i and
a l - B u z j a n i , such early eleventh-century m a t h e m a -
ticians as al-Karaji and I b n a l - H a y t h a m c o n t i n u e d
to i n c l u d e chapters o n m e n s u r a t i o n i n t h e i r trea-
tises o n applied a r i t h m e t i c . These were c o m p l e -
m e n t e d by full-scale treatises o n the science o f
m e n s u r a t i o n ( ilm al-misdha),
c
classified as part
o f practical g e o m e t r y . 72
M e n s u r a t i o n treatises
often proceed f r o m the measurement o f lines and
p l a n i m e t r y ( m e n s u r a t i o n o f surfaces) to stereome-
t r y ( m e n s u r a t i o n o f solids), some o f t h e m c o n -
c l u d i n g w i t h practical applications i n h y d r a u l i c
engineering, l a n d surveying, a n d architecture.
The latter address such problems as the i n d i r e c t
measurement o f m o u n t a i n s and distant objects and
the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the d e p t h o f wells, the b r e a d t h
o f rivers, the height o f walls, and the n u m b e r o f
stones or bricks r e q u i r e d to b u i l d a m o n u m e n t
or a d o m e .
T h e i r relatively short architectural sections
dealing w i t h the m e n s u r a t i o n o f arched (tiqdn),
vaulted (dzdj), and d o m e d (qubba) halls may have
been i n s p i r e d by H e r o o f Alexandria's n o w - l o s t
first-century treatise o n stereometry e n t i t l e d
Kamarika ( O n vaultings). Hero's treatise, o n
w h i c h Isidorus o f M i l e t u s w r o t e a c o m m e n t a r y ,
i n c l u d e d practical formulas for calculating the sur-
faces o f arches, c o l u m n s , vaults, domes, and other
architectonic structures. I t may have influenced
a l - K i n d i ' s lost n i n t h - c e n t u r y w o r k o n the same
subject, Risdla f 1 misahat iwdn (Treatise o n the
m e n s u r a t i o n o f vaulted halls [iwans]), w h i c h is
cited i n I b n a l - N a d i m ' s Fihrist and described i n
Daniele Barbaro's sixteenth-century c o m m e n t a r y
o n V i t r u v i u s as a w o r k devoted to the geometric,
a r i t h m e t i c , and h a r m o n i c p r o p o r t i o n s used i n cal-
c u l a t i n g the heights and surface areas o f vaulted
chambers. 73
As we have already seen, several
mathematicians i n c l u d i n g T h a b i t b. Q u r r a and
al-Sijzi had w r i t t e n s i m i l a r treatises o n the m e n -
s u r a t i o n o f parabolic domes (see figs. 103-106).
A n u n d a t e d example o f practice-oriented m e n -
s u r a t i o n manuals is that w r i t t e n by an otherwise
u n k n o w n geometer A b u Bakr ( A b h a b u c h r ) , trans-
lated f r o m Arabic i n t o L a t i n i n an abridged f o r m
by the I t a l i a n scholar Gerard o f C r e m o n a (1114-
1182) i n Toledo as Liber mensurationum (Book
o f m e n s u r a t i o n ) . The L a t i n text gives " h o w - t o "
i n s t r u c t i o n s i n a simple language w i t h o u t a t t e m p t -
i n g to p r o v i d e proofs and its practical formulas

p r o v i d e a p p r o x i m a t i v e results typical o f practical
geometry. Consisting o f f o u r parts, i t starts w i t h
procedures for calculating the surfaces o f q u a d -
rangles (treated as triangles), triangles, and the arcs
o f circles, p r o v i d i n g tabulated tables t h a t facilitate
the c o m p u t a t i o n o f the most i m p o r t a n t lengths o f
these figures. I t t h e n t u r n s to the m e n s u r a t i o n o f
volumes, i n c l u d i n g r o o f shapes. Referring to the
Liber mensurationum, a treatise t h a t appears to
have been w i d e l y disseminated i n medieval Europe,
H u b e r t L. L. Busard p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t is char-
acterized by the frequent a p p l i c a t i o n o f algebra
to problems o f practical geometry, a m e t h o d he
traced back to ancient Babylonian algebra and to
Hero of Alexandria. 74
These influences seem to
have been t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h H a r r a n , the center
o f m a t h e m a t i c a l l e a r n i n g where ancient Near
Eastern and Hellenistic cultures merged.
The T i m u r i d astronomer and m a t h e m a t i c i a n
al-Kashi's treatise Miftah al-hisab also includes an
extensive chapter o n m e n s u r a t i o n , dealing w i t h
the areas o f plane and solid geometric figures after
w h i c h i t treats architectonic structures. This w e l l -
k n o w n treatise, dedicated i n 1427 to the T i m u r i d
r u l e r U l u g h Beg, w h o had i n v i t e d al-Kashi i n
1419 f r o m the Q a r a q o y u n l u city o f Kashan to
Samarqand, is usually taken as evidence for the
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n architects' expertise i n advanced
a r i t h m e t i c c o m p u t a t i o n . The treatise's f o u r t h
b o o k o n m e n s u r a t i o n ends w i t h a chapter o n mea-
s u r i n g architectonic structures such as arches
(taq), vaults (dzdj), domes (qubba), and muqarnas
types. As al-Kashi i n d i c a t e d , this chapter is m o r e
THEORY
detailed t h a n earlier examples o n the same subject
where the muqarnas had been o m i t t e d : " T h e spe-
cialists merely spoke about this [i.e., measuring]
for the arch (tdq) and the vault (dzdj) and besides
that i t was n o t t h o u g h t necessary. B u t I present i t
[i.e., the muqarnas] a m o n g the necessities together
w i t h the rest, because i t is m o r e often r e q u i r e d i n
the m e n s u r a t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s t h a n i n the r e s t . "
Rather t h a n present i n s t r u c t i o n s o n h o w to
design architectonic structures, al-Kashi taught the
m e t h o d for calculating their surface area by means
o f a p p r o x i m a t e values. H e appears t o have been
concerned m a i n l y w i t h d e t e r m i n i n g the a m o u n t
o f m a t e r i a l r e q u i r e d , a concern t h a t may reflect
his experience as b u i l d i n g supervisor d u r i n g
the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f U l u g h Beg's observatory i n
Samarqand. This hypothesis finds s u p p o r t i n a let-
ter he addressed to his father i n Kashan, i n w h i c h
he r e p o r t e d that nearly five h u n d r e d tumdns w o r t h
o f b r i c k and limestone had been spent by the t i m e
the head mason I s m a i l had almost finished the
c
observatory. 76
I n her recent articles p r o v i d i n g m o d e r n m a t h e -
m a t i c a l analyses o f al-Kashi's formulas for the
m e n s u r a t i o n o f the d o m e and the muqarnas,
Yvonne D o l d - S a m p l o n i u s reached a s i m i l a r c o n -
clusion about the author's purpose: " I n medieval
Italy i t was c o m m o n practice to pay the craftsmen
or artisans according to the surface area they had
c o m p l e t e d . The same c u s t o m may have existed i n
the A r a b w o r l d . I t is also useful t o k n o w , m o r e
or less, h o w m u c h m a t e r i a l is needed, like g o l d for
g i l d i n g , bricks for c o n s t r u c t i o n or p a i n t and such
AND PRAXIS 159
things." 7 7
We k n o w , for example, t h a t payment per
c u b i t was c o m m o n i n O t t o m a n architectural prac-
tice where a team o f architects and surveyors had
to make cost estimates (kesf'or tahmin) o f p r o -
jected b u i l d i n g s and supply p r e l i m i n a r y drawings
for various o p t i o n s (see fig. 2). I n a d d i t i o n to facili-
t a t i n g estimates o f wages and b u i l d i n g materials
75
before c o n s t r u c t i o n , al-Kashi's formulas may also
have been used i n appraising the price o f a b u i l d -
i n g after its c o m p l e t i o n . As we have already seen,
the traveler C h a r d i n r e p o r t e d t h a t the chief royal
architect i n Safavid I r a n d e t e r m i n e d the value o f
c o m p l e t e d b u i l d i n g s by measuring their walls i n
cubits, a value o n the basis o f w h i c h he was p a i d
a fixed percentage. 78
L i n d a K o m a r o f f has argued t h a t al-Kashi's trea-
tise "was almost certainly i n t e n d e d for his fellow
m a t h e m a t i c i a n s , rather t h a n for architects and
craftsmen." She f o u n d i t u n l i k e l y t h a t the treatise
was w r i t t e n for the use o f c o n t e m p o r a r y builders
since its author " o f t e n distinguishes between the
terms we use—presumably mathematicians—and
the t e r m i n o l o g y o f the mason or the carpenter, a
clear i n d i c a t i o n t h a t he was n o t addressing his
remarks to the practitioners o f the builder's craft."
I t is therefore revealing t h a t al-Kashi referred to
practical w o r k i n g methods i n his discussion o f the
"mason's m e t h o d " o f c o n s t r u c t i n g the muqarnas,
w h i c h differs f r o m the m e t h o d o f mathematicians.
Here he used a technical d r a w i n g to describe h o w
the masons draw a rectangle whose w i d t h equals
the m o d u l e (miqyds) o f the muqarnas and whose
length is twice its w i d t h . After s h o w i n g h o w the
16o PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
profile o f a m o d u l a r muqarnas u n i t is d e t e r m i n e d ,
al-Kashi went o n to explain h o w builders cast
i n d i v i d u a l units i n slabs o f plaster, a d j u s t i n g t h e m
to a given arch profile, " a n d at times they shorten
the leg o f the slab . . . or they elongate i t so t h a t
whenever they place i t b e h i n d the arch they w o u l d
need that [ e l o n g a t i o n or s h o r t e n i n g ] so t h a t i t w i l l
m a t c h w i t h i t " (see i l l . 2, p. 353). 79
After this e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i c h provides a rare
insight i n t o h o w muqarnas units were actually
prepared by builders o n the basis o f geometric
(rather t h a n a r i t h m e t i c ) methods, al-Kashi c o m -
p u t e d an average coefficient to a p p r o x i m a t e l y
calculate the areas o f curved muqarnas f o r m a -
tions. I n his discussion o f arches, t o o , he first drew
t h e m w i t h ruler and compasses according to pre-
v a i l i n g geometric formulas and subsequently
converted t h e m i n t o numbers. I n other words,
al-Kashi's a p p r o x i m a t e n u m e r i c a l values are
derived f r o m architectural forms t h a t were gener-
ated by masons according to the methods o f prac-
tical geometry rather t h a n the other way a r o u n d . I t
was n o t o n a r i t h m e t i c c o m p u t a t i o n b u t o n a series
o f geometrically p r o p o r t i o n e d w o r k i n g drawings
that the design process o f p r a c t i c i n g T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n masons was based, a c o n c l u s i o n also
s u p p o r t e d by the T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls.
V i t r u v i u s w r o t e , " I t is true t h a t i t is by a r i t h -
metic that the t o t a l cost o f b u i l d i n g s is calculated
and measurements are c o m p u t e d , b u t difficult
questions i n v o l v i n g s y m m e t r y are solved by means
o f geometrical theories and m e t h o d s . " Geometry,
he observed, "teaches us the use o f the rule and
compasses, by w h i c h especially we acquire readi-
ness i n m a k i n g plans for b u i l d i n g s . " 8 0
The ready-
made tabulated tables p r o v i d e d i n al-Kashi's
treatise made c o m p u t a t i o n easier for b u i l d i n g
overseers. A l t h o u g h they were o f l i t t l e use i n the
designing process, they m u s t also have been used
by architect-engineers whenever they r e q u i r e d the
help o f a r i t h m e t i c , whether i n p r e p a r i n g cost esti-
mates, i n calculating measurements, or i n c o m p u -
tations related to hydraulics. U n l i k e professional
mathematicians skilled i n advanced c o m p u t a t i o n a l
mathematics, architects i n the late T i m u r i d w o r l d
w o u l d have needed o n l y a basic knowledge o f
simple a r i t h m e t i c operations, accompanied by a
m u c h m o r e solid g r o u n d i n g i n practical geometry.
This c o n c l u s i o n seems v a l i d for architectural prac-
tice i n the early m o d e r n Islamic w o r l d as w e l l ,
j u d g i n g f r o m the O t t o m a n , Safavid, Uzbek, and
M u g h a l evidence. A n archival d o c u m e n t t h a t c o m -
piles i n f o r m a t i o n about various aspects o f the
O t t o m a n c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y i n the 1770s,
i n c l u d i n g standardized costs o f b u i l d i n g materials,
p e t i t i o n s f r o m the chief architect to the sultan, and
" h o w - t o " i n s t r u c t i o n s for practical problems o f
m e n s u r a t i o n (mesdha), f u r t h e r supports such a
c o n c l u s i o n . Here, problems dealing w i t h c o m p u t -
i n g the areas o f circles, domes, and c o l u m n s ;
d e t e r m i n i n g the height o f a m i n a r e t f r o m a dis-
tance; and calculating a m o u n t s o f b u i l d i n g mate-
rials r e q u i r e d for specific projects are all solved
by means o f simple a r i t h m e t i c formulas p r o v i d i n g
a p p r o x i m a t e results. The reference to a f o r m u l a
by " G h i y a t h a l - D i n Jamshid" i n this d o c u m e n t
shows t h a t al-Kashi's treatise, o f w h i c h n u m e r o u s
T u r k i s h translations exist, c o n t i n u e d t o be used
i n the O t t o m a n w o r l d . 8 1
I n his seventeenth-century treatise Breve com-
pendio de la carpinteria de lo bianco y tratado de
alarifes, w h i c h heavily drew o n earlier Islamic
practices, Lopez de Arenas p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , u n l i k e
the master mason (maestro), the chief architect
(alarife) had to c o m b i n e experience (experiencia)
and science (ciencia), i n c l u d i n g a knowledge o f
reading, w r i t i n g , and enough a r i t h m e t i c to deter-
m i n e taxes and sale prices. M u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t
t h a n these, however, was a t r a i n i n g i n practical
geometry, based o n the m a n i p u l a t i o n o f polygonal
geometric constructions d r a w n w i t h the aid o f
basic tools such as the ruler, set squares, and the
compass w i t h a single o p e n i n g ( t h o u g h t to have
been used for the first t i m e by a l - B u z j a n i ) . Lopez
de Arenas's practical geometry m a n u a l was w r i t t e n
i n a h i g h l y specialized technical language full o f
obscure A r a b i c terms and accompanied by t w o -
and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric drawings r e c o r d -
i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l w o r k i n g methods o f M u s l i m
masters t h a t were perpetuated i n the M u d e j a r style
(see figs. 51, 52). The m a n u a l addressed p r a c t i t i o n -
ers at a t i m e w h e n i n h e r i t e d geometric formulas
that r e q u i r e d no a r i t h m e t i c were being f o r g o t t e n .
N e w Renaissance tastes gained favor and the medie-
val g u i l d system was being replaced by professional
architects. Lopez de Arenas, therefore, w a n t e d to

preserve for posterity the t r a d i t i o n a l rules he had
i n h e r i t e d f r o m his father and uncle. Whereas his
forebears must have jealously guarded their craft
secrets i n practical geometry manuals and scrolls
passed o n f r o m one generation to the other, Lopez
de Arenas u t i l i z e d the new m e d i u m o f the p r i n t i n g
press. 82
U n l i k e their Renaissance colleagues i n Europe,
w h o were r a p i d l y a b a n d o n i n g geometry i n favor o f
precisely measured drawings based o n n u m e r i c a l
p r o p o r t i o n s , architects i n the early m o d e r n Islamic
w o r l d r e m a i n e d loyal t o Pappus o f Alexandria's
d e f i n i t i o n o f architecture as a b r a n c h o f practical
mechanics. Even t h o u g h the i m p o r t a n c e o f geome-
t r y prevailed i n Europe, Renaissance theorists
increasingly divorced architecture f r o m its earlier
s u b o r d i n a t i o n to mechanics i n an a t t e m p t to
assert its independence and higher status as a l i b -
eral art. Fortifications, hydraulics, and i n s t r u m e n t s
thus came t o be seen as specialized subfields o f
mechanical engineering. By contrast architects i n
the Islamic w o r l d c o n t i n u e d to u p h o l d the ideal
image o f the w e l l - r o u n d e d mechanicus (muhandis)
whose m e n t a l universe was colored by practical
geometry, w i t h its still-prestigious c o n n e c t i o n to
the l i b e r a l art o f m a t h e m a t i c s . 83
Before the Renaissance, however, architectural
design i n b o t h the L a t i n West and i n the Islamic
w o r l d had been g r o u n d e d i n s i m i l a r geometric
methods r e q u i r i n g l i t t l e a r i t h m e t i c . A l t h o u g h
medieval Europe d i d n o t have access to Euclid's
geometry u n t i l the twelfth century, by the m i d d l e
THEORY
o f the t h i r t e e n t h century advances i n the m a t h e -
m a t i c a l sciences had c o n t r i b u t e d to the develop-
m e n t o f d y n a m i c systems o f geometric design,
based o n a type o f r o t a t i o n a l geometry n o t u n l i k e
the one developed i n the Islamic w o r l d a r o u n d
the t e n t h and eleventh centuries. Since standard
geometric approaches u n i t e d the various crafts,
practical geometry came to act as a k i n d o f shared
aesthetic t h e o r y w i t h its o w n f o r m a l logic t h a t
guided systems o f p r o p o r t i o n i n g across differ-
ent fields i n G o t h i c architectural and a r t i -
sanal p r a c t i c e . 84
This development was no d o u b t i n f o r m e d by
the assimilation o f translated A r a b i c treatises o n
practical geometry, i n a d d i t i o n to the recovery o f
m a j o r classical texts t h r o u g h A r a b i c i n t e r m e d i -
aries. The s i m i l a r i t y between Gerard o f Cremona's
t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n o f A b u Bakr's
treatise o n applied m e n s u r a t i o n , Liber mensura-
tionum, and the Spanish m a t h e m a t i c i a n A b r a h a m
bar Hiyya's (Savasorda or A b r a h a m Judaeus,
fl. 1133-1145) w o r k o n the same subject shows h o w
r a p i d l y practice-oriented m e n s u r a t i o n manuals by
M u s l i m authors had i n f i l t r a t e d medieval Europe.
A b r a h a m bar Hiyya's H e b r e w treatise Hibbur
ha-meshihah y translated by Plato o f T i v o l i i n 1145
i n t o L a t i n as Liber embadorum ( B o o k o f areas),
was i n fact an expanded version o f the second part
o f al-Khwarezmi's m a t h e m a t i c a l treatise t h a t
applied algebra to m e n s u r a t i o n . Together w i t h
A b u Bakr's treatise, i t is believed to have been
a m o n g the u n k n o w n sources o f the t h i r t e e n t h -
AND PRAXIS l6l
century m a t h e m a t i c i a n Leonardo Fibonacci o f
Pisa's Practica geometriae, 1220, w h i c h remained
the standard w o r k o n t h a t subject for three
centuries. 85
Gustavo Sacerdote and H e i n r i c h Suter
have argued t h a t the Pisan geometer also used
A b u K a m i l ' s algebra and his shorter treatise o n
the pentagon and decagon, available t h r o u g h
L a t i n and H e b r e w translations made i n Spain.
Woepcke has suggested t h a t the practical geome-
t r y o f al-Buzjani must also have been a m o n g
Fibonacci's sources. 86
Whatever the transmission patterns o f Greek
and A r a b i c l e a r n i n g may have been, the parallels
between medieval European practical geometry
manuals and their Islamic counterparts are s t r i k -
i n g . This was largely the o u t c o m e o f a shared
classical heritage that reached medieval Europe
t h r o u g h translations o f Arabic intermediaries that
d i d n o t merely " t r a n s m i t " Greek originals b u t
often t r a n s f o r m e d t h e m i n h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n
directions p r o m i s i n g practical a p p l i c a t i o n i n
a n u m b e r o f fields. The t r a n s l a t i o n o f A r a b i c
scientific and p h i l o s o p h i c a l works, w h i c h began
i n t e n t h - c e n t u r y N o r m a n Sicily and flourished
d u r i n g the twelfth century i n Spain ( p a r t i c u l a r l y
a r o u n d Toledo after i t fell i n 1085), became a
Europe-wide p h e n o m e n o n t h a t triggered as great
a c u l t u r a l change as d i d the earlier t r a n s l a t i o n
m o v e m e n t i n Abbasid Baghdad. Especially i n
Spain this activity reached such an u n c o n t r o l l a b l e
extent t h a t the sale o f scientific books to Jews
and Christians is p r o h i b i t e d i n a treatise o n hisba
162 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
(the duties o f an inspector o f the marketplace)
w r i t t e n by the Spanish author I b n A b d u n i n early
c
t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Seville. The treatise indicates t h a t
this measure was taken because the translators
often a t t r i b u t e d the works they had translated to
themselves, w i t h o u t c r e d i t i n g t h e i r o r i g i n a l
M u s l i m authors. 87
Even the d e f i n i t i o n o f geometry i n the A r a b
classifications o f sciences was f u l l y adopted by
such t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y authors as the Spaniard
D o m i n i c u s Gundissalinus ( D o m i n g o G u n d i s a l v o ) ,
w h o emphasized its practical a p p l i c a t i o n i n v a r i -
ous fields. 88
Gundissalinus's classification o f the
sciences, De ortu scientiarum, circa 1150, w h i c h
stressed the c o m p l e m e n t a r y nature o f t h e o r y and
practice, drew heavily o n al-Farabi's t e n t h - c e n t u r y
Ihsa\ w h i c h had been translated i n t o L a t i n as De
scientiis by Gerard o f C r e m o n a i n Toledo. F o l l o w -
i n g al-Farabi's m o d e l , Gundissalinus enlarged the
medieval European d o m a i n o f practical geometry
to i n c l u d e masonry, carpentry, m e t a l w o r k , m e n -
s u r a t i o n , and the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f machines and
i n s t r u m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g those o f optics.
The agent o f practical geometry is he
w h o employs i t i n w o r k i n g . There are,
however, two classes w h o e m p l o y i t i n
w o r k i n g , measurers and makers. The mea-
surers are those w h o measure the height,
d e p t h o r surface area o f the earth. The
makers are those w h o t o i l i n w o r k i n g i n
the mechanical arts, as a carpenter i n
w o o d , a b l a c k s m i t h i n i r o n , a mason i n
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
cement and stones, and s i m i l a r l y every
agent o f the mechanical arts f o l l o w i n g
practical g e o m e t r y . 89
This d e f i n i t i o n revived a t r a d i t i o n going back to
classical a n t i q u i t y w i t h its emphasis o n the i n t e l -
lectual o r theoretical nature o f certain crafts i n t i -
mately l i n k e d to the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences. I t
endowed the crafts w i t h a m u c h higher status
t h a n the alternative and apparently m o r e w i d e -
spread medieval European d e f i n i t i o n proposed i n
the t h e o l o g i a n H u g h o f Saint V i c t o r ' s (1096-1141)
encyclopedic Didascalion, w r i t t e n i n the 1120s,
where the seven mechanical arts (fabric m a k i n g ,
a r m a m e n t [encompassing architecture and the
crafts], commerce, a g r i c u l t u r e , h u n t i n g , m e d i c i n e ,
and theatrics) were classified as entirely separate
f r o m theoretical knowledge. H u g h ' s classification
e l i m i n a t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y o f contact between the
"servile" realm o f the mechanical arts and the
liberal arts, a m o n g w h i c h the p u r e l y theoretical
science o f m a t h e m a t i c s was i n c l u d e d . By c o n -
trast the classical c o n n e c t i o n between these t w o
realms was perpetuated w i t h o u t any r u p t u r e i n
the Islamic w o r l d where architecture and the arts
r e m a i n e d closely i n t e r l i n k e d w i t h mathematics.
Gundissalinus's classification thus helped revive a
classical d e f i n i t i o n o f mechanics t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d
to the r i s i n g status o f the mechanical arts (scientia
de ingeniis) i n the h i g h M i d d l e Ages. 90
The t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y French architect V i l l a r d
de H o n n e c o u r t , t o w h o m the earliest s u r v i v i n g
G o t h i c sketchbook is a t t r i b u t e d , can be seen as a
medieval mechanicus whose a l b u m includes an
assortment o f subjects r a n g i n g f r o m b u i l d i n g s ,
carpentry, s c u l p t u r a l details, figural decorations,
and machines to geometric drawings. The draw-
ings i n the latter category are i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the
c a p t i o n " A l l these figures are extracted f r o m
geometry." They address p r o b l e m s i n architecture,
mechanical engineering, and m e n s u r a t i o n (e.g.,
d e t e r m i n i n g f r o m a distance the height o f a t o w e r ,
the w i d t h o f a river, and the w i d t h o f a w i n d o w ) ,
some o f w h i c h f i n d parallels i n c o n t e m p o r a r y
European practical geometry manuals. V i l l a r d ' s
designs governed by u n d e r l y i n g geometric schemes
have been c o m p a r e d to the w r i t i n g s o f the t h e o l o -
gian and p h i l o s o p h e r Robert Grosseteste (1175-
1253), w h o regarded the universe as eternally gen-
erated b y an e m a n a t i o n o f cosmic l i g h t t h a t be-
haved according to geometric laws. This was a
universe where geometry c o n s t i t u t e d the basis o f
all n a t u r a l phenomena: " I t is impossible to k n o w
nature w i t h o u t geometry. The principles o f geome-
t r y have absolute value t h r o u g h o u t the universe
and for each o f its parts. I t is by lines, angles, and
geometric figures t h a t all n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a
m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d . " 9 1
The a n o n y m o u s Consti-
tutions of Masonry, circa 1400, expressed the
G o t h i c mason's reliance o n geometry i n s i m i l a r
terms:
D o n ' t m a r v e l t h a t all science lives o n l y by
the science o f geometry. . . . There is n o
t o o l to w o r k w i t h t h a t has no p r o p o r t i o n .
A n d p r o p o r t i o n is measure, and the t o o l
 THEORY A N D PRAXIS 163

or the i n s t r u m e n t is earth. A n d geometry 118. Johannes Kepler,

is . . . the measure o f earth, wherefore I selected tiling patterns
and geometric solids.
may say t h a t all m e n live b y geometry. . . .
From his Harmonices
You shall u n d e r s t a n d that a m o n g all the mundi (Linz: [n.p.],
crafts o f the w o r l d . . . m a s o n r y has the 1619), book 11.
m o s t n o t a b i l i t y a n d the most p a r t o f its
science is g e o m e t r y . 92

The n o t i o n o f a m a t h e m a t i c a l l y ordered har-

m o n i c universe, n o t so different f r o m the cos-
mologies o f medieval M u s l i m philosophers and
theologians discussed i n p a r t 3, u l t i m a t e l y w e n t
back to Pythagoras and t o the cosmological specu-
lations o f Plato's Timaeus. This n o t i o n , w h i c h c o n -
t i n u e d t o fascinate postmedieval t h i n k e r s , was
explored i n the G e r m a n astronomer Johannes
Kepler's (1571-1630) Harmonices Mundi, 1619, a
w o r k dealing w i t h the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f regular
polygons and circles as well as regular and semi-
regular p o l y h e d r o n s b y r u l e r and compass. I n this
w o r k Kepler focused o n the p r o b l e m o f c o n g r u -
ent geometric figures, b o t h planar and spatial,
expressed b y tilings i n contact that left n o gaps
(fig. 118). The second b o o k o f Harmonices Mundi,
o n the congruence o f h a r m o n i c figures, explained
h o w to fit regular polygons together a r o u n d a ver-
tex (either t o make a p a t t e r n that can be extended
i n f i n i t e l y t o cover a plane [a tessellation] o r a
closed v o l u m e t r i c figure [a p o l y h e d r o n ] ) . As we
have seen, s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s had also preoccupied
such M u s l i m m a t h e m a t i c i a n - a s t r o n o m e r s as a l -
B u z j a n i and the a n o n y m o u s a u t h o r o f A mdl wa
c

ashkdl, w h i c h deals w i t h the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f har-

164 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION
m o n i o u s l y i n t e r l o c k i n g similar o r congruent geo-
m e t r i c figures. Kepler believed t h a t the h a r m o n i c
properties o f regular and congruent geometric
figures c o n s t i t u t e d the r o o t o f all order and beauty
i n the universe:
Since we have taken i t u p o n ourselves t o
explain the o r i g i n o f H a r m o n y and its most
p o w e r f u l effects i n the W o r l d as a w h o l e ,
h o w c o u l d we o m i t t o m e n t i o n the c o n -
gruence o f the figures w h i c h are the w e l l -
springs o f H a r m o n i c p r o p o r t i o n s ? . . .
Since the effect these figures have i n the
realm o f Geometry, a n d i n t h a t p a r t o f
A r c h i t e c t o n i c s w h i c h deals w i t h A r c h e -
types, is as an image o f and a prelude t o
t h e i r effects beyond Geometry, beyond
things conceived i n the m i n d , namely
t h e i r effects i n things n a t u r a l and
celestial? 93
The geometric design language o f V i l l a r d
reflected a sensibility s i m i l a r to t h a t o f its Islamic
counterparts, a l t h o u g h the f o r m e r was d o m i n a t e d
by figural imagery (generated b y invisible geomet-
ric schemata) w h i l e the latter foregrounded geome-
t r y to an unprecedented degree t o compensate f o r
the absence o f s c u l p t u r a l programs and narrative
cycles. This s i m i l a r i t y no d o u b t was i n f o r m e d b y
access t o comparable practical geometry manuals.
U n l i k e the builders and decorators o f G o t h i c
cathedrals, w h o used simpler geometric formulas,
those o f Islamic religious m o n u m e n t s gave geome-
OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
t r y a m u c h greater visual p r o m i n e n c e , c o m p l e x i t y ,
and distinctive appearance, d o m i n a t e d b y stars,
polygons, calligraphy, and the s c u l p t u r a l forms o f
the muqarnas. The i m p l i e d u n d e r l y i n g geometry
o f G o t h i c decoration was raised t o the surface i n
t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l girihs i n w h i c h unseen
geometric grids generated one o r m o r e super-
i m p o s e d layers o f star-and-polygon patterns.
M e d i e v a l Islamic vegetal o r figural c o m p o s i t i o n s
(confined t o profane contexts), b y contrast, were
guided b y invisible geometric schemata n o t so dif-
ferent f r o m those o f V i l l a r d . The shared preoccu-
p a t i o n w i t h geometry often p r o d u c e d s i m i l a r ways
o f conceptualizing design p r o b l e m s and s i m i l a r
tastes d o m i n a t e d b y geometric o r geometrized
abstract forms. The ingenious v a r i a t i o n o f geomet-
ric schemes based o n the f u n d a m e n t a l design c o n -
cept o f " u n i t y i n v a r i e t y " (often assumed t o be a
visual s y m b o l o f the Islamic d o c t r i n e o f tawhid)
was, therefore, a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r o f the
medieval system o f geometric h a r m o n i z a t i o n
regardless o f religious a f f i l i a t i o n .
V i l l a r d ' s t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y sketchbook repre-
sented a fully assimilated t r a d i t i o n o f practical
geometry t r a n s m i t t e d b y o r a l w o r k s h o p t r a d i t i o n s
and practice-oriented w r i t t e n manuals t h a t began
to circulate m o r e w i d e l y i n Europe i n the f o r m o f
p r i n t e d booklets after the i n v e n t i o n o f the p r i n t i n g
press, accompanied b y the gradual d i s s o l u t i o n o f
the g u i l d system. G e r m a n manuals o f practical
geometry, w r i t t e n b y such geometer-engineers and
master builders as Hans H o e c h , 1472, M a t h i a s
Roriczer, circa 1486-1490, E r h a r d Schoen, 1538-
1542, and Hans Lautensack, 1563, testify to the c o n -
t i n u e d p o p u l a r i t y o f geometric constructions i n
late medieval and early m o d e r n G e r m a n y . 94
Even the G e r m a n painter and engraver A l b r e c h t
D i i r e r (1471-1528) w r o t e a practical geometry
m a n u a l e n t i t l e d Unterweisung der Messung mit dem
Zirkel und Richtscheit in Linien, Ebenen und ganzen
Korpern (Teaching guide t o m e n s u r a t i o n w i t h the
compass a n d straight edge i n lines, planes, a n d
volumes), first published i n 1525, w i t h a second edi-
t i o n appearing i n 1538. Its geometric constructions,
d r a w n w i t h the aid o f basic w o r k i n g tools and
w i t h o u t recourse to a r i t h m e t i c , addressed master
masons and artisans i n a simple language m a r k e d
by an absence o f theoretical e l a b o r a t i o n , m u c h like
its predecessors. D i i r e r ' s d e d i c a t i o n explains t h a t
since geometry constitutes the r i g h t f o u n d a t i o n
o f all the arts and crafts, he w o u l d teach its prac-
tical principles: "Therefore I hope t h a t n o m a n
o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l censure m y project and
i n s t r u c t i o n , f o r i t goes f o r t h w i t h good i n t e n t i o n
for the good o f all those desirous o f art. Thus i t
may be useful n o t o n l y to painters, b u t also t o
g o l d s m i t h s , sculptors, masons, j o i n e r s , and all
those w h o use m e a s u r e . " 95
D i i r e r ' s Unterweisung, w h i c h deals w i t h the
m e n s u r a t i o n o f lines, planes, and solids, trans-
m i t t e d t o future generations a w i d e spectrum o f
geometric constructions t h a t had f o u n d a place i n
b o t h M u s l i m and C h r i s t i a n craft t r a d i t i o n s . These
medieval c o n s t r u c t i o n s , disseminated b y treatises
o f practical geometry, " h o w - t o " manuals, a n d
w o r k s h o p drawings, relied o n methods o f parallel
 THEORY A N D PRAXIS 16
5

119. Albrecht Diirer,

tiling pattern. From his
Unterweisung der
( o r t h o g o n a l ) p r o j e c t i o n and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l Messung mit dem Zirkel
und Richtscheit in Linien,
geometry based o n the r o t a t i o n o f figures. They
Ebenen und ganzen
frequently used a p p r o x i m a t e rather t h a n scientifi- Korpern (Nuremberg:
cally correct constructions o f regular polygons, [n.p.], 1525). Santa
d r a w n b y d i v i d i n g circles i n t o equal arcs, a process Monica, The Getty
often s i m p l i f i e d b y the e m p l o y m e n t o f compasses
Center for the History of
Art and the Humanities.
w i t h a single o p e n i n g . 96
Dtirer's Unterweisung
starts b y teaching the geometric constructions o f
120. Albrecht Diirer,
regular planar and spatial figures, i n c l u d i n g the
paper cutout of a geo-
five Platonic solids a n d some o f the A r c h i m e d e a n metric solid. From his
semiregular polyhedrons also dealt w i t h i n Unterweisung der
Messung mit dem Zirkel
al-Buzjani's practical geometry m a n u a l ; t o these
und Richtscheit in Linien,
are added some n e w solids i n v e n t e d b y the author. Ebenen und ganzen
I t t h e n discusses conic sections, t i l i n g a n d tessella- Korpern (Nuremberg:
t i o n patterns developed f r o m regular polygons i n [n.p.], 1525). Santa
contact, and the development o f geometric solids
Monica, The Getty
Center for the History of
o n a plane surface such t h a t they c o u l d be c u t Art and the Humanities.
out o f paper t o f o r m t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l models
(figs. 119,120). D l i r e r also addressed the practical
applications o f geometry t o such diverse fields as
architecture, engineering, mechanics (e.g., the
construction o f a sundial), decoration, and typog-
raphy ( s h o w i n g the d e r i v a t i o n o f r o m a n letters
f r o m the circle, a n d o f the angular G o t h i c script
f r o m squares, trapezoids, and triangles).
D t i r e r ' s Unterweisung culminates w i t h the novel
m e t h o d o f perspective p r o j e c t i o n developed i n
Renaissance Italy. M a r t i n Kemp a n d Jehane R.
K u h n have suggested t h a t the i n v e n t i o n o f per-
spective d r a w i n g m u s t have been i n s p i r e d b y
the practical geometry o f m e n s u r a t i o n , given its
s i m i l a r i t y t o the routines o f i n d i r e c t measure-
m e n t f r o m a distance t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l surveyors
166 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

had used. K u h n argued that Brunelleschi's m e t h o d
o f perspective t r a n s c r i p t i o n arose w i t h i n survey-
i n g practice as a t o p o g r a p h i c technique at a t i m e
w h e n the use o f measured plans and elevations
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o n u m e r i c a l values had become
part o f Renaissance architectural p r a c t i c e . T h e 97
camera obscura used b y Brunelleschi had already
been experimented w i t h d u r i n g the eleventh-
century b y I b n a l - H a y t h a m , whose r e v o l u t i o n a r y
Kitdb al-manazir (Book o n optics) described v i s i o n
i n terms o f geometric l i g h t rays t h a t radiate f r o m
visible objects and converge o n the p u p i l o f the
eye. Translated i n t o L a t i n as Perspectiva o r De
aspectibus i n the late twelfth or early t h i r t e e n t h
century, this i n f l u e n t i a l treatise, t o w h i c h I w i l l
r e t u r n i n part 5, was well k n o w n i n Europe. I t h a d
an i m p a c t o n such t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y writers as
the English philosopher and scientist Roger Bacon,
the Polish scientist W i t e l o , and the English prelate
John Peckham and o n f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y writers
i n c l u d i n g the English Scholastic philosopher
W i l l i a m o f O c k h a m and the French prelate
N i c o l e d'Oresme. Its f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y I t a l i a n
t r a n s l a t i o n was extensively used b y the Florentine
triggered b y a complex set o f c u l t u r a l factors
i n c l u d i n g the change o f attitudes t o w a r d n a t u r a l -
istic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . 99
W h e n Renaissance artists t u r n e d away f r o m the
transcendental realm o f abstraction, the n a t u r a l
w o r l d came t o be seen as the u l t i m a t e source o f
beauty and p r o p o r t i o n . As D a v i d Summers n o t e d :
" T h e i m i t a t i o n o f appearances m i g h t have begun
as m a r g i n a l displays o f s k i l l , o r as part o f a new
didactic strategy. . . . Eventually the u n i o n o f
p a i n t i n g and optics i n o n e - p o i n t perspective
w o u l d yield w h a t was u n d e r s t o o d t o be a most
perfect universal art, fully adapted t o the structure
o f h u m a n v i s i o n and p e r c e p t i o n . " 1 0 0
I n a passage
that l i n k e d the eye and p a i n t i n g , Leonardo stated,
" T h e eye, t h a t is the w i n d o w o f the soul, is the
p r i n c i p a l way whence the c o m m o n sense may most
copiously and magnificently consider the i n f i n i t e
works o f n a t u r e . " Summers n o t e d t h a t Leonardo
u n d e r s t o o d the eye n o t i n its previous, medieval
sense as an o p e n i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h the soul itself
became visible b u t rather "as an A l b e r t i a n perspec-
tive w i n d o w , i n t o w h i c h l i g h t comes and t h r o u g h
w h i c h the c o m m o n sense surveys the w o r l d . "
symmetry, e m b o d i e d a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f v i e w p o i n t s
c o n t r a d i c t i n g the Renaissance concept o f the pic-
t u r e plane as a w i n d o w frame that cuts t h r o u g h
the spectator's cone o f v i s i o n o n w h i c h rays c o n -
verge at a central vanishing p o i n t . T h e absence o f a
fixed v i e w p o i n t i n the abstract geometric matrices
o f girihs yielded an i n f i n i t e isotropic space that
a m o u n t e d t o a denial o f the naturalistic represen-
t a t i o n o f the visible w o r l d . Girih patterns filtered
the visual data offered b y the n a t u r a l w o r l d i n t o
m e n t a l abstractions. N o wonder, t h e n , that these
i n w a r d - l o o k i n g abstract images were unconcerned
w i t h the spatial c o o r d i n a t i o n o f sight and repre-
sentation t h r o u g h the use o f vanishing p o i n t
perspective. T h e draftsmen w h o designed t h e m
remained b o u n d t o a c o n c e p t i o n o f the p i c t u r e
plane as a w i n d o w t o i n f i n i t y , filled w i t h sym-
m e t r i c a l l y repeated geometric shapes e x h i b i t i n g
unendliche Rapport.
1 0 1

sculptor Lorenzo G h i b e r t i (circa 1378-1455), w h o This o u t w a r d - l o o k i n g v i s i o n was f u n d a m e n t a l l y

p a r t i a l l y copied its section o n visual beauty i n
his Commentarii, and b y the artist and scientist
Leonardo da V i n c i (1452-1519), whose w r i t i n g s
o n the psychology o f v i s i o n echo those o f I b n
al-Haytham. 98
Nevertheless the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f
this o p t i c a l treatise and o f m e n s u r a t i o n manuals
for perspective p r o j e c t i o n w o u l d be explored o n l y
i n Renaissance Europe, a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t was
different f r o m the i n w a r d - l o o k i n g s p i r i t u a l v i s i o n
o f medieval artists.
The r e v o l u t i o n a r y u n i o n o f p a i n t i n g and optics
i n Renaissance Italy, adapted t o the structure o f
visual p e r c e p t i o n , i n v o l v e d p o s i t i n g an observer
w i t h a fixed p o i n t o f view. By contrast, geometric
girih patterns, composed o f i n t e r l o c k i n g stars a n d
polygons r o t a t i n g a r o u n d m u l t i p l e foci o f radial
CHAPTER 9. MANUALS O F PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
The A mdl c
wa ashkdl, an a n o n y m o u s treatise
o n i n t e r l o c k i n g s i m i l a r o r c o n g r u e n t figures, is
the o n l y k n o w n " h o w - t o " m a n u a l o n the draw-
i n g methods o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l girih patterns.
A p p e n d e d t o an early eleventh-century Persian
t r a n s l a t i o n o f al-Buzjani's practical geometry
addressed t o artisans, i t provides evidence t h a t
later scrolls, w h i c h do n o t have any explanatory
texts, grew o u t o f a medieval t r a d i t i o n o f practical
geometry. The t w o treatises are b o u n d together
w i t h other m a t h e m a t i c a l and a s t r o n o m i c a l texts
i n a m a n u s c r i p t at the B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e
i n Paris, M S Persan 169, that once belonged t o
an u n i d e n t i f i e d O t t o m a n n a m e d Sinan Qavus.
T h o u g h t t o have been copied i n the early seven-
teenth century, this Persian m a n u s c r i p t i n the
nasta liq script o r i g i n a l l y may have been c o m p i l e d
c
i n the T i m u r i d p e r i o d , since the latest works i t
contains were composed i n the first h a l f o f the fif-
teenth century. Twenty-five short treatises, either
w r i t t e n o r translated i n t o Persian, are b o u n d
together i n this v o l u m e , w h i c h deserves t o be s t u d -
ied i n greater detail b y historians o f science. These
treatises deal w i t h a r i t h m e t i c , a s t r o n o m y ( i n c l u d -
AND T H E SCROLL TRADITION
i n g t w o works b y Nasir a l - D i n al-Tusi o n the
astrolabe and o n astrological p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n ) ,
applied m e n s u r a t i o n , and practical g e o m e t r y . 102
The manuscript's consistent focus o n praxis,
together w i t h its collection o f ten works o n prac-
tical geometry and applied m e n s u r a t i o n , sug-
gests that i t may have been p u t together for an
architect-engineer (muhandis).
The contents o f the Paris m a n u s c r i p t s u p p o r t
the assessment b y historians o f science t h a t the
M o n g o l - I l k h a n i d and T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n p e r i o d ,
extending between the m i d - t h i r t e e n t h and early
sixteenth centuries, was one o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n
the field o f mathematics rather t h a n one o f i n n o -
v a t i o n . I n this p e r i o d i m p o r t a n t steps taken d u r i n g
the t e n t h and eleventh centuries were f u r t h e r elab-
orated b y such a s t r o n o m e r - m a t h e m a t i c i a n s as
Nasir a l - D i n al-Tusi w h o w o r k e d w i t h a d i s t i n -
guished team o f scientists at the Maragha obser-
v a t o r y and its successor i n Tabriz. H i s younger
associate and intellectual heir Q u t b a l - D i n
al-Shirazi (1236-1311) was an equally p r o m i n e n t
scientist whose student K a m a l a l - D i n A b u
al-Hasan al-Farisi ( d . circa 1320) w r o t e an exten-
sive c o m m e n t a r y o n I b n al-Haytham's early
eleventh-century treatise o n optics. This signifi-
cant c o m m e n t a r y , w h i c h revised the o l d treatise b y
a d d i n g substantial new sections t o i t , was typical
o f the p o s t - M o n g o l era w h e n earlier scientific
works were c u l t u r a l l y assimilated t h r o u g h a crea-
tive process o f r e w o r k i n g and u p d a t i n g . 1 0 3
It
became c o m m o n practice t o abridge earlier
works o r t o expand t h e m i n a revised f o r m a t w i t h
detailed commentaries, a practice i n d i c a t i n g that
the Islamic w o r l d had b y that t i m e established its
o w n "classics." U n l i k e Renaissance Europe, w h i c h
b r o k e w i t h the i m m e d i a t e past w h e n sources f r o m
a n t i q u i t y were rediscovered, the Islamic East was
characterized b y a relatively u n i n t e r r u p t e d c u l t u r a l
c o n t i n u i t y f r o m the early medieval p e r i o d o n w a r d ,
exemplified b y an u n b r o k e n chain o f transmission
o f knowledge w e l l i n t o the m o d e r n era.
A l - B u z j a n i ' s practical geometry m a n u a l , o n
w h i c h the m a t h e m a t i c i a n K a m a l a l - D i n M u s a
b. Yunus b . M a n a (1156-1242) w r o t e a c o m m e n -
c
tary i n late t w e l f t h - o r early t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
M o s u l survives i n several Persian translations, one
o f t h e m i n c l u d e d i n the Paris m a n u s c r i p t . A c c o r d -
168 PART 4 . GEOMETRY AND THE C O N T R I B U T I O N
i n g to the latter's epilogue, its t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o
Persian had been i n i t i a t e d by A b u Nasr M a n s u r
b. A l i I b n I r a q ( f l . 1000), the K h w a r e z m i a n
c c
astronomer and m a t h e m a t i c i a n w h o was a student
o f al-Buzjani. This early eleventh-century abridged
t r a n s l a t i o n was copied and revised i n t w o m o n t h s
by the m a t h e m a t i c i a n - a s t r o n o m e r A b u Ishaq
b. A b d A l l a h K u b a n a n i Yazdi (active i n 1442-1443
c
at Sari and i n 1459 a t
K i r m a n and H o r m u z ) , w h o
also drew the text's i l l u s t r a t i o n s . The reference to
I b n I r a q suggests t h a t the o r i g i n a l t r a n s l a t i o n
c
m u s t have been u n d e r t a k e n i n the K h w a r e z m i a n
capital Gurganj ( n o w K u n y a U r g e n c h ) , w h i c h had
become a center o f l e a r n i n g d u r i n g the e n l i g h t -
ened rule o f the Khwarezm-Shahs (995-1017). The
b r i l l i a n t g r o u p o f figures gathered at t h a t c o u r t
i n c l u d e d I b n Sina and I b n I r a q ' s e m i n e n t student
c
a l - B i r u n i (973-1050), w h o subsequently m o v e d to
Ghazna w h e n the Ghaznavid ruler M a h m u d ( 9 9 8 -
1030) conquered K h w a r e z m . K u b a n a n i Yazdi's
copy o f this Persian text is evidence o f its avail-
a b i l i t y i n the T i m u r i d p e r i o d . 1 0 4
T h a t an A r a b i c version o f al-Buzjani's A mdl
c
al-handasa was also available at the T i m u r i d c o u r t
is d e m o n s t r a t e d by a fifteenth-century copy o f i t
( n o w at the Suleymaniye K i i t u p h a n e s i i n I s t a n b u l ) ,
transcribed for U l u g h Beg's royal l i b r a r y i n
Samarqand. S. A . Krasnova, w h o translated this
m a n u s c r i p t i n t o Russian, hypothesized t h a t i t
m u s t have been b r o u g h t to I s t a n b u l by A l i Kusci,
w h o j o i n e d the O t t o m a n c o u r t i n 1472 after a b r i e f
stay i n the A q q o y u n l u c o u r t o f Tabriz f o l l o w i n g
the death o f his royal p a t r o n U l u g h B e g . 105
OF M A T H E M A T I C A L
I n a d d i t i o n to al-Buzjani's A mdlc
al-handasa,
the Paris m a n u s c r i p t includes several applied m e n -
s u r a t i o n treatises based o n practical geometry.
One o f these, dedicated to a late t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y
atabeg o f Azerbaijan, deals w i t h measuring the
areas o f t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric
figures and the practical applications o f mensura-
t i o n i n l a n d surveying, h y d r a u l i c engineering, and
architecture. This a n o n y m o u s text includes such
p r o b l e m s as calculating the d e p t h o f wells, the
height o f m o u n t a i n s , the w i d t h o f rivers, the
height o f walls i n b u i l d i n g s , and the n u m b e r o f
bricks r e q u i r e d for vaults and d o m e s . 106
Another
a n o n y m o u s m e n s u r a t i o n treatise i n the same v o l -
u m e includes a s i m i l a r section o n measuring the
surfaces o f h o l l o w domes (qubba-i mujawwafa),
vaults, and arches (azdj wa tiqan).107
The Paris m a n u s c r i p t also contains t w o u n d a t e d
works o n practical geometry and applied mensura-
t i o n b y an otherwise u n k n o w n geometer, A b u
Bakr a l - K h a l i l al-Tajir (the m e r c h a n t ) al-Rasadi
(the a s t r o n o m e r ) . H i s nisba "al-Rasadi" signals his
i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h astronomy, w h i c h is s u p p o r t e d
i n his applied m e n s u r a t i o n treatise e n t i t l e d A malc
( C o n s t r u c t i o n s ) where the n u m e r i c a l methods o f
a r i t h m e t i c (usul al-arithmdtiqi) used by astrono-
mers are differentiated f r o m the a p p r o x i m a t i v e
geometric ones used i n applied m e n s u r a t i o n (a mal
c
al-misaha be-taqrib). This treatise shows h o w
a r i t h m e t i c operations based o n n u m e r i c a l ratios
can be translated d i r e c t l y i n t o geometry, exemp-
lified i n the w o r k ' s frequent a p p l i c a t i o n o f algebra
to geometric p r o b l e m s . I t deals w i t h the measure-
SCIENCES
m e n t o f triangles and the arcs o f circles, accom-
panied by tabulated tables for calculating t h e i r
most i m p o r t a n t dimensions. I t t h e n t u r n s to mea-
s u r i n g volumes and culminates w i t h a section o n
applied mechanics that discusses pulleys, b u r n -
i n g m i r r o r s , and h o w to determine the height o f
m o u n t a i n s and the d e p t h o f wells, accompanied by
technical geometric d i a g r a m s . 108
I t is t e m p t i n g to associate the author o f this
treatise w i t h the u n i d e n t i f i e d A b u Bakr whose
similar treatise o n applied m e n s u r a t i o n had been
translated i n abridged f o r m i n t o L a t i n as Liber
mensurationum by Gerard o f C r e m o n a . 1 0 9
Both
works p r o v i d e tabulated tables for calculating the
most i m p o r t a n t dimensions o f geometric figures
and apply algebra to the s o l u t i o n o f practical
geometry problems. D e t e r m i n i n g the i d e n t i t y o f
A b u Bakr a l - K h a l i l al-Tajir al-Rasadi becomes par-
t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t because he is m e n t i o n e d twice
i n the A mdl
c
wa ashkal. uo
H i s personal c o n t r i b u -
t i o n to some o f the girihs i n c l u d e d i n this u n d a t e d
a n o n y m o u s treatise is i n d i c a t e d by the r e m a r k that
master craftsmen (ustadan) had questioned h i m
about the different ways i n w h i c h a p a r t i c u l a r geo-
m e t r i c c o n s t r u c t i o n c o u l d be d r a w n ; one o f his
solutions is explained i n an accompanying dia-
g r a m . The same treatise contains another geo-
m e t r i c c o n s t r u c t i o n by A b u Bakr a l - K h a l i l , w h i c h
shows h o w to draw a pentagon inscribed w i t h a
five-pointed star by using the c h o r d o f an arc
as the m o d u l e . M o r e o v e r , the A mal c
wa ashkdl
includes a tabulated table for the measurements
o f most c o m m o n l y used triangles, recalling s i m i -
 MANUALS O F PRACTICAL
lar tables p r o v i d e d i n A b u Bakr al-Khalil's A mal,
c
the applied m e n s u r a t i o n treatise b o u n d i n the
same v o l u m e . 1 1 1
The c o l l a b o r a t i o n o f this u n k n o w n profes-
sional m a t h e m a t i c i a n w i t h practitioners recalls the
example o f a l - B u z j a n i , w h o held meetings w i t h
artisans i n t e n t h - c e n t u r y Baghdad where problems
o f practical geometry c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r works were
discussed. I n a d d i t i o n t o A b u Bakr a l - K h a l i l , the
anonymous author o f A mal c
wa ashkal—who seems
to have been a muhandis w i t h practical rather t h a n
theoretical t r a i n i n g i n geometry—also p r o v i d e d
some solutions o f his o w n t o p r o b l e m s raised i n
these sessions. 112
Perhaps i t was al-Buzjani's stu-
dent I b n I r a q w h o i n t r o d u c e d such sessions t o the
c
c o u r t o f the Khwarezm-Shahs after he sponsored
the Persian t r a n s l a t i o n o f his teacher's A mal
c
al-handasa. I f A b u Bakr a l - K h a l i l and the anony-
mous author o f A mal c
wa ashkal were attached t o
the same c o u r t , t h e n this w o r k appended t o the
Persian t r a n s l a t i o n o f al-Buzjani's practical geome-
t r y can also be dated t o the early eleventh century.
Bulatov, w h o assumed that the a n o n y m o u s treatise
was created as an appendix t o al-Buzjani's text,
dated b o t h works t o the early eleventh-century
K h w a r e z m i a n c o u r t . After developing some o f the
treatise's repeat u n i t s i n t o t i l i n g patterns t h r o u g h
s y m m e t r i c a l r e p e t i t i o n , he concluded t h a t all o f
the g r i d systems used i n i t already appear o n
the eleventh- t o t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y m o n u m e n t s o f
Central Asia. A n eleventh-century date was also
accepted b y G o l o m b e k and W i l b e r , w h o suggested
that some o f the a n o n y m o u s treatise's drawings
GEOMETRY A N D T H E SCROLL TRADITION
may have been added t o the o r i g i n a l set d u r i n g the
T i m u r i d p e r i o d w h e n i t was being c o p i e d . 1 1 3
I t is
n o t certain, however, that the A mal c
wa ashkal
constitutes an appendix t o al-Buzjani's practical
geometry. T h e fact that i t follows al-Buzjani's
related w o r k i n the Paris m a n u s c r i p t , w h i c h is a
collection o f m a n y treatises, may have been a c o i n -
cidence. Therefore, its date and provenance
r e m a i n u n c e r t a i n . Its o n l y s u r v i v i n g copy exhibits
l i n g u i s t i c archaisms also f o u n d i n the accompany-
i n g al-Buzjani text t h a t Edgar Blochet i d e n t i f i e d as
a pre-thirteenth-century w o r k . 1 1 4
O n the basis o f a
pentagonal seal seen b o t h i n the a n o n y m o u s trea-
tise and o n the decorations o f the so-called A b b a -
sid Palace i n Baghdad, C h o r b a c h i and A r t h u r L.
Loeb suggested that the treatise may have been
c o m p i l e d before that palace's c o n s t r u c t i o n
between 1180 and 1230. 115
The date o f A mal c
wa ashkal, i n w h i c h the
names o f I b n a l - H a y t h a m and A b u Bakr a l - K h a l i l
are m e n t i o n e d , can be d e t e r m i n e d w i t h m o r e cer-
t a i n t y once the latter's i d e n t i t y is ascertained. I f
he was indeed the author o f Liber mensurationum,
w h i c h Gerard o f C r e m o n a had translated some-
t i m e i n the t w e l f t h century, t h e n an eleventh-
century date may n o t be u n l i k e l y for the A mal c
wa
ashkal This a n o n y m o u s treatise appears t o have
been revised w h i l e i t was being copied i n the
T i m u r i d p e r i o d , most l i k e l y b y the same K u b a n a n i
Yazdi w h o prepared the text and drawings o f
al-Buzjani's practical geometry. Nevertheless i t
seems that we p r i m a r i l y are dealing w i t h an early
medieval corpus o f geometric constructions c o m -
p i l e d sometime between the early eleventh a n d
early t h i r t e e n t h centuries.
A l t h o u g h a detailed analysis o f the A mal c
wa
ashkal lies beyond the scope o f this b o o k , its rela-
t i o n s h i p t o later girih scrolls preserved f r o m the
T i m u r i d p e r i o d o n w a r d needs t o be assessed. This
twenty-page " h o w - t o " m a n u a l , p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c -
tions for the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f sixty-one repeat units
for planar geometric patterns, is o f p a r t i c u l a r
interest because i t shows h o w the general p r i n -
ciples o u t l i n e d i n the practical geometries o f
al-Buzjani and others were used i n developing
i n t e r l o c k i n g star-and-polygon c o m p o s i t i o n s
(see figs. 108-114).
The A mdl
c
wa ashkal often provides very c o m -
plicated, scientifically correct geometric c o n -
structions that are accompanied b y simpler
methods for c o n s t r u c t i n g the same patterns. I n
one example a girih p a t t e r n r e q u i r i n g the use o f
an angle-bracket ruler, w h i c h facilitated sketching
conic sections, is accompanied b y two simpler
solutions o f the same p r o b l e m arrived at b y the
method of approximation. 1 1 6
One o f these solu-
tions reflected the c u r r e n t w o r k i n g methods o f
some artisans {ba zi c
az sunnd ) c
w h o drew the
repeat u n i t o f this girih n o t according t o the geo-
m e t r i c a l l y correct way (tariq-i handasa) but i n
an easier m e t h o d t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e d i t very closely
( azm
c
nazdik ast). This i n v o l v e d d i v i d i n g the
length and w i d t h o f the rectangular repeat u n i t
i n t o seven and six equal m o d u l a r parts, respec-
tively, a c o n s t r u c t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the n u m e r -
ical r a t i o 7:6. 117
The a n o n y m o u s author offered a
170 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
second a p p r o x i m a t e m e t h o d for the same pat-
t e r n t h a t he w o r k e d o u t himself, a m e t h o d that
dominates the T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls. This
involved d i v i d i n g the r i g h t angle at the lower r i g h t
corner o f the rectangular girih i n t o n i n e equal
parts (angle modules) by d r a w i n g a quarter circle
s u b d i v i d e d by eight equidistant r a d i i , f o u r and
five parts o f w h i c h closely a p p r o x i m a t e d (ghdyat
taqrib) the r e q u i r e d a n g l e s . 118
These examples demonstrate t h a t lines and
angles c o u l d be expressed i n terms o f m o d u l a r
units c o r r e s p o n d i n g to n u m e r i c a l ratios i n the
geometric language o f girihs. Such m o d u l a r u n i t s
o f measurement translated algebraic equations
i n t o the visible geometric relationships o f girihs,
created by the h a r m o n i c d i v i s i o n o f square and
rectangular repeat units i n t o i n t e r l o c k i n g s i m i l a r
or c o n g r u e n t figures obeying the laws o f symmetry.
The use o f ratios was an i m p o r t a n t element i n
practical geometries whose i n d i r e c t measuring
techniques relied o n p r o p o r t i o n , t h a t is, o n f i n d -
i n g the r a t i o o f an u n k n o w n q u a n t i t y to a k n o w n
one. T h a t the girihs o f the a n o n y m o u s treatise
were based o n specific ratios is reflected i n its
i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t explain h o w to draw the r a t i o
or p r o p o r t i o n (nisbat) o f a given geometric
construction ( aqd).
c
The m e t h o d o f d i v i d i n g an arc i n t o equal m o d -
ules by equidistant r a d i i to a p p r o x i m a t e the angles
r e q u i r e d i n c o n s t r u c t i n g s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns
is s h o w n as one o f m a n y i n the A mdl c
wa ashkdl.
Eventually, however, this practical m e t h o d came
to d o m i n a t e the simpler geometric language o f
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n and Uzbek scrolls. The m e t h o d
is based o n an a x i o m explained at the b e g i n n i n g
o f the treatise: W h e n any triangle is inscribed i n a
circle, the r a t i o o f its angles is equal to t h a t o f the
arcs cut o f f by those angles. This meant t h a t the
angles o f triangles or polygons inscribed i n circles
c o u l d be expressed i n terms o f m o d u l a r arc u n i t s .
So, for example, to construct a triangle w i t h angles
equal to three, four, and five modules, one s i m p l y
had to sketch a circle, divide its circumference i n t o
twelve parts, and t h e n w i t h chords j o i n three, four,
and five parts. The a n o n y m o u s treatise uses such
angle modules instead o f the degrees, seconds, and
m i n u t e s employed by astronomers and a r i t h m e t i -
cians i n measuring angles. Besides compasses and
the angle-bracket r u l e r for sketching conic sec-
tions (see figs. 107,108), i t also m e n t i o n s special
set squares {gunyd), c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the most
c o m m o n l y used r i g h t angles, t h a t facilitated the
tedious process o f d i v i d i n g arcs i n t o equal parts.
These i n c l u d e d set squares c o r r e s p o n d i n g to five-
angle modules (i.e., 30-60-90 degrees) and six-
angle modules (i.e., 36-45-90 degrees, used i n
girihs w i t h pentagons and d e c a g o n s ) . 119
I f i t was indeed composed i n the early eleventh
century, the A mdl c
wa ashkdl brings us close to the
m o m e n t w h e n the girih m o d e was being f o r m u -
lated by artisans under the direct supervision o f
professional mathematicians. The text's references
to n e w l y discovered methods for c o n s t r u c t i n g par-
t i c u l a r geometric patterns and to experiments w i t h
several alternative techniques for d r a w i n g a given
p a t t e r n capture the inventiveness o f the setting i n
w h i c h i t was composed. Its w i d e variety o f geomet-
ric c o n s t r u c t i o n s , u n l i k e the relatively standard-
ized r e p e r t o r y o f later scrolls, suggests that i t m u s t
have been created at a t i m e o f rigorous e x p e r i m e n -
t a t i o n . This was a m i l i e u i n w h i c h mathematicians
collaborated w i t h p r a c t i t i o n e r s , h e l p i n g t h e m find
suitable a p p r o x i m a t i o n s o f scientifically correct
geometric constructions t h a t c o u l d s i m p l i f y
a p p l i c a t i o n to various fields. T h a t process often
i n v o l v e d the t r a n s l a t i o n o f n u m e r i c a l ratios i n t o
the p r o p o r t i o n a l relationships o f geometric f o r m s ,
a t r a n s l a t i o n facilitated by the c o m m o n habit
a m o n g mathematicians o f p r o v i d i n g geometric
proofs for algebraic p r o b l e m s . The A mdl c
wa
ashkdl, therefore, includes girihs t h a t are geometric
expressions o f algebraic p r o b l e m s , some o f t h e m
i n v o l v i n g complex cubic equations w i t h solutions
based o n intersecting conic s e c t i o n s . 120
The hap-
hazard o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the treatise suggests t h a t its
a n o n y m o u s author, w h o was personally i n v o l v e d
i n adapting scientifically accurate solutions i n t o
s i m p l i f i e d a p p r o x i m a t i o n s m o r e suitable to
artisanal w o r k i n g methods, c o m p i l e d i t as a spon-
taneous r e c o r d o f o n g o i n g experiments.
The use o f several constructions f r o m
al-Buzjani's practical geometry i n the anony-
mous treatise shows the l i n k between these two
a p p l i c a t i o n - o r i e n t e d manuals. One o f those
constructions is a square c o n t a i n i n g a smaller
r o t a t e d square at its center (whose four sides are
extended u n t i l they t o u c h the larger f r a m i n g
square, creating four kite-shaped paraboloids
or f o u r conic triangles along each side). This
 MANUALS OF PRACTICAL
algebraically definable geometric scheme, w h i c h
became w i d e l y used i n the T i m u r i d p e r i o d as a
p r o p o r t i o n i n g device i n the setting o u t o f g r o u n d
plans and decorative panels, is encountered n o t
o n l y i n the a n o n y m o u s treatise (see figs. 108, 112)
but also i n the T o p k a p i scroll (see cat. nos. 59, 61,
72c) and i n the m u c h later M i r z a A k b a r scrolls
(see fig. 34). K n o w n today a m o n g c o n t e m p o r a r y
I r a n i a n builders as chahdr langeh ( l i t . , " f o u r legs,"
referring to the extended sides o f the central
square) or as chahdr turunj ( l i t . , " f o u r kite-shaped
paraboloids, or conic quadrilaterals," referring
to the shapes a b u t t i n g the central square), its
use has also been d o c u m e n t e d i n I n d i a n m a t h e -
matical treatises. 121
The practical a b i l i t y to e m p l o y such geometric
schemata i n the design process d i d n o t i m p l y an
a b i l i t y to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m algebraically i n terms
o f n u m e r i c a l equations. I n i t i a l l y f o r m u l a t e d
w i t h the help o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s , such geometric
schemes eventually became codified i n scrolls
reflecting w o r k s h o p practices i n h e r i t e d over the
generations. A l - B u z j a n i ' s late t e n t h - c e n t u r y m a n -
ual o n practical geometry, the a n o n y m o u s treatise
put together sometime between the early eleventh
and early t h i r t e e n t h centuries, and the T o p k a p i
scroll c o m p i l e d i n the late T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
p e r i o d can therefore be seen as three successive
stages i n the e v o l u t i o n o f a geometric design t r a -
d i t i o n . A c o m p a r i s o n o f these three documents
demonstrates a s t r i k i n g c o n t i n u i t y i n d r a f t i n g
methods, t e s t i f y i n g to the lasting i m p a c t o f late
t e n t h - and early eleventh-century developments i n
GEOMETRY AND THE
practical geometry o n f u t u r e generations o f a r c h i -
tects and decorators. The girihs o f the a n o n y m o u s
treatise, annotated w i t h " h o w - t o " i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t
do n o t explain every step, addressed designers
already acquainted w i t h the basic methods o f
constructive geometry explained i n al-Buzjani's
attached m a n u a l (such as d r o p p i n g perpendiculars
or d r a w i n g polygons by d i v i d i n g circles). The
T o p k a p i scroll f u r t h e r d i s t i l l e d , revised, and c o d i -
fied the early medieval girihs o f the a n o n y m o u s
treatise, w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d a c u l m i n a t i o n o f the
geometric constructions c o n t a i n e d i n al-Buzjani's
practical geometry.
The T o p k a p i scroll was the end p r o d u c t o f a
l o n g process o f e l a b o r a t i o n o f early medieval girihs
by successive generations o f master builders w h o
visually t r a n s m i t t e d t h e m to future generations
by means o f a sophisticated system o f graphic
n o t a t i o n . The o m i s s i o n o f a text w i t h " h o w - t o "
i n s t r u c t i o n s i n this scroll shows t h a t by the late
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n p e r i o d girihs were so w e l l
u n d e r s t o o d and assimilated i n t o oral craft t r a -
d i t i o n s t h a t one o n l y r e q u i r e d drawings serving
as m n e m o n i c devices to record codified w o r k s h o p
practices. Some o f the m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d geomet-
ric methods described i n the a n o n y m o u s treatise
were replaced i n the scroll by the simpler methods
o f a p p r o x i m a t i o n , a development perfectly s u m -
marized by Jones:
As w i t h p r o p o r t i o n , we t h i n k t h a t those
p r o p o r t i o n s w i l l be the most beautiful
w h i c h i t w i l l be most difficult for the eye
SCROLL TRADITION 171
to detect; so we t h i n k that those c o m p o s i -
tions o f curves w i l l be most agreeable,
where the mechanical process o f describ-
ing t h e m shall be least apparent; and we
shall find i t to be universally the case,
t h a t i n the best periods o f art all m o u l d -
ings and ornaments were f o u n d e d o n
curves o f a higher order, such as the
conic sections; w h i l s t , w h e n art declined,
circles and compass-work were m u c h
more d o m i n a n t . 1 2 2
A l t h o u g h the Topkapi scroll by no means
represents a " d e c l i n e , " its girihs generated by
a p p r o x i m a t i v e methods no longer e x h i b i t the
same c o m p l e x i t y as their counterparts i n the
A mdl
c
wa ashkdl, seemingly created i n a p e r i o d o f
immense creativity i n the field o f geometry. C o m -
p a r i n g the girihs o f these two documents reveals
that the f o r m e r rely m o r e heavily o n circles and
compass w o r k , whereas the latter are based o n
alternative methods ranging f r o m simple c o n -
structions to complex ones using conic sections.
Such a c o m p a r i s o n seems to s u p p o r t the early date
o f the a n o n y m o u s treatise, whose girihs are gener-
ally consistent w i t h the types o f geometric p a t t e r n -
ing seen o n the b r i c k b u i l d i n g s o f the eastern
Islamic w o r l d between the eleventh and early t h i r -
teenth centuries. Its variegated g r i d systems w o u l d
eventually be s u b o r d i n a t e d to the d i c t a t o r s h i p o f
radial grids s u b d i v i d e d by equidistant r a d i i t h a t
became p a r t i c u l a r l y d o m i n a n t i n the late T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n p e r i o d . C o m p a r i n g the A mdl
c
wa ashkdl
172 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
w i t h the T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls confirms
this i m p o r t a n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and supports the
view t h a t the h i g h l y standardized geometric pat-
terns o f p o s t - t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m o n u m e n t s i n
the Islamic East no longer e x h i b i t e d the same
c o m p l e x i t y and variety as those encountered i n
earlier structures b u i l t between the late t e n t h a n d
early t h i r t e e n t h centuries, w h e n advances i n the
m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences were still at t h e i r peak.
A l t h o u g h several c o m p o s i t i o n s i n the
wa ashkdl find direct parallels i n the T o p k a p i scroll,
m a n y o f t h e m have been e l i m i n a t e d altogether.
For example, the treatise's c o m p l e x t r i a n g u l a t i o n
methods, r o t a t i o n s o f triangles w i t h i n triangles,
h a r m o n i c divisions o f polygons i n t o c o n g r u e n t
parts, and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f s i m i l a r polygons
i n t o one another do n o t find their c o u n t e r p a r t i n
the T o p k a p i scroll, w h i c h is d o m i n a t e d by c o m -
posite radial g r i d systems p r o d u c i n g a w i d e variety
o f s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns i n t w o and three
dimensions. Nevertheless, schemes based o n r o t a t -
i n g a square w i t h i n another square a n d radial grids
organized a r o u n d d y n a m i c axes o f s y m m e t r y
( o b l i q u e cross axes or diagonal lines c u t t i n g repeat
units i n t o c o n g r u e n t parts) are c o m m o n i n b o t h
documents, w h i c h c o n t a i n some s i m i l a r girihs.
( C o m p a r e , for example, fig. 109 w i t h cat. n o . 73;
fig. 111 w i t h cat. n o . 34; fig. 112 w i t h cat. n o . 61; and
fig. 113 w i t h cat. n o . 70.) These comparable
were generated by s i m i l a r u n i n k e d g r i d lines
scratched o n the paper (see figs. 109b, 113b), some-
times i n d i c a t e d o n the final p a t t e r n as solid or
d o t t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n lines i n red or black i n k . The
presence o f several un fin i sh ed irregular patterns
i n the a n o n y m o u s treatise (see figs. 109a, 110)
again captures the e x p e r i m e n t a l n a t u r e o f this
d o c u m e n t , w h i c h seems to have been c o m p i l e d at
a t i m e w h e n girihs were being i n v e n t e d t h r o u g h
t r i a l and error methods, u n l i k e the m o r e fully
w o r k e d o u t patterns codified i n later s c r o l l s .
C o m p a r i n g the two documents also shows t h a t
some o f the girihs i n the a n o n y m o u s treatise were
A mdl
c
further fragmented i n t o smaller geometric c o m -
p a r t m e n t s i n the T o p k a p i scroll (e.g., see fig. 111
and cat. n o . 34).
Despite t h e i r s t r i k i n g parallels the T o p k a p i
scroll and A mdl c
wa ashkdl e m b o d y different design
repertories consistent w i t h their respective times
o f c o m p i l a t i o n . The latter d o c u m e n t , for example,
does n o t i n c l u d e any radial arch-net or muqarnas
vault p r o j e c t i o n s , so characteristic o f the T o p k a p i
and Tashkent scrolls. N o r does i t have geometric
and calligraphic patterns i n t e n d e d for bannd'i
b r i c k masonry. Its i n v e n t i v e schemes eventually
c u l m i n a t e d i n the i n t r i c a t e girihs o f T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n and Uzbek scrolls t h a t explore all the
possible p e r m u t a t i o n s o f i n h e r i t e d patterns.
Despite t h e i r visual c o m p l e x i t y , however, the later
scrolls were based largely o n standard formulas.
They represented a d i s t i l l a t i o n o f practical geome-
try, ingeniously adapted to the w o r k i n g methods
girihs o f master builders and decorators. I t is u n l i k e l y
that these scrolls, e x h i b i t i n g a sophisticated capac-
i t y to m a n i p u l a t e geometric grids to create c o m -
plex constellations o f p a t t e r n , were i n f o r m e d by
a deep theoretical knowledge o f mathematics.
The T o p k a p i scroll, t h e n , is a corpus o f sche-
once mata accumulated over the centuries that reflects
the collective m e m o r y o f master builders w h o end-
lessly refined early medieval girihs b u t still pos-
sessed a creative geometric i m a g i n a t i o n , n o u r i s h e d
by manuals o f practical geometry, w o r k s h o p draw-
123
ings, a n d by e m p i r i c a l experience acquired d u r i n g
apprenticeship. Its visual complexities are r e m i n i s -
cent o f the A l h a m b r a ' s i n t r i c a t e geometric revet-
ments, w h i c h also represent the c u l m i n a t i o n o f
earlier experiments at a t i m e w h e n m a t h e m a t i c a l
creativity had lost its i n i t i a l vigor. The celebrated
geometric fantasies o f the A l h a m b r a were based
o n b r i l l i a n t elaborations o f b y - t h e n - r e d u n d a n t
f o r m u l a s , most likely t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h n o w -
lost scrolls (whose m e m o r y may have been
preserved i n Lopez de Arenas's Breve compendio de
la carpinteria de lo bianco y tratado de alarifes).
The A mdl wa ashkdl dealt w i t h the p r o p o r t i o n a l
c
d i v i s i o n o f the plane (considered limitless o n all
sides) i n t o s i m i l a r or congruent geometric shapes
( k n o w n by mathematicians as tilings or tessella-
tions) t h a t cover surfaces w i t h o u t leaving any gaps
or e m p t y spaces. The c u t t i n g o f the plane i n t o a
jigsaw puzzle o f p r o p o r t i o n a l l y related pieces sym-
m e t r i c a l l y m u l t i p l i e d by the operations o f trans-
l a t i o n , r o t a t i o n , reflection, a n d glide reflection
recently has been analyzed by crystallographers
and explored i n the w o r k o f the t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y
D u t c h graphic artist M . C. Escher (whose fasci-
n a t i o n w i t h t i l i n g s t h a t fill the plane and space
w i t h o u t any gaps were i n s p i r e d p r i m a r i l y by the
Alhambra). 1 2 4
A l t h o u g h the A mdl
c
wa ashkdl does
 MANUALS OF PRACTICAL
n o t i n c l u d e muqarnas projections, a few o f its
girihs composed o f squares and rhombuses do
recall o r t h o g o n a l muqarnas vaults such as the
one represented o n the t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y T a k h t - i
Sulayman tablet (see figs. 1,114). These t w o -
d i m e n s i o n a l patterns suggest t h a t the muqarnas
must have evolved f r o m a s i m i l a r k i n d o f geome-
try, i n v o l v i n g the p r o p o r t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f space
i n t o closely packed c o m p a r t m e n t s w i t h o u t leav-
i n g any gaps. The simplest examples o f muqarnas
f o r m a t i o n s are i n fact n o t h i n g b u t stereometric
exercises i n the cubic d i v i s i o n o f space; the shapes
enveloping t h e i r carved cells often are full cubes
in contact. 125
The regular d i v i s i o n o f space i n t o s i m i l a r and
congruent t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l cells, or space t i l -
ings, was a n a t u r a l extension o f experiments w i t h
plane tilings. Just as the simplest o r t h o g o n a l
muqarnas c o m p o s i t i o n s e x h i b i t an affinity to t w o -
d i m e n s i o n a l surface patterns generated by recti-
linear grids (see figs. 1, 4 6 - 5 0 , 52), the far m o r e
complex radial muqarnas projections o f the
T o p k a p i and Tashkent scrolls can be read as spatial
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l patterns w i t h
i n t e r l o c k i n g stars and polygons. E x t e n d i n g the
idea o f filling a plane w i t h c o n g r u e n t stars and
polygons i n t o three dimensions m u s t have been a
n a t u r a l o u t c o m e o f exercises i n practical geometry
and m e n s u r a t i o n manuals, w h i c h proceed f r o m
constructions i n the plane to constructions i n
space. Just as " k n o t t e d " g r i d lines d i v i d e d surfaces
p r o p o r t i o n a l l y , so t o o c o u l d intersecting planes
be arranged to divide space i n t o repetitive cells
GEOMETRY AND THE
arranged i n corbeled tiers. This affinity explains
w h y muqarnas projections ( t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
space-filling patterns) are always juxtaposed w i t h
geometric interlaces ( t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l surface-
filling patterns) i n Islamic scrolls that b r o u g h t
experiments i n i t i a t e d by early medieval designers
to t h e i r logical conclusion w i t h collections o f
c o n g r u e n t t i l i n g s , b o t h planar and spatial.
The elusive muqarnas can therefore be defined
as a geometric f o r m a t i o n w i t h corbeled tiers o f
space-filling lattices that homogeneously p a r t i t i o n
space i n t o s i m i l a r or congruent cells connected by
filler elements. Such a d e f i n i t i o n is consistent w i t h
al-Kashi's d e s c r i p t i o n o f the muqarnas i n 1427 as
a vaulted r o o f resembling a gradine or staircase
(madraj), w i t h the facets o f each adjacent cell
(bayt) j o i n i n g one another at different angles
along successively corbeled tiers (tabaqa) parallel
to the h o r i z o n . The measure o f the base o f the
largest facet c o n s t i t u t e d the m o d u l e {miqyds) of
the muqarnas, w h i c h generated commensurable
shapes j o i n e d together i n perfect h a r m o n y (see
" T h e M u q a r n a s " i n the present v o l u m e ) . 1 2 6
The
muqarnas, t h e n , was the p r o d u c t o f the same type
o f geometric e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n t h a t c u l m i n a t e d i n
the i n v e n t i o n o f planar girihs, w h i c h e m b o d i e d
classical aesthetic n o t i o n s o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y rather
t h a n the so-called h o r r o r vacui o f the Islamic psy-
che. I t d i d n o t appear all o f a sudden i n different
places t h r o u g h a mysterious process o f s i m u l t a n e -
ous c o m b u s t i o n reflecting a specifically M u s l i m
Weltanschauung b u t was most l i k e l y disseminated
by i t i n e r a n t workshops, design manuals, and
SCROLL TRADITION 173
drawings f r o m Baghdad or other courts t h a t
emulated its artistic, scientific, and intellectual
innovations. 1 2 7
T w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric pat-
terns, often juxtaposed o n b u i l d i n g s , f u r n i t u r e ,
and objects, c o n s t i t u t e d c o m p l e m e n t a r y aspects
o f a single m o d e o f design t h a t was expressed
t h r o u g h p r o p o r t i o n a l l y related planar and spatial
networks. The aesthetic reaction such patterns
c o u l d evoke is captured by I b n Jubayr's descrip-
t i o n f r o m the 1180s o f the i v o r y - a n d - e b o n y - i n l a i d
j o i n e d - w o o d w o r k m i n b a r i n the Great M o s q u e o f
A l e p p o , i n f r o n t o f w h i c h " t h e eyes enjoy one o f
the most beautiful sights i n the w o r l d . " He i d e n t i -
fied this m i n b a r , composed o f i n t e r l o c k i n g stars
and polygons j o i n e d " w i t h o u t apparent d i v i s i o n "
and t o p p e d by muqarnas tiers, as an exquisite
example o f qarbasa w o r k , a t e r m that complicates
the controversial etymology o f muqarnas (spelled
variously as muqarbas or muqarbas [the source o f
the Spanish t e r m mocarabe], and as muqarnas or
muqarnas). 128
I b n Jubayr's d e s c r i p t i o n suggests
that i n t r i c a t e l y j o i n e d t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l star-and-
p o l y g o n patterns may o r i g i n a l l y have been consid-
ered an integral part o f qarbasa or qarnasa w o r k ,
before muqarnas became a m o r e specialized t e r m
referring to "stalactites."
I b n Jubayr was n o t the o n l y person to derive
aesthetic pleasure f r o m h a r m o n i o u s l y c o m b i n e d
t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l girihs. The anony-
mous author o f the A mdl c
wa ashkdl s i m i l a r l y
praised one o f the girihs contained i n that w o r k as
"extremely elegant" (be-ghdyat lattf ast). Like the
174 PART 4. GEOMETRY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

treatise itself, based o n an u n a r t i c u l a t e d theory o f
beauty r e l y i n g o n a h a r m o n y o f interrelated parts,
this r e m a r k echoes the fascination w i t h the aes-
thetics o f p r o p o r t i o n i n medieval Islamic texts t o
w h i c h I w i l l t u r n i n part 5 . 129
I b n K h a l d u n also
regarded geometric w o o d w o r k as "very elegant,"
just as Lopez de Arenas described the w o o d e n
muqarnas as possessing a " h a r m o n y t h a t appears
very gracious to the sight." 1 3 0
These aesthetic reactions i m p l y t h a t the l i n k
between the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences and modes o f
geometric design transcended merely technical
goals. The abstract language o f geometry, t h r o u g h
w h i c h ars c o u l d be raised to the level o f scientia,
left a p r o f o u n d i m p a c t n o t o n l y o n design m e t h -
ods b u t also o n medieval aesthetic sensibilities.
The girih m o d e t h r i v e d o n the a r i t h m e t i c i r r a t i o -
n a l i t y o f geometric p r o p o r t i o n s that were i n s t i n c -
tively pleasant t o the eye b u t remained a puzzle to
view i t saddles are strapped o n [i.e., t o c o n t r o l one b o t t o m [ i t was covered w i t h ] the i n t e r -
f r o m s h a k i n g ] . T r u l y i t is the pearl, the o r p h a n , l o c k i n g sides o f triangles and quadrangles
a priceless possession" (see figs. 115-117). 131
This and the sides o f pentagons and hexagons
passage reflects al-Jazari's e n o r m o u s p r i d e i n his and heptagons, and the patterns were pos-
o w n i n g e n u i t y , i m p l i e d i n the t e r m hiyal t h a t sessed o f various forms. T h a t is, l o o k i n g
underlines the intellectual status o f geometric f r o m one angle, one type o f f o r m o f circle
artifices i n v e n t e d by the c u n n i n g intelligence o f was seen, and w h e n one l o o k e d again at
their creators. Evliya Qelebi described the m u l t i - that place f r o m another angle, other types
layered girihs o f gates, m i n b a r s , and m i h r a b s o f designs and patterns emerging, other
i n s i m i l a r terms, praising the ingenious talent forms appeared. However m u c h the p o i n t
(ma rifet)
c
o f t h e i r designers, w h i c h at times o f view was changed, that m a n y forms
approached m i r a c u l o u s saintly powers (kerdmet) were t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o other shapes.
or l i c i t magic (sihr-i mtibTn). Even the s c r u t i - W h e n the late [ s u l t a n ] , o u t o f his delight,
n i z i n g gaze (im dn-i c
nazar) was n o t equipped t u r n e d and examined and inspected i t ,
to figure o u t these w o n d e r f u l ( ibretnumd,
c
n o w f r o m this d i r e c t i o n , n o w f r o m t h a t ,
c
ibretnUmun, c
acd ib,y
gard'ib) compositions he recited extemporaneously this noble
that i n v a r i a b l y i n d u c e d a sense o f a d m i r a t i o n verse. " G o d ! G o d ! W h a t are these beauti-
and a s t o n i s h m e n t . 132
ful forms? Like w i n e , they i n s t a n t l y caused
Ca fer, the seventeenth-century author o f the
c
me t o lose m y head." 1 3 3

the i n q u i r i n g m i n d . This is eloquently expressed Risdle-i Mi mdriyye,

i n Dost M u h a m m a d ' s preface to the Bahram M i r z a
a l b u m o f 1544 where the hand-i rumi patterns
d r a w n by a Safavid graphic artist (tarrdh, l i t . , " l i n e -
a r t i s t " ) are described as being " u n f a t h o m a b l e to
even the most discerning eye." Visually pleasing,
yet undecipherable geometric patterns often
evoked a sense o f astonishment and wonder w i t h
t h e i r ingeniously c o n t r i v e d and s t a r t l i n g effects
( ajib)
c
t h a t were so p r i z e d by patrons o f art and
architecture. This is captured i n al-Jazari's descrip-
t i o n o f the m e t a l w o r k d o o r w i t h i n t e r l o c k i n g
geometric u n i t s i n c l u d e d i n his b o o k o n ingenious
c
p r o v i d e d a fascinating descrip-
t i o n o f the b e w i l d e r i n g effects p r o d u c e d by the
ingeniously i n t e r l o c k e d figures o f a w o o d e n read-
i n g lectern featuring "geometric forms w i t h sides
j o i n e d to one a n o t h e r " t h a t the architect M e h m e d
had presented to the O t t o m a n sultan M u r a d 111
(r. 1574-1595):
W h e n i t was placed i n the Exalted Pres-
ence, t h a t w o r l d l y - w i s e and blessed sultan,
s c r u t i n i z i n g and e x a m i n i n g i t w i t h care,
saw t h a t the H o l y K u r ' a n had no such
peerless t h r o n e and that its equal was n o t
This rare d e s c r i p t i o n once again h i g h l i g h t s the aes-
thetic value attached to i n t r i c a t e l y fitted star-and-
p o l y g o n patterns t h a t c o u l d evoke an i n t o x i c a t i n g
sense o f delight m i x e d w i t h wonder and at the
same t i m e testify to the inventive skill o f the
designer w h o had created t h e m as abstract fig-
ments o f the i m a g i n a t i o n . The reference to i n t o x i -
cating delight recalls the overtones o f the n o t i o n
o f taste (dhawq, the power o f aesthetic apprecia-
t i o n ) i n mystical usage where i t denotes a k i n d o f
ecstatic e n j o y m e n t and i n t o x i c a t i o n that has a
noetic q u a l i t y . 1 3 4

mechanical devices: " I t is the chef-d'oeuvre, to to be f o u n d i n the w o r l d . F r o m t o p t o Nervously p u l s a t i n g a r o u n d m u l t i p l e foci o f

 MANUALS OF PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND THE SCROLL TRADITION 175

r o t a t i o n a l symmetry, l a b y r i n t h i n e girih patterns Koranic passage q u o t e d o n the artesonado wood-

acted as seductive magnets that afforded no rest to
the attentive gaze. Seeing became, i n effect, r e i n -
v e n t i n g new patterns each t i m e the gaze a t t e m p t e d
i n v a i n to fix itself o n these i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g geo-
m e t r i c shapes or to dissect their concealed u n d e r -
l y i n g schemes. W i t h t h e i r restless flux o f geometric
figures that c o n t i n u a l l y m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o one
another f r o m whatever d i r e c t i o n one l o o k e d , star-
a n d - p o l y g o n patterns seemed to deny the static
v i e w p o i n t o f a fixed spectator w i t h a l i m i t e d span
o f focused v i s i o n . To use N o r m a n Bryson's distinc-
t i o n between the "Gaze" and the "Glance," such
patterns were d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed to the p r o -
longed gaze encouraged by m o n o c u l a r perspective.
w o r k ceiling at the A l h a m b r a ' s H a l l o f Ambas-
sadors implies: " T h o u seest n o t i n the crea-
t i o n o f the A l l - M e r c i f u l any i m p e r f e c t i o n . Return
t h y gaze; seest t h o u any fissure? T h e n r e t u r n
t h y gaze again, and again, and t h y gaze comes
back to thee dazzled, aweary" (67: 3 - 4 ) . The geo-
m e t r i c sophistications o f girihs t h a t i n t e n t i o n a l l y
dazzled the eye to the p o i n t o f blindness were n o t
o n l y i n f o r m e d by m a t h e m a t i c a l concepts b u t also
by aesthetic theories o f sublime beauty and the
psychology o f visual p e r c e p t i o n . T h e i r b e w i l d e r i n g
v e r t i g i n o u s effects that inscribed subjectivity i n t o
the optical field c o u l d produce a wide range o f
contextual associations and aesthetic r e a c t i o n s . 136

Instead they r e q u i r e d the " f l i c k e r i n g , ungovernable

m o b i l i t y o f the Glance" i n w h i c h the apprehension
o f the c o m p o s i t i o n a l order was perpetually post-
p o n e d to evoke a sense o f wonder and awe, the
prelude to c o n t e m p l a t i v e w i s d o m . 1 3 5

Like Ca fer, V i o l l e t - l e - D u c described the aes-

c

thetic effect p r o d u c e d by geometric entrelacs as

one o f vertigo: " O n e is seized by vertigo w i t h these
i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g networks o f straight and bent
lines that f o r m a concrete and h a r m o n i o u s
ensemble, b u t whose c o m b i n a t i o n s seem t o slip
away f r o m e x a m i n a t i o n . " Geometric patterns w i t h
dazzling displays o f linear interlacement t h a t
defied q u i c k apprehension i n d u c e d a f o r m o f
visual i n t o x i c a t i o n , a d i s o r i e n t i n g dizziness o f
unsettled v i s i o n lost i n w o n d e r m e n t . A s i m i l a r yet
m u c h m o r e intense aesthetic effect c o u l d be t r i g -
gered by the wonders o f d i v i n e creation, as the
176
NOTES TO PART 4
1. For this quotation and an analysis of its meaning
in the context of the construction of Milan cathedral,
see Ackermann 1949.
2. Ibn al-Nadim 1970, 2: 634ff. For the impact of the
mathematical sciences on Gothic design methods, see
Harvey 1971, 36, 41; and Bucher 1972, 532. A bibliography
on medieval architectural mathematics and mechanical
sciences is provided in Crombie 1959; and Clagett 1959.
3. The transmission of Greek learning is discussed
in Nasr 1976, 9-12; Mieli 1938; O'Leary 1979; Goldstein
1964,132-33; Fakhry 1983, 1-36; and Kraemer 1986,
84-86. For the Sabaeans, see Marquet 1966-1967.
According to the Arab historian and encyclopedist
al-Nuwayri (1279-1332), the Sabaeans were famed for
their artists: "Specialties in the sciences and praxis:
The scholars of Greece, the physicians of Jundishapur,
the artists of Harran, the storytellers of Yemen, and the
scribes of the Sawad"; cited in Wiedemann 1970, 867.
The twelve shrines of the Sabaeans on the sacred enclo-
sure at Harran are referred to in Ibn al-Nadim 1970, 2:
745~73- See idem, 755 n. 50, where these shrines are
described as: "(1) shrine of the Primal Cause, a hemi-
sphere; (2) of Intelligence (al- Aql), a circle; (3) of the
c
Soul (al-Nafs), a circle; (4) of Form (al-Surah), perhaps
meaning 'Space,' no shape cited; (5) either Sequence
(Time), called al-Silsilah by al-Mas udi, or the Govern-
c
ing, called al-Siyasah in al-Maqrizi and al-Dimashql,
circular; (6) (al-Zuhal) (Saturn), hexagonal; (7)
al-Mushtari (Jupiter), triangular; (8) al-Mirrikh (Mars),
square; (9) al-Shams (the Sun), square; (10) al-Zuharah
(Venus), elongated triangle; (11) Utarid (Mercury),
c
square outside but hexagonal inside; (12) al-Qumar
(the Moon),five-sided.Each shrine had an idol, also a
special metal and color" corresponding to the planets.
For a description of these shrines constructed in allegor-
ical geometric shapes and materials, which were associ-
ated with the Sabaean mysteries, see also al-Masudic
1865, 4: 61-62.
4. Souissi 1982. See idem, 414: "An important area in
the application of geometry is that of architecture and
sculpture; Muslim art, inspired by geometry, invented
the extended [sic, pointed?] arch, cupolas resting on
regular polygons, corbellings, stalactites, groups of poly-
hedrons of stucco and light. The work of the sculptor in
stone or in stucco was designed by the mathematicians."
5. The reference to Masud 1 is from Bayhaqi's
c
Tarikh-i Mas udT (History of Masud), cited in Wilber
c
c
1976, 31; for the treatise written by the king of Saragossa,
see Hogendijk 1986.
6. al-Farabi 1949a. See also the translation of
al-Farabi's classification of sciences into German in
Wiedemann 1970, 328-47. Islamic classifications of
the sciences are discussed in Gardet and Anawati 1948,
101-24; and Bosworth 1963.
7. Ikhwan al-Safa' 1928,1: 42. The mathematical
sciences are dealt with in epistles 1-10, pp. 23-362.
8. Translated in Rosenthal 1975, 65.
9. For al-Buzjani's treatise on practical geometry, see
part 3, n. 87, above. Al-Farabi's geometry treatise, which
al-Buzjani is believed to have taken as a model, is trans-
lated into Russian in al-Farabi 1972, 91-231. For this
treatise, Kitdb al-hiyal al-ruhdniya wa al-asrdr al-tabi iya
c
fi daqd'iq al-ashkdl al-handasiya (Book of pneumatics
and natural mysteries about the subtleties of geometric
figures), the sole manuscript of which is in the Uppsala
University Library, MS Tornberg 324, see Kubesov and
Rosenfeld 1969. The attribution of this manuscript to
al-Farabi is disputed in Hogendijk 1985, 62. Another
geometry treatise of al-Farabi exists in Oxford, Kitdb
bugyat al-dmdl fi sind at al-raml wa taqwim al-ashkdl
c
(Book on necessary operations in the science of divina-
tion and the construction of shapes), MS Marsh 216
(Uri. 1, 956), Bodleian Library. Bulatov pointed out
that the Oxford manuscript is not related to divination
(al-raml) as its misleading title suggests but to geo-
metric constructions; see Bulatov 1988, 89. For these
al-Farabi manuscripts and further bibliography, see
Sezgin 1974, 295-96.
10. For the geometric shapes of the Sabaean temples,
see part 4, n. 3, above.
11. Proclus 1970. Al-Kindi's work is cited in Ibn
al-Nadim 1970, 2: 619. For the Brethren's correlation
of thefiveelements with the Platonic solids, see Ikhwan
al-Safa' 1975,119, 547-48.
12. This lost work by al-Buzjani is cited in Ibn
al-Nadim 1970, 2: 668; see also Sezgin 1974, 325. In con-
temporary astronomical treatises circular diagrams
played a central role.
13. The known Arabic manuscripts of al-Buzjani's
practical geometry are MS Ayasofya 2753, Suleymaniye
Kuttiphanesi, Istanbul; and MS 68, Biblioteca
Ambrosiana, Milan. The first one is translated into
Russian in Krasnova 1966, 56-140. For these manu-
scripts and related bibliography, see Sezgin 1974, 321-25.
Another Arabic copy in the Dar al-Kutub, Cairo,
is mentioned in Chorbachi 1989, 769. For the early
eleventh-century Persian translation of this text in
MS Persan 169, sec. 23, fols. 141V-179V, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris, see Woepcke 1855; and for an adapta-
tion of this text into modern Persian, see al-Buzjani
1990-1991. A late tenth- or early eleventh-century
Persian translation prepared for the Buyid ruler of Iran,
Abu Mansur Baha' al-Dawla (r. 998-1013), is in MS 37,
Imam Riza, Mashhad. Another eleventh- or twelfth-
century Persian translation is in MS 2876, fol. 36ff.,
Kitabkhane-i Merkez-i Danishgah, Tehran. The copy of
an Arabic commentary written in Mosul on al-Buzjani's
practical geometry by Kamal al-Din Musa b. Yunus b.
Mana, known as Ibn Mana (1156-1242), is in MS 5357,
c c
sec. 139, fol. 6ff., Imam Riza, Mashhad. Al-Buzjani's
emphasis on praxis may have been inspired by the type
of mathematical education he received from his paternal
uncle who had studied geometry under Abu al- Ala' b. c
Karnib, renowned as a master in the "arts of teaching
and geometry," according to Ibn al-Nadim 1970, 2: 649,
667. Al-Buzjani's popularizing works included an abbre-
viated version of Ptolemy's Almagest, simplified for
nonspecialists interested in astronomy. In it he sepa-
rated geometric from arithmetic demonstrations so that
geometer-engineers (muhandis) and calculators (hdsib)
trained in only one of these branches could benefit from
it; those acquainted with both methods could join the
two types of demonstration on their own. The text
showed the calculation of the chords of a circle without
the aid of numerical formulas, just by using simple geo-
metric shapes (e.g., the sides of the equilateral triangle,
square, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, and dodecagon)
and included tables of trigonometry that made readily
available the new developments in thatfield;see Carra
de Vaux 1892. Al-Buzjani also wrote a practical manual
on applied arithmetic that addressed the needs of scribes
and secretaries; see al-Buzjani 1971; and Saidan 1974.
14. For the anonymous treatise, see MS Persan 169, sec.
24, fols. i 8 o r - i 9 9 v , Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. It is
described in Blochet 1905-1934, 2: no. 772, 41-47; and
Richard 1989, 187, where its title has been misread as FT
maddkhil al-ashkdl al-mutashdbiha aw al-mutawafiqa
(Introduction to similar or congruentfigures).The cor-
rect reading has been provided in Chorbachi 1989, 764,
and in al-Buzjani 1990-1991, where maddkhil (introduc-
tion) has been read as taddkhul (interlocking), a reading
that is more appropriate in terms of the treatise's
contents dealing with interlocking geometric figures.
For references to the practical geometry of al-Buzjani
and the anonymous treatise, see Woepcke 1855; Prisse
d'Avennes 1983; Bulatov 1988; Golombek and Wilber
1988; Holod 1986; idem 1988; Chorbachi 1989; and
Chorbachi and Loeb 1992. Chorbachi's doctoral disser-
tation on the anonymous treatise, "Beyond the Sym-
metries of Islamic Geometric Patterns: The Science of
Practical Geometry and the Process of Islamic Design,"
completed at Harvard University in 1989, is not available
for public use. I regret not having had access to this
important study that awaits publication. An abbreviated
Russian translation of the anonymous treatise was
published as an appendix in Bulatov 1978, a book that
appeared in a revised edition; see Bulatov 1988, 315-40.
For a recent Iranian publication of al-Buzjani's practical
geometry and the anonymous treatise, see al-Buzjani
1990-1991. The various dates proposed for the anony-
mous treatise are discussed in part 4, pp. 167-75; see
nn. 113-15, below.

15. Kubesov and Rosenfeld noted that the treatise
of al-Farabi finished on 7 July 933 contains a foreword
and ten books (maqalat), all of which are included in
al-Buzjani's differently organized treatise.
16. For al-Buzjani's geometric constructions, see
Krasnova 1966, 56-140. Burning mirrors are concave
mirrors that, by concentrating the reflected rays of the
sun at a focus, cause them to set fire to objects.
17. See Woepcke 1855; Suter 1922; and idem 1986, 2:
635-51-
18. Also dealt with by ancient Greek mathematicians,
similar geometric constructions had been treated in the
early ninth-century geometric works of al-Kindi whose
lost treatises listed by Ibn al-Nadim included Risala ft
taqrib qaul ArshimTdis fi qadr qutr al-daira min muhitiha
(Approximating Archimedes's statement about the
measuring of the diameter of a circle from its circumfer-
ence), Risala f 1 taqrib watar al-da'ira (Approximating
the chord of a circle), Risala fi taqrib watar al-tis c earth and also to conduct water through water-wheels
(Approximating the chord of a ninth [i.e., the line
marking a segment equal to a ninth of a circumfer-
ence]), Risala taqsim al-muthallath wa al-murabba wa c chasms, to erect other wonderful bridges over deep
c
amalihima (Dividing the triangle and the square and
their constructions), and Risala fi qismat al-daira
thalathat aqsam (Dividing the circle into three parts).
These titles suggest that al-Kindi dealt with approxima-
tions of complex geometric constructions and with
methods of proportioning; see Ibn al-Nadim 1970, 2:
619; and Sezgin 1974, 255-59. Krasnova listed among the
earliest examples of Arabic works on constructive geome-
try dealing with approximate solutions a treatise by
Thabit b. Qurra, who had translated Archimedes's
related work entitled Amal al-daira al-maqsuma
c
bi-sab at aqsam mutasawiya li-Arshimidis (On dividing
c
the circle into seven equal parts by Archimedes). This
treatise deals with twelve geometric constructions
addressing such problems as dividing an angle into three
equal parts, dividing lines into proportional segments,
dividing a triangle into proportional parts, triangula-
tion, inscribing broken lines in the arc of a circle in pro-
portional relations, and dividing the circumference of a
circle into proportional parts. For a discussion of geo-
metric works related to that of al-Buzjani, see Krasnova
1966.
19. The two treatises of Apollonius on cutting lines
and surfaces in ratio, whose Greek originals are lost,
are cited in Ibn al-Nadim 1970, 2: 637-38, as Kitdb fi
qat al-khutut ala al-nisab and Kitdb ft qat al-sutuh ala
c c c c
nisbat. See also Hogendijk 1985, 98; and Sezgin 1974,
142-43. Apollonius's Conica (Kitdb al-makhrutat) and
its various translations are discussed in Sezgin 1974,
136-43. The Banu Musa (Muhammad, Ahmad, and
al-Hasan) and their works are mentioned in Ibn
al-Nadim 1970, 2: 637-38, 645-46; Hogendijk 1985,
NOTES
1-30; and Souissi 1982, 412.
20. For the science of mechanics, see al-Farabi 1949a;
and Wiedemann 1970, 346-47. Al-Farabi divided
mechanics into two sections, one based on arithmetic
and the other on geometry. The only field in the first
section is algebra, which used both arithmetic and geo-
metric proofs. For mechanical subjects included in
Books 8-10 of Vitruvius's architectural treatise, see
Vitruvius Pollio 1914, 225-319. For the concept of metis,
see Detienne and Vernant 1974.
21. Translated in Downey 1946-1948,106-7. For
Pappus's ninth-century Arabic translation, see Jackson
1972, 96-103.
22. Downey 1946-1948,107; Kostof 1986, 63.
23. See part 4, nn. 6 and 8, above. In the late tenth
century al- Amiri wrote: "Mechanics is a discipline that
c
shares both mathematics and natural science. It enables
one to bring forth hidden water from the interior of the
or fountains, to transport heavy objects with the appli-
cation of little energy, to construct arched bridges over
streams and to accomplish many other things, whose
mention here would take up too much room"; trans-
lated in Rosenthal 1975, 66. In their classifications of
knowledge such authors as al-Khwarezmi and Nasir
al-Din al-Tusi continued to list mechanics among the
mathematical sciences. For al-Khwarezmi's chapter on
hiyal, in the Mafatih al- ulum (Keys of sciences), circa
c
977, see Wiedemann 1970,188; and Bosworth 1963.
24. Al-Bayhaqi's biographical entries are translated
into German in Wiedemann 1970, 649, 653. Abu Hatim
al-Muzaffar b. Isma il al-Isfizari, who was a contempo-
c
rary of Umar Khayyam, said: "Geometry is the basis for
c
architecture; that is why the geometer with his science
constitutes the foundation. He is followed by the master
builder who in turn is followed by the wage laborer
[bricklayer]. The geometer commands the second [i.e.,
master builder] and the master builder commands the
wage laborer, while the wage laborer busies himself with
water and clay." Al-Qajini, who was trained in the prac-
tical rather than the theoretical branches of geometry,
wrote: "The mason does not have the same significance
as the architect and the architect not the same as the
geometer. The geometer is Ptolemy, the architect is
al-Battani, and my role is that of the mason." See also
al-Tusi 1964, 217.
25. For Shams al-Din Muhammad b. Ibrahim b. Said c
al-Ansari al-Sinjari, called Ibn al-Akfani, see Ibn
al-Akfanl 1990, translated in Wiedemann 1970,110-13.
See also Taskoprizade 1895, 406-11.
26. For the applied branches of geometry mentioned
by these authors, see al-Hassan and Hill 1986, 263-64.
27. For the science of construction, see Taskoprizade
TO PART 4 177
1895, 406. Ibn al-Akfani's definition of this science is
translated into German in Wiedemann 1970,114-15.
For al-Karaji's treatise titled Inbat al-miyah al-khafiya
(Book on finding hidden waters), see al-Karaji 1973;
and Vernet and Catala 1970!
28. This lost work entitled Kitdb al-ahya wa al-athar
(Book of the living and monuments[?]) is cited in
Wilber 1976, 31; and Bulatov 1988, 93.
29. For medieval Vitruvius manuscripts, see Krinsky
1967; and Conant 1968. The early fifteenth-century
Vitruvius manuscript in Budapest, which once belonged
to the duke of Milan, Francesco Sforza (1401-1466),
and later to King Matthias Corvinus, De Architectura
(MS Lat. 32, Bibliothecae Universitatis Budapestiensis,
Budapest), is discussed in Hajnoczi 1991. This copy came
back from Istanbul in 1877 when Sultan Abdulhamid 11
sent it with other manuscripts once belonging to the
Biblioteca Corviniana as a diplomatic gift to Hungary.
30. Cited in Wiedemann 1970, 418; see also Sezgin
1974,328.
31. Cited in Wiedemann 1970,114-15; and Sezgin 1974,
373-
32. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 3:132.
33. Thabit b. Qurra's Arabic treatise, Kitdb fi misahat
al-mujassamat al-mukafiya (Book on the mensuration of
parabolic bodies), is contained in MS Arabe 2457, sec. 24,
fols. 95-122, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, and lists
three types of parabolic domes. The treatises in this Paris
manuscript were copied in 969 by al-Sijzi; see Sezgin
1974, 264-72. Al-Sijzi's own treatise on measuring
domes is in MS Resit Efendi 1191, sec. 4, fols. 66-68,
Suleymaniye Kutiiphanesi, Istanbul; see Sezgin 1974, 331.
For treatises on the mensuration of parabolas and
paraboloids, see Suter 1986, 2: 369-491.
34. For various geometers who wrote on conic sec-
tions, see Souissi 1982, 412-13; and Hogendijk 1985,
59-62, 96-115. Muhammad b. Musa b. Shakir, one of
the Banu Musa brothers attached to the ninth-century
Abbasid court, was the first to write an introduction to
the conical forms that simplified Apollonius's treatise
for practical use. This was followed by a stream of trea-
tises on conies between the ninth and eleventh centuries
by such mathematicians as Thabit b. Qurra, al-Mahani,
Ibrahim b. Sinan, al-Sijzi, and Ibn al-Haytham; see
Souissi 1982; and Rashed 1993.
35. For the device known as the conic compass, which
facilitated drawing the conic sections, see Hogendijk
1985, 35-36; Woepcke 1874; Wiedemann 1984; and
Yushkevich 1964, 288.
36. al-Jazari 1974,196-98. Al-Jazari wrote: "I made an
instrument for that to facilitate the determination of
the required centre-point, and the determination of all
the angles in [general] use, acute and obtuse. This is [the
method]." He then continued with a description of this
178 NOTES TO PART 4
drafting instrument, but it is unlikely that he invented
it, given the derivative nature of his treatise that freely
draws on earlier works on the same subject, such as the
book of ingenious devices by one of the Banu Musa
brothers; see Ibn Musab. Shakir Muhammad 1979.
Al-Jazari seems to have been a technologist rather than
a professional mathematician; inventing such an instru-
ment would have required extensive mathematical train-
ing. Not enough is known about the history of Islamic
drafting instruments to be able to determine when
the one described by al-Jazari was invented. For instru-
ments, see part 4, n. 35, above.
37. This instrument is reconstructed in Bulatov 1988,
328; see MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fol. 191, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris. It is unclear which treatise by Ibn
al-Haytham the anonymous author was referring to;
this may have been a lost work of the mathematician
who extensively dealt with conic sections throughout his
career. The anonymous author says that according to
the inventor of the instrument one could draw complex
conic sections with its aid, but he admitted his unfamil-
iarity with this technique. It is also possible that the
anonymous author was referring to the concluding
chapters of Ibn al-Haytham's Uqud treatise, which dealt
c
with conic sections, rather than to a separate treatise
on the construction of that particular right triangle. For
Ibn al-Haytham's works on conies, see Souissi 1982, 413.
38. See, for example, the "how-to" instructions in
MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fol. 194, Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris.
39. al-Jazari 1974, 191-95.
40. Ibid., 195.
41. Ibid., 192.
42. For the Damascene geometer, see Wiedemann
1970,114 n. 1. The role of practical geometry is discussed
in Ibn Khaldun 1967, 2: 363.
43. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 2: 360-61.
44. See Plessner i960, 994: "Apollonius of Perge
appears in the biographical sources . . . almost invari-
ably with the epithet al-Nadjdjar (the carpenter), the
origin of which has not yet been explained satisfacto-
rily. . . . Also Euclid was called the geometer, and . . .
Ibn al-Qifti calls him al-Nadjdjar in the heading of his
article, but states afterwards that Euclid was a carpenter
by vocation." In medieval Europe, Euclid was invoked
as the father of masonry; see Bucher 1972, 532.
45. Cafer Efendi 1987, 27, 30. For the garden work-
c
shops of the Topkapi Palace, see Necipoglu 1991, 46-50,
207-8. The close relationship and rivalry between
music and architecture at the Ottoman court is dis-
cussed in Necipoglu 1990a.
46. Cafer Efendi 1987, 28.
c
47. Ibid., 32.
48. Ibid., 28.
49. Ibid., 22-23.
50. Ibid., 30-31-
51. Ibid., 67-68.
52. Ibid., 34.
53. Konyah 1948, 72.
54. Sai 1989, 52-56, 141-42, fols. 2b-3a; translation
c
mine.
55. Evliya Qelebi 1896-1897, 157-59; Lokman,
Surname, MS H. 1344, fol. 189b, Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi
Kutiiphanesi, Istanbul. The description of the model
paraded in 1675 from the late seventeenth-century
Surname of Abdi is cited in And 1982, 86. For the use
of architectural models in Ottoman architectural prac-
tice and the reproduction of a miniature showing the
model of the Stileymaniye mosque paraded in 1582, see
Necipoglu 1986.
56. Lokman, Surname, MS H. 1344, fols. i7ib-i72a,
Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi Kutiiphanesi, Istanbul. The
quotation of Filippo Pigafetta (1533-1604), himself a
mechanic, is cited in Wilkinson 1988, 474. For Sinan's
jurisdiction over building- and decoration-related
crafts, see Necipoglu 1992a, 211.
57. Qaisar 1988,14.
58. Translated in Begley and Desai 1989, 267, 270.
59. For these Mughal mathematical treatises and fur-
ther bibliography, see ibid., xli-xlviii, 266-75.
60. See ibid., 275.
61. Translated in Thackston 1989,159.
62. For the Haft Paykar, included in the Khamsa (Five
epic poems), see NizamI GanjawT 1991-1992, 141-42.
In this work Nizami described Sinimmar, the legendary
builder of the Khawarnaq castle, as skilled in drawing,
preparing talismans, and making astrolabes; see idem,
59. For the reference to Farhad in Khusraw wa ShTrin, see
idem, 216-17. The architect Badr al-Din Tabrizi is men-
tioned in Aflaki 1986-1987, 2: 159, 287-88. For the image
of the medieval Islamic architect in literary sources, see
also Bulatov 1988.
63. Vitruvius Pollio 1914, 5-6, 11-12.
64. Ibid., 6.
65. For Baha' al-Din Amili, see S. H. Nasr, "Spiritual
c
Movements, Philosophy and Theology in the Safavid
Period," in Jackson and Lockhardt 1986, 666-69; and
al- Amili [18—?]. Professional mathematician-engineers
c
seem to have been more frequently involved in con-
struction projects during the early Islamic era, especially
during the foundation of such new caliphal capitals as
Baghdad and Samarra.
66. For a summary of the views of Soviet scholars on
the mathematical knowledge commanded by architects,
see Bulatov 1988.
67. al-Khwarezmi 1831, 3, 71. The contents of
al-Khwarezmi's treatise are discussed in Bulatov 1988,
83-88; and Dold-Samplonius 1993, 2-3.
68. For Abu Kamil's treatise known from a Hebrew
translation, see Sacerdote 1896; Suter 1986, 1: 247-75;
Sezgin 1974, 277-81; and Dold-Samplonius 1993. For the
arithmetic treatise of al-Buzjani, see al-Buzjani 1971; and
Saidan 1974.
69. Bosworth 1963, 98-99.
70. Cited in Mez 1937,104-5. For the culture of the
Buyid court, see Kraemer 1986; and Mottahedeh 1980.
71. For the Timurid organization, see O'Kane 1987, 40:
"The work of supervision on a large-scale project could
be divided up on successive hierarchical levels, with
amirs and high government officials specifically receiv-
ing superintendencies (sarkarhd)" He added that in
some cases architects (mi mar) acted in a purely admin-
c
istrative capacity. The Ottomans are discussed in Mayer
1956, 19. For the administrative organization of the con-
struction industry in Mughal India, see Qaisar 1988,
5-15.
72. For the works on applied arithmetic by al-Karaji
and Ibn al-Haytham, see Busard 1968, 69; Dold-
Samplonius 1993, 6-7; and al-Karaji 1878-1880. For
the science of misaha, see al-Farabi 1949a. Ibn Khaldun
grouped mensuration among the geometric sciences
concerned with "quantities [measurements]" rather
than among the arithmetic sciences "concerned with
numbers" just like Cafer Efendi, the author of the
c
Risale-i M'fmariyye; see Ibn Khaldun 1967, 3: 118-35; and
Cafer Efendi 1987, 30-31, 83. For the practical uses of
c
misaha and an introduction to the major texts in this
field, see Schirmer 1993.
73. Schirmer 1993. For al-Kindi's geometric works,
see Ibn al-Nadim 1970, 2: 619; and Sezgin 1974, 258.
Barbaro's commentary on Book 3 of Vitruvius, which
deals with proportions, summarizes the propositions
of "Alchindo" on the rules of proportion; see Barbaro
1567,103-7.
74. For Abu Bakr's Latin translation, see Sezgin 1974,
389-91; Schirmer 1993, 137; Suter 1900, no. 224; and
Busard 1968.
75. I am grateful to Dr. Yvonne Dold-Samplonius for
sending me copies of her forthcoming and published
articles on al-Kashi's mensuration of the muqarnas and
dome. For the quoted passage, see Dold-Samplonius
1992a, 193. For al-Kashi's chapters on mensuration, see
also idem 1992b; idem 1993; and idem forthcoming.
Another recent analysis of al-Kashi's chapter on the
muqarnas is in Ozdural 1990.
76. Ghiyath al-Din al-Kashi's role (together with
Mawlana Mu in al-Din al-Kashi) as building supervisor
c
(dar tartib~i an bind') is mentioned in Khwandamir
1954, 4: 21. Al-Kashi's letter (MS 2916, Kitabkhana-i

Masjid-i Sipahsalar, Tehran) is cited in Sayih i960, 282.
77. See Dold-Samplonius 1992a, 193-94.
78. Chardin 1711, 2: 80. For the full quotation, see part
1, p. 44, of the present volume.
79. Komaroff 1991, 610-11. Referring to al-Kashi's
treatise on arithmetic, Rogers rightly asked: "How
far was this prescriptive and how far a commonplace
example to explain a series of mathematical functions?
Kashi was certainly not an architect, nor can mastery of
such mathematical functions have been an essential part
of the architect's training." He concluded, "Whatever
the future may show the required demonstration that
Timurid architects were mathematicians or that metrol-
ogy has an important contribution to make to the
history of Timurid architecture is not yet to hand";
Rogers 1989,134-35. For the mathematical explanation
of the mason's method, see Dold-Samplonius forthcom-
ing; idem 1992a, 220-26; and Ozdural 1990.
80. Vitruvius Pollio 1914, 5-6,11-12.
81. MS Bab-i Defter! Ba§ Muhasebe, Bina Emini (D.
B§M. BNE.), no. 15999, Basbakanhk Arsivi, Istanbul. I
plan to analyze this document in a forthcoming study.
82. See Lopez de Arenas 1912; and idem 1966.
83. For the lower status of mechanics in Renaissance
Europe, see Wilkinson 1988, 472-74. The practical
geometry of medieval master builders and artisans
may have been a humble science, but it was, as Kostof
pointed out, "the vernacular of the same language that
was used by the intelligentsia." In the end "what distin-
guished the [medieval] architect from the master mason
would be exactly his mastery of the theoretical implica-
tions of geometry, which is why the architect could find
no loftier portrait for himself than to be represented
as a geometrician with compass and measuring rod in
hand"; see Kostof 1986, 79-80.
84. Bucher 1972, 528, 532; Harvey 1971, 36, 41.
85. Active in Barcelona, Abraham bar Hiyya was
involved in translating the masterpieces of Arab science
into Latin. For Abraham bar Hiyya and Fibonacci, see
Busard 1968, 67, 85; and Lindberg 1978b.
86. Sacerdote 1896,174-76; Suter 1986, 1: 247-75;
Woepcke 1855, 221. See also Schirmer 1993; and Sezgin
1974, 280, 390.
87. Ibn Abdiin 1981, 172-73. For the
c
translation
movement, see Lindberg 1978b.
88. Cited in Summers 1987, 254; and Victor 1979, 7-11.
89. Translated in Victor 1979, 7-11. Gundissalinus
used the expression "secundum geometriam practicans"
to define the artist and artisan; see Simson 1974, 33 n. 33.
See also Wilkinson 1988, 470-72.
90. For the medieval status of the mechanical arts, see
Sternagel 1966, 27-33; Wilkinson 1988, 470-72; Ovitt
1983; and Summers 1987, 262-65.
NOTES
91. Cited in Wittkower 1988,151. For Grosseteste, see
Crombie 1953. For the quotation from Villard, see
Bucher 1979,121. Medieval European practical geome-
tries are discussed in Victor 1979.
92. Cited in Bucher 1979,14.
93. See Kepler 1939; and Field 1979. Kepler defined
congruence as follows: "Congruence takes one form in
the plane and another in space. In the plane there is
congruence when individual angles of several figures
come together at a point in such a way that they leave no
gap"; translated from the second book of Harmonices
Mundi in Field 1979, 113. The titles of Kepler's five books
give an idea of his grand scheme: Book 1, The Regular
Figures Which Give Rise to Harmonic Proportions; Book
2, Congruence of Harmonic Figures; Book 3, The Origin of
Harmonic Proportions in Nature and Differences between
Things Appertaining to Music; Book 4, The Harmonic
Configurations of the Rays of Stars and the Earth, and
Their Effect in Determining the Weather and Other
Natural Phenomena; and Book 5, The Most Perfect
Harmony in the Celestial Motions and the Origin from
Them of Eccentricities, Semidiameters, and Periodic
Times. For the cosmic symbolism of the Platonic solids
in the Renaissance, see Pacioli 1509.
94. For the practical geometries of these authors, see
Bucher 1979, 34. Roriczer's short fifteenth-century pam-
phlet on constructive geometry, Geometria Deutsch, is
translated into English in Shelby 1977, 113-23.
95. See Diirer 1970; and Schroder 1980, 9-12.
96. Dan Pedoe commented on Diirer's construction
of the pentagon: "The medieval constructions of regular
polygons were, of course, approximate, but they were,
and had to be, simple, preferably not even calling for a
change in the opening of the compasses, which had no
device to recapture an opening, once it was changed. . . .
Diirer knew Euclid, but he does not give Euclid's con-
struction for a regular pentagon, which is a theoretically
exact one. . . . Euclid makes no attempt to trisect a given
arc, and Diirer knew that this was impossible. . . . Diirer
does give approximate constructions for the trisection of
an arc"; Pedoe 1976, 69. There are similar pentagon con-
structions in the A mal wa ashkal (see Bulatov 1988, 322,
c
fig. 22) and in Geometria Deutsch (see Shelby 1977,
113-23).
97. Kemp 1978; idem 1990; Kuhn 1990.
98. The impact of Ibn al-Haytham's optical treatise in
Europe is discussed in Ibn al-Haytham 1989, 2: xi, 97;
Lindberg 1967; and Summers 1987, 74.
99. For the development of perspective in Renaissance
Europe, see Panofsky 1924-1925; Kubovy 1986; Damisch
1987; and Jay 1988, 3-23.
100. Summers 1987, 316.
101. Ibid., 73.
TO PART 4 179
102. For a description of the contents of the manu-
script, see Blochet 1905-1934, 2: no. 772, 41-47; and
Richard 1989,183-87.
103. For Seljuq and Mongol science, see Kennedy 1968;
sciences in the Timurid period are discussed in idem
1986. For Safavid sciences, see Winter 1986.
104. For the commentary written in Mosul, see
Chorbachi 1989, 752-54. It was Bulatov who first linked
the Persian translation in Paris with Ibn Iraq and the
c
eleventh-century Khwarezmian court; see Bulatov 1988.
Kubanani Yazdi's postscript invokes the names of his
master Shams al-Din Abu Bakr Shah b. Najm al-Din
Mahmud Shah b. Hajji Taj al-Din Kudak and of his
deceased brother Shaykh Najm al-Din Mahmud. The
latter had written a commentary on the Almagest and a
gloss on the Greek mathematician Menelaus's Spherics
in addition to other works. It was he who had begun
copying al-Buzjani's text but died before completing
this enterprise; see Sezgin 1974, 321-25; and Richard
1989,186-87. For the court of Khwarezm, see Bosworth
1978. Ibn Iraq's works are listed in Sezgin 1974, 338-41.
c
The medieval Persian text in Paris has been adapted to
modern Persian in al-Buzjani 1990-1991.
105. For the Arabic text in Istanbul, see Krasnova
1966, 42-55. For surviving al-Buzjani manuscripts, see
part 4, n. 13, above.
106. MS Persan 169, sec. 7, fols. 49V-63, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris. For a description, see Blochet 1905-
1934, 2: no. 772, 42; and Richard 1989,184.
107. MS Persan 169, sec. 10, fols. 70V-89, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris.
108. MS Persan 169, sec. 16, fols. 108-118, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris; idem, sec. 19, fols. 124V-138.
109. Fuat Sezgin suggested that the Abhabuchr (Abu
Bakr) mentioned in the Latin text may have been the
little-known author of the Risala ft misahat al-ashkal
(Treatise on the mensuration of figures), an Abu Bakr
al-Qadi who lived in the first half of the eleventh
century. However, Abhabuchr's identity has not been
confirmed. Neither Gerard of Cremona's abridged Latin
text nor the Risala includes the last section on applied
mechanics appended to the longer Persian treatise
in Paris (A mal) whose author may have been the
c
same Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr al-Qadi's four-part treatise
(MS 3439, sec. 17, fols. 127V-134, Fatih Kutuphanesi,
Istanbul) is cited in Sezgin 1974, 386; for the four-part
Latin text, see idem, 389-91.
110. Abu Bakr is cited in MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fols.
i87r, i89r, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
111. MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fol. i89r, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris (fig. 32 in Bulatov 1988, 327); MS Persan
169, sec. 24, fol. i87r, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris
(fig. 26 in Bulatov 1988, 324). The tabulated table is on
i8o NOTES TO PART 4
fol. i84r; see Bulatov 1988, 322.
112. For one such solution proposed by the author, see
MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fol. i9or, Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris.
113. Bulatov 1988, 315-40; Golombek and Wilber 1988,
1:159. See also Holod 1986; and idem 1988. One of the
patterns that may have been added to the treatise in the
Timurid period is the last one, which has no accompa-
nying text (see fig. 113a in the present volume). But even
this last pattern is not inconsistent with an early medie-
val repertory; for comparable examples of swastika com-
positions in Anatolian Seljuq monuments, see Mulayim
1982,185,192, 232.
114. Blochet 1905-1934, 2: no. 772, 41-47.
115. They wrote, "Since this architectural decoration
dates from the period 1180-1230 A . D . , we may conclude
that knowledge about the Pentagonal Seal had by that
time filtered down to artisans, so that the material pre-
sented in folio 180a may be dated to before 1200 A.D.,
circa 1180-1230 A . D . " ; see Chorbachi and Loeb 1992,
301-4. This is, however, a hypothetical date, given that
the pre-thirteenth-century examples of geometric orna-
ment from monuments in the Baghdad region have
completely disappeared. It is therefore not possible to
firmly establish when the patterns seen in the anony-
mous treatise first came into use in architectural decora-
tion. Chorbachi seems inclined to date the anonymous
treatise to Iraq around the late twelfth or early thir-
teenth century, given the revived interest in those years
in al-Buzjani's practical geometry on which Kamal
al-Din Musa b. Yunus b. Mana, known as Ibn Mana,
c c
wrote a commentary in Mosul; see Chorbachi 1989,
752-54. Alpay Ozdural proposed an early thirteenth-
century date, given the similarity between the drafting
instruments (see figs. 107,108) depicted in the anony-
mous treatise and in al-Jazari's early thirteenth-century
manual on ingenious devices written in Diyarbakir; see
Ozdural 1995, 70 n. 46.
116. MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fols. 185V, 187V, i9or,
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
117. MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fol. 187V, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris.
118. MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fol. i9or, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris.
119. MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fols. 183V-184,
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
120. It was the Persian mathematician and poet Umar
c
Khayyam (d. circa A.D. 1130) who perfected such cubic
equations, which have been regarded as the highest
achievements of Muslim mathematicians, in his famous
algebra, al-Jabr; see Sarton 1927-1948,1: 759-61. For a
mathematical text of Umar Khayyam addressing the
c
practical concerns of artisans, see Ozdural 1995.
121. For the Indian sources, see Yushkevich 1964, 99.
See also Chorbachi 1989, 764-71, where the algebraic
analysis of this geometric construction and its use in
Islamic architectural decoration are discussed. The
names given by contemporary Iranian craftsmen are
cited in Orazi 1976, figs. 79-81; and Firishtah Nazhad
i977> 9.
122. Jones 1982, 69.
123. For the triangulation methods and harmonic
divisions of polygons shown in the anonymous treatise
and the special importance assigned to the pentagon
(which is not as prominent in the Topkapi scroll), see
Bulatov 1988, 90, 315-24, 339. The irregular patterns in
this treatise may reflect a misunderstanding on the part
of the copyist, who made several errors. One of these
errors was noted by Chorbachi: "Clearly this was a copy-
ist's error, which in turn tells us something else about
this unique manuscript: that it is copied and thus there
must have been another manuscript like it. My main
hope here is that the original manuscript has survived
somewhere and will be recognized or discovered one
day. Using another manuscript, one can resolve some of
these textual problems"; see Chorbachi 1989, 777. It is
unclear whether the original manuscript was written in
Arabic or Persian.
124. By adding a representational dimension to the
geometric problem of proportionally dividing a plane,
Escher's zoomorphic tilings animated the nonrepresen-
tational star-and-polygon compositions of "Moorish"
patterns, whose purely abstract qualities had fascinated
so many nineteenth-century European theorists of orna-
ment. Escher regretted that Islamic geometric patterns
based on this principle were limited to abstract shapes:
"Altogether it is doubly unfortunate that the only
people obviously intrigued by this possibility—the
Moors—were not allowed to proceed beyond abstrac-
tions"; see Coxeter et al. 1986,16.
125. It is not surprising that Escher, too, did not limit
himself to plane tilings but also experimented with
the regular division of space into closely packed congru-
ent three-dimensional cells, or space tilings. See, for
example, his drawing entitled Cubic Space Division in
Coxeter et al. 1986, 6, fig. 4.
126. Al-Kashi's discussion of the muqarnas is inter-
preted in Golombek and Wilber 1988,1: 164-65. For
recent studies and an English translation, see Ozdural
1990; Dold-Samplonius 1992a; and idem forthcoming.
See also "The Muqarnas" by Mohammad al-Asad in the
present volume.
127. The origin of the muqarnas has puzzled scholars
from the nineteenth century onward. Diez wrote in 1938,
"The muqarnas was not invented by a people but grew
out of the soil of a common Weltanschauung"; see Diez
1987,153-54. According to Grabar, "So far as is known,
the origins of the muqarnas probably lie in almost
simultaneous but apparently unconnected developments
in north-eastern Iran and central North Africa"; see
Grabar 1978,176.
128. Ibn Jubayr 1907, 253. This passage is translated
and discussed in Tabbaa 1986, 230-35: "The qarbasa
craft has exhausted its resources in this minbar, for
I have not seen in another country a minbar which
resembles its shape and the uniqueness of its manufac-
ture. ... It rises like an enormous crown above the
mihrab until it reaches the ceiling. Its top part is arched
and open with balconies. It is all inlaid with ivory and
ebony, and this inlay work continues to the mihrab and
beyond the qibla wall without any apparent division,
so that the eyes enjoy one of the most beautiful sights in
the world." For the term muqarbas or muqarbas, used
as a synonym for muqarnas in the western Islamic world,
see Fernandez-Puertas 1993. The confusion between
muqarnas and muqarbas is noted in the glossary of Ibn
Jubayr 1907, 44. For the etymology of muqarnas, see
"The Muqarnas" by al-Asad in the present volume; and
Dold-Samplonius 1992a, 197-200.
129. MS Persan 169, sec. 24, fol. i8ov, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris (fig. 2 in Bulatov 1988, 316). Among
mathematical treatises on the subject of proportion
written around the same time were al-Buzjani's Risala
fi al-nisab wa al-ta rifat (Epistle on ratio and propor-
c
tion) and the Baghdadi mathematician Abu Abd Allah
c
Muhammad b. Isa b. Ahmad al-Mahani's (circa 825-
c
888) Risala ft al-nisba (Epistle on proportions) and
Risala ft mushkil min amr al-nisba (Epistle on complex
proportions); for these works and other works on pro-
portion by Ibn al-Haytham and Umar Khayyam, see
c
Sezgin 1974,100, 260-62, 324. See also epistle 6 on ratio
and proportion, in Ikhwan al-Safa' 1928,1: 181-94, dis-
cussed in part 5.
130. See Ibn Khaldun 1967, 3: 360-61, 365: "Another
technique of construction is decoration and ornamenta-
tion. Thus, figures formed of gypsum are placed upon
the walls. [The gypsum] is mixed with water, and then
solidified again, with some humidity remaining in it.
Symmetrical figures are chiseled out of it with iron
drills, until it looks brilliant and pleasant. The walls are
occasionally also covered with pieces of marble, brick,
clay, shells [mother-of-pearl], or jet. [The material] may
be divided either into identically shaped or differently
shaped pieces. The pieces are arranged in whatever sym-
metrical figures and arrangements are being utilized by
the [various artisans], and set into the quicklime [with
which the walls have been covered]. Thus, the walls
come to look like colorful flower beds." See also Lopez
de Arenas 1912 (1633), fol. 23r.
 NOTES TO PART 4 l8l

131. Dost Muhammad's description of the Safavid

artist Master Kamal al-Din Husayn's geometric patterns
is translated in Thackston 1989, 349. See also al-Jazari
1974,191.
132. See, for example, Evliya's description of the
marble gate of the Yesil Cami in Bursa with multilayered
(kat ender kat) interlaces of girih, islimT, and rumi pat-
terns designed in a wonderful manner (tarz-i acib ve
c

tavr-i garib) in Evliya Qelebi, Seyahatname (Book of

travels), vol. 2, MS B. 304, fol. 224V, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi Kutiiphanesi, Istanbul. He described the minbar
of the Ala' al-Din mosque in Sinop as having three
c

superimposed layers (tie kat birbiri altinda) of interlaced

pattern, a wonderful ( ibretntimun) work whose design
c

manifested miraculous saintly powers (evliya ulldhin

izhar-i kerametidur) and astonished the viewer (engtist
berdehan). Its designer had so skillfully fitted together
small pieces of marble that even the scrutinizing gaze
(im an-i nazar) of experts could not decipher the joints
c

that appeared continuous; see idem, fol. 246r. Evliya

described the minbar and mihrab of the Sultan Hasan
mosque in Tabriz, with its intricate interlacing of
mukarnas, islimi, rumi, and geometric patterns, as a
work whose creator's talent approached the level of licit
magic (sihr-i mubin mertebesi); see idem, fol. 299r.
Similarly, the Kizil Medrese in Sivas had a marble gate
with seventy to eighty layered interlaces characterized as
a wonderful work ( ibretnumun) approaching the level of
c

licit magic (sihr-i mubin); see idem, fol. 75r.

133. Cafer Efendi 1987, 34.
c

134. See Rahman 1965.

135. Bryson 1983, 87-131.
136. For Viollet-le-Duc, see the preface in Bourgoin
1873a. Yve-Alain Bois has recently argued that the
French painter Henri-Emile-Benoit Matisse (1869-1954)
was aiming at a similar "blindness of vision" by his
rejection of monocular perspective. His paintings
encouraged "a distracted glance, a peripheral glance,
a glance dispossessed of its force of concentration."
Bois suggested that this is why Matisse was so seduced
by the labyrinthine optical effects of Islamic architec-
tural revetments and the decorative arts; see Bois 1993.
For a similar "madness of vision" in Baroque art, see
Jay 1988,16-20.
PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC THEORY

Euclid alone has looked on Beauty bare.

— E d n a St. V i n c e n t M i l l a y , The Harp-Weaver]

CHAPTER 10. THE AESTHETICS OF PROPORTION
Since architecture and the decorative arts were
classified as part o f applied mechanics, r o o t e d
i n a shared language o f practical geometry, their
principles were expounded i n m a t h e m a t i c a l trea-
tises that c o m p l e m e n t e d oral t r a d i t i o n s a n d
w o r k s h o p drawings. Despite their h i g h status
t h r o u g h o u t Islamic history, these fields d i d n o t
generate a separate b o d y o f n o n m a t h e m a t i c a l
theoretical w r i t i n g f r o m w h i c h one c o u l d deduce
their aesthetic principles. By contrast a consider-
able theoretical l i t e r a t u r e existed o n music, liter-
ary c r i t i c i s m , a n d t o a lesser extent o n calligraphy,
w h i c h together w i t h l i t e r a t u r e was classified as
part o f the t r i v i u m ( g r a m m a r , logic, r h e t o r i c ) . T h e
concept o f taste (dhawq), defined as the power
o f aesthetic p e r c e p t i o n , was a mysterious e m o -
t i o n a l q u a l i t y by w h i c h the heart a n d soul c o u l d
be m o v e d , a subjective q u a l i t y that nevertheless
r e q u i r e d objective standards. These standards
2
were most clearly denned i n literary c r i t i c i s m .
M u s i c (a science w i t h b o t h theoretical and p r a c t i -
cal branches subsumed under the q u a d r i v i u m ) h a d
a questionable status i n some p u r i t a n i c a l circles,
b u t i t , t o o , received theoretical elaboration i n the
AND LIGHT
w r i t i n g s o f such m a j o r philosophers as a l - K i n d i ,
al-Farabi, a n d I b n Sina a n d later t h i n k e r s w h o
explored its effects o n the s o u l . 3
I n b o t h medieval Europe and i n the M u s l i m
lands the realm o f " a r t " had b r o a d h o r i z o n s
encompassing what we t h i n k o f nowadays as
technology and artisanry. T h e medieval theory
o f art (ars) was, therefore, "first a n d foremost a
theory o f c r a f t s m a n s h i p . " 4
T h e arts i n the Islamic
w o r l d were generally subsumed under u m b r e l l a
terms such as fann and san at that referred t o all
c
fields o f expertise or skill i n the crafts a n d sciences
alike. Consequently, theoretical w r i t i n g s o n
poetics, music, a n d calligraphy are filled w i t h
references t o the visual arts a n d architecture,
reflecting the c o m m o n semantic field o f crafts.
Jerome W . C l i n t o n , i n his analysis o f the prosodist
Shams-i Qays's ( f l . 1204-1230) Persian m a n u a l
o f versification, said that " f r o m the p o i n t o f view
o f the l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , at least, poetic esthetics a n d
the esthetics o f art were co-extensive." H e drew
a t t e n t i o n t o the frequent use o f craft metaphors
i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m where poetic c o m p o s i t i o n is
often compared to weaving a patterned brocade,
designing a r h y t h m i c arabesque, o r s t r i n g i n g a
necklace according to the rules o f measured c o m -
p o s i t i o n (ta'lTf) a n d p r o p o r t i o n (tanasub). The
O t t o m a n theorist o f poetry M u s l i h a l - D i n Mustafa
S u r u r i (1491-1562), w h o used such craft meta-
phors, compared the o r n a m e n t a l arts o f poetry
(sanai-yi si nye)
c
to the wall paintings (naks), tile
w o r k (kdsikdr), and p o m p (alayis) o f a house,
referring t o the art o f h o m o p h o n y as tarsi c
(lit.,
"tarsia," or " t o inlay w i t h pearls a n d precious
stones"). 5
I n a d d i t i o n t o theoretical w r i t i n g s o n l i t e r a t u r e
and music, w h i c h p r o v i d e valuable glimpses o f
visual aesthetics, p h i l o s o p h i c a l texts also were
r i c h l y i m b u e d w i t h aesthetic n o t i o n s . As i n medie-
val Europe, w h i c h d i d n o t have an aesthetics i n d e -
pendent o f scholastic philosophy, i n the Islamic
w o r l d concepts o f beauty often were embedded i n
metaphysical discussions. T h e relevance o f such
p h i l o s o p h i c a l texts for architectural a n d artisanal
p r o d u c t i o n has n o t yet been explored systemati-
cally. Conceptual categories p r o v i d e d by Islamic
intellectual h i s t o r y have been ignored by art h i s t o -
rians w h o focus o n the h a r d data o f archaeology,
186 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC
epigraphy, h i s t o r i c a l sources, and standard r e l i -
gious texts. The positivistic f o r m a l studies t h a t
d o m i n a t e the field o f Islamic art and architecture
( w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y grew o u t o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
Orientalist archaeology and museology) treat
b u i l d i n g s and objects as items t o be cataloged i n
terms o f geographic regions, style, typology, i n s c r i p -
tions, decorative techniques, and factual data o n
artists and patrons. The few i n t e r p r e t i v e studies
emphasize the p o l i t i c a l and ideological contexts o f
art and architecture, largely o v e r l o o k i n g m o r e e l u -
sive questions about aesthetic p h i l o s o p h y . 6
This explains w h y no sourcebook has been c o m -
p i l e d o n visually relevant aesthetic w r i t i n g s f r o m
the Islamic w o r l d , comparable t o such anthologies
as Julius v o n Schlosser's Die Kunstliteratur, 1924;
Edgar de Bruyne's Etudes d'esthetique medievale,
1946; and Paul FrankPs The Gothic: Literary Sources
and Interpretations through Eight Centuries, i960.
I n the next t w o chapters I w i l l discuss some defini-
tions o f ideal beauty together w i t h psychological
theories o f the processes o f artistic creation and
visual p e r c e p t i o n scattered i n various Islamic
texts. O f course, m a n y other relevant texts c o u l d
be cited for t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s about visual aes-
thetics i n general and geometric abstraction i n
p a r t i c u l a r . The ones I have chosen, regardless o f
whether they exercised a direct influence o n b u i l d -
ers and decorators, p r o v i d e fragmentary glimpses
i n t o widespread aesthetic sensibilities t h a t acted
as a general b a c k d r o p against w h i c h visual i d i o m s
were f o r m u l a t e d and r e f o r m u l a t e d i n specific his-
t o r i c a l contexts.
THEORY
M e d i e v a l aesthetics i n the L a t i n West, Byzan-
t i u m , and the Islamic w o r l d b u i l t u p o n a shared
heritage received f r o m classical a n t i q u i t y , a
heritage t h a t was infused w i t h the m o n o t h e i s t i c
transcendental o r i e n t a t i o n s o f I s l a m and C h r i s -
tianity. Just as medieval Islamic science was
r o o t e d i n the late school o f A l e x a n d r i a , the p h i l o -
sophical speculations o f M u s l i m t h i n k e r s w h o
a t t e m p t e d to reconcile Plato and A r i s t o t l e w i t h
Islam were i n s p i r e d by the classical t r a d i t i o n . The
p h i l o s o p h i c a l sciences became w i d e l y dissemi-
nated between the n i n t h and late t e n t h centuries,
t r i c k l i n g d o w n i n p o p u l a r i z e d f o r m to the u r b a n
c u l t u r e o f m a j o r Islamic cities, m u c h like the dif-
fusion o f the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences at t h a t t i m e .
After the c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f the S u n n i revival i n the
eleventh century, however, o r t h o d o x refutations
o f p h i l o s o p h y m u l t i p l i e d . Aesthetic theories t i n g e d
w i t h N e o p l a t o n i s m were n o w revised according
to d o m i n a n t o r t h o d o x sensibilities, d i s t i l l e d i n
p o p u l a r i z e d f o r m t h r o u g h Sufism, and assimilated
i n t o the m a i n s t r e a m o f medieval Islamic c u l t u r e .
The late t e n t h - c e n t u r y Rasa'il o f the B r e t h r e n o f
P u r i t y seems t o have played an i m p o r t a n t role i n
p o p u l a r i z i n g aesthetic concepts developed i n the
w r i t i n g s o f such philosophers as a l - K i n d i and al-
Farabi. The B r e t h r e n spread t h e i r central teaching
(the salvation o f souls f r o m the defilement o f
m a t t e r b y s p i r i t u a l p u r i f i c a t i o n so t h a t they m i g h t
r e t u r n to t h e i r t r u e h o m e by celestial ascent)
a m o n g the elite and masses alike, i n p a r t i c u l a r
addressing artisans and the generally educated
c o m m o n people. To this end they e x p o u n d e d t h e i r
ideas i n a m o r e p o p u l a r i d i o m t h a n t h a t o f the
philosophers. As we have seen, the Rasa'il, w h i c h
c o n s t i t u t e d an encyclopedia o f the p h i l o s o p h i c a l
sciences, was also p o p u l a r i n S u n n i circles despite
the heterodox S h i i leanings o f its authors asso-
c
ciated w i t h the B u y i d c o u r t i n Baghdad. 7
The fifty-two epistles, i n w h i c h mathematics
and astrology occupy a p r i m a r y p o s i t i o n , are
an eclectic b l e n d o f Pythagorean (Pythagoras is
referred t o as a m o n o t h e i s t i c sage f r o m H a r r a n )
and N e o p l a t o n i c p h y s i c o m a t h e m a t i c a l ideas
merged w i t h Babylonian astrology and H e r m e t i c
doctrines. The first o f the fourteen m a t h e m a t i c a l
epistles deals w i t h a r i t h m e t i c , " t h e science o f
n u m b e r " t h a t is " t h e r o o t o f the other sciences, the
f o u n t o f w i s d o m , the starting p o i n t o f knowledge,
and the o r i g i n o f all concepts." This is f o l l o w e d by
the epistle o n theoretical geometry (differentiated
f r o m the practical geometry o f the arts and crafts)
t h a t is s i m i l a r l y defined as a gateway t o superior
levels o f theoretical u n d e r s t a n d i n g . M a t h e m a t i c s
is thus presented as the t h r e s h o l d o f intellectual
insight along the pathway o f progressive ascent
t o w a r d the highest level o f knowledge, metaphys-
ics. The r e m a i n i n g m a t h e m a t i c a l epistles address
such subjects as astronomy, music, geography,
logic, " n u m e r i c a l , geometric, and h a r m o n i c
r a t i o s , " and the arts and crafts. A c c o r d i n g to the
B r e t h r e n mathematics plays a central role i n
the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the universe. M o r e o v e r , the
r e l a t i o n o f the i n d i v i s i b l e u n i q u e G o d to the m u l -
t i p l i c i t y o f the universe (created as an eternal
e m a n a t i o n o f l i g h t ) corresponds to the r e l a t i o n

o f the n u m b e r one to other n u m b e r s . 8
The Brethren's cosmology echoes the emana-
t i o n i s t w o r l d v i e w o f earlier A r a b philosophers
such as a l - K i n d i and al-Farabi. As M a j i d Fakhry
has s h o w n , t h a t w o r l d v i e w was i n s p i r e d largely by
the N e o p l a t o n i s t p h i l o s o p h e r Plotinus's ( 2 0 5 - 2 7 0 )
d o c t r i n e o f e m a n a t i o n expounded i n the Enneads.
A n abridged version o f t h a t w o r k (the apocry-
phal Theology of Aristotle i n w h i c h extracts f r o m
P l o t i n u s appear as the c u l m i n a t i o n o f Aristotle's
Metaphysics) had been translated i n t o A r a b i c for
a l - K i n d i as early as the m i d - n i n t h century. A t t r i b -
uted to A r i s t o t l e , Plotinus's d o c t r i n e o f the One
(the First Cause, or Pure L i g h t ) t h a t generates the
whole order o f the universe t h r o u g h an e m a n a t i o n
o f the l i g h t o f Reason (also discussed i n Proclus's
Elements of Theology) p r o v e d to be so appealing
that i t was conflated w i t h the Islamic n o t i o n o f an
u t t e r l y transcendent u n i q u e G o d . The P l o t i n i a n
t h e o r y o f the cosmos as a c o n t i n u u m w i t h a
c e n t e r — t h e O n e — t h a t is transcendent and
u n k n o w a b l e , b u t whose power emanates o u t w a r d
i n such a way t h a t i t progressively diminishes as
it approaches the outer extremes o f the universe,
w o u l d be divested o f its pagan c o n n o t a t i o n s and
adapted to the m o n o t h e i s t i c theologies o f the
M u s l i m and C h r i s t i a n worlds. I t i n s p i r e d the
M u t a z i l i and S h i i atomistic cosmology i n w h i c h
c c
the earthly realm o f accidents is d o m i n a t e d by a
hierarchy o f superior forces e m a n a t i n g f r o m trans-
parent celestial bodies, divested o f m a t t e r w i t h
their dazzling l u c i d i t y and l u m i n o u s p u r i t y . I n this
hierarchical scheme, the r a t i o n a l h u m a n soul
THE AESTHETICS OF PROPORTION
appeared as an i n c o r p o r e a l substance capable o f
m e d i a t i n g between the i n t e l l i g i b l e realm o f reason
and the sensible realm o f matter. Just as i t c o u l d
descend d o w n w a r d to the ignoble corporeal w o r l d
o f the senses, i t c o u l d also direct its l o n g i n g gaze
u p w a r d t o w a r d the resplendent beauty o f the i n t e l -
ligible w o r l d , infused w i t h b r i l l i a n t l i g h t . 9
The B r e t h r e n o f P u r i t y described the splendor
o f t h a t w o r l d by referring to the Pythagorean
n o t i o n o f the music o f the spheres:
I f one establishes the measure o f [ m u s i -
cal] t i m e by the regular, h a r m o n i o u s
and p r o p o r t i o n a t e succession o f m o t i o n s
and silences, the notes resulting w i l l be
comparable to the notes p r o d u c e d by the
movements o f the spheres and the heav-
enly bodies and w i l l be i n concordance
w i t h t h e m . Thus d o i n g , the i n d i v i d u a l
soul, t h a t inhabits the w o r l d o f generation
and c o r r u p t i o n , w i l l recall the beatitude
o f the w o r l d o f spheres and the felicity
o f souls w h o are there above . . . celestial
bodies are m o r e transparent t h a n glass,
m o r e polished t h a n a m i r r o r . They t o u c h ,
b r u s h against each other, r u b and resound
as i r o n and copper resound. T h e i r notes
are c o n c o r d a n t and h a r m o n i o u s ; t h e i r
melodies are w e l l - b a l a n c e d . 10
The notes o f terrestrial music i m i t a t e those o f the
celestial r e a l m , causing the h u m a n soul t o rejoice
i n t h e i r p r o p o r t i o n a l and h a r m o n i c relationships
AND LIGHT 18 7
to w h i c h its substance corresponds. I n other
words, aesthetic pleasure arises w h e n the soul
(subject to the same p r o p o r t i o n s t h a t govern the
cosmos) finds its o w n i n n e r h a r m o n y d u p l i c a t e d
i n its object, leading i t to remember w i t h l o n g -
i n g the music o f the spheres to w h i c h i t had once
been exposed. The epistle o n love and ideal beauty
argues that one loves o n l y beauty (al-husn), a nat-
u r a l e m o t i o n t h a t makes the ear and the eye l o n g
for h a r m o n i o u s sounds and c o m p o s i t i o n s . 11
This concept o f the soul's innate love o f beauty,
w h i c h as we shall see was repeated i n m a n y later
Islamic texts, once again can be traced back to
Plotinus's Enneads where the beautiful is defined
i n e m o t i o n a l terms as that w h i c h induces w o n d e r -
m e n t , l o n g i n g , delight, and love because o f its
k i n s h i p w i t h the soul. Such philosophers as I b n
Sina and I b n H a z m (994-1064) also discussed
beauty as an object o f love; the latter w r o t e : "As
for w h a t causes love i n most cases to choose a
beautiful f o r m to l i g h t u p o n , i t is evident t h a t the
soul itself being beautiful, i t is affected by all
beautiful things, and has a yearning for perfect
s y m m e t r i c a l images; whenever i t sees any such
images, i t fixes itself u p o n i t ; t h e n , i f i t discerns
b e h i n d t h a t image s o m e t h i n g o f its o w n k i n d , i t
becomes u n i t e d and t r u e love is established." 1 2
H e a r i n g and sight, the noblest o f the five senses,
were regarded by the B r e t h r e n as most capable
o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g to the soul a sense o f pure
aesthetic pleasure t h a t cannot be a r t i c u l a t e d
by words. The m o s t pleasing p r o p o r t i o n s , they
argued, echo the h a r m o n y o f the heavenly spheres,
188 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC
w h i c h p r o v i d e archetypes for the corporeal w o r l d
o f generation and c o r r u p t i o n . Just as the k i n s h i p
between the soul and musical h a r m o n y c o u l d
cause the f o r m e r to find pleasure i n measured
r h y t h m s , so d i d the soul marvel at h a r m o n i o u s l y
composed visual forms:
Since the substance o f the soul is o f the
same nature as t h a t o f h a r m o n i c n u m b e r s
and corresponds to t h e m , w h e n the beats
o f the r h y t h m s presented by the m u s i c i a n
are measured, w h e n i n these r h y t h m s
the periods o f beats and silences are p r o -
p o r t i o n a t e , h u m a n nature takes delight
i n t h e m , the s p i r i t rejoices and the soul
experiences happiness. A l l this is because
o f the resemblance, the r e l a t i o n and
k i n s h i p w h i c h exist between the soul and
musical h a r m o n y . I t is the same w h e n
the soul marvels at the beauty o f c o u n t e -
nances and the o r n a m e n t o f n a t u r a l
things; for the beauty o f the n a t u r a l beings
arises f r o m the h a r m o n y o f their c o n -
s t i t u t i o n s and the beauty w i t h w h i c h t h e i r
various parts are composed t o g e t h e r . 13
I n their epistle o n music the B r e t h r e n stated
that t h e i r goal was n o t to teach the practice o f
music b u t " t o make k n o w n the science o f p r o p o r -
tions and the m o d a l i t y o f h a r m o n y , the knowledge
o f w h i c h presides at the mastery i n all the arts."
They devoted a w h o l e epistle to the subject o f r a t i o
THEORY
and p r o p o r t i o n , arguing t h a t geometry provides
the shared basis o f every art and t h a t no art can
achieve the perfection o f w h i c h i t is capable w i t h -
o u t d r a w i n g u p o n the science o f ratios and p r o -
p o r t i o n s . As examples o f crafts guided by r a t i o and
p r o p o r t i o n the B r e t h r e n listed m e l o d i c sounds i n
music, prosody i n poetry, letters i n p r o p o r t i o n e d
script, and h a r m o n i o u s colors and p r o p o r t i o n a l l y
j o i n e d figures i n p a i n t i n g and mechanical devices.
They c o m p a r e d the principles o f prosody, " w h i c h
is the weighing-scale o f p o e t r y , " to the rules o f
music, " w h i c h can be c o m p a r e d to those o f pros-
ody," and l i k e n e d the p r o p o r t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e m
to those u n d e r l y i n g calligraphy and p a i n t i n g . 1 5
Just as " t h e most perfect o f p r o d u c t i o n s , the most
c o o r d i n a t e d o f constructions and the most beauti-
ful o f c o m p o s i t i o n s " i n music and p o e t r y are those
"governed by the best o f p r o p o r t i o n s , " a script is
considered beautiful by t h e m o n l y w h e n its varied
letters are p r o p o r t i o n a l l y executed i n terms o f size
and order. To produce pleasing images, painters
s i m i l a r l y are urged to observe the r i g h t p r o p o r -
tions o f colors, shapes, and sizes for f i g u r e s . 16
The B r e t h r e n considered visual objects beauti-
ful o n l y insofar as they capture the balanced p r o -
p o r t i o n s and symmetries o f the universe, w h i c h
skilled artists take as t h e i r u l t i m a t e m o d e l . They
w r o t e , " I n effect, the beautiful i n this w o r l d is a
trace o f the universal celestial s o u l . " 1 7
This recalls
Plotinus's a r g u m e n t t h a t the beauty o f the m a t e r i a l
1 4
w o r k o f art originates f r o m archetypal forms i n the
artist's m i n d or soul t h a t i m i t a t e s p i r i t u a l beauty.
The Brethren's d e s c r i p t i o n o f beautiful w r i t i n g
repeats the n o t i o n t h a t visual beauty is a h a r m o n i -
ous o r d e r i n g o f p r o p o r t i o n a l l y related parts:
We say t h a t all the scripts . . . are f o u n d e d
o n two basic principles; w h i c h are, the
straight l i n e w h i c h is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the
diameter o f the circle, and the curved line
w h i c h is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the c i r c u m f e r -
ence; all the letters are f o r m e d and c o m -
posed as we have explained i n the Epistle
o n geometry. . . . the best, the most cor-
rect and the most beautiful o f scripts
is t h a t where the characters are o f the
dimensions governed by the most noble
p r o p o r t i o n . . . . W h a t we have said o n
the subject o f the p r o p o r t i o n s o f the let-
ters and t h e i r reciprocal relationships o f
length and b r e a d t h , is s o m e t h i n g imposed
by the most e m i n e n t laws o f geometry
and the rules o f p r o p o r t i o n . 1 8
We have seen t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n e d script
(al-khatt al-mansub), based o n the m o d u l e o f the
circle, was perfected i n B u y i d Baghdad by I b n
al-Bawwab, w h o f u r t h e r refined the cursive scripts
systematized by I b n M u q l a . The Brethren's lengthy
discussion o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y i n w r i t i n g , composed
after the c o d i f i c a t i o n o f the p r o p o r t i o n e d script,
was an i m p o r t a n t source for later w r i t e r s o n the
subject, i n c l u d i n g al-Rawandi i n the t h i r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y (see fig. 92), al-Qalqashandi i n the fif-

teenth century, and Taskoprizade i n the sixteenth
century, all o f w h o m explained the same geometric
system o f p r o p o r t i o n i n g derived f r o m the curved
circumference and straight radius o f the c i r c l e .
T h a t the Brethren's theory o f beauty was f a m i l -
iar a m o n g B u y i d chancellery secretaries and callig-
raphers is suggested i n a treatise o n p e n m a n s h i p
composed by A b u Hayyan a l - T a w h i d i ( d . after
1009-1010), w h o k n e w at least three o f the p r i n -
cipal members o f this f r a t e r n i t y - l i k e g r o u p per-
sonally. The treatise quotes E u c l i d as the source
o f the saying " H a n d w r i t i n g is s p i r i t u a l geometry
w h i c h appears by means o f a b o d i l y i n s t r u m e n t , "
a saying (often repeated i n later sources o n Islamic
calligraphy) t h a t testifies to the d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f
N e o p l a t o n i c concepts a m o n g the c o u r t secretaries
and scribes. D i s t i n g u i s h e d as a m a n o f letters,
p h i l o s o p h e r , and a professional scribe, a l - T a w h i d i
(a protege o f al-Buzjani) w r o t e his treatise i n the
same Baghdadi m i l i e u i n w h i c h congruent geomet-
ric patterns w i t h i n t e r l o c k i n g stars and polygons,
based o n the m o d u l a r use o f the circle, appear to
have been f o r m u l a t e d under the guidance o f p r o -
fessional mathematicians. The circle was used as
a p r o p o r t i o n i n g device i n b o t h the p r o p o r t i o n e d
script and i n geometric p a t t e r n i n g i n a c u l t u r a l
context deeply i m b u e d w i t h a m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n -
ception o f beauty as a h a r m o n y between parts
and the w h o l e (see fig. 9 3 ) . 20
The congruence o f
p r o p o r t i o n and s y m m e t r y e m b o d i e d a q u a n t i t a t i v e
n o t i o n o f beauty based o n the f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n -
ciple o f u n i t y i n variety. T h a t the aesthetics o f
THE AESTHETICS OF PROPORTION
p r o p o r t i o n , r o o t e d i n the musical theories o f late
a n t i q u i t y , was also an aspect o f c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t -
erary c r i t i c i s m is revealed i n the p h i l o l o g i s t and
19
l i t e r a r y theorist al-Jurjani's ( d . 1078) d e s c r i p t i o n o f
beauty as a h a r m o n i o u s s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p :
This [beauty] is manifest i n all crafts and
artistic activities w h i c h are associated w i t h
subtlety, fineness, and s k i l l . I n the images
p r o d u c e d i n such crafts i t is always the case
that the m o r e w i d e l y different the shape
and appearance o f t h e i r parts are and t h e n
the m o r e perfect the h a r m o n y achieved
between these parts is, the m o r e fascina-
t i o n the images w i l l possess and the m o r e
deserving o f praise for t h e i r skill t h e i r
creators w i l l b e . 21
As Sabra n o t e d i n his i n t r o d u c t i o n to I b n al-
H a y t h a m ' s o p t i c a l treatise, the Kitab al-manazir,
the idea t h a t p r o p o r t i o n (tanasub) is the feature
most responsible for beauty (frequently e n c o u n -
tered i n t e n t h - and eleventh-century Islamic texts)
no d o u b t had a classical o r i g i n " t h o u g h the full
h i s t o r y o f its transmission and d e v e l o p m e n t . . .
has yet to be w r i t t e n . " 2 2
Besides p r o p o r t i o n the
aesthetics o f l i g h t also played an i m p o r t a n t role
i n medieval Islamic descriptions o f beauty, a m o n g
w h i c h the one p r o v i d e d i n I b n al-Haytham's optics
is the most comprehensive. This remarkable psy-
chological d e s c r i p t i o n o f visual p e r c e p t i o n as a
subject-object r e l a t i o n s h i p is by far the longest
AND LIGHT 189
discussion o f beauty i n Arabic according to Sabra. 23
I t can be regarded as a t h e o r y o f aesthetics relevant
for u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y developments i n
Islamic visual c u l t u r e .
I b n a l - H a y t h a m defined beauty (al-husn) n o t as
an absolute a t t r i b u t e b u t as a complex i n t e r a c t i o n
between t w e n t y - t w o properties ( l i g h t , color, dis-
tance, p o s i t i o n , solidity, shape, size, separation,
c o n t i n u i t y , n u m b e r , m o t i o n , rest, roughness,
smoothness, transparency, opacity, shadow, dark-
ness, beauty, ugliness, s i m i l a r i t y , and d i s s i m i -
l a r i t y ) . O n l y two o f these factors, l i g h t and color
(a q u a l i t y o f l i g h t ) , were by themselves capable o f
p r o d u c i n g beauty, that is, p r o d u c i n g " i n the soul
an effect such t h a t the f o r m appears b e a u t i f u l . "
The r e m a i n i n g t w e n t y properties had to be subjec-
tively c o m b i n e d d u r i n g the process o f visual per-
ception. 24
I b n a l - H a y t h a m added to these a t h i r d
factor capable o f causing beauty: " N o w beauty may
consist i n s o m e t h i n g other t h a n either o f the two
things we have m e n t i o n e d , and t h a t is p r o p o r t i o n -
ality and h a r m o n y (al-tanasub wa al-itilaf)"25
I n a fascinating passage he argued t h a t u n d e r cer-
t a i n circumstances p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y alone c o u l d
p r o d u c e beauty:
P r o p o r t i o n a l i t y alone may p r o d u c e
beauty, p r o v i d e d t h a t the organs are n o t
i n themselves ugly, t h o u g h n o t perfect i n
their beauty. Thus w h e n a f o r m combines
the beauty o f the shapes o f all its parts
and the beauty o f t h e i r magnitudes and
190 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC
their c o m p o s i t i o n and the p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
o f parts i n regard to shape, size, p o s i t i o n
and all the other properties r e q u i r e d by
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y , and moreover, w h e n the
organs are p r o p o r t i o n a t e to the shape
and size o f the face as a w h o l e — t h a t is
perfect beauty.
W r i t i n g also is n o t beautiful unless its
letters are p r o p o r t i o n a t e i n respect o f
their shapes, magnitudes, positions and
order. A n d the same is true o f all visual
objects w h i c h are c o m b i n a t i o n s o f various
parts. W h e n , therefore, a survey is made
o f beautiful forms i n all kinds o f visible
objects, p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y w i l l be f o u n d to
produce i n t h e m a beauty other t h a n
that p r o d u c e d by any one o f the p a r t i c u l a r
properties by itself and other t h a n that
p r o d u c e d by the c o n j u n c t i o n o f the par-
ticular properties existing together i n the
f o r m . W h e n the beautiful effects p r o d u c e d
by the c o n j u n c t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r -
ties are examined, the beauty due to t h a t
c o n j u n c t i o n w i l l be f o u n d to be o n l y the
result o f the p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y and h a r m o n y
o b t a i n i n g between those c o n j o i n e d p r o p -
erties. . . . Beauty is, therefore, p r o d u c e d
by the p a r t i c u l a r properties, b u t its c o m -
p l e t i o n and perfection is due o n l y t o the
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y and h a r m o n y t h a t may
o b t a i n between the p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r t i e s .
THEORY
I b n a l - H a y t h a m elaborated his d e f i n i t i o n o f beauty
i n calligraphy and visual objects i n another pas-
sage i n w h i c h their aesthetic affinity is discussed:
For the beauty o f w r i t i n g is due o n l y to
the soundness o f the shapes o f letters and
their c o m p o s i t i o n a m o n g themselves, so
that w h e n the c o m p o s i t i o n and order o f
the letters is n o t regular and p r o p o r t i o n -
ate the w r i t i n g w i l l n o t be beautiful. . . .
Similarly, m a n y forms o f visible objects
are felt to be beautiful and appealing o n l y
because o f the c o m p o s i t i o n and order o f
their parts a m o n g themselves." 27
Just as "perfect beauty" i n w r i t i n g "comes o n l y
f r o m the c o n j u n c t i o n o f shape and p o s i t i o n , "
abstract patterns, t h e n , can a t t a i n aesthetic perfec-
tion through their proportional combination o f
congruent shapes.
P r o p o r t i o n (the geometric order o f l i g h t ) and
color (a corporeal q u a l i t y o f l i g h t ) , w h i c h accord-
i n g to I b n a l - H a y t h a m belong to the three p r i v i -
leged elements most capable o f p r o d u c i n g visual
beauty, are i n t i m a t e l y related to the t h i r d element,
l i g h t . L i g h t is the u l t i m a t e source o f visual beauty
and the p r e c o n d i t i o n o f v i s i o n since " a l l visible
properties can be perceived o n l y f r o m the forms
p r o d u c e d i n the eye by the forms o f colours and
lights o f the visible objects." I b n a l - H a y t h a m
26
w r o t e : " F o r l i g h t produces beauty, and thus the
sun, the m o o n , and the stars l o o k beautiful, w i t h -
o u t there being i n t h e m a cause o n account o f
w h i c h t h e i r f o r m looks beautiful and appealing
other t h a n t h e i r radiant l i g h t . Therefore, l i g h t by
itself produces beauty." He added that color, t o o ,
can produce beauty by itself, for b r i g h t colors
"appeal to the beholder and please the eye." W h e n
arranged w i t h regard to p r o p o r t i o n , the aesthetic
value o f c o l o r f u l designs increases considerably
since " b r i g h t and pure colours and designs are
m o r e beautiful w h e n regularly and u n i f o r m l y
ordered t h a n w h e n they have no o r d e r . " 2 8
The sensuous i m m e d i a c y o f the beauty o f l i g h t
a n d color was no d o u b t associated w i t h the meta-
physics o f l i g h t and its m e t a p h o r i c a l visions o f
g l i t t e r i n g brightness and pure effulgence. I n I b n
al-Haytham's t h e o r y o f v i s i o n , the beauty o f visual
f o r m derives f r o m the diffusion o f l i g h t and color
f r o m visible objects whose rays obey geometric
laws e m b o d y i n g h a r m o n i o u s p r o p o r t i o n s . This
aesthetics o f l i g h t and p r o p o r t i o n recalls Plato's
reference i n the Philebus to a timeless beauty o f
p u r e geometric forms and colors whose beauty is
n o t relative b u t absolute. 29
A n o t i o n o f aesthetic p u r i t y a i m i n g at a t r a n -
scendental f o r m o f abstract beauty seems to be at
w o r k i n the i n v e n t i o n o f the girih m o d e , whose
geometric shapes occupy an i n t e r m e d i a t e zone
between i n t e l l i g i b l e and sensible forms. The
B r e t h r e n o f P u r i t y stressed the p u r i f y i n g role
o f geometry i n u p l i f t i n g the m i n d to c o n t e m -
plate higher forms o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . This aspect
o f geometry comes o u t i n t h e i r reference to
Pythagoras, " w h o heard the music o f the spheres
after having been cleansed o f the defilement o f

corporeal appetites and raised to the sublime by
constant reflection and by the sciences o f a r i t h -
metic, geometry, and m u s i c . " 3 0
A c c o r d i n g to the
Brethren the final a i m o f geometry, the gateway to
s p i r i t u a l w i s d o m , was to p e r m i t the soul to "sepa-
rate itself f r o m this [corporeal] w o r l d i n order to
j o i n , thanks t o its celestial ascension, the w o r l d o f
the spirits and eternal l i f e . " 3 1
Proclus's c o m m e n t a r y o n Euclid's Elements,
w h i c h according to I b n a l - N a d i m h a d been trans-
lated i n t o A r a b i c by the t e n t h c e n t u r y , 32
similarly
had emphasized the noetic a b i l i t y o f geometry to
direct the m i n d u p w a r d to a higher w o r l d o f super-
sensible realities. Proclus argued t h a t geometric
forms occupy an i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n between
i m m a t e r i a l higher realities and the confused
material objects o f the w o r l d o f senses: " M a t h e m a t -
ics occupies a m i d d l e p o s i t i o n between the i n t e l -
ligible and the sense worlds a n d exhibits w i t h i n
itself m a n y likenesses o f d i v i n e things and also
m a n y paradigms o f physical r e l a t i o n s . " 33
He des-
cribed the i n t e r m e d i a t e status o f m a t h e m a t i c a l
forms:
M a t h e m a t i c a l objects, and i n general all
the objects o f the u n d e r s t a n d i n g , have an
i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n . They go beyond
the objects o f intellect i n being divisible,
b u t they surpass sensible things i n being
devoid o f matter. They are i n f e r i o r to the
f o r m e r i n s i m p l i c i t y , yet superior to the
latter i n precision, reflecting i n t e l l i g i b l e
reality m o r e clearly t h a n do perceptible
THE AESTHETICS OF PROPORTION
things. Nevertheless they are o n l y images,
i m i t a t i n g i n their d i v i d e d fashion the
i n d i v i s i b l e and i n their m u l t i f o r m fashion
the u n i f o r m patterns o f being. I n short,
they stand i n the vestibule o f the p r i m a r y
forms, a n n o u n c i n g t h e i r u n i t a r y and
u n d i v i d e d and generative reality, b u t have
n o t risen above the p a r t i c u l a r i t y and c o m -
positeness o f ideas and the reality that
belongs to likenesses. . . . Let this be o u r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g , for the i n t e r m e d i a t e status
o f m a t h e m a t i c a l genera and species, as
l y i n g between absolutely i n d i v i s i b l e reali-
ties and the divisible things t h a t come t o
be i n the w o r l d o f m a t t e r . 34
Stressing the i n t r i n s i c beauty o f geometric
shapes ( a m o n g w h i c h the circle was the most
b e a u t i f u l ) , Proclus argued that the beauty and
order o f m a t h e m a t i c a l discourse " b r i n g us i n t o
contact w i t h the i n t e l l i g i b l e w o r l d itself and estab-
lish us f i r m l y i n the c o m p a n y o f things that are
always fixed, always resplendent w i t h d i v i n e
beauty, and ever i n the same r e l a t i o n s h i p to one
another." 3 5
He n o t e d that geometry, whose figures
are abstract m e n t a l p r o j e c t i o n s , "arouses o u r
i n n a t e k n o w l e d g e , awakens o u r intellect, purges
o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g , brings to l i g h t the concepts
that belong essentially to us . . . sets us free f r o m
the bonds o f u n r e a s o n . " 36
This statement recalls
that o f I b n K h a l d u n w h o , as we have seen, ascribed
to geometry the role o f e n l i g h t e n i n g the intellect
and p u r i f y i n g the m i n d like soap, after q u o t i n g the
AND LIGHT 191
saying that allegedly was w r i t t e n o n Plato's door:
" N o one w h o is n o t a geometrician may enter o u r
house." 37
I b n Sina, w h o after his education i n Bukhara
m o v e d between various courts i n Central Asia
and I r a n , i n c l u d i n g those o f Gurganj and Isfahan,
defined geometry as a m e n t a l abstraction t h a t
essentially remained b o u n d to the m a t e r i a l w o r l d
since the m a t h e m a t i c a l sciences dealt o n l y w i t h
accidents. This once again placed geometry i n an
i n t e r m e d i a r y p o s i t i o n i n the quest for metaphysi-
cal t r u t h ; i t was the ladder by w h i c h one ascended
to a s t r o n o m i c a l knowledge and f r o m w h i c h one
t h e n c o u l d move up to the metaphysical sciences. * 3
This hierarchical o r d e r i n g o f knowledge, c o m -
m o n l y encountered i n medieval Islamic encyclo-
pedias, was so w i d e l y disseminated that i t is
repeated i n I b n Rashiq's eleventh-century trea-
tise o n poetics:
Knowledge, i n the philosophers' o p i n i o n ,
is o f three k i n d s : the highest, w h i c h is the
knowledge o f w h a t escapes sensual per-
ception and can o n l y be attained t h r o u g h
reason and analogy; the i n t e r m e d i a t e ,
w h i c h is the knowledge o f the precious
rules o f d e c o r u m that reason derives f r o m
n a t u r a l objects such as n u m b e r s , geome-
try, the art o f astrology, and the art o f
melody; and the i n f e r i o r , w h i c h is the
knowledge o f p a r t i c u l a r things and b o d i l y
objects." 39
192 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC
These n o t i o n s p r o v i d e d a b a c k d r o p for the b u r -
geoning taste for geometric abstraction d u r i n g
the late t e n t h and early eleventh centuries i n a
m i l i e u permeated w i t h N e o p l a t o n i c philosophy.
Even t h o u g h the spread o f the girih paralleled the
dynamics o f the S u n n i revival, w h i c h rejected the
emanationist cosmology w i t h its heterodox i m p l i -
cations o f " p o l y t h e i s m , " l i g h t imagery c o n t i n u e d
to enjoy immense p o p u l a r i t y , as we have seen i n
al-Ghazali's mystical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the L i g h t
Verse. The Sunni atomistic w o r l d v i e w o f al-Ash ari c
restored the Koranic concept that the universe was
created by G o d ex n i h i l o and i n t i m e , as opposed
to its eternal e m a n a t i o n t h r o u g h an i n t e r m e d i a r y
chain o f i n c o r p o r e a l intelligences propagated f r o m
a transcendent active intellect or First Cause, like
l i g h t f r o m the sun. The eternal versus t e m p o r a l
nature o f the cosmos also preoccupied the Scho-
lastics i n the L a t i n West, p a r t i c u l a r l y after they
were c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the t w e l f t h - and t h i r t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y translations o f Greek and A r a b i c sources
addressing t h a t subject. I b n Sina's t h e o r y o f the
creation o f forms by e m a n a t i o n , for example, is
k n o w n t o have influenced the p h i l o s o p h e r Thomas
Aquinas (1225-1274), whose w r i t i n g s were deeply
"imbued with Avicennism." 40
The S u n n i o r t h o d o x w o r l d v i e w , f o r m u l a t e d t o
vindicate the absolute power o f G o d , s u b o r d i n a t e d
the p r i m a c y o f h u m a n free w i l l and the " l i g h t o f
reason" to the subintellectual categories o f i n t u i -
tive experience, mystical i l l u m i n a t i o n , and love
as means o f a c q u i r i n g metaphysical knowledge.
Despite this m a j o r shift i n emphasis, aesthetic
THEORY
concepts o r i g i n a l l y associated w i t h the d o c t r i n e
o f e m a n a t i o n p r o v e d extremely durable. Images
o f p r o p o r t i o n and l i g h t c o n t i n u e d to live o n ,
m o d i f i e d to reflect the o m n i p o t e n c e o f G o d , the
creator o f a w o n d e r f u l universe filled w i t h beauti-
ful signs (ayat) and portents signaling d i v i n e wis-
d o m . A l - G h a z a l i w r o t e , "Just as the greatness o f a
poet, w r i t e r or artist becomes all the m o r e notable
the m o r e y o u k n o w o f the w o n d e r f u l works o f
poetry, w r i t i n g and art; i n the same way miracles
o f the creation o f G o d are a key to the knowledge
o f the greatness o f the C r e a t o r . " 41
A l t h o u g h God's nature was b o u n d t o r e m a i n
i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , the creator had given h u m a n
subjects, i n a d d i t i o n to the miracle o f the K o r a n ,
the created cosmos t h r o u g h w h i c h they may c o n -
template the d i v i n e glory and w i s d o m . Often
accompanied by q u o t a t i o n s f r o m the " u n c r e a t e d "
K o r a n rendered i n the p r o p o r t i o n e d script,
geometrized designs abstracted f r o m prototypes
p r o v i d e d by nature were therefore p o t e n t i a l l y
i m b u e d w i t h the v i s i o n o f a d i v i n e l y created w o n -
drous universe. I t is this i m p l i c i t parallelism
between the separate yet analogous realms o f
nature and art t h a t explains the frequent c o m p a r i -
sons between the d i v i n e creator a n d the d i v i n e l y
i n s p i r e d artist.
Theories o f beauty based o n an agreeable
h a r m o n y o f p r o p o r t i o n s and colors i n s t i n c t i v e l y
appealing to the h u m a n soul or heart are fre-
q u e n t l y encountered i n the w r i t i n g s o f post-
eleventh-century M u s l i m authors even t h o u g h the
fascination w i t h Greek p h i l o s o p h y had faded by
t h e n . The love o f beauty is described i n a cele-
brated passage o f al-Ghazali's Kimyd-i sa ddat
c
( A l c h e m y o f happiness), circa 1106, whose rele-
vance for aesthetic t h e o r y was n o t e d first by
Ettinghausen and recently elaborated by Grabar.
Ettinghausen p o i n t e d o u t that this w o r k , w h i c h
p o p u l a r i z e d i n the Persian vernacular language
ideas the same author had developed i n a longer
A r a b i c w o r k , the Ihya c
ulum al-din (Revival o f the
sciences o f r e l i g i o n ) , m u s t have been accessible to
the c o m m o n people, i n c l u d i n g artisans. A l - G h a z a l i
w r o t e , " E v e r y t h i n g the perception o f w h i c h gives
pleasure and satisfaction is loved by the one w h o
perceives i t " ; therefore, everything beautiful is an
object o f l o v e . 42
C o n c l u d i n g that i t is God's beauty
that leads one to d i v i n e love, al-Ghazali described
the love o f beauty for its o w n sake, w h i c h he
differentiated f r o m sensual desire:
A n o t h e r cause o f love is that one loves
s o m e t h i n g for its o w n sake. . . . To this
category belongs the love o f beauty . . .
because the perception o f beauty is plea-
sure i n itself and is loved for its o w n sake
and n o t for a n y t h i n g else. D o n o t believe
that love o f beautiful forms is conceivable
o n l y for the satisfaction o f sensual desire.
The satisfaction o f such a desire is another
type o f pleasure for w h i c h beautiful forms
can also be loved. However, the percep-
t i o n o f beauty also gives pleasure and can
be loved for its o w n sake alone. . . . The
reaction o f every healthy c o n s t i t u t i o n

proves t h a t the c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f flowers
and b i r d s , o f a beautiful c o l o u r , graceful
design and f o r m gives pleasure. O n see-
i n g t h e m even w o r r y and grief leave the
h u m a n m i n d , t h o u g h there is no benefit
to be derived beyond the mere l o o k i n g .
These objects give pleasure and everything
pleasurable is l o v e d . 43
I n a different passage al-Ghazali emphasized t h a t
the highest object o f love is God's beauty: " T h e
causes o f love (and these i n c l u d e beauty) are real
o n l y as applied to G o d , i n all other cases t h e i r exis-
tence is o n l y delusion, i m a g i n a t i o n , and meta-
phorical expression." 44
H i s discussion o f beauty
shows h o w aesthetic concepts elaborated between
the n i n t h and early eleventh centuries by M u s l i m
philosophers, w e l l before Sufism became a d o m i -
nant t r e n d , were eventually merged i n t o mystical
l i t e r a t u r e . I b n K h a l d u n , w h o like al-Ghazali c r i t i -
cized the philosophers, echoed t h e i r N e o p l a t o n i c
aesthetic n o t i o n s i n a passage describing the per-
ception o f beauty by the eye and the ear:
Agreeable sensations o f v i s i o n and hearing
are caused by h a r m o n i o u s arrangement i n
the forms and qualities o f [the things seen
or h e a r d ] . This impresses the soul as har-
m o n i o u s and is m o r e agreeable to i t .
I f an object o f v i s i o n is h a r m o n i o u s i n
the forms and lines given to i t i n accor-
dance w i t h the m a t t e r f r o m w h i c h i t is
made, so t h a t the requirements o f its par-
THE AESTHETICS OF PROPORTION
ticular m a t t e r as to perfect h a r m o n y and
arrangement are n o t d i s c a r d e d — t h a t
being the m e a n i n g o f beauty and l o v e l i -
ness whenever these terms are used for
any object o f sensual p e r c e p t i o n — t h a t
[object o f v i s i o n ] is t h e n i n h a r m o n y w i t h
the soul that perceives [ i t ] , and the soul
thus feels pleasure as the result o f perceiv-
i n g s o m e t h i n g that is agreeable to i t . . . .
Thus every m a n desires beauty i n the
objects o f v i s i o n and hearing, as a r e q u i r e -
m e n t o f his n a t u r e . 45
I b n K h a l d u n once again explained the i n s t i n c t i v e
a t t r a c t i o n o f the soul to the beauty o f h a r m o n i o u s
sounds and images as a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f love, an
e m o t i o n a l a t t r a c t i o n caused by the s t r u c t u r a l
affinity between t h e m . The m e t a p h o r o f love, so
often encountered i n Islamic sources, appears
as late as the sixteenth c e n t u r y i n the O t t o m a n
scholar Taskoprizade's encyclopedia o f knowledge
where, after having described the music o f the
heavenly spheres he w r o t e : " M a n ' s soul adores and
is i n love w i t h beautiful things. Whenever the soul
sees a beautiful image or hears a beautiful s o u n d i t
remembers the realm o f i n t e l l i g i b l e entities and for
that reason i t is delighted and e x a l t e d . " 46
The same psychological t h e o r y o f aesthetic per-
ception is repeated i n the ethical treatise o f the
A q q o y u n l u t h i n k e r al-Dawwani, w h i c h was p a r t i c u -
larly p o p u l a r i n the late T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n w o r l d .
This treatise includes a section o n h a r m o n y and
p r o p o r t i o n t h a t repeats the Pythagorean n o t i o n
AND LIGHT 193
o f the music o f the spheres and quotes the i n s c r i p -
t i o n about geometry placed over the d o o r o f
Plato's academy. 47
A g a i n the soul's a u t o m a t i c
a t t r a c t i o n to beauty is reiterated: " T h e soul feels
an essential affection for any similar p r o p o r t i o n ,
and . . . a pure p r o p o r t i o n , wherever observed,
is the means o f a t t r a c t i n g and agitating the spirit:
such as beauty, w h i c h is a t e r m for correspondence
o f parts." A l - D a w w a n i defined audible and vis-
ual beauty as a congruence o f parts p r o d u c i n g a
sense o f u n i t y : " T h e effect o f cadences, concor-
dant tones, m e t r i c a l verses, and fine forms, is o n
account o f the eminence o f their u n i t y i n rela-
t i o n . " Since the source o f all beauty is no other
than G o d , the soul's a t t r a c t i o n to the beautiful
can, according to a l - D a w w a n i , p r o v i d e a foretaste
o f d i v i n e love, a statement echoing al-Ghazali's
c o n c e p t i o n o f beauty as t h a t w h i c h gives pleasure
i n itself and yet at the same t i m e is capable o f
i n d u c i n g an i n t u i t i o n o f higher forms o f transcen-
dental beauty. 48
Although their immediate function
was aesthetic pleasure, beautiful objects also c o u l d
lure the receptive viewer to higher levels o f meta-
physical c o n t e m p l a t i o n about the splendor o f the
heavens and the mysterious wonders o f creation.
Widespread n o t i o n s about the role o f geome-
t r y as a bridge between the m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l
realms, coupled w i t h the absolute beauty o f its
h a r m o n i o u s forms capable o f p u r i f y i n g the m i n d
like music, m u s t have made geometric abstraction
a p a r t i c u l a r l y appealing visual i d i o m . The p u r i t y o f
a p o l y c h r o m a t i c abstract design vocabulary d o m i -
nated by congruent geometric shapes approached
194 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC
the status o f light and color, the o n l y t w o p r o p -
erties t h a t I b n a l - H a y t h a m singled o u t as being
beautiful i n themselves i n a d d i t i o n to p r o p o r t i o n -
ality. This p u r i t y o f sterilized forms, absolved f r o m
i m p u r e defilement, no d o u b t augmented the posi-
tive resonances o f geometric and geometrized pat-
terns, often accompanied by Koranic i n s c r i p t i o n s .
M o r e o v e r , the p r o p o r t i o n a l l y i n t e r l o c k i n g colored
geometric forms o f girihs t h a t c o u l d trigger an
innate aesthetic reaction i n viewers must have
given medieval designers the hope o f e n d o w i n g
their visual creations w i t h the expressive p o t e n t i a l
and e m o t i o n a l i m m e d i a c y o f music.
P o l y c h r o m a t i c s ta r -a n d - po l y go n patterns
e m b o d i e d n o t i o n s o f aesthetic p u r i t y and h a r m o n y
visually aspiring to the music o f the spheres. The
invisible heavenly orbits o f l i g h t g o v e r n i n g the
c o m p o s i t i o n o f these patterns can be i n t e r p r e t e d
as an a m b i t i o n to raise abstract visual beauty to
the same m a t h e m a t i c a l level as music. T h r o u g h
the use o f the circle as a p r o p o r t i o n i n g device, the
n o t i o n o f the music o f the spheres f o u n d visual
expression i n girih patterns (see figs. 92, 99,100,
109b, 113b, 121,122). Just as the consonances o f
earthly music c o u l d strive to echo the heavenly
music o f the spheres whose transparent bodies
emanated l i g h t i n circular r h y t h m s , so d i d c o n -
gruent girihs e m b o d y a nostalgic yearning for the
pure crystalline structure o f the heavens, infused
w i t h b r i l l i a n t l i g h t . T h e i r heavenly o r i e n t a t i o n ,
betrayed by the insistent use o f stars, reflected a
w i d e r tendency i n Islamic art and architecture t o
emulate celestial prototypes as models, such as
THEORY
the mansions and gardens o f paradise or the Bayt
a l - M a m u r (Prosperous house, the heavenly p r o t o -
c
type o f the Ka ba i n Mecca).
c
To conclude, t h e n , the so-called arabesque
(whether geometric, vegetal, calligraphic, or fig-
ural) can be seen as the offshoot o f a classical
n o t i o n o f beauty recast i n abstract terms. The aes-
thetics o f p r o p o r t i o n and l i g h t , most likely i n h e r -
ited f r o m the last remnants o f the school o f
A l e x a n d r i a , left its e n d u r i n g stamp o n medieval
Islamic visual c u l t u r e . As i n medieval Europe
and B y z a n t i u m , the aesthetic sensibilities o f the
M u s l i m w o r l d were no d o u b t permeated w i t h r e l i -
g i o n , b u t c u l t u r a l developments i n the m a t h e -
m a t i c a l sciences and p h i l o s o p h y had an equally
i m p o r t a n t part t o play i n shaping visual i d i o m s .
The L a t i n West and B y z a n t i u m had i n h e r i t e d
the same late antique aesthetic theories t h a t were
assimilated i n t o medieval Islamic c u l t u r e . The
i m p a c t o f Plotinus's Enneads o n abstract modes o f
visual representation i n the Byzantine w o r l d has
been analyzed by A n d r e Grabar and o t h e r s . 49
Such
philosophers as Augustine (354-430) and M a n l i u s
Boethius (circa 4 8 0 - 5 2 4 ) t r a n s m i t t e d the classical
concepts o f p r o p o r t i o n and the love o f beauty to
the L a t i n West. Augustine ( w h o had absorbed the
classical c u l t u r e o f Carthage before his conversion
to C h r i s t i a n i t y ) , for example, p r o v i d e d a defini-
t i o n o f beauty as t h a t w h i c h attracts and pleases
t h r o u g h its s y m m e t r i c a l p r o p o r t i o n s , consonance
o f parts, a n d h a r m o n y . 50
Like P l o t i n u s , he asked i n
the Confessions, circa 400, " D o we love a n y t h i n g ,
b u t the beautiful?" a question p r e f i g u r i n g the
e q u a t i o n between love and beauty encountered i n
m a n y later Islamic texts. Augustine also regarded
sight and hearing as the highest senses because
they were capable o f a p p r e h e n d i n g measure,
beauty, and order, w h i c h i n v i t e us to contemplate
the source o f such qualities, t h a t is, G o d . He d i d
n o t consider the experience o f visual or aural
beauty to be merely an end i n itself, for he believed
that the h a r m o n y o f beautiful objects occasion-
ally c o u l d c u l m i n a t e i n the c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f
d i v i n e beauty. 51
Boethius also l i n k e d beauty to a m a t h e m a t i c a l
concept o f p r o p o r t i o n , reflecting the h a r m o n i c
structure o f the cosmos. A c c o r d i n g to h i m r a t i o
and p r o p o r t i o n p r o d u c e d beauty i n visible and
audible forms alike, a beauty capable o f arousing
aesthetic pleasure i n the soul, w h i c h is subject to
the same laws o f p r o p o r t i o n t h a t govern the struc-
ture o f the c o s m o s . 52
The concept o f p r o p o r t i o n
w o u l d assume m o r e c o m p l e x forms w i t h such
writers as Grosseteste, w h o developed an aesthetics
o f light and p r o p o r t i o n similar to t h a t o f I b n
al-Haytham's Kitab al-manazir. H i s new emphasis
o n l i g h t had been foreshadowed by the w r i t i n g s
o f such philosophers as al-Farabi, I b n Sina, and
al-Ghazali, i n a d d i t i o n to I b n a l - H a y t h a m . 53
W i t h the t r a n s l a t i o n o f A r a b i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l
works i n t o L a t i n , n o t o n l y classical texts b u t also
the works o f M u s l i m authors became w i d e l y
available i n Europe d u r i n g the twelfth and t h i r -
teenth centuries, r e s u l t i n g i n an i n t r i c a t e mesh o f
intertextuality. After t h a t p o i n t i t becomes diffi-
cult to trace the strands o f influence i n medieval
 THE AESTHETICS O F PROPORTION A N D LIGHT 195

121. Abd al-Qadir b. Ghaybi al-Hafiz al-Maraghi

c

(d. 1435), folio with circular diagrams. From his

Maqdsid al-alhdn (Purports of music), a treatise on
musical theory, written around 1421-1423 in the
Timurid court at Samarqand and dedicated to Sultan
Murad 11, copied at the Ottoman court in 1437-1438,
red and black ink on paper. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi Kutiiphanesi, MS R. 1726, fol. 42V.

122. Abd al-Qadir b.

c

Ghaybi al-Hafiz al-

Maraghi (d. 1435), folio
with geometric diagram.
From his Maqdsid al-
alhan (Purports of
music), a treatise on
musical theory, written
around 1421-1423 in the
Timurid court
at Samarqand and
dedicated to Sultan
Murad 11, copied at the
Ottoman court in
1437-1438, red and black
ink on paper. Istanbul,
Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi
Kutiiphanesi, MS R.
1726, fol. 43r.
196 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC
European aesthetic theories, w h i c h e x h i b i t a
remarkable s i m i l a r i t y to their Islamic counter-
parts. The Scholastic philosophers o f Europe were
n o u r i s h e d by the new translations o f Greco-Arabic
texts to such a degree t h a t i t is impossible to tell
w h a t t h e i r w r i t i n g s m i g h t otherwise have been like.
N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y Aquinas's o f t e n - q u o t e d passages
o n beauty i n the Summa Theologica, 1266-1273,
e x h i b i t a s t r i k i n g affinity to aesthetic concepts
encountered i n medieval Islamic texts, p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n the w r i t i n g s o f I b n Sina, w h i c h he is k n o w n to
have consulted. After a l l , the attempts o f M u s l i m
philosophers to reconcile pagan Greek p h i l o s o p h y
w i t h Islamic m o n o t h e i s m corresponded so closely
w i t h the aims o f the European Scholastics t h a t
it is easy to understand w h y the latter were readily
d r a w n to A r a b i c m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f Greek originals.
Aquinas's psychological d e f i n i t i o n o f beauty
emphasized " p r o p e r p r o p o r t i o n or consonance"
and "brightness," aesthetic categories n o t so dif-
ferent f r o m t h e i r Islamic counterparts and sugges-
tive o f an abstract linear style w i t h g l o w i n g c o l o r s .
The u p l i f t i n g e m o t i o n a l force o f visual beauty,
as described by A b b o t Suger (1081-1151) w i t h ref-
erence to his new c h o i r at Saint-Denis, w o u l d n o t
have been foreign i n a c o n t e m p o r a r y Islamic c o n -
text. I n this famous d e s c r i p t i o n religious and aes-
thetic elements are i n e x t r i c a b l y fused:
T h u s , w h e n — o u t o f m y delight i n the
beauty o f the house o f G o d — t h e l o v e l i -
ness o f the m a n y - c o l o u r e d gems has called
me away f r o m external cares, and w o r t h y
THEORY
m e d i t a t i o n has i n d u c e d me to reflect,
transferring t h a t w h i c h is m a t e r i a l to that
w h i c h is i m m a t e r i a l , o n the diversity o f
the sacred virtues: then i t seems to me
that I see myself d w e l l i n g , as i t were, i n
some strange region o f the universe w h i c h
neither exists entirely i n the slime o f the
earth n o r entirely i n the p u r i t y o f Heaven;
and that, by the grace o f G o d , I can be
t r a n s p o r t e d f r o m this i n f e r i o r to t h a t
higher w o r l d i n an anagogical m a n n e r .
Suger was describing neither a simple pleasure i n
the sensuous n o r an intellectual c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f
the supernatural; the i n t u i t i v e passage f r o m aes-
thetic pleasure to mystical j o y was v i r t u a l l y instan-
taneous. As U m b e r t o Eco w r o t e , medieval taste
" i n v o l v e d an apprehension o f all the relations,
i m a g i n a t i v e and supernatural, subsisting between
the c o n t e m p l a t e d object and a cosmos w h i c h
opened o n to the t r a n s c e n d e n t . " 56
I n the i n t e -
54
grated medieval m e n t a l i t y metaphysical aesthetic
concepts m i n g l e d constantly w i t h daily artistic
j u d g m e n t s , a process facilitated by the analogical
m e n t a l i t y o f an age t h a t equated macrocosm w i t h
m i c r o c o s m . The n o t i o n o f a hierarchically ordered
universe where the p a t t e r n o f the w h o l e was
echoed i n the p a t t e r n o f the parts made d r a w i n g
inferences f r o m one category o f parallel p h e n o m -
ena to the other all the m o r e easy. A c c o r d i n g to
Eco, medieval discussions o f transcendental beauty
therefore allowed, " b o t h for the a u t o n o m y o f aes-
thetic value and for its place w i t h i n a u n i t a r y
scheme o f values—or, to p u t i t i n medieval terms,
w i t h i n a u n i t a r y v i s i o n o f the transcendental
aspects o f b e i n g . " 5 7
The n o t i o n o f transcendental beauty was a c o m -
m o n d e n o m i n a t o r o f medieval aesthetics i n b o t h
the C h r i s t i a n and Islamic worlds alike. The theo-
centric ethos o f these worlds revolved a r o u n d a
shared p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h grasping the nature
o f the relationship between a transcendent G o d
and a created w o r l d , and between the celestial and
55
terrestrial realms. I n the Islamic w o r l d beautiful
visual objects that were capable o f arousing love
c o u l d evoke a foretaste o f metaphysical beauty, b u t
their abstract forms lent themselves to a wider
variety o f subjective i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a n t h e i r fig-
ural counterparts i n C h r i s t e n d o m . They c o u l d
resonate w i t h suggestive allusions and correspon-
dences to the higher order o f things, b u t at the
same t i m e t h e i r polysemy allowed for a rela-
tively open-ended series o f e m o t i o n a l responses
f r o m audiences.
N o d o u b t the similarities o f medieval aesthetic
theories i n the Islamic and C h r i s t i a n contexts
were c o n d i t i o n e d by a shared classical heritage.
Similar aesthetic theories resulted i n differentiated
visual i d i o m s i n the L a t i n West, B y z a n t i u m , and
i n the Islamic lands, yet these i d i o m s were u n i t e d
by a transcendental ethos expressed t h r o u g h the
p r e d o m i n a n t use o f abstract geometric schemes
and b r i g h t colors. Despite s t r i k i n g stylistic dif-
ferences an u n d e r l y i n g s i m i l a r i t y remained, u n i -
fied by a medieval o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d metaphysical
splendor a n d the w o n d e r f u l marvels o f creation.
CHAPTER 11. GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION AND THE PSYCHOLOGY
The medieval Islamic theory o f the soul's attrac-
t i o n to h a r m o n i o u s l y p r o p o r t i o n e d and b r i g h t l y
colored visual forms i n v o l v e d n o t o n l y an objec-
tive c o n c e p t i o n o f ideal beauty b u t also the sub-
jective, psychological processes o f aesthetic
p e r c e p t i o n . I t presupposed a subject-object rela-
t i o n s h i p t h a t t o o k i n t o account the e m o t i o n a l
responses o f the viewer. The unprecedented
emphasis o f late antique philosophers o n artistic
creativity and the artist's i m a g i n a t i o n (fantasia)
was perpetuated by medieval M u s l i m p h i l o s o -
phers. M o d i f y i n g Plato's views to accord a higher
status to art, Plotinus's Enneads had stressed the
creative i m a g i n a t i o n o f the artist w h o went beyond
just h o l d i n g a m i r r o r to nature by shaping raw
m a t e r i a l o n the basis o f ideal m e n t a l images.
A c c o r d i n g to Plotinus the beauty o f the m a t e r i a l
w o r k o f art o r i g i n a t e d f r o m such archetypal forms
abstracted i n the artist's m i n d or soul f r o m the
suprasensible i n t e l l i g i b l e w o r l d ; hence the Enneads
assigned a revelatory f u n c t i o n to art t h a t c o u l d
transcend mere sense p e r c e p t i o n . This late antique
conceptualization o f artistic creativity as a p r o -
OF VISUAL
f o u n d l y intellectual activity was also elaborated
by B o e t h i u s . 58
The i n n e r faculty of fantasia (mutakhayyila),
w h i c h makes spiders weave their webs and bees
produce their honeycombs, was n o t o n l y respon-
sible for artistic creation b u t also for dreams and
p r o p h e t i c visions. The status o f prophecy w o u l d
p a r t i c u l a r l y preoccupy thinkers i n the Islamic
w o r l d , given the p r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ' s p u r e l y
h u m a n nature, so different f r o m that o f C h r i s t , the
son o f G o d . The i n t i m a t e relationship between
prophecy, dreams, and the artistic i m a g i n a t i o n
explains w h y creativity is often a t t r i b u t e d i n
Islamic texts to dream i n s p i r a t i o n s . The A r a b
singer-composer M a b a d ( d . 743), for example, is
c
said to have learned his v o c a t i o n i n sleep, just as
the r e n o w n e d Umayyad singer a l - G h a r i d ( d . circa
716-717) heard mysterious voices i n dreams o n the
basis o f w h i c h he composed songs. 59
Texts frequently refer to artistic creation as
a f o r m o f d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n . A l - T a w h i d i ' s trea-
tise o n p e n m a n s h i p , for example, compares
the i n s p i r e d creativity o f the celebrated calligrapher
PERCEPTION
I b n M u q l a to that o f the bee. C i t i n g the Koranic
verse o n the bee as a wonder o f creation (16: 68),
a l - T a w h i d i described this calligrapher: " H e is a
p r o p h e t i n the field o f h a n d w r i t i n g ; i t was p o u r e d
u p o n his h a n d , even as i t was revealed to the bees
to make their honey cells h e x a g o n a l . " 60
A l o n g the
same lines, the autobiography that the architect
Sinan dictated to Sa i exalts his mastery i n a r c h i -
c
tecture as a f o r m o f saintliness (velayet) compara-
ble to the w i s d o m o f the sage L o q m a n (hikmet-i
Lokmdn). Sinan a t t r i b u t e d his masterpieces to his
n a t u r a l " t a l e n t [kabiliyyet] w h i c h is a grace granted
by G o d , " cultivated by his o w n d i l i g e n t efforts
i n perfecting his art (san at). c
The m e n t a l or s p i r i -
t u a l o r i g i n o f artistic creation, w h i c h c o u l d at
times a t t a i n the level o f a saintly miracle, explains
the frequent praise o f skilled w o r k m a n s h i p
i n Islamic texts and the p r i d e o f craftsmen i n
their o w n w o r k s . 61
Ingenious talent, c u l m i n a t i n g i n the p r o p h e t i c
v i s i o n , was regarded i n the post-Hellenistic p h i l o -
sophical t r a d i t i o n that Islam i n h e r i t e d as an i n t u -
itive i n n e r faculty o f the s k i l l f u l artisan. U n l i k e
198 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC
animals, w h o o n l y followed n a t u r a l instincts,
h u m a n beings were capable o f a higher order o f
creativity t h a t is often l i n k e d i n Islamic t h o u g h t
w i t h the realm o f the i n t e r n a l senses, a group
o f cognitive faculties located i n the b r a i n a n d
separate f r o m the external senses. I b n Sina, for
example, argued that a l t h o u g h animals trans-
f o r m e d matter b y b u i l d i n g nests, theirs was a
spontaneous activity w h e n compared t o the
creation o f an artificial e n v i r o n m e n t b y m a n k i n d
t h r o u g h w o r k a n d creative i n v e n t i o n . Differen-
t i a t i n g the "sensitive i m a g i n a t i o n " o f animals f r o m
the " r a t i o n a l i m a g i n a t i o n " o f humans, he a t t r i b -
uted a special s p i r i t u a l capacity to the latter that is
cultivated i n the arts, sciences, a n d noble actions.
I b n Sina singled o u t the arts a n d language as
the two faculties that distinguish h u m a n s f r o m
animals, a d i s t i n c t i o n also made b y the Brethren
o f P u r i t y and I b n K h a l d u n . 6 2
The p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l senses such as
i m a g i n a t i o n , c o g i t a t i o n , and m e m o r y i n the p r o -
cesses o f artistic creation a n d aesthetic percep-
t i o n endowed these activities w i t h an intellectual
d i m e n s i o n . The i m p o r t a n t place given i n M u s l i m
t h o u g h t t o the i n t e r n a l senses, w h i c h Aristotle's De
Anima and De Memoria et Reminiscentia had briefly
touched u p o n , has been demonstrated i n a study
by H a r r y A u s t r y n Wolfson that traces their h i s t o r y
and v a r y i n g classifications. 63
T h e i r relevance for
the arts has been n o t e d b y M u h s i n S. M a h d i :
The structure o f the soul a n d the activities
o f its various parts o r powers a n d their
THEORY
relationship a n d hierarchy are o f interest
to any artist whose art consists o f creating
a w o r k that pleases or conveys a message
or arouses a certain feeling i n the h u m a n
beings w h o l o o k at i t or w o r k or worship
i n i t . Sense p e r c e p t i o n , i m a g i n a t i o n , i n t e l -
lect, passion, a n d practical u n d e r s t a n d i n g
are all parts o f the soul that the architect
addresses t o some extent t h r o u g h w h a t
he creates. T h e power o f i m a g i n a t i o n , its
functions i n d r e a m i n g , the way i t m e d i -
ates between u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d sense
p e r c e p t i o n , its role as a receptacle o f i n d i -
v i d u a l perception or revelation, a n d its
creative role i n representing this percep-
t i o n o r revelation i n sensible forms are
all questions crucial t o any discussion
o f . . . art w o r k s . 64
Summers also emphasized the i n t i m a t e l i n k
between visual aesthetics a n d the i n t e r n a l senses
that p e r f o r m e d j u d g m e n t s o f d i s t i n c t i o n , c o m p a r i -
son, association, a n d c o m b i n a t i o n . H e argued t h a t
the g r o w i n g status o f the i n t e r n a l senses i n medie-
val Europe a r o u n d the late t w e l f t h a n d early t h i r -
teenth centuries helped rescue the mechanical arts
(previously l i n k e d t o the external senses) f r o m the
pejorative associations they h a d acquired b y the
n i n t h century, a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n that c o n t r i b u t e d
to the r i s i n g social p o s i t i o n o f their practitioners.
Wolfson p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t was L a t i n translations
o f Greek a n d Arabic sources that i n s p i r e d this new
interest i n the i n t e r n a l senses; he n o t e d t h a t I b n
Sina's w r i t i n g s o n that subject were d r a w n u p o n
extensively by thinkers i n c l u d i n g Aquinas, Bacon,
and the philosopher-scientist Albertus Magnus
(circa 1200-1280). Aquinas's psychological doc-
t r i n e o f art, w h i c h u n d e r l i n e d the role o f the
i n t e r n a l senses i n artistic creation a n d aesthetic
p e r c e p t i o n , is, therefore, closely related to Islamic
aesthetic t h e o r i e s . 65
Summers stated that the i n t e r -
nal senses answered an obvious need: " T h e y were
'faculties' responsible for all those necessary a c t i v i -
ties o f the soul that were at once higher t h a n
sensation, lower t h a n the intellect, and u n i q u e l y
h u m a n . . . i n the discussion o f the i n t e r n a l senses
is t o be f o u n d the p r e m o d e r n t r e a t m e n t o f the
'unconscious' processes o f association a n d recol-
l e c t i o n , o f i n g e n u i t y a n d even g e n i u s . " 66
The i n t e r n a l senses, t h e n , acted as i n t e r m e d i -
aries between the external senses a n d the intellect.
Sensations conveyed to the m i n d b y the eye a n d
ear, c o m m o n l y regarded as the highest o f the
external senses, were filtered t h r o u g h the p r i s m o f
the i n t e r n a l senses c o n s t i t u t i n g a locus o f aesthetic
sensibility. T h e i n t e r n a l senses n o t o n l y conferred
a prestigious m e n t a l status to artistic creation b u t
also assured the p o w e r o f artifacts t o generate
e m o t i o n a l responses i n t h e i r audiences. U n l i k e
early medieval Europe where the late antique l i n k
between the i n t e r n a l senses a n d the arts a n d crafts
was largely severed, the M u s l i m w o r l d perpetuated
that l i n k w i t h n o break, assigning a respectable
p o s i t i o n t o the mechanical arts, w h i c h were f i r m l y
situated a m o n g the expressions o f the creative
h u m a n soul. This view was eloquently expressed
 GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION
by I b n K h a l d u n , w h o regarded the arts and crafts
as " t h e result o f man's a b i l i t y to t h i n k , t h r o u g h
w h i c h he is distinguished f r o m a n i m a l s . " C o m -
b i n i n g t h e o r y w i t h praxis, the crafts, w h i c h t r a n -
scended mere m a n u a l labor, were d i s t i n c t i v e signs
o f h u m a n c i v i l i z a t i o n : " T h e [susceptibility] o f
the crafts to refinement and the q u a l i t y o f [the
purposes] they are to serve i n the demands made
by l u x u r y and w e a l t h , t h e n , c o r r e s p o n d t o the
c i v i l i z a t i o n o f a given c o u n t r y . " 6 7
These state-
ments o f I b n K h a l d u n were r o o t e d i n views devel-
oped by Islamic philosophers between the n i n t h
and early eleventh centuries, views t h a t t r i c k l e d
d o w n i n t o p o p u l a r mystical texts, l i t e r a t u r e , and
b i o g r a p h i c a l works o n calligraphers and painters.
A l - K i n d i and al-Farabi were a m o n g the earliest
Islamic philosophers to have discussed the i n t e r n a l
faculties o f the soul. A l - F a r a b i , whose d e f i n i t i o n
remained close to that o f A r i s t o t l e , enumerated
five faculties: i m a g i n a t i o n , e s t i m a t i o n , m e m o r y ,
compositive h u m a n i m a g i n a t i o n , and compositive
a n i m a l i m a g i n a t i o n . This list was m o d i f i e d i n the
epistles o f the Brethren o f P u r i t y where the five
i n t e r n a l ( s p i r i t u a l ) senses s y m m e t r i c a l l y counter-
balance the five external (corporeal) senses and act
as the servants o f t h e i r k i n g , the soul. I n a d d i t i o n
to the first three i n t e r n a l senses cited by al-Farabi,
the Brethren listed the "faculty o f speech" and the
" p r o d u c t i v e faculty (al-quwwa al-sani a), c
the seat
o f w h i c h is i n the hands and fingers and by means
o f w h i c h the soul produces the art o f w r i t i n g as
well as the other arts." The i n c l u s i o n o f the p r o -
ductive faculty a m o n g the i n t e r n a l senses i m p l i e d
AND THE PSYCHOLOGY OF VISUAL
that the m a n u a l crafts carried the i m p r i n t s o f t h e i r
creator's m i n d s . They transcended mere sensual
experience since they i n v o l v e d the i n n e r , m e n t a l
activities o f the h u m a n s o u l . 68
The relatively h i g h status accorded to the arts
and crafts is also apparent i n the Brethren's epistle
o n the "loftiness o f the crafts" (sharaf al-sanai ).
c
This epistle once again reflects the intellectual
basis o f the crafts, i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d w i t h the " p r o -
ductive faculty" o f the soul. Here the crafts are
defined as the i m p r i n t s o n raw m a t t e r o f m e n t a l
images (al-sura) f o r m e d i n the m i n d s o f their crea-
tors, and several crafts are identified as lofty w i t h
respect to p a r t i c u l a r criteria. For example, fire-
works, p a i n t i n g , and music are singled o u t as
being lofty i n terms o f t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n to the
soul. The latter t w o are described as products o f
ideal forms d i s t i l l e d i n the souls o f painters and
musicians whose artistic beauty is capable o f
m o v i n g the soul and t r i g g e r i n g a sense o f pleasure
and w o n d e r (al-ta ajjub).
c 69
I b n Sina also l i n k e d the i n t e r n a l senses o f
i m a g i n a t i o n (capable o f abstracting m a t t e r ) and
e s t i m a t i o n (capable o f a m o r e elevated f o r m o f
abstraction going beyond m a t e r i a l accidents) w i t h
artistic activity. H e argued t h a t these faculties were
essential " t o deduce plans c o n c e r n i n g t r a n s i t o r y
things and to deduce h u m a n a r t s . " 70
I n his various
w r i t i n g s o n the i n t e r n a l senses, w h i c h elaborated
and refined those o f his predecessors, I b n Sina
listed seven categories that augmented al-Farabi's
five. H i s t w o a d d i t i o n a l faculties, the " c o m m o n
sense" ( t h a t w h i c h centrally coordinates the i n t e r -
PERCEPTION 199
nal senses) and " r e c o l l e c t i o n " ( t h a t w h i c h restores
forgotten things to m e m o r y ) sometimes were
c o m b i n e d w i t h the others i n a five-fold classifica-
tion. 7 1
The abstractive powers o f the r a t i o n a l soul
were described by I b n Sina i n terms o f t h e i r sub-
servience to reason i n a hierarchical scale r i s i n g i n
degrees f r o m the lowest sensuous faculties (vegeta-
tive and a n i m a l ) to the highest r a t i o n a l ones. H i s
t h e o r y o f the soul recognized t h a t some i n d i v i d u -
als were gifted w i t h an i n b o r n i n t u i t i v e power
or insight called " h o l y reason" (or h o l y faculty),
reserved as a d i v i n e favor for the very few. U n l i k e
al-Farabi, w h o had ascribed prophecy t o an excep-
t i o n a l perfection o f the imaginative faculty,
I b n Sina assigned i t to insight or h o l y reason,
described as the highest o f the h u m a n faculties. 72
A l - G h a z a l i , t o o , a t t r i b u t e d prophecy and
s a i n t h o o d to the highest degree o f insight, the
" p r o p h e t i c h o l y s p i r i t " that operates where " t h e
intellectual and cogitative s p i r i t falls s h o r t . "
U n l i k e I b n Sina, w h o envisaged the c o n j u n c t i o n
o f insight w i t h d i v i n e revelation as an intellectual
experience, al-Ghazali regarded i t as a mystical
one. For h i m the heart ( c o m p r i s i n g the s p i r i t and
r a t i o n a l soul) was the secret o f d i v i n e knowledge
rather t h a n the b r a i n , b u t at the same t i m e he
awarded the intellect " a n u n a m b i g u o u s cachet o f
legitimacy." 73
Consequently al-Ghazali recognized
the five i n t e r n a l senses, assimilating t h e m i n a less
systematic m a n n e r i n t o his various w r i t i n g s i n
w h i c h the heart and mystical love play an i m p o r -
tant role. He sometimes w r o t e about a sixth sense
(referred to variously as the soul, the s p i r i t , or the
200 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC THEORY

123. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and his colleagues at the

Maragha observatory, miniature painting. From a sci-
entific anthology, Shiraz, ca. 1410. Istanbul, istanbul
Universitesi Kiituphanesi, MS F. 1418, fol. IV.
 GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION
heart) t h a t i n t u i t i v e l y perceived the beauty o f
the i n n e r w o r l d , far m o r e perfect t h a n that o f the
outer w o r l d : " T h e beauty o f the outer f o r m w h i c h
is seen w i t h the b o d i l y eye, can be experienced
even by c h i l d r e n and animals . . . w h i l e the beauty
o f the i n n e r f o r m can be perceived by the eye
o f the 'heart' and the l i g h t o f i n n e r v i s i o n o f
man alone." 74
The p o p u l a r mystical d i s t i n c t i o n
between i n n e r (batin) and outer (zahir) v i s i o n is
repeated i n another passage by al-Ghazali:
The i n n e r v i s i o n is stronger t h a n the outer
one, the " h e a r t " keener i n p e r c e p t i o n t h a n
the eye and the beauty o f the objects per-
ceived w i t h the "reason" is greater t h a n
the beauty o f the outer forms w h i c h pre-
sent themselves to the eye. Hence the
pleasure o f the " h e a r t " over the exalted
d i v i n e objects w h i c h i t sees and w h i c h
are t o o lofty to be perceived by the senses
m u s t necessarily be m o r e perfect and
greater, and the i n c l i n a t i o n o f s o u n d dis-
p o s i t i o n and reason t o w a r d t h e m m u s t be
stronger. . . . H e w h o lacks the i n n e r
v i s i o n cannot perceive the i n n e r f o r m and
cannot derive pleasure f r o m i t , love i t and
incline toward i t . 7 5
The role o f the artist's i n t e r n a l faculties i n creating
beautiful objects capable o f arousing pleasurable
awe was acknowledged by al-Ghazali: " T h e beauti-
ful w o r k o f an a u t h o r , the beautiful p o e m o f a
poet, the beautiful p a i n t i n g o f a painter or the
AND THE PSYCHOLOGY OF VISUAL
b u i l d i n g o f an architect reveal also the i n n e r
beauty o f these m e n . " 7 6
However, nowhere i n his
w r i t i n g s , w h i c h often use craft analogies, does one
find any reference to artifacts as symbolic repre-
sentations o f religious or mystical doctrines. Like
earlier w r i t e r s , he recognized the capacity o f beau-
t i f u l objects to reflect creative skill and to move
the soul w i t h love, b u t the rest was left u p to the
subjective i n c l i n a t i o n s o f each viewer.
Philosophical theories about the i n t e r n a l senses,
w h i c h eventually were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o p o p u l a r
mystical l i t e r a t u r e , also penetrated m o r e special-
ized texts o n poetics, music, calligraphy, and
optics. I n t h a t respect I b n al-Haytham's Kitdb
al-mandzir is p a r t i c u l a r l y significant since its
author also w r o t e a treatise o n architecture. This
optical treatise, so i n f l u e n t i a l i n Europe after
the t h i r t e e n t h century, became available i n I r a n
t h r o u g h an expanded t r a n s l a t i o n and c o m m e n t a r y ,
the Tanqih al-mandzir (Revision o f the Optics),
circa 1300, o f K a m a l a l - D i n al-Farisi, w h o had
studied w i t h Q u t b a l - D i n al-Shirazi at the Maragha
observatory (fig. 123). This i n s i g h t f u l w o r k
became the m a i n vehicle for disseminating I b n
al-Haytham's o p t i c a l theories i n the p o s t - M o n g o l
Islamic w o r l d . The Tanqih was abridged w i t h a new
c o m m e n t a r y for M u r a d 111 by the sixteenth-
century O t t o m a n astronomer-engineer Taqi
a l - D i n b. M a r u f w h o was attached to the royal
c
observatory i n I s t a n b u l , m o d e l e d o n earlier
I l k h a n i d - T i m u r i d observatories i n Maragha,
Tabriz, and Samarqand (fig. 124). 77
I b n al-Haytham's Kitdb al-mandzir shows t h a t
PERCEPTION 201
aesthetic j u d g m e n t s were considered embedded i n
the subjective processes o f the psychology o f visual
p e r c e p t i o n , w h i c h i n v a r i a b l y involved the i n t e r n a l
senses. Here beauty is defined n o t as an absolute
a t t r i b u t e b u t as a contextual subject-object rela-
t i o n s h i p i n v o l v i n g i n n e r m e n t a l operations o f
c o g n i t i o n t h a t d i d n o t take place i n a c u l t u r a l v o i d .
The i n t e r n a l senses o f i m a g i n a t i o n ( p e r f o r m -
i n g j u d g m e n t s o f c o m m o n sense), r e c o g n i t i o n ,
remembrance ( m e m o r y ) , and inference w o r k e d
together t h r o u g h the m e d i a t i o n o f the external
sense o f sight i n the subjective process o f aesthetic
judgment. I b n al-Haytham wrote:
N o t everything perceived by the sense
o f sight is perceived by pure sensation;
rather, m a n y visible properties are per-
ceived by j u d g m e n t and inference i n a d d i -
t i o n to sensing the visible object's f o r m ,
and n o t by pure sensation alone.
N o w sight does n o t possess the capac-
i t y to judge; rather i t is the faculty o f
j u d g m e n t that discriminates those p r o p -
erties. But the d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p e r f o r m e d
by the faculty o f j u d g m e n t cannot take
place w i t h o u t the m e d i a t i o n o f the
sense o f s i g h t . 78
As we have seen, the perception o f beauty i n v o l v e d ,
according to I b n a l - H a y t h a m , a complex i n t e r -
action between t w e n t y - t w o visual properties ca-
pable o f p r o d u c i n g beauty either i n d i v i d u a l l y or
i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h one another. Perfect beauty
202 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC THEORY

124a, b. Taqi al-Din b. Ma ruf and his colleagues at the

c

Istanbul observatory, miniature painting. From

Lokman, Shahanshahndma (Book of the king of kings),
Istanbul, ca. 1581-1582. Istanbul, Istanbul Universitesi
Kiituphanesi, MS F. 1414, fols. 56v-57r.
 GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION
came about t h r o u g h the p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y and har-
m o n y a m o n g p a r t i c u l a r properties, o n l y two o f
w h i c h , l i g h t and color, were perceived by " p u r e
sensation." The rest r e q u i r e d the i n v o l v e m e n t o f
the i n t e r n a l senses:
The sense o f sight perceives the forms o f
visible objects f r o m the forms that come
to i t f r o m the colours and lights o f those
objects. A n d its perception o f lights qua
lights and o f colours qua colours is by
p u r e sensation. But those properties i n
the f o r m w h i c h , or the like o f w h i c h , i t
has previously perceived, and w h i c h , or
the like o f w h i c h , i t remembers having
perceived, are at once perceived by recog-
n i t i o n f r o m the signs i n the f o r m . The fac-
u l t y o f j u d g m e n t t h e n discerns this f o r m ,
thus perceiving f r o m i t all properties i n i t ,
such as order, o u t l i n e , s i m i l a r i t y , d i s s i m i -
larity, and all properties i n the f o r m the
p e r c e p t i o n o f w h i c h is n o t affected by
mere sensation or by r e c o g n i t i o n . There-
fore, a m o n g the properties that are per-
ceptible by the sense o f sight, some are
perceived by pure sensation, others by
r e c o g n i t i o n , and others still by a j u d g -
m e n t and inference that exceeds the infer-
ences o f r e c o g n i t i o n . 79
I b n a l - H a y t h a m thus differentiated " p u r e sensa-
t i o n " f r o m i n f e r e n t i a l " p e r c e p t i o n . " He f u r t h e r
subdivided perception into "glancing perception,"
AND THE PSYCHOLOGY OF VISUAL
w h i c h is an almost instantaneous r e c o g n i t i o n o f
repeatedly seen familiar forms f i r m l y embedded i n
visual m e m o r y , and " c o n t e m p l a t i v e p e r c e p t i o n , "
a longer o p e r a t i o n i n v o l v i n g the i n s p e c t i o n o f
all parts o f an u n f a m i l i a r or c o m p l e x object.
The choice between c o n t e m p l a t i n g or glancing is
left to the viewer:
H a v i n g s h o w n this, we [ n o w ] say that
sight perceives visible objects i n t w o ways:
by glancing and by c o n t e m p l a t i o n . For as
soon as sight takes notice o f the object,
it perceives its manifest features. T h e n i t
may or may n o t subsequently contemplate
the object. I f i t contemplates and inspects
all its parts, then i t w i l l ascertain its f o r m .
I f i t does n o t contemplate the object and
scrutinize all its parts, t h e n i t w i l l perceive
a non-ascertained f o r m o f i t . . . . W h e n ,
however, sight perceives an object and
contemplates i t , i t perceives a verified
f o r m o f i t ; and i t perceives this f o r m
by c o n t e m p l a t i o n . 80
As examples o f i m m e d i a t e r e c o g n i t i o n t h r o u g h
glancing, I b n a l - H a y t h a m cited f a m i l i a r w r i t t e n
words (such as Allah) t h a t have appeared so m a n y
times before the eye o f a literate person that they
are perceived " b y r e c o g n i t i o n at the m o m e n t o f
g l a n c i n g , " w i t h o u t the need to inspect the letters
one by one. H e also m e n t i o n e d a w a l l "covered
w i t h designs and d e c o r a t i o n s " t h a t after being
c o n t e m p l a t e d for the first t i m e becomes so f a m i l -
PERCEPTION 203
iar t h a t the next t i m e i t is seen the "sight w i l l
perceive its f o r m by r e c o g n i t i o n . " 8 1
Visually c o m -
plicated forms r e q u i r i n g the concentrated c o n -
t e m p l a t i o n o f the gaze, as opposed to the fleeting
glance, i n c l u d e " m i n u t e designs, letters o f a script,
t a t t o o marks, w r i n k l e s and the difference between
closely s i m i l a r c o l o u r s " whose "fine features
appear o n l y after they have been scrutinized and
contemplated." 82
The reference to m i n u t e designs
and calligraphy recalls I b n al-Haytham's earlier
remarks o n p r o p o r t i o n e d scripts and h a r m o n i -
ously composed designs, w h i c h according to the
f o l l o w i n g statement can be fully appreciated o n l y
by c o n t e m p l a t i v e v i s i o n :
W h e n sight perceives an object whose
beauty consists i n the c o n j u n c t i o n o f
properties and i n t h e i r p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y ,
and i t contemplates the object thus d i s t i n -
g u i s h i n g and perceiving the properties that
p r o d u c e beauty by being c o n j o i n e d or by
being p r o p o r t i o n a t e to one another, and
this perception occurs i n the sentient, and
the faculty o f j u d g m e n t compares those
properties w i t h one another, t h e n that fac-
u l t y w i l l perceive the beauty o f the object
that consists i n the c o n j u n c t i o n o f the
h a r m o n i o u s l y c o m b i n e d properties i n i t . 8 3
A l t h o u g h I b n a l - H a y t h a m stated this as a
general a x i o m , its i m p l i c a t i o n s for the aesthetic
p e r c e p t i o n o f girth patterns and p r o p o r t i o n e d
calligraphy are obvious. I t is n o t u n l i k e l y t h a t the
204 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND AESTHETIC
I r a q i m a t h e m a t i c i a n had become acquainted w i t h
these t w o c o m p l e m e n t a r y modes o f design before
he m o v e d to the F a t i m i d c o u r t i n Cairo to regulate
the flow o f the N i l e . He may have been t h i n k i n g
about t h e m w h i l e w r i t i n g his treatise, w h i c h often
uses concrete examples f a m i l i a r to h i m i n c l u d i n g
a s t r i k i n g reference i n the chapter o n errors o f
v i s i o n to shadow plays ( k n o w n to have existed i n
Fatimid Egypt). 84
Even i f I b n a l - H a y t h a m d i d n o t
base his statements o n p r o p o r t i o n e d scripts and
geometric patterns, they still p r o v i d e valuable
insights about c o n t e m p o r a r y aesthetic j u d g m e n t s .
One i m p l i c a t i o n is that artifacts may have been
designed to take i n t o account the processes o f
visual p e r c e p t i o n o u t l i n e d i n I b n al-Haytham's
psychological optics ( o r i n other o p t i c a l texts),
p a r t i c u l a r l y since aesthetic theories so consistently
emphasize the e m o t i o n a l responses beautiful a r t i -
facts i n d u c e d i n t h e i r viewers. This was the case i n
the royal halls o f the A l h a m b r a , where poetic
i n s c r i p t i o n s i n v i t e the viewer to examine a t t e n -
tively t h e i r visual beauty, w h i c h exceeded the
most extravagant conceptions o f the i m a g i n a t i o n
(khaydl or khiydl). For instance, one o f the poems
i n the H a l l o f T w o Sisters reads, " I am the garden
appearing every m o r n i n g w i t h adorned beauty;
contemplate m y beauty and y o u w i l l be penetrated
w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g . " A different i n s c r i p t i o n i n the
same h a l l refers t o the u n f o l d i n g o f so m a n y w o n -
ders t h a t " t h e eyes [ o f the spectator] r e m a i n for-
ever fixed o n t h e m , p r o v i d e d he be gifted w i t h a
m i n d [ t o estimate t h e m ] , " a statement a l l u d i n g to
the intellectual nature o f aesthetic p e r c e p t i o n . 85
THEORY
A n o t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n o f I b n al-Haytham's psy-
chological t h e o r y o f optics is t h a t the w i l l f u l
c o m p l i c a t i o n o f v i s i o n by i n t r i c a t e l y decorated
surfaces was a calculated way o f i n d u c i n g c o n t e m -
plative v i s i o n , a "way o f seeing," w h i c h often is
referred to as the " s c r u t i n i z i n g gaze" (im dn-i
c
nazar) i n O t t o m a n t e x t s . 86
Elaborately patterned
surfaces, covered by m u l t i l a y e r e d geometric
designs interlaced w i t h geometrized vegetal, calli-
graphic, and occasionally figural m o t i f s , c o n s t i -
t u t e d magnetic fields designed to attract the gaze
w i t h t h e i r b e w i l d e r i n g v e r t i g i n o u s effects. T h e i r
i n f i n i t e l y extendable, n o n d i r e c t i o n a l patterns o f
line and color, w i t h no single focal p o i n t or hierar-
chical progression t o w a r d a decorative c l i m a x ,
r e q u i r e d the i n s e r t i o n o f subjectivity i n t o the
o p t i c a l field; they presupposed a private way o f
l o o k i n g . Such surfaces seduced the eye to alight
o n h a r m o n i o u s l y c o m b i n e d colors and abstract
patterns that c o u l d stir u p the i m a g i n a t i o n , arouse
the e m o t i o n s , and create m o o d s . I n s t a n t l y recog-
nizable pious aphorisms and f a m i l i a r names,
accompanied by longer q u o t a t i o n s f r o m the
K o r a n , the h a d i t h , or p o e t r y that addressed literate
audiences, f u r t h e r enriched the intellectual p o t e n -
t i a l o f visual p e r c e p t i o n . Visually c o m p l i c a t e d
architectural revetments, open to a wealth o f reso-
nances and a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f meanings, interacted
i n different ways w i t h the subjectivity o f viewers.
They created artificial e n v i r o n m e n t s o f fantasy
and c o n t e m p l a t i v e i n t r o s p e c t i o n , simultaneously
reflecting the glory o f the b u i l d e r , the decorator,
the p a t r o n , and o f G o d , i n a d d i t i o n t o advertising
their o w n sheer visual richness.
W r i t t e n sources c o m m e n t n o t o n l y o n the
i n t e r n a l i z e d m e n t a l processes o f visual perception
b u t also o n the ingenious skill o f architects and
decorators w h o ennoble raw m a t t e r t h r o u g h ideal
m e n t a l forms abstracted by the power o f the i n t e r -
nal senses. The late t e n t h - c e n t u r y Baghdadi
p h i l o s o p h e r al-Sijistani described the musician's
creativity as emanating f r o m the soul and intellect,
recalling the Brethren o f Purity's characteriza-
t i o n o f p a i n t i n g and music as bearers o f m e n t a l
abstractions f o r m e d i n the souls o f t h e i r creators
t h r o u g h a d i s t i l l a t i o n o f sense perceptions f r o m
the n a t u r a l w o r l d . A l - S i j i s t a n i was q u o t e d by his
friend al-Tawhidi:
M u s i c advenes to the soul and is present
t h e r e i n i n a subtle and noble manner. A n d
i f the m u s i c i a n happens to have a recep-
tive n a t u r e , responsive m a t t e r , suitable
d i s p o s i t i o n , and a p l i a n t i n s t r u m e n t , he
pours o u t over i t , w i t h the aid o f the i n t e l -
lect and soul, an elegant cast and w o n -
derful h a r m o n y , g i v i n g i t a beloved f o r m
and remarkable embellishment. H i s fac-
u l t y herein is by means o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n
w i t h the r a t i o n a l soul. N a t u r e conse-
q u e n t l y needs art because i t attains its per-
fection t h r o u g h the r a t i o n a l soul by
means o f skillful a r t . 87
The role o f the i m a g i n a t i o n i n magically trans-
f o r m i n g the raw m a t e r i a l o f art by e n d o w i n g i t
 GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION
w i t h a nobler intellectual q u a l i t y is c o m p a r e d to
the power o f alchemy by al-Jurjani:
Poetry creates o u t o f ignoble m a t e r i a l
i n v e n t i o n s o f transcendental value; and
acts i n such a m a n n e r as to make y o u
believe that alchemy is t r u t h f u l l y capable
o f p e r f o r m i n g w h a t is claimed for i t , and
that the philosopher's stone is t r u e and
credible—save that these operations are
i n the case o f p o e t r y operations w h i c h
involve man's i m a g i n a t i o n and u n d e r -
standing rather than the b o d y or senses. 88
A l - J u r j a n i added that the a d m i r a t i o n and
delight aroused by this type o f i m a g i n a t i v e crea-
t i o n is essentially the same whether expressed i n
words or visual forms. As Priscilla P. Soucek has
s h o w n , the m e n t a l o r i g i n o f images, p a i n t e d f r o m
m e m o r y and f r o m forms stored i n the i m a g i n a -
t i o n , is consistently stressed by N i z a m i . 8 9
H i s ref-
erences to painters and p a i n t i n g reveal that
p h i l o s o p h i c a l theories c o n n e c t i n g the i n t e r n a l
senses w i t h the arts had filtered d o w n i n t o p o e t r y
and craft t r a d i t i o n s . The artistic i m a g i n a t i o n is
frequently praised i n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n sources.
K h w a n d a m i r , for example, described a glass vessel
w i t h representations o f t h i r t y - t w o different a r t i -
sans made by Khwaja A l i Arizagar i n 1465 as "such
c
a c o n f i g u r a t i o n that no m o r e beautiful p i c t u r e
c o u l d be reflected i n the m i r r o r o f the i m a g i n a -
t i o n . " The same source refers t o the T i m u r i d
painter-decorator Mawlana Hajji M u h a m m a d
AND THE PSYCHOLOGY OF V I S U A L
Naqqash, attached to Sultan H u s a y n Bayqara's
c o u r t at H e r a t , w h o was an expert i n the art
o f d e p i c t i o n and i l l u m i n a t i o n : " H e constantly
p a i n t e d strange things a n d w o n d e r f u l forms o n
the pages o f t i m e w i t h the b r u s h o f i m a g i n a t i o n . "
Such passages also are encountered i n the sources
o f the M u g h a l s w h o d i r e c t l y i n h e r i t e d the T i m u r i d
t r a d i t i o n , like the eulogy o f A h m a d L a h o r i as a
" W o n d e r o f the Age" w h o "used his chisel to
remove rust f r o m the face o f I m a g i n a t i o n . " Evliya
Qelebi referred to girih patterns i n t r i c a t e l y i n t e r -
laced w i t h vegetal m o t i f s i n s i m i l a r terms, as
designs that are "pleasing to the i m a g i n a t i o n "
(khayal pesendide) 90
The e n d u r i n g i m p a c t o f psychological theories
o f aesthetic p e r c e p t i o n becomes apparent i n
M i r Sayyid-Ahmad's preface to a Safavid a l b u m
o f paintings and calligraphy k n o w n as the A m i r
Ghayb Beg A l b u m (1564-1565). This is one o f
the sources that cites the girih a m o n g the seven
modes o f abstract design used by i l l u m i n a t o r s
(naqqash) w h o very often were skilled i n narrative
m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g and i n calligraphy as w e l l .
Asserting that " a r t is k n o w n as the key t o w i s d o m , "
the a u t h o r praised painters w h o abstract sense
perceptions i n t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n s :
I t is no secret that the amazing images
and w o n d e r f u l m o t i f s o f the p r a c t i t i o n e r s
o f this craft are w e l l k n o w n i n every
region and are the object o f c o n t e m p l a -
t i o n for those possessed o f insight. The
i m a g i n a t i v e power a n d elegance o f nature
PERCEPTION 205
that this g r o u p has, no one o f the other
arts possesses. The beauty that unveils her
face i n the tablet o f the painter's m i n d is
n o t reflected i n everyone's i m a g i n a t i o n . 9 1
The Qdnun al-suwar by Sadiqi Bek, another Safavi<
source that discusses the seven codified modes
o f i l l u m i n a t i o n and calligraphy, s i m i l a r l y e m p h a -
sizes the creative i m a g i n a t i o n (khayal or khiydl) '- 9
This text, couched i n the metaphysical vocabulary
o f m y s t i c i s m and filled w i t h praises o f the S h i i c
i m a m A l i , h i g h l i g h t s the d i c h o t o m y between the
c
i n n e r and outer meanings o f forms that o n l y an
artist w i t h " n a t u r a l t a l e n t " can penetrate after
having received full t r a i n i n g f r o m a ' " s a i n t l y " mas-
ter. I n a rare passage the a u t h o r described the
intensely e m o t i o n a l character o f his artistic activ-
i t y that was p r o m p t e d by an i n n e r voice: "Your
t r u e v o c a t i o n is art (kasb-o hunar), seek i t d i l i -
gently the rest o f y o u r days. Pursue i t m i l i t a n t l y ,
and cling to i t m i g h t i l y ; for life w i t h o u t art
(hunar) is bleak." This voice completely pos-
sessed h i m :
M y heart was n o w m o v e d solely by
thoughts o f p u r e bliss, and the p u r s u i t o f
m y t r u e v o c a t i o n — a r t — b e c a m e increas-
i n g l y impassioned. . . . I c l u n g t o b u t one
p r o f o u n d hope: to be i n s p i r e d by a t o u c h
o f the Bihzad. A n d t h e n , bare o f all i l l u -
sory passions, I c o u l d p a i n t the bazaar-
w o r l d o f p i c t u r e d things w i t h the sole idea
o f d r a w i n g near to their real n a t u r e . 93
206 PART 5 . GEOMETRY AND A E S T H E T I C
Once again, the i m p l i c a t i o n is that t h r o u g h pierc-
i n g i n n e r v i s i o n the artist is able to transcend mere
outer appearances and penetrate t h e i r essence.
Sadiqi Bek was careful to d i s t i n g u i s h the narrative
figural p a i n t i n g o f the m i n i a t u r i s t f r o m the seven
f u n d a m e n t a l modes o f abstract design employed
by the i l l u m i n a t o r . He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t w h i l e the
f o r m e r genre o f p a i n t i n g m u s t be n o u r i s h e d by
the direct observation o f n a t u r e , i n the latter the
" s h i f t i n g values o f observation are n o t a desidera-
t u m . " Like calligraphy, abstract i l l u m i n a t i o n had
to creatively m o d i f y models codified i n the past
t h r o u g h artful i m i t a t i o n (tatabbu , c
a mode o f
poetic i m i t a t i o n or e m u l a t i o n i n w h i c h the poet
seeks t o e x h i b i t o r i g i n a l i t y by i m a g i n a t i v e l y re-
w o r k i n g earlier m o d e l s ) . 94
This analogy w i t h i m i t a t i o n a l p o e t r y is reveal-
i n g because i t h i g h l i g h t s the i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y and
c o n v e n t i o n - b o u n d graphic a u t o n o m y o f abstract
modes o f design to w h i c h the girih belongs. I t cir-
cumscribes creativity i n the girih m o d e w i t h i n a
comparative, i n t e r t e x t u a l f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h
o r i g i n a l i t y is measured w i t h respect to previously
codified models renewed i n an e v e r - w i d e n i n g
canon o f i n t e r l i n k e d forms. Once i n t e r n a l i z e d
t h r o u g h an i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f w o r k s h o p t r a i n i n g , the
geometric r e p e r t o r y disseminated by girih scrolls
allowed designers to demonstrate t h e i r skill w i t h i n
preestablished s t r u c t u r a l m o l d s t h a t p r o v i d e d
a wide m a r g i n for i m p r o v i s a t i o n . The use o f
such c o n v e n t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l m o l d s by poets is
described i n Shams-i Qays's early t h i r t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y Persian m a n u a l o f prosody:
THEORY
The necessary components o f p o e t r y are
correct words, palatable terms, eloquent
expressions, and subtle t h o u g h t s , w h i c h ,
w h e n p o u r e d i n t o the m o l d o f agreeable
(maqbul) measures, and d r a w n o u t i n t o
a s t r i n g (silk) o f pleasant bayts, is called
good p o e t r y . 95
I b n K h a l d u n , t o o , referred t o m o l d s f u n c t i o n -
i n g as deep structures t h a t guide the " m e t h o d "
(usliib) o f poets, w h i c h was r o o t e d i n the science
o f metrics ( ilm al- arud)
c c
w i t h its codified meters
(wazn) derived f r o m an ideal scheme o f circles
r e g u l a t i n g r h y t h m i c patterns o f s o u n d (figs. 125,
126). The e i g h t h - c e n t u r y A r a b prosodist K h a l i l
b. A h m a d al-Farahidi (or F a r h u d i ) o f Basra was
the first to graphically represent the i n n e r r h y t h -
m i c a l structure o f A r a b i c verse by means o f five
m e t r i c circles s h o w i n g h o w the sixteen t r a d i t i o n a l
meters are composed o f different c o m b i n a t i o n s o f
eight r h y t h m i c feet. U s i n g graphic signs (I and O )
for "quiescent" and " m o v i n g " consonants, K h a l i l
arranged the feet a r o u n d the p e r i p h e r y o f these
m e t r i c circles c o n s t i t u t i n g f u n d a m e n t a l modes or
s t r u c t u r a l m o l d s (usul, p i . o f asl, l i t . , " r o o t s , " or
"bases"). The actual m e t r i c forms used by poets
d i d n o t always correspond to the ideal sequence o f
consonants d e t e r m i n e d by the five circles; devia-
tions f r o m the n o r m f o r m e d acceptable variants
(furu ,
c
p i . o f / a r , l i t . , "branches") t h a t had to
c
obey a special set o f c o m p l i c a t e d rules. This struc-
t u r a l system o f roots and branches, consisting o f
ideal meters and permissible deviations or v a r i -
ants, was sufficiently flexible to allow p r a c t i t i o n e r s
a g o o d deal o f scope. I t was adopted by subse-
quent generations o f A r a b , Persian, and T u r k i s h
poets w h o o n l y t r a n s f o r m e d its details. Referring
to the s t r u c t u r a l molds used by poets, I b n K h a l d u n
wrote:
I t s h o u l d be k n o w n that they use i t to
express the l o o m o n w h i c h w o r d c o m -
b i n a t i o n s are woven, or the m o l d i n t o
w h i c h they are packed. . . . [Poetical m e t h -
o d ] is used to refer to a m e n t a l f o r m for
m e t r i c a l w o r d c o m b i n a t i o n s w h i c h is u n i -
versal i n the sense o f c o n f o r m i n g w i t h any
p a r t i c u l a r w o r d c o m b i n a t i o n . This f o r m
is abstracted by the m i n d f r o m the most
prominent individual word combinations
and given a place i n the i m a g i n a t i o n c o m -
parable to a m o l d or l o o m . W o r d c o m -
b i n a t i o n s that the Arabs consider s o u n d ,
i n the sense o f having the [correct] vowel
endings and the [ p r o p e r ] style, are then
selected and packed by [the m i n d ] i n t o
[that f o r m ] , just as the b u i l d e r does w i t h
the m o l d , or the weaver w i t h the l o o m . 9 6
I n the case o f the b u i l d e r , I b n K h a l d u n was p r o b a -
b l y a l l u d i n g t o molds used i n shaping plaster or i n
m a k i n g differently sized bricks based o n m o d u l a r
c u b i t measures. He further elaborated the concept
o f abstract m e n t a l m o l d s i n a passage where he
discussed w o r d c o m b i n a t i o n s and the p o s i t i o n o f
i n d i v i d u a l words w i t h respect to each other:
 GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION AND THE
125. Muslih al-Din Mustafa Sururi, diagrams of metric
circles representing rhythmic patterns of sound. From
his Bahr el-ma arif (Sea of knowledge), written for the
c
Ottoman prince Mustafa in 1549, copied in 1585, red and
black ink on paper. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi
Kutuphanesi, MS H. 659, fols. i 6 v - i 7 r .
PSYCHOLOGY OF V I S U A L PERCEPTION 207
126. Muslih al-Din Mustafa Sururi, diagrams of metric
circles representing rhythmic patterns of sound. From
his Bahr el-ma arif (Sea of knowledge), written for the
c
Ottoman prince Mustafa in 1549, copied in 1585, red and
black ink on paper. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi
Kutuphanesi, MS H. 659, fols. i 7 v - i 8 r .
208 PART 5 . GEOMETRY AND A E S T H E T I C
This teaches a person the universal m o l d
w h i c h he can learn t h r o u g h [constant]
practice i n A r a b i c poetry. [This u n i v e r -
sal m o l d ] is an abstraction i n the m i n d
derived f r o m specific w o r d c o m b i n a t i o n s ,
to all o f w h i c h the [universal] m o l d c o n -
forms. The author o f a spoken utterance is
like a b u i l d e r or weaver. The p r o p e r m e n -
tal f o r m is like the m o l d used i n b u i l d i n g ,
or the l o o m used i n weaving. The b u i l d e r
w h o abandons his m o l d , or the weaver
w h o abandons his l o o m is unsuccessful. 97
These s t r u c t u r a l molds i n t o w h i c h words are
p o u r e d become firmly r o o t e d i n the poet's m i n d ,
just as a craft technique acquired after years o f
practice and m e m o r i z a t i o n becomes h a b i t u a l . I b n
K h a l d u n defined a craft as " t h e h a b i t o f s o m e t h i n g
concerned w i t h action and t h o u g h t . " For h i m
"a h a b i t is a f i r m l y r o o t e d q u a l i t y acquired by
d o i n g a certain action and repeating i t t i m e after
t i m e , u n t i l the f o r m o f [that action] is firmly
fixed" i n the m i n d as a type o f practical reason.
Despite t h e i r mechanical rules t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h
repeated i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e n , the crafts involve the
m e n t a l structures o f the creative h u m a n soul since
"habits are qualities and colors o f the s o u l . " 9 8
This recalls I b n Sina's earlier classification o f
" h a b i t u a l reason" or habit (malaka) as an abstrac-
tive power o f the r a t i o n a l soul closely l i n k e d t o
" h o l y reason." I t was o n l y after a painstaking
process o f apprenticeship, r e q u i r e d for i n t e r n a l i z -
i n g t r a d i t i o n a l m o l d s as effortless habits, t h a t the
n a t u r a l l y talented artisan was able t o express i n n e r
THEORY
creativity t h r o u g h t h e m . To this end the Persian
poet N i z a m i A r u z i advised aspiring poets i n the
c
t w e l f t h c e n t u r y to m e m o r i z e as m a n y works
by earlier poets as they c o u l d :
But to this rank a poet cannot a t t a i n
unless i n the p r i m e o f his life and the sea-
son o f his y o u t h he c o m m i t s to m e m o r y
20,000 couplets o f the p o e t r y o f the
Ancients, keeps i n view [as models]
10,000 verses o f the works o f the M o d e r n s ,
and c o n t i n u a l l y reads and remembers the
diwans o f the masters o f his art, observing
h o w they have acquitted themselves i n the
strait passes and delicate places o f song,
i n order t h a t thus the different styles and
varieties o f verse may become i n g r a i n e d
i n his n a t u r e . 99
I b n K h a l d u n ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f poetry, w h i c h r i g -
i d l y circumscribes artistic creativity w i t h i n t r a -
d i t i o n a l l y fixed n o r m s engraved i n the m i n d s o f
artisans and comparable to a m o l d or l o o m , is i n
keeping w i t h the use o f s t r u c t u r a l l y defined modes
i n other fields o f artistic endeavor i n c l u d i n g music,
w h i c h was closely l i n k e d w i t h poetry. I n his t e n t h -
c e n t u r y treatise o n music al-Farabi discussed
the musical modes (maqam) i n s i m i l a r terms,
emphasizing the necessity o f l o n g years o f practice
i m i t a t i n g earlier models u n t i l they become i n t e r -
nalized i n the musician's i m a g i n a t i o n as firmly
fixed habits. I t was o n l y t h e n t h a t the artist w i t h
n a t u r a l talent c o u l d begin to i m p r o v i s e w i t h o u t
effort, just as i n other arts such as r h e t o r i c and
poetics. 100
The process o f musical c r e a t i o n , t h e n ,
once again started w i t h ideal forms abstracted by
the creator's imaginative faculty; these m e n t a l
abstractions were translated by notes i n t o sensible
analogues. M u s i c c o u l d be sensible, imaginable,
and i n t e l l i g i b l e , addressing the senses, the i m a g i -
n a t i o n , and the intelligence, respectively. Three
types o f musicians corresponded to each o f these
hierarchically ranked categories—those merely
dependent o n sense perceptions, those i n s t i n c -
tively capable o f i m a g i n a t i o n , and those able to
intellectualize i m a g i n a r y conceptions. A l - F a r a b i
differentiated the psychological effects o f music o n
the soul according to this t r i p a r t i t e order; the first
type o f music aroused agreeable sensations and
simple pleasures, the second p r o v o k e d passions,
w h i l e the t h i r d addressed the i m a g i n a t i o n and
intellect. The most perfect music was that w h i c h
c o m b i n e d all three effects, i n c i t i n g the listener to
acquire higher s p i r i t u a l beauties such as w i s d o m
and k n o w l e d g e . 101
A l - F a r a b i d i v i d e d the t r a d i t i o n a l r h y t h m s
o f Arab music i n t o t w o types: f u n d a m e n t a l deep
structures c o n s t i t u t i n g seven basic modes and sup-
p l e m e n t a r y ornaments. H e c o m p a r e d the first type
to the use o f warps and wefts i n textiles, or o f
bricks and plaster i n architecture; the second type
corresponded to n o n s t r u c t u r a l decorative ele-
ments used i n c o n s t r u c t i o n and weaving a l i k e . 102
The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the seven
f u n d a m e n t a l musical r h y t h m s generated i n n u -
merable variants, m u c h like the usul o f p o e t r y w i t h
their permissible r h y t h m i c deviations classified
as furu .c
Differences i n arrangement, r e p e t i t i o n ,
 GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION
acceleration, or o r n a m e n t a t i o n engendered a
m u l t i p l i c i t y o f r h y t h m s , all o f t h e m derivatives
o f the seven basic modes. Permissible deviations
f r o m the ideal structures o f fixed modes thus
allowed for an almost infinite n u m b e r o f p e r m u -
tations t h r o u g h w h i c h musicians c o u l d d e m o n -
strate t h e i r i n s p i r e d s k i l l . The perfection or
i m p e r f e c t i o n o f note c o m b i n a t i o n s i n this m o d a l
system was comparable to the h a r m o n i o u s or
discordant c o m b i n a t i o n o f colors and forms i n
visual designs.
A l - F a r a b i thus recognized a basic s t r u c t u r a l
affinity a m o n g those crafts using m o d u l a r u n i t s o f
c o m p o s i t i o n i n p r o d u c t s that emphasized h a r m o -
nious patterns. This parallelism a m o n g different
media was also i m p l i e d i n the frequent use o f craft
metaphors by poets w h o l i k e n e d themselves to the
practitioners o f other crafts, metaphors r o o t e d i n
shared processes o f artistic c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n and
realization. A l - F a r a b i w r o t e t h a t the f o r m a l ele-
ments o f music are analogous to the n u m b e r i n
a r i t h m e t i c , the l i m i t i n geometry (e.g., the arc
o f a circle, or the side o f a square), the syllogism
i n logic, the strophe i n poetry, and the foot i n
metrics. H a r m o n i z a t i o n (consonance) played the
same role i n music as i t d i d i n the other arts
based o n the p r o p o r t i o n a l c o m b i n a t i o n o f dis-
crete e l e m e n t s . 103
Al-Farabi's s t r u c t u r a l analysis c u r i o u s l y fore-
shadowed n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y European theories
o f the g r a m m a r o f o r n a m e n t , w h i c h stressed
the analogy between music, poetry, and abstract
visual patterns, all o f t h e m relying o n a measured
sequence o f serial u n i t s governed by syntactic
AND THE P S Y C H O L O G Y OF V I S U A L
rules. Jones, for example, perceptively w r o t e t h a t
the seven basic m o d u l a r u n i t s c o m p o s i n g the
muqarnas ceiling o f the Sala de la Barca at the
A l h a m b r a generated " c o m b i n a t i o n s as various as
the melodies w h i c h may be p r o d u c e d f r o m the
seven notes o f the musical scale." 1 0 4
The shared
m o d u l a r basis o f geometric patterns, music,
poetry, and calligraphy was f u r t h e r explored i n
el-Said and Parman's Geometric Concepts in Islamic
Arty 1976. This s t r u c t u r a l affinity across different
fields, frequently n o t e d by the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
Orientalists w h o a t t r i b u t e d i t to a specifically
A r a b o - I s l a m i c m i n d - s e t , had m o r e to do w i t h a
m o d a l t h e o r y o f aesthetics t h a n w i t h r e l i g i o n or
ethnoracial character. Restrictions placed o n
figural representation by religious t r a d i t i o n no
d o u b t had encouraged designers t o channel t h e i r
creative energies to develop elaborate systems
o f n o n f i g u r a l p a t t e r n i n g . Nevertheless the d i s t i n c -
tive abstract visual i d i o m s they f o r m u l a t e d were
i n f o r m e d p r i m a r i l y by an aesthetic t h e o r y t h a t
privileged the i m a g i n a t i o n ' s ingenious abstracting
capacities over naturalistic representation. The
m o d a l system o f aesthetics revolved a r o u n d a
n o t i o n o f ideal deep structures t h a t c o u l d be trans-
f o r m e d endlessly to create variations and deriva-
tives. I t emphasized the artist's i m a g i n a t i o n , the
place where these deep structures became p e r m a -
n e n t l y embedded as abstractions t h a t engendered
r e m a r k a b l y varied products capable o f arousing a
sense o f pleasure and w o n d e r m e n t .
The N e o p l a t o n i c musical t r a d i t i o n , w i t h its
Pythagorean emphasis o n cosmology and n u m e r -
ology, was largely i g n o r e d by such philosophers as
PERCEPTION 209
al-Farabi and I b n Sina, b u t i t c o n t i n u e d as a d u r -
able u n d e r c u r r e n t . I n i t i a l l y explored by a l - K i n d i
and perpetuated by the Brethren o f P u r i t y , cosmo-
logical affiliations w o u l d eventually crystallize i n
later centuries a r o u n d p a r t i c u l a r musical modes.
As O w e n W r i g h t p o i n t e d o u t , w i t h the decline o f
systematic t h e o r y the d o m i n a n t t r a d i t i o n became
cosmological. A r a b i c , Persian, and T u r k i s h musical
treatises w r i t t e n between the f o u r t e e n t h and eigh-
teenth centuries almost i n v a r i a b l y correlated the
twelve m e l o d i c modes w i t h the signs o f the zodiac
and " a n open-ended series o f n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a "
i n c l u d i n g the times o f the day and the n u m b e r o f
months. 1 0 5
Despite their l o n g s t a n d i n g usage w e l l
i n t o the m o d e r n era the musical modes showed
a remarkable capacity to resist the danger o f ossi-
f i c a t i o n , a l l o w i n g generations o f musicians t o
i m p r o v i s e w i t h i n t h e i r r h y t h m i c cycles.
The idea o f i m p r o v i s a t i o n w i t h i n a chosen g r i d
o f the girih provides a s t r i k i n g analogy to musical
i m p r o v i s a t i o n w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r mode (maqam),
to poetic c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the d i s c i p l i n e d struc-
t u r e o f a given meter (wazn), and to calligraphic
exercises c o n f o r m i n g to codified modes o f script
based o n fixed p r o p o r t i o n s . Such analogies once
again p o i n t to a shared aesthetic sensibility u n i t i n g
the various crafts concerned w i t h r h y t h m i c a l l y
c o m p o s i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l l y ordered, quantifiable
parts {juz') y a sensibility that measured artistic skill
(hunar or ma rifa) c
against the codified rules
o f f u n d a m e n t a l modes c o n s t i t u t i n g self-contained
design systems w i t h a f o r m a l logic o f t h e i r o w n .
These modes, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o ideal n o r m s
o f beauty, regulated repeat patterns i n different
210 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND A E S T H E T I C
media by r e s t r i c t i n g t h e i r possible arrangement
according to a p r e d e t e r m i n e d syntax (figs. 127-
129). T h a t such a m o d a l system was at w o r k i n the
visual arts is clearly demonstrated b y the Safavid
sources cited i n part 3 that refer to the seven f u n -
damental modes (asl) o f i l l u m i n a t i o n and t h e i r
n u m e r o u s variants (far ), 0
a classification seem-
i n g l y i n h e r i t e d f r o m the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n p e r i o d .
These seven modes o f abstract p a t t e r n i n g ,
w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d relatively a u t o n o m o u s design
universes, can be seen as visual analogues a i m i n g
to produce the same k i n d o f artificiality and
pleasurable awe u p h e l d i n l i t e r a r y t h e o r y where
imaginative creation (takhyil) plays a central role.
N o n n a t u r a l i s t i c designs reflected the superior
abstracting capacities o f the i n t e r n a l senses p a r t i -
c i p a t i n g i n the creative process. A c c o r d i n g to I b n
Sina, w h o defined p e r c e p t i o n as " t h e abstraction
by the p e r c i p i e n t subject o f the f o r m o f the per-
ceived object i n some m a n n e r , " geometric forms
were a m o n g the purest m e n t a l abstractions i n v o l v -
i n g the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f the i n t e r n a l senses. This
widespread view was captured by the t w e l f t h -
c e n t u r y Ghaznavid poet Sana'i, w h o l i k e n e d " t h e
a b i l i t y t o b e h o l d the d i v i n e manifestation . . . to
the intellectual way o f perception o f a g e o m e t r i -
c i a n . " " W h e n y o u have n o t learned about lines,
planes and p o i n t s , " he said, y o u are restricted to
seeing o n l y w i t h y o u r senses. 106
By i m p l i c a t i o n geometrized designs (whether
figural or n o n f i g u r a l ) and the p u r e l y geometric
patterns o f the girih m o d e c o n s t i t u t e d m e n t a l
images t h a t were i n h e r e n t l y superior to n a t u r a l i s -
THEORY
tic representations based o n sense perceptions.
T h e i r a i m was n o t t o capture o p t i c a l l y perceived
reality, b u t rather to p r o v i d e glimpses o f the w o n -
drous beauty i m p r i n t e d i n the i m a g i n a t i v e artist's
m i n d or soul. The "eye o f the m i n d " fractured the
u n i t y o f visual space by refracting i t i n t o an i n f i n -
i t y o f angles and b r i g h t l y colored abstract shapes
w i t h no single focus. This i n s e r t i o n o f subjectivity
i n t o the visual process accentuated the d i s j u n c t i o n
between i n t e r n a l and external v i s i o n , an aesthetic
a t t i t u d e t h a t w o u l d be reversed i n Renaissance
Europe where these two types o f v i s i o n became
c o o r d i n a t e d by perspectivalism, w i t h its " n e u t r a l "
gaze t h a t separated subject and object. I n t h a t
respect, the subjective "Baroque v i s i o n " t h a t cele-
b r a t e d the dazzling, d i s o r i e n t i n g , ecstatic, and
v e r t i g i n o u s experiences o f mystical rapture came
closer to the aesthetic sensibilities e m b o d i e d i n the
girih m o d e . I n the Baroque case, the "madness o f
v i s i o n " was l i n k e d to a transcendental aesthetics o f
the sublime t h a t sought to "represent the u n r e p r e -
sentable" and to express a " y e a r n i n g for a presence
that can never be f u l f i l l e d . " This Baroque celebra-
t i o n o f " o c u l a r madness" c o u l d produce ecstasy i n
some b u t b e w i l d e r m e n t and confusion i n others,
m u c h like the varied subjective responses t o w h i c h
the girih opened i t s e l f . 107
The relative visual a u t o n o m y o f Islamic n o n -
narrative abstract modes o f design can also be
seen as a n t i c i p a t i n g some aspects o f abstraction i n
m o d e r n art. M a r k A . Cheetham's The Rhetoric of
Purity, 1991, argues t h a t the n o t i o n o f p u r i t y was
central to the m o d e r n i s t r h e t o r i c o n geometric
abstraction. P u r i t y , he w r o t e , was singled o u t by
such artists as Wassily K a n d i n s k y (1866-1944) and
M o n d r i a n as the u l t i m a t e q u a l i t y an abstract
p a i n t i n g d r i v e n b y a transcendental urge s h o u l d
possess. Influenced by N e o p l a t o n i s m , the m o d e r n
p a r a d i g m o f transcendental aesthetic p u r i t y
emphasized the abstracting power o f m e m o r y ,
w h i c h enabled the artist to see t h r o u g h nature's
veils. 108
This emphasis o n m e m o r y as a noetic
faculty that c o u l d y i e l d access to higher forms
o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g inaccessible to the external
senses provides a s t r i k i n g parallel to the role the
i n n e r senses play i n medieval Islamic (and L a t i n
Scholastic) texts dealing w i t h the psychology
of vision.
T h a t this parallel may occasionally have been
i n f o r m e d by an awareness o f the Islamic visual t r a -
d i t i o n is n o t u n l i k e l y , given the n i n e t e e n t h - and
early t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y fascination w i t h abstract
arabesques. Such a c o n n e c t i o n is i m p l i e d by a
theoretical tract, the so-called T u r k i s h painter's
m a n u a l , w h i c h the French artist Paul Gauguin
(1848-1903) had lent to the painter Georges Seurat
(1859-1891). This text a t t r i b u t e d to the T u r k i s h
poet Siinblilzade Vehbi ( d . 1809) advised y o u n g
painters t h a t " i t is better to p a i n t f r o m m e m o r y
[peindre de memoire]" and r e c o m m e n d e d a self-
conscious rejection o f external appearances.
Siinblilzade i n s t r u c t e d p u p i l s to give shape t o
abstract designs and unreal p r i m a r y colors " w i t h i n
the m o l d o f a t h e o r y prepared i n advance i n y o u r
b r a i n [dans le moule d'une theoriepreparee a
Vavance dans voire cerveau]," a statement t h a t
 GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION AND THE PSYCHOLOGY OF V I S U A L PERCEPTION 211

127. Muslih al-Din Mustafa Sururi, diagrams of pattern- 128. Muslih al-Din Mustafa Sururi, diagrams of pattern-
forming verses. From his Bahr el-ma'drif(Sea of knowl- forming verses. From his Bahr el-ma drif (Sea of knowl-
c

edge), written for the Ottoman prince Mustafa in 1549, edge), written for the Ottoman prince Mustafa in 1549,
copied in 1585, ink on paper. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi copied in 1585, ink on paper. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi Kiitiiphanesi, MS H. 659, fols. I34v-i35r. Miizesi Kiitiiphanesi, MS H. 659, fols. I35v-i36r.
212 PART 5. GEOMETRY
129. Muslih al-Din Mustafa Sururi, diagrams of pattern-
forming verses. From his Bahr el-ma arif (Sea of knowl-
c
edge), written for the Ottoman prince Mustafa in 1549,
copied in 1585, ink on paper. Istanbul, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi Kiitiiphanesi, MS H. 659, fol. 136V.
AND A E S T H E T I C THEORY
c u r i o u s l y recalls references by earlier M u s l i m
w r i t e r s to abstract molds engraved i n the m i n d s
o f artists. I t is n o t e w o r t h y that the a u t h o r i t y o f the
Islamic visual t r a d i t i o n was i n v o k e d to legitimize
m o d e r n abstract p a i n t i n g i n this theoretical tract,
w h i c h according to Cheetham carries " c r u c i a l
i m p l i c a t i o n s for the nature and development
o f abstract art f r o m the t i m e o f Gauguin's early
experiments w e l l i n t o the t w e n t i e t h century." 1 0 9
As H o d g s o n w r o t e , the p r e d o m i n a n t l y aniconic
character o f the Islamic visual t r a d i t i o n had
i n s p i r e d architects and artists " t o create a new
w o r l d o f the i m a g i n a t i o n . . . r i c h i n its o w n
expression o f wonder and d e l i g h t . " The artistic
p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h wonder and amazement is
a l e i t m o t i v i n p o s t - M o n g o l sources o n p a i n t i n g .
For example, i n his account o f o u t s t a n d i n g late
T i m u r i d painters the T u r k o - M o n g o l i a n p r i n c e
M i r z a M u h a m m a d Haydar D u g h l a t (1499/1500-
1551) referred to Shah Muzaffar's fine b r u s h that
"possesses such grace and m a t u r i t y t h a t the eye
o f the beholder is astonished." He described
the amazing skill o f the i l l u m i n a t o r M a w l a n a
M a h m u d , w h o prepared an elaborate frontispiece
for Sultan Husayn Bayqara, i n s i m i l a r terms: " H e
labored o n i t for seven years and made i t so i n t r i -
cate (barik) that i n the j o i n t s o f the (band-i rumi),
each o f w h i c h may be h a l f a chickpea i n size, he
has made o f g o l d a y e l l o w yakmaha (?) [such that?]
fifty islimi tendrils can be c o u n t e d . " I n his pref-
ace to the B a h r a m M i r z a a l b u m prepared i n 1544,
Dost M u h a m m a d w r o t e , " I f a f o r m is n o t w o r t h y
o f astonishment, i t is n o t w o r t h a t o u c h o f the
b r u s h . " H e often described paintings and i l l u m i -
nations as feats that "dazzle the eyes" o f "people
o f i n s i g h t " w h o cannot help being "amazed and
a s t o u n d e d " by t h e m . 1 1 0
The prefaces o f Safavid albums o f calligraphic
specimens and p a i n t i n g samples, w h i c h l i n k the
fields o f calligraphy, i l l u m i n a t i o n , and narrative
p a i n t i n g , are shorter versions o f biographical trea-
tises o n painters and calligraphers. This new post-
M o n g o l b i o g r a p h i c a l genre, reflecting the close
c o o p e r a t i o n between m i n i a t u r e painters, i l l u m i n a -
t o r - d e c o r a t o r s , and calligraphers i n the c o u r t
s c r i p t o r i a (kitdbkhdna or kutubkhdna) o f the
I l k h a n i d s and t h e i r successors (the T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n , Safavid, Uzbek, O t t o m a n , and M u g h a l
dynasties), signals the emergence o f a " l i t e r a t i "
sensibility i n the visual arts, possibly i n s p i r e d by
I l k h a n i d contacts w i t h M o n g o l C h i n a . I t was i n
this u n i q u e context t h a t the arts o f the b o o k
received unprecedented c o u r t patronage i n the
T u r c o - I r a n i a n w o r l d where the aesthetic sensibili-
ties o f i l l u m i n a t o r - d e c o r a t o r s , m i n i a t u r e painters,
calligraphers, and l i t e r a t i became synchronized
u n d e r a single i n s t i t u t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k that gave
a d i s t i n c t i v e c o l o r i n g to artistic p r o d u c t i o n i n
the p o s t - M o n g o l eastern Islamic lands. The i n -
t i m a t e dialogue a m o n g p a i n t i n g , calligraphy,
and l i t e r a t u r e is captured i n a p e t i t i o n letter o f
A h m a d b. A b d A l l a h a l - H i j a z i where he traces his
c
career f r o m T i m u r i d Shiraz i n 1422 to O t t o m a n
Edirne i n 1441-1442. After p o i n t i n g o u t that he
began his t r a i n i n g by s t u d y i n g p o e t r y according to
the d i c t u m "Poetry is necessary" and by l e a r n i n g
 GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION
calligraphy, w h i c h is " h a l f o f l e a r n i n g , " he w e n t o n
to describe his other skills:
I n the kutubkhana o f each o f these
[ T i m u r i d rulers, t h a t is, I b r a h i m Sultan,
Baysunghur, U l u g h Beg, and Shahrukh
M i r z a ] there was a g r o u p o f learned peo-
ple w i t h o u t equal i n the w o r l d — c o p y i s t ,
illuminator, illustrator, binder. I too
l a i d some small c l a i m [ t o proficiency] i n
these arts by v i r t u e o f m y a s p i r a t i o n and
a r d o u r , and t h r o u g h service a n d a p p r e n -
ticeship I acquired f r o m every harvest a
gleaning, and f r o m every gleaning a seed,
u n t i l d u r i n g a voyage, I arrived i n the year
845 i n E d i r n e . 1 1 1
I t was i n this type o f setting that the girih m o d e
c o n t i n u e d to be elaborated d u r i n g the T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n p e r i o d , a setting where painters and
calligraphers e m p l o y e d i n c o u r t s c r i p t o r i a were
often skilled i n poetry. They were the ones w h o
prepared designs for architectural projects, designs
that w o u l d have accompanied the t w o - and three-
d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns o f the T o p k a p i
scroll. U n l i k e the royal ateliers o f the Abbasid
caliph a l - M u t a d i d ' s early t e n t h - c e n t u r y palace i n
c
Baghdad discussed i n part 3, where the t h e o r e t i -
cians and p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f all the arts and sciences
were gathered together, the p o s t - M o n g o l s c r i p t o -
ria privileged l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e over science. The
unprecedented emphasis o n l i t e r a t u r e and art i n
the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n kitdbkhdnas finds a s t r i k i n g
A N D T H E PSYCHOLOGY OF V I S U A L
parallel i n the fifteenth-century European courts
o f the Renaissance, a p e r i o d w i t h a different c u l -
t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n t h a n that o f the so-called t w e l f t h -
c e n t u r y renaissance o f Europe, w i t h its focus o n
p h i l o s o p h y and science. The p r i m a c y o f the arts
o f the b o o k and l i t e r a t u r e n o u r i s h e d the g r o w i n g
affinity between visual aesthetics and l i t e r a r y the-
ory i n an age w h e n i n s c r i p t i o n s q u o t i n g Persian
poems came to occupy a p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n o n
religious and secular m o n u m e n t s alike. The aes-
thetic value attached to pleasurable w o n d e r i n
the p o s t - M o n g o l biographies o f calligraphers and
painters is also encountered i n c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r -
ary c r i t i c i s m , w h i c h favors the s t i m u l a t i o n o f
e m o t i o n s i n the reader rather t h a n the objective
representation o f an external reality.
The i n t i m a t e association i n l i t e r a r y t h e o r y
between pleasure, w o n d e r , and the i m a g i n a t i o n
can be traced back t o the poetics o f al-Farabi
and I b n Sina, b o t h o f w h o m stressed the subjec-
tive n a t u r e o f aesthetic experience. I b n Sina, w h o
described p o e t r y as i m a g i n a t i v e speech, w r o t e
that i m a g i n a t i v e assent t o poetic utterances "is a
k i n d o f compliance due to the w o n d e r (ta ajjub)
c
and pleasure (ladhdhd) that are caused by the
utterance itself." 1 1 2
I n his A r i s t o t e l i a n t h e o r y
o f A r a b i c poetics the M a g h r i b i l i t e r a r y critic
a l - Q a r t a j a n n i (1211-1285) i d e n t i f i e d three types o f
mimesis i n i m a g i n a t i v e creation (takhyil):
Poetry is m e t r i c a l , imaginatively-creative
discourse, characterized i n the A r a b i c
language also by the i n c l u s i o n o f r h y m e .
PERCEPTION 213
The imaginatively-creative premises i t
combines, whether objectively t r u t h f u l o r
false, have as t h e i r o n l y c o n d i t i o n s , inso-
far as they are poetry, i m a g i n a t i v e crea-
tivity. . . . A l l this m u s t be [realized] b y
a m i m e t i c representation o f the usual
by the usual, the strange by the strange, o r
the strange by the usual. A n d the closer
the object is to that by w h i c h i t has been
m i m e t i c a l l y represented, the clearer w i l l
be the s i m i l a r i t y ; o n the other h a n d , the
m o r e strangeness and wonder are added
to the imaginative creation, the m o r e
original it will b e . 1 1 3
Between the t w o poles o f naturalistic and fan-
tastic representation extended a varied spec-
t r u m o f approaches to mimesis. A m o n g t h e m ,
a l - Q a r t a j a n n i , like m a n y M u s l i m l i t e r a r y critics,
preferred the o r i g i n a l i t y o f "strangeness" and
" w o n d e r " t o " s i m i l a r i t y . " The m o r e artificial and
removed f r o m likeness t o observed n a t u r e , the
m o r e artistic was poetic discourse considered. 114
After a l l , etymologically the n o t i o n o f art
(san at)
c
does i m p l y artificiality (sun i o r c
tasannu ). c
The mimesis t h a t a l - Q a r t a j a n n i considered t o
be creatively imaginative was n o t one t h a t t r u t h -
fully r e p r o d u c e d reality b u t one t h a t t r a n s f o r m e d
it to arouse subjective feelings o f pleasurable
awe and astonishment. I m a g i n a t i v e representations
possessed an element o f w o n d e r t h a t t r u t h lacked;
they were capable o f i n c i t i n g e m o t i o n a l responses
distinctive to h u m a n beings w i t h a s p i r i t u a l and
214 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND A E S T H E T I C
intellectual capacity. W o n d e r , a prelude t o p h i l o -
sophizing about s o m e t h i n g i n c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r -
stood, is referred to i n Plato's Theaetetus and
Aristotle's Metaphysics as the starting p o i n t o f p h i -
losophy. This became a c o m m o n p l a c e n o t i o n i n
the Islamic w o r l d where I b n Sina defined wonder
as a first step t o w a r d fuller u n d e r s t a n d i n g and
wisdom. 1 1 5
N e i t h e r he n o r al-Farabi, however,
reduced wonder to a mere means o f f u r t h e r i n g
knowledge. T h e i r poetics, like those o f t h e i r suc-
cessors, stressed the independent aesthetic value o f
pleasurable awe i n and for itself w h i l e also recog-
n i z i n g its p o t e n t i a l r e l a t i o n to f u r t h e r k n o w l -
edge. 116
This was also the case w i t h imaginative
visual representations.
The T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n w o r l d c o n t i n u e d to
be b o u n d by t r a d i t i o n a l m o d a l systems i n poetics,
music, calligraphy, and abstract i l l u m i n a t i o n .
Despite the increasing n a t u r a l i s m o f the post-
M o n g o l aesthetic synthesis i n the eastern Islamic
lands, the codified schematism o f i n h e r i t e d design
t r a d i t i o n s c o n t i n u e d t o prevail. The purely geo-
m e t r i c logic o f the hermetic design w o r l d depicted
i n the T o p k a p i scroll is an example o f that c o n t i -
nuity. M u c h as the musical and poetic modes had
become permeated w i t h mystical and cosmological
c o n n o t a t i o n s , an increasing p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h
Sufism and cosmology characterized the T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n architectural i n s c r i p t i o n s discussed i n
part 3, i n s c r i p t i o n s t h r o u g h w h i c h t w o - and three-
d i m e n s i o n a l girih patterns often were charged w i t h
specific messages. W o r k i n g w i t h i n the codified
molds o f a m o d a l system o f geometric p a t t e r n i n g ,
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n master builders were able to
THEORY
create an o r i g i n a l revetment aesthetic just as c o n -
t e m p o r a r y poets and musicians c o n t i n u e d to
recast t r a d i t i o n a l modes i n t o new expressions. The
endless p e r m u t a t i o n s and m o d a l variations o f
familiar patterns i n the T o p k a p i scroll explored the
l i m i t s o f a t r a d i t i o n a l design system endowed w i t h
a new sense o f t h e a t r i c a l i t y i n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
m o n u m e n t a l architecture.
Like c o n t e m p o r a r y poets w h o creatively trans-
f o r m e d t r a d i t i o n a l poetic models t h r o u g h r h e t o r i -
cal e l a b o r a t i o n , T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n builders and
their teams o f decorators sought to endow the
canonical forms o f the girih m o d e w i t h a distinc-
tive flavor o f t h e i r o w n . Poetry, the most presti-
gious c u l t u r a l u n d e r t a k i n g o f that age, engaged
b o t h the r u l i n g elite and the u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n s
( i n c l u d i n g artisans such as engravers, painters, cal-
ligraphers, and musicians w h o had achieved recog-
n i t i o n as poets). Its p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h "lavish
r h e t o r i c a l embellishments" and " o r n a m e n t a t i o n "
has been j u d g e d negatively by m o d e r n critics such
as Elias John W i l k i n s o n G i b b , w h o w r o t e that
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n poetry was " m a r r e d by an
excessive use o f r h e t o r i c , " s u m m a r i z i n g its features
as "subjectivity, artificialness and c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y ,
c o m b i n e d w i t h an ever increasing deftness o f
craftsmanship and b r i l l i a n c e o f artistry." Jan
Rypka s i m i l a r l y assessed the poetry o f t h a t p e r i o d ,
f r o m 1400 to 1520, as " m a r k e d by a c u l t i v a t i o n
o f h o l l o w r h e t o r i c and slavish i m i t a t i o n " and
an activity t h a t "degenerates i n t o a cult o f
affected artificiality." 1 1 7
M o r e recently Eva M a r i a Subtelny and Paul
Losensky have presented a m o r e sympathetic
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by placing T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
p o e t r y i n its proper c u l t u r a l and historical context
where i m i t a t i o n and i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y were most
h i g h l y valued. Subtelny w r o t e that i m i t a t i o n a l
poetry "was the means by w h i c h a poet established
h i m s e l f w i t h i n the collective Persian literary t r a d i -
t i o n w h i c h , by the fifteenth century, had become
an i n t r i c a t e web o f interrelationships and i n t e r d e -
pendencies between poets o f different generations
and distant localities." C o r r e l a t i n g the increasing
p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h i m i t a t i o n , w h i c h had become
" t h e touchstone o f the poet's s k i l l , " and the grow-
i n g i n t r i c a c y o f taste i n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n poetry,
she observed that the conservative dependence
" o n the elaboration o f set themes dictated by
c o n v e n t i o n " had o f necessity t u r n e d "refinement
o f expression" i n t o a " p r i m e focus." 1 1 8
According
to Losensky, t o o , i t was a "conservative process
o f c u l t u r a l s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n " t h a t had resulted i n a
poetic practice that was preoccupied w i t h collect-
i n g , preserving, and c o n s o l i d a t i n g the l i t e r a r y
past. This was a " p o e t r y that celebrates and revels
i n its o w n systematic c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y " and "is
by nature somehow static and catalogue-like" i n
its display o f all the "elements and codes that c o n -
stitute the poetic t r a d i t i o n . " Losensky n o t e d that
the " T i m u r i d penchant for standardization, repeti-
t i o n , and refinement" i n the visual arts was equally
p a r a m o u n t i n the l i t e r a r y a r t s . 1 1 9
The same t e n d e n -
cies can be i d e n t i f i e d i n the T o p k a p i scroll, w h i c h
represents the c u l m i n a t i o n o f a medieval design
t r a d i t i o n rather t h a n a new artistic d i r e c t i o n .
The T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n
i n f o r m e d taste patterns i n other fields o f artistic
 GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION
endeavor, i n c l u d i n g the visual arts and architec-
ture w i t h t h e i r dependence o n the kitdbkhdna
i n s t i t u t i o n n o t e d for its " a b i l i t y to absorb and
codify earlier t r a d i t i o n s . " Thomas W . Lentz and
G l e n n D . L o w r y n o t i c e d a parallel between c o n -
t e m p o r a r y poetry and the visual "interest i n the
rhetorical e l a b o r a t i o n o f repeated p a t t e r n s . " 1 2 0
Dawlatshah's Tadhkirat al-shu am
c
(Memoirs of
poets), c o m p l e t e d i n 1487, acknowledged that
tastes had changed and " t h e style o f the ancients"
was no longer a v a l i d c r i t e r i o n for c o n t e m p o r a r y
literary c r i t i c i s m . H e made the f o l l o w i n g c o m m e n t
about the i n c o n g r u i t y o f the simple style o f a
t e n t h - c e n t u r y poet and the m o r e elaborate tastes
o f his o w n day:
The fact w i l l seem strange to the i n t e l l i -
gent t h a t this verse is p l a i n (sddah) and
devoid o f r h e t o r i c a l devices and embel-
lishments (sandyf va baddyf) and vigor o f
style (matdnat), for, i f a poet were to pre-
sent p o e t r y like this at an audience o f
sultans and amirs nowadays, i t w o u l d be
rejected by his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . 121
Similar aesthetic j u d g m e n t s were made by other
T i m u r i d b i o g r a p h e r - c r i t i c s , such as N a w a ' i and
Jami, i n t h e i r tadhkiras t h a t according to Subtelny
"capture the very essence o f the affected refinement
and f o r m a l i n t r i c a c y (at times, even forced m a n n e r -
ism) o f the p o e t r y o f the late T i m u r i d p e r i o d . "
The master builders w h o a r o u n d the same t i m e
designed the T o p k a p i scroll's girihs also seem to
have felt t h a t earlier examples o f t w o - and three-
AND THE PSYCHOLOGY OF V I S U A L
d i m e n s i o n a l geometric patterns were somewhat
o u t d a t e d . T h e i r emphasis o n refined sophistica-
tions, achieved by i n f i n i t e l y elaborating and frag-
m e n t i n g standard schemes i n t o star-studded
i n t r i c a t e webs that at times acquire an almost
manneristic flavor, provides a s t r i k i n g parallel to
c o n t e m p o r a r y poetic tastes. The self-consciousness
o f this taste for artful refinements w i t h dazzling
displays o f c o m p l e x i t y is captured i n the i n s c r i p -
t i o n o f a muqarnas p r o j e c t i o n f r o m the Tashkent
scrolls, where the draftsman challenged his c o l -
leagues to decipher his ingenious c o m p o s i t i o n by
c o u n t i n g its tiers (see fig. 13). This rare i n s c r i p -
t i o n once again reflects the designer's p r i d e i n his
o w n creation t h a t t u r n s the bravura muqarnas
c o m p o s i t i o n i n t o a k i n d o f visual puzzle, a cere-
b r a l geometric game celebrating technical v i r t u o s -
ity. I t recalls the p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f c o n t e m p o -
rary poets w i t h c o m p o s i n g elaborate riddles
(mu ammd,
c
l i t . , " e n i g m a " ) whose verbal acrobatics
were f o r m a l exercises i n c o m p l e x i t y . 123
The
i n s c r i p t i o n sets the general tone o f the Tashkent
and T o p k a p i scrolls, whose r e p e r t o r y o f complex
girihs displays an a t t e m p t at b r i l l i a n t performance
and at o u t d o i n g earlier models. The t a x i n g girihs
c o m p i l e d i n these scrolls, w h i c h conspicuously
o m i t simpler p o l y g o n a l patterns, therefore can be
seen as visual analogues to the exaggerated rhe-
t o r i c a l flourishes so p r i z e d i n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
p o e t r y w i t h its taste for the i n t r i c a t e .
1 2 2
The T o p k a p i scroll's geometric girihs, often
accompanied o n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n b u i l d i n g s w i t h
a variegated r e p e r t o r y o f patterns derived f r o m
the seven modes o f abstract i l l u m i n a t i o n and f r o m
PERCEPTION 215
the codified scripts, subsumed medieval aesthetic
n o t i o n s revolving a r o u n d the pure qualities o f geo-
m e t r i c h a r m o n y , l i g h t , and color. A l t h o u g h i t is
difficult to judge whether T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n a r c h i -
tects and decorators were aware o f the p h i l o -
sophical speculations that had s u r r o u n d e d the
early medieval context i n w h i c h the girih m o d e
was i n v e n t e d , there is no d o u b t that they had fully
internalized a sophisticated geometric sensibility
t r a n s m i t t e d over the generations by scrolls and
w o r k s h o p practices, c o m p l e m e n t e d by copies o f
earlier practical geometry manuals. Whatever their
theoretical and p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d may
have been, h o w c o u l d the perfectly p r o p o r t i o n e d
geometric girihs o f the T o p k a p i scroll, meant to be
executed i n a variety o f differently t e x t u r e d mate-
rials bathed i n v i b r a n t colors, fail to aesthetically
move even the most visually illiterate audiences? 124
These technically refined and visually arresting gir-
ihs represented the final f l o w e r i n g o f a l o n g - l i v e d
medieval t r a d i t i o n i n w h i c h C h r i s t i a n and M u s l i m
architects shared the f i r m c o n v i c t i o n that the
p r o p e r geometric formulas assured b o t h the aes-
thetic effectiveness and the s t r u c t u r a l correct-
ness o f a b u i l d i n g .
CHAPTER 12. THE SEMIOTICS OF ORNAMENT
T h o u g h r o o t e d i n the t r a d i t i o n a l girih m o d e , the
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n revetment aesthetic codified
i n the T o p k a p i scroll t o o k o n a h i g h l y distinctive
appearance, b e c o m i n g a recognizable stamp o f
i d e n t i t y associated w i t h the r u l i n g elite's architec-
t u r a l patronage. As Lentz and L o w r y w r o t e :
I n e x p l o i t i n g older indigenous t r a d i t i o n s
and the kitabkhana m o d e l , the T i m u r i d s
p r o d u c e d ever m o r e e x h i l a r a t i n g results i n
the d e c o r a t i o n o f larger expanses o f sur-
face. F a m i l i a r patterns were recreated,
b u t the increased scale o f the visual field
endowed these schemes w i t h a force n o t
present i n smaller formats. . . . As T i m u r i d
p a i n t i n g makes evident, the c u m u l a t i v e
i m p a c t o f these schemes i n architecture,
costume, carpets and tents effectively ide-
alized royal spaces. A similar t r a n s f o r m a -
t i o n frequently occurred i n Persian p o e t r y
i n w h i c h the n a t u r a l w o r l d was trans-
f o r m e d i n t o a l u x u r i o u s , artificial setting.
These t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f the physical
w o r l d s u g g e s t . . . a deliberate analogy
between a stylized c o n t r i v e d realm and
the exclusive d o m a i n o f the p r i n c e s . 125
B u i l d i n g s lavishly sheathed w i t h extensive revet-
ments i n the new visual i d i o m signified prestige,
wealth, and privileged access to skilled c o u r t a r c h i -
tects and decorators. T h e i r labor-intensive, pre-
cious decorative skins f u n c t i o n e d as robes o f
h o n o r commensurate w i t h the relative status o f
architectural patrons. The T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n
revetment aesthetic was used n o t o n l y i n b u i l d i n g s
c o m m i s s i o n e d by the members o f the r u l i n g elite
b u t also to t r a n s f o r m earlier Islamic m o n u m e n t s .
The p o w e r f u l p a t r o n o f the arts N a w a ' i , for
example, is k n o w n to have u n d e r t a k e n several
r e s t o r a t i o n projects t h a t symbolically a p p r o p r i a t e d
o l d m o n u m e n t s t h r o u g h the a d d i t i o n o f new deco-
rative skins. A m o n g the m o n u m e n t s he restored
was the M a s j i d - i J a m i i n H e r a t , whose c o u r t y a r d
c
and entrances, between 1497 and 1499, received
mosaic tiles t h a t had become the unmistakable
h a l l m a r k s o f the T i m u r i d revetment a e s t h e t i c .
A r c h i t e c t u r a l revetments, t h e n , n o t o n l y
aroused subjective e m o t i o n a l responses b u t also
acted as p o w e r f u l i d e n t i t y markers that made the
r u l i n g dynasty's m o n u m e n t s and t e r r i t o r i a l b o u n -
daries legible. The T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n decorative
i d i o m e m b o d i e d a desire to be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a
preestablished visual t r a d i t i o n whose conventions
were creatively m a n i p u l a t e d . By contrast, i n the
p o s t - T i m u r i d era i n n o v a t i v e abstract visual i d i o m s
b o l d l y d e p a r t i n g f r o m the bondage o f the past
w o u l d be developed by i m p e r i a l c o u r t cultures
conscious o f t h e i r distinctive dynastic identities.
The t e r r i t o r i a l and c u l t u r a l boundaries o f these
c o m p e t i n g Islamic states were m a r k e d conspicu-
ously by increasingly differentiated sign systems
r a n g i n g f r o m costumes to official modes o f o r n a -
m e n t u n i t i n g various l u x u r y crafts. W h i l e the
smaller f r o n t i e r states o f the early m o d e r n Islamic
w o r l d , such as the Uzbeks o f Central Asia and the
sharifs o f M o r o c c o preferred to use architectural
revetments displaying retrospective tendencies,
the O t t o m a n s , Safavids, and Mughals i n v e n t e d
i n d i v i d u a l i z e d visual i d i o m s t h a t c o u l d h a r d l y be
126
confused by contemporaries (see figs. 9 4 - 9 8 ) .
Earlier decorative patterns were preserved, b u t
t h e i r i n t e n s i t y changed as they became i n t e -
218 PART 5 . GEOMETRY AND A E S T H E T I C THEORY

grated i n t o new grammars o f f o r m and color that and o l d words. interest i n stylistic novelty and i n the i n v e n t i o n
departed f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n Advance o n the p a t h o f y o u r heart and o f fresh i m a g e s . 129

precedents. The d i st in c ti v e decorative revetments
o f these three empires, w h i c h remained strictly
confined to the geographic boundaries c o n t r o l l e d
by each p o l i t i c a l entity, c o n t r i b u t e d to a height-
ened sense o f c u l t u r a l identity.
The p e r i o d a p p r o x i m a t e l y extending between
d o n ' t t u r n b a c k — d o n ' t go c i r c l i n g
a r o u n d someone else's poetry. . . .
A b a n d o n others' i m a g i n a t i o n s , for
calling an adopted boy " s o n " does n o t
make h i m one.
Be happy w i t h w h a t G o d has given:
A c c o r d i n g to Losensky it was "precisely the
acute awareness o f the accomplishments o f their
literary predecessors that gave such urgency to
the Safavid-Mughal poet's call for o r i g i n a l i t y , "
expressed by an increasing reliance o n direct d i v i n e
i n s p i r a t i o n as a source for poetic freshness. 130

the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries displayed Be a seeker o f God-given m e a n i n g .
w h a t may be called a p r o t o m o d e r n ethos charac- —Abu al-Fayz Fayzi ( d . 1595-1596),
terized by g r o w i n g "secular" tendencies and the Akbar's poet laureate
relative desacralization o f the p u b l i c sphere, an
increasing independence f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e ,
I f the market for poetry's wares is
and at the same t i m e a reluctance to sever ties
depressed these days, K a l i m , make the
f r o m the past. Signs o f confident change appeared
style fresh so it catches the buyer's eye.
everywhere, i n c l u d i n g l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , w h i c h
—Abu Talib Kalim ofKashan ( d . 1651),
c o n t i n u e d to u p h o l d i m i t a t i o n b u t n o w began to
Shah Jahan's poet laureate
emphasize creative departures f r o m the c u m u l a -
tive weight o f t r a d i t i o n . The f e r m e n t a t i o n o f the
o l d and new i n b o t h visual aesthetics and poetics W r i t e r s consider me the master, for f r o m
involved a simultaneous acknowledgment o f debt meanings and words
A s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e is encountered i n the Qdnun
al-suwar by Sadiqi Bek, w h o discouraged Safavid
m i n i a t u r e painters specializing i n narrative fig-
u r a l p a i n t i n g f r o m i m i t a t i n g earlier models and
urged t h e m to t u r n d i r e c t l y to nature for guidance:
" I n this p a r t i c u l a r genre, o n l y a fool w o u l d t h i n k
to p a r o d y the works o f the past great masters;
the results c o u l d o n l y be a self-inflicted b e l a b o r i n g
over a pointless pastiche (tatabbu ). 0
Moreover,
whether there has already been a M a n i and a
Bihzad, h o w else [except t h r o u g h the direct
observation o f nature] c o u l d one break free o f
the c r u s h i n g weight o f past perfection?" 1 3 1

to the past and a boasting o f mastery over the
new. 1 2 7
Losensky i d e nt if ie d an o u t s p o k e n spirit
o f i n n o v a t i o n i n Safavid-Mughal poetics, w i t h its
"aesthetics o f the new," w h i c h differed f r o m the
" c o n s o l i d a t i n g and systematizing i m p u l s e " o f
the largely conservative o u t l o o k o f the T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n p e r i o d . H e q u o t e d the f o l l o w i n g poems
by M u g h a l and Safavid poets as examples o f the
new d o c t r i n e o f o r i g i n a l i t y :
So t h a t p o e t r y m i g h t be a d o r n e d by
I have b r o u g h t o u t the fresh style, n o t the A l t h o u g h Sadiqi Bek r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t i l l u m i -
ancient manner. nators i m i t a t e c o n v e n t i o n a l abstract modes, there,
— Saib ofTabriz (1603-1677), as i n narrative m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g , one c o u l d sense
Shah Abbas n's poet laureate the development o f a somewhat m o r e naturalistic
sensibility t h a t c u l m i n a t e d w i t h the s u b o r d i n a t i o n
The quest for i n n o v a t i o n w o u l d result i n the o f the r i g i d l y geometric girih m o d e to a p r e d o m i -
i n v e n t i o n o f a d i st i n ct i ve "fresh i d i o m " or style n a n t l y vegetal aesthetic i n the Safavid c o u r t . The
(shiwa-i tdza or tarz-i tdza), generally k n o w n as i n v e n t i o n o f seminaturalistic vegetal-floral decora-
I n d i a n (sabk-i Hindi), that evaluated, revised, and tive i d i o m s i n the c o u r t ateliers o f the three
re-created the T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n poetic t r a d i - early m o d e r n empires signaled changing patterns
tion. 1 2 8
Its repercussions were also felt i n the o f taste t h a t relegated the cerebral acrobatics o f

y o u , there m u s t be new meanings O t t o m a n w o r l d where l i t e r a t i displayed a similar geometry to a m i n o r role (see figs. 9 4 - 9 8 ) . The

fallen c u l t u r a l prestige o f geometry is captured i n
SlinbuTzade's eighteenth-century versified b o o k
o f advice addressed t o his son: " D o n o t esteem
geometry, / Avoid getting caught i n that circle o f
d i s t r a c t i o n . " I n a d d i t i o n t o reflecting the increas-
i n g n a t u r a l i s m o f the early m o d e r n ethos, the new
i d i o m s o f o r n a m e n t articulated self-consciously
forged dynastic identities t h r o u g h the creation o f
hegemonic "visual r e g i m e s . " 132
T h e conspicuous
m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n o f angular geometric surface
revetments b y curvilinear vegetal patterns i n the
classical Safavid style o f the late sixteenth and sev-
enteenth centuries served as a b o u n d a r y marker
between the contested Safavid and Uzbek t e r r i t o -
ries i n Khurasan beyond w h i c h the p r e d o m i n a n t l y
geometric T i m u r i d visual i d i o m prevailed.
A similar aesthetic b o u n d a r y had been created
i n the second h a l f o f the sixteenth c e n t u r y between
the Safavid and O t t o m a n domains. T h e emergence
o f the classical O t t o m a n style i n the 1540s a n d
1550s precisely at a t i m e w h e n the two rival powers
were b i t t e r l y t o r n b y ideological and m i l i t a r y
conflict p a r t l y explains the d i m i n i s h i n g receptivity
to Persianate architectural revetments i n those
years. The p r e d o m i n a n t l y floral decorative vocabu-
lary invented i n the O t t o m a n c o u r t ateliers at that
t i m e was applied i n b o l d color schemes t o such
varied media as underglaze I z n i k tiles, w a l l p a i n t -
ing, manuscript illumination, painted woodwork,
textiles, tents, carpets, m e t a l w o r k , and stone carv-
i n g . B u i l d i n g s , furnishings, and l u x u r y objects
w i t h a unified decorative skin projected a recog-
nizable O t t o m a n dynastic image. This cohesive
THE S E M I O T I C S
system o f canonical signs, created i n the c o u r t
m i l i e u o f the capital I s t a n b u l and p r i m a r i l y associ-
ated w i t h the r u l i n g elite, played an i m p o r t a n t
role i n visually cementing the vast realms o f the
empire. 1 3 3
The c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f the classical M u g h a l visual
i d i o m d u r i n g the reign o f Shah Jahan was also
characterized b y a departure f r o m Persianate m o d -
els and the f o r m u l a t i o n o f a floral aesthetic p a r t l y
inspired b y European herbals. T h e r i g i d angularity
o f i n t e r l o c k e d polygons and stars once again
was displaced b y curvilinear forms displaying an
unprecedented degree o f n a t u r a l i s m . T h e M u g h a l
c o u r t h i s t o r i a n M u h a m m a d Salih K a n b u p o i n t e d
o u t that certain m o n u m e n t s b u i l t at Peshawar
i n a Persianate style under the supervision o f the
Persian noble A l i M a r d a n K h a n ( w h o had defected
c
f r o m the Safavid side t o the M u g h a l c o u r t i n 1638)
were n o t approved b y Shah Jahan, just as some
repairs at the Red Fort i n Lahore under the super-
v i s i o n o f Wazir K h a n (whose o w n b r i c k mosque i n
Lahore, completed i n 1634, is decorated w i t h t r a d i -
t i o n a l tile revetments and p a i n t e d plaster decora-
tions) were j u d g e d t o be unpleasing i n s t y l e . 134
The novel M u g h a l floral revetment aesthetic,
fully codified a r o u n d that t i m e under Shah Jahan's
i m p e r i a l i n i t i a t i v e , was n o longer responsive t o
Persianate models that had been cultivated e n t h u -
siastically u p t o that p o i n t t o articulate the m e m o -
ries o f a T i m u r i d past. This aesthetic development
p r o u d l y asserting an independent dynastic i d e n t i t y
once again t o o k place i n a context o f intense c u l -
t u r a l r i v a l r y and m i l i t a r y conflict w i t h the neigh-
OF O R N A M E N T 219
b o r i n g Safavids over contested territories i n the
Afghan b o r d e r , precisely the same type o f setting
i n w h i c h the O t t o m a n s had self-consciously c o d i -
fied their o w n dynastic image almost a century
earlier. Once the "fresh style" o f the M u g h a l c o u r t
was f o r m u l a t e d , m a n y o f the a n t i q u a t e d red sand-
stone b u i l d i n g s i n the Red Forts i n Agra and i n
Lahore were demolished and r e b u i l t i n the new
w h i t e marble i d i o m w i t h precious i n l a i d or l o w
relief flowers. T h e i n t e n d e d n a t u r a l i s m o f floral
inlays can be deduced f r o m K a l i m ' s description
o f the Taj M a h a l :
The inlayer has set stone w i t h i n stone,
As b o l d and precise as the dark spot
w i t h i n the t u l i p ' s heart.
Pictures become manifest f r o m every
stone;
Take a l o o k at the garden i n the m i r r o r .
They have i n l a i d stone flowers i n marble,
W h i c h surpass reality i n c o l o u r i f n o t
in fragrance. 135
This d e s c r i p t i o n , referring t o the superior real-
ity reflected i n the m i r r o r o f the designer's m i n d or
soul, shows that despite its increasing n a t u r a l i s m
the M u g h a l visual i d i o m was still b o u n d t o a c o n -
v e n t i o n a l m o d a l system o f aesthetics. Like c o n t e m -
p o r a r y poets w h o i n t r o d u c e d fresh images i n t o the
vocabulary o f poetry w i t h o u t radically t r a n s f o r m -
i n g the m e t r i c system they had i n h e r i t e d , M u g h a l
artists expanded their visual repertoire w i t h semi-
220 PART 5 . GEOMETRY AND A E S T H E T I C
naturalistic forms c o n f o r m i n g to the t r a d i t i o n a l
classification o f fundamental design modes. Floral
patterns based o n similar color schemes u n i f i e d
the artistic p r o d u c t s o f the M u g h a l c o u r t ateliers,
p a r t i c u l a r l y tents, textiles, carpets, w a l l paintings,
i l l u m i n a t e d manuscripts, and precious objects that
accompanied architectural s e t t i n g s . 136
The widespread early m o d e r n practice o f
r e m o v i n g the surface revetments o f earlier Islamic
m o n u m e n t s and replacing t h e m w i t h new ones
was n o t aimed merely at beautification. Some
examples, such as Sultan Suleyman I'S replacing
the exterior mosaics o f the Umayyad D o m e o f
the Rock w i t h O t t o m a n tile revetments (he s i m i -
larly t r a n s f o r m e d the surfaces o f the m a j o r M u s l i m
shrines i n Mecca and M e d i n a w h e n they came
under his c o n t r o l ) or Shah Tahmasp's p r o v i d i n g
the Great Mosque i n Isfahan (the u l t i m a t e symbol
o f S u n n i o r t h o d o x y d u r i n g the Seljuq p e r i o d ) w i t h
tile revetments i n the Safavid style c a r r y i n g S h i i c
i n s c r i p t i o n s , are sufficient to demonstrate the
ideological s i g n i f y i n g power o f architectural o r n a -
m e n t . Decorative revetments, w h i c h often used
a r i g i d l y restricted canonical vocabulary t h a t was
i m m e d i a t e l y recognizable, f u n c t i o n e d as e m b l e m -
atic i d e n t i t y markers visually expressing shifting
c u l t u r a l , sectarian, and p o l i t i c a l boundaries.
The same k i n d o f visual discourse relying o n the
subtle m a n i p u l a t i o n o f abstract sign systems was
no d o u b t operative d u r i n g the less d o c u m e n t e d
f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d o f I s l a m , t h o u g h scholarship has
deemphasized i t by favoring u n i t y over diversity.
Perhaps the d i s t i n c t i o n s were n o t as clearly a r t i c u -
THEORY
lated t h e n as they were i n the early m o d e r n era,
b u t still the semiotic p o t e n t i a l o f architectural
o r n a m e n t c o u l d h a r d l y be i g n o r e d . For example,
one o f the radical shifts i n early Islamic visual c u l -
ture was the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the sober aesthetic,
developed a r o u n d the locus o f M e d i n a at the t i m e
o f the Prophet and the egalitarian early caliphs
w h o openly dissapproved o f costly architecture,
i n t o the lavish i m p e r i a l i c o n o g r a p h y o f the U m a y -
yads, an i n n o v a t i o n opposed by the M e d i n a aris-
tocracy and later by r e c u r r i n g p u r i t a n movements
that w o u l d c u l m i n a t e by the m i d - e i g h t e e n t h cen-
t u r y i n W a h a b i s m , w i t h its intense aversion to
l u x u r i o u s o r n a m e n t and royal architecture.
T h a t the U m a y y a d a r c h i t e c t u r a l and decora-
tive i d i o m , developed by rulers w h o had trans-
ferred the seat o f caliphal power f r o m M e d i n a to
Damascus, was read by t r a d i t i o n a l circles as a
conspicuous departure f r o m o l d n o r m s is clearly
i m p l i e d i n the sources. D u r i n g his extravagant
r e b u i l d i n g campaign o f the Prophet's mosque i n
M e d i n a w i t h Byzantine-flavored mosaic revet-
ments resembling those used i n the Great Mosque
i n Damascus (see fig. 81), the U m a y y a d caliph
a l - W a l i d 1 (r. 705-715) had r e p o r t e d l y boasted to
the son o f the t h i r d caliph, U t h m a n ( w h o had
c
enlarged the same mosque i n the m i d - s e v e n t h cen-
t u r y ) , " H o w m u c h o u r mosque surpasses y o u r s ! "
c
U t h m a n ' s son allegedly replied, " C e r t a i n l y , b u t
that is because we b u i l t i t after the style o f the o l d
A r a b masjids, and y o u after the style o f C h r i s t i a n
churches." 137
This i m a g i n e d dialogue, most l i k e l y
i n v e n t e d to express later a n t i - U m a y y a d senti-
ments, nevertheless captures the ideological
associations o f visual forms. The U m a y y a d a r c h i -
tectural style developed i n Syria (a l a n d r i c h
w i t h late antique and Byzantine m o n u m e n t s ) was
n o t o n l y capable o f challenging the modest a r c h i -
tecture o f the early caliphs b u t also the extrava-
gant i m p e r i a l m o n u m e n t s o f the n e i g h b o r i n g
Byzantines. A w e l l - k n o w n passage by the t e n t h -
century author M u q a d d a s i (the grandson o f an
architect) shows that c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h the splen-
d o r o f lavishly decorated Syrian churches such
as the H o l y Sepulcher i n Jerusalem and those o f
Lydda and Edessa was one o f the central m o t i v a -
tions b e h i n d the a m b i t i o u s programs o f U m a y y a d
i m p e r i a l m o n u m e n t s , w i t h their extensive
mosaic r e v e t m e n t s . 138
The early Abbasid caliphate, t o o , eventually
developed its o w n system o f abstract visual signs,
t h o u g h the p i t i f u l l y few m o n u m e n t s r e m a i n i n g
f r o m that t i m e do n o t allow us to fully reconstruct
its e v o l u t i o n . I t c u l m i n a t e d i n the distinctive
Samarran beveled style whose m a n y local variants
unified and gave greater visual coherence to the
vast Abbasid realms (see figs. 8 4 - 8 7 ) . The abstract
sign systems subsequently f o r m u l a t e d by the three
rival early Islamic caliphates, that is, the later
Abbasids, the F a t i m i d s , and the Spanish Umayyads,
c o n s t i t u t e d a seemingly u n i f i e d visual c u l t u r e
clearly d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the ddr al-Isldm f r o m its
n o n - M u s l i m neighbors. Nevertheless, as the geo-
graphic confinement o f the girih at that t i m e (and
subsequently d u r i n g the S u n n i revival) to the ter-
ritories o f the Abbasid caliphs and t h e i r vassals

shows, the o r n a m e n t a l i d i o m s o f each caliphate
were subtly differentiated, n o t u n l i k e those o f the
three early m o d e r n empires. I t was n o t visual
s i m i l a r i t y , b u t difference, that c o m m u n i c a t e d c o n -
tested r e l i g i o p o l i t i c a l ideologies w i t h i n the exten-
sive M u s l i m domains whose i n t e r n a l boundaries
were m a r k e d by constantly s h i f t i n g abstract sign
systems capable o f conveying semiotic messages
to insiders w h o were familiar w i t h c u l t u r a l l y deter-
m i n e d codes o f r e c o g n i t i o n . Despite t h e i r apparent
u n i t y , these visual signs hardly constituted a h o m o -
geneous " I s l a m i c " style w i t h fixed horizons; dis-
c o n t i n u i t i e s and ruptures resulted i n a lively
spectrum o f c o m p e t i n g paradigms.
Hegemonic sign systems were f o r m u l a t e d i n
m a j o r u r b a n centers that often c o i n c i d e d w i t h
dynastic capitals, since the m a i n d r i v i n g force
o f paradigmatic shifts i n Islamic architecture
and decorative revetments was caliphal or royal
patronage. As I b n K h a l d u n n o t e d , i t was the
patronage p r o v i d e d by r u l i n g dynasties that n o u r -
ished n o t o n l y m o n u m e n t a l architecture b u t also
the increasing variety o f l u x u r y crafts i n p a r t i c u -
lar u r b a n centers characterized by t h e i r h i g h l y
developed sedentary c u l t u r e . These centers were
prosperous capitals and a n e t w o r k o f other cities
where the dynasty was "at the r o o t o f " c u l t u r a l
patronage:
I t is the r u l i n g dynasty that demands crafts
and t h e i r i m p r o v e m e n t . I t causes the
d e m a n d for t h e m and makes t h e m desir-
able. Crafts n o t i n d e m a n d w i t h the dy-
THE S E M I O T I C S
nasty may be i n d e m a n d w i t h the other
inhabitants o f a city. However, that w o u l d
n o t be the same t h i n g , for the dynasty is
the biggest market. There, everything can
be m a r k e t e d . 139
A c c o r d i n g to I b n K h a l d u n the perfection o f the
l u x u r y crafts and the patronage o f m o n u m e n t a l
architecture was p r o p o r t i o n a t e to the power o f
royal a u t h o r i t y i n certain c i t i e s . 140
Painfully aware
o f the m o r e advanced nature o f sedentary c u l t u r e
i n the eastern Islamic w o r l d i n c o m p a r i s o n to the
M a g h r i b d u r i n g his o w n t i m e , he w r o t e :
I t is true that the o l d cities, such as
Baghdad, al-Basrah, and a l - K u f a h , w h i c h
were the [ o r i g i n a l ] mines o f scholarship,
are i n r u i n s . However, G o d has replaced
t h e m w i t h cities even greater t h a n they
were. Science was transplanted f r o m the
[early centers] to the n o n - A r a b I r a q o f c
Khurasan, to Transoxania i n the East, and
to Cairo and adjacent regions i n the West.
These cities have never ceased to have an
abundant and c o n t i n u o u s c i v i l i z a t i o n ,
and the t r a d i t i o n o f scientific i n s t r u c t i o n
had always persisted i n t h e m . The i n h a b i -
tants o f the East are, i n general, m o r e
f i r m l y r o o t e d i n the craft o f scientific
i n s t r u c t i o n and, indeed, i n all the other
crafts [ t h a n M a g h r i b i s ] . 1 4 1
This f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p i c t u r e , d o m i n a t e d
OF ORNAMENT 221
by the M a m l u k and T i m u r i d capitals, w o u l d once
again change i n the early m o d e r n era w h e n differ-
ent cities emerged as c u l t u r a l centers f r o m w h i c h
new dynastic tastes were disseminated. A c c o r d -
i n g to Ta likizade, for example, the m a j o r u r b a n
c
metropolises o f the sixteenth century were O t t o -
m a n I s t a n b u l , Cairo ( n o w under O t t o m a n r u l e ) ,
Safavid Tabriz, M u g h a l D e l h i , Rome, and Beijing,
a list reflecting the r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l
power that had marginalized earlier T i m u r i d c u l -
t u r a l centers i n Khurasan and Central A s i a . 142
I t was i n such shifting dynastic u r b a n centers
that distinctive architectural and decorative
i d i o m s often emerged all at once, w i t h o u t the
usual e v o l u t i o n a r y process o f development, and
gave a clear visual expression to changing i d e n t i -
ties. Canonical surface revetments played a cen-
tral role i n this process. N e w l y f o r m u l a t e d decora-
tive skins i m m e d i a t e l y transformed the surfaces
o f a w i d e variety o f objects, regardless o f p a r t i c u -
lar media, to create a sense o f c u l t u r a l homogene-
i t y w i t h i n hegemonic p o l i t i c a l f o r m a t i o n s that
b r o u g h t together a wide variety o f ethnic, religious,
c u l t u r a l , and l i n g u i s t i c components. T h o u g h
visual subcultures ( b o t h M u s l i m and n o n - M u s l i m )
often coexisted w i t h these d o m i n a n t visual
regimes, they generally had a l o w degree o f
conspicuousness. The a d o p t i o n or rejection o f
specific canonical visual i d i o m s i n n e i g h b o r i n g
satellite states was often a semiotically charged,
conscious expression o f p o l i t i c a l allegiances, m o d i -
fied by local t r a d i t i o n s and collective memories.
As such the visual regimes t h a t became d o m i -
222 PART 5. GEOMETRY AND A E S T H E T I C
nant i n various h i s t o r i c a l j u n c t u r e s were neither
universal expressions o f timeless Islamic doctrines
n o r regional dialects d e t e r m i n e d by geographic-
c l i m a t i c or ethnoracial factors. T h e i r f l u c t u a t i n g
mechanisms were regulated by the patronage pat-
terns o f m u l t i n a t i o n a l and m u l t i r e g i o n a l empires
or caliphates that significantly differed f r o m the
m o d e r n n a t i o n states o c c u p y i n g those regions
today. W h e t h e r they were r u l e d d i r e c t l y by a cen-
tralized dynasty or c o n s t i t u t e d decentralized yet
c u l t u r a l l y u n i f i e d loose confederations o f " c i t y -
states" (as i n the case o f the S u n n i revival), the
r h y t h m s o f these p o l i t i c a l configurations have n o t
yet been correlated w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g o r n a m e n -
tal i d i o m s i n the a r t - h i s t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . 1 4 3
The
d o m i n a n t paradigms i n the field o f Islamic art and
architecture, often fragmented along l i n g u i s t i c ,
geographical, and n a t i o n a l lines, or based o n u n i -
versalizing generalizations about u n c h a n g i n g
Islamic "essences," have p r o v e d inadequate i n
dealing w i t h the c o m p l e x dynamics o f visual
culture i n the Islamic lands.
Besides p o i n t i n g o u t the inadequacies o f exist-
i n g paradigms t h a t have accomodated misconcep-
tions about the arabesque, i n this study o f the girih
mode I have stressed the advantages o f a semiotic
f r a m e w o r k i n m e d i a t i n g the b i p o l a r categories o f
" m e a n i n g f u l " versus "decorative," derived f r o m
the m i m e t i c t r a d i t i o n o f Western figural art. Just
as there was no single universally accepted sym-
bolic m e a n i n g for the girih, a t o t a l absence o f
m e a n i n g s i m p l y w o u l d have been unlikely. The
polysemy o f the girih m o d e , and o f other abstract
THEORY
visual sign systems like i t , made the signification
process dependent o n context and privileged sub-
jectivity. The focus o n geometry, abstract patterns,
and calligraphy elevated t h e m to the level o f
p o t e n t i a l l y m e a n i n g f u l forms a r o u n d w h i c h v a r i -
ous groups or i n d i v i d u a l s c o u l d develop their o w n
systems o f associations. Far f r o m e m b o d y i n g an
i m a g i n e d h o r r o r vacui o f the Islamic psyche, t h e n ,
the covering o f surfaces w i t h variegated abstract
patterns reflected a desire to create densely
charged semiotic e n v i r o n m e n t s .
I n the Islamic visual regimes m o r e choices o f
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n were left to the viewer t h a n i n the
figural narratives and iconographically codified
representational symbols o f the C h r i s t i a n w o r l d .
Yet, as we have seen, a d d i t i o n a l pointers such as
i n s c r i p t i o n s often c o u l d guide visual c o n t e m p l a -
t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r directions that were n o t always
completely open-ended. Nevertheless, the very
abstraction o f Islamic visual signs made t h e m
adaptable to a wide variety o f settings, profane and
religious, i n c l u d i n g n o n - M u s l i m ones. The e n t h u -
siastic a d o p t i o n o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l geometric
interlaces, vegetal arabesques, muqarnas vaults
(such as those i n N o r m a n Sicily, Byzantine
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , M u d e j a r Spain, and the A r m e n i a n
m o n u m e n t s o f A n a t o l i a ) and o f pseudo-Arabic
i n s c r i p t i o n s outside the M u s l i m lands shows that
these h i g h l y flexible signs were always open to
being i n t e r p r e t e d as "decorative," " l u x u r i o u s , " or
" e x o t i c . " The receptiveness to Islamic abstract pat-
terns i n the L a t i n West and B y z a n t i u m testifies
to the shared aesthetic sensibilities h i g h l i g h t e d
t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k and underlines a certain
f l u i d i t y o f medieval i n t e r c u l t u r a l boundaries
despite religious differences. 144
Studying the visual
cultures o f the medieval European, Byzantine, and
Islamic worlds as i f they were unconnected blocks,
therefore, o n l y impoverishes o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e i r distinctiveness.
The girih m o d e , w h i c h I have analyzed i n terms
o f the ideological, i n t e l l e c t u a l , and aesthetic dis-
courses that s u r r o u n d e d i t , was one o f the c a n o n i -
cal visual i d i o m s t h a t d o m i n a t e d the Islamic lands
d u r i n g the early (950-1250) and late (1250-1500)
m i d d l e periods. Future research w i t h w r i t t e n
sources, accompanied by new archaeological evi-
dence, w i l l no d o u b t further clarify the nuances o f
these discourses whose general outlines I have o n l y
sketched. A m o r e systematic reading o f j u r i d i c a l ,
theological, mystical, scientific, p h i l o s o p h i c a l ,
and l i t e r a r y sources w i l l c o n t i n u e to y i e l d valuable
insights capable o f filling the gap created by the
paucity o f theoretical treatises o n architecture and
the arts.
Like the other modes o f abstract p a t t e r n i n g that
accompanied i t , the familiar decorative skin o f
the girih served to t r a n s f o r m the surfaces o f b u i l d -
ings and a w i d e variety o f objects, w i t h o u t being
restricted t o any specific m e d i u m . I t s i m u l t a n e -
ously p r o v i d e d an overall sense o f visual u n i t y to
the dar al-Isldm and h i g h l i g h t e d the vigorous
diversity w i t h i n t h a t w o r l d , w h i c h never consti-
t u t e d a homogeneous, m o n o l i t h i c bloc. I t was this
i n h e r e n t d u a l i t y o f abstract sign systems—both
l i n k e d to roots i n a c o m m o n l y shared Islamic past
 THE SEMIOTICS OF ORNAMENT 223

and at the same t i m e deviating f r o m t h e m t h r o u g h

distinctive t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s — t h a t assured their
r i c h c o m m u n i c a t i v e p o t e n t i a l . These polyvalent
visual signs e m b o d i e d b o t h an overall familial
resemblance and a studied i n d i v i d u a l i t y that served
to articulate i d e n t i t y and difference. I t was this
i n t e n t i o n a l double edge, encouraging subtle i n t e r -
nal visual dialogues w i t h i n the M u s l i m w o r l d ,
that assured the l o n g life o f the girih mode.
224
NOTES T O PART 5
1. Edna St. Vincent Millay, sonnet 22 in The Harp-
Weaver, and Other Poems (New York: Harper & Bros.,
1923).
2. Kahwaji 1971. The concept of taste is discussed in
Rahman 1965: "In aesthetics, dhawkis the name for the
power of aesthetic appreciation; it is something that
'moves the heart.' But although it is psychologically
subjective, it nevertheless requires objective standards
(idima ) for objectivity and verification."
c
3. For some examples of writing on music, see
d'Erlanger 1930-1934; al-Katib 1972; Ikhwan al-Safa'
1978; and Ibn Abd Rabbih 1942. For a tenth-century
c
treatise on calligraphy, see al-Tawhidi 1948. On calligra-
phy, see also al-Qalqashandi 1938, 41-45; al-Rawandi
1957-1960, 2: 403-11; and Taskoprizade 1895,130-36.
Biographical treatises on calligraphers and painters
appear in the post-Timurid period with the rising pres-
tige of the arts of the book. Some examples are
translated in Thackston 1989, 335-50, 353-56. See also
Ali 1926; Sadiqi Bek's Qanun al-suwar in Dickson and
c
Welch 1981,1: 259-70; and Qazi Ahmad 1959. The only
known biographical treatises on architects are from the
Ottoman period; see SaI 1989; and Cafer Efendi 1987.
c c
4. For medieval Europe, see de Bruyne 1946; and Eco
1986, 93.
5. Clinton 1979, 81, 92-93.For Sururi's work (which
is a synthesis of earlier Arabic, Persian, and Turkish
manuals on prosody) written in 1549 for the Ottoman
prince Mustafa, see Muslih al-Din Mustafa Sururi,
Bahr el-ma arif (Sea of knowledge), MS H. 659, fol. 5v,
c
Topkapi Sarayi Muzesi Kiituphanesi, Istanbul. For craft
metaphors, see also Meisami 1987, 316-37.
6. Among the rare exceptions are Ettinghausen 1947;
and Soucek 1972.
7. For the Brethren's popular audience, see Ibn
al-Haytham 1989, 2: 100. The availability of the Rasa'il to
such scholars as Ibn Sina, al-Ghazali, and Ibn Taymiyya
and the background, identity, and philosophy of the
Brethren of Purity is discussed in Kraemer 1986,165-78.
See also Fakhry 1983,163-81.
8. Fakhry 1983,166-67. For the Brethren's number
theory, in which the number one is associated with the
concept of tawhid, see Goldstein 1964.
9. Fakhry 1983,169-80. For theories of emanation
by al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd and their impact
on later Muslim and non-Muslim scholars, see Davidson
1992.
10.The quote is from Ikhwan al-Safa' 1978, 35-36.
For the epistle on music, see epistle 5 in idem 1928,1:
132-80.
11. Ikhwan al-Safa' 1978, 65-68. The Brethren's epistle
on love and beauty is translated in idem 1975, 257-96.
12. For love and beauty, see Plotinus 1956, esp.
PP- 57-59) 149- Ibn Sina's discussion of ideal beauty as
an object of love is in the metaphysical section of the
Kitdb al-Shifa' (Book of healing [of the soul]); see Ibn
Sina 1978-1985, 2: 106-7. See also Ibn Hazm 1953, 28.
The theme of love is also encountered in the Andalusian
writer and poet Ibn Abd Rabbih's (860-940) Iqd
c c
al-farid (The unique necklace), whose section on music
discusses the inexpressibility of musical beauty in words
and its ability to arouse love in the soul: "When it
appears, the soul falls in love with it and the spirit sighs
for it. And for that reason Plato says one part of the
soul should not be prevented from loving another"; see
Ibn Abd Rabbih 1942, 7.
c
13. Ikhwan al-Safa' 1978, 68.
14. Ibid., 7.
15. See epistle 6 in Ikhwan al-Safa' 1928,1:181-94; and
idem 1978, 26-27, 49-50.
16. Ikhwan al-Safa 1978, 49-50.
17. Ibid., 69.
18. Ibid., 49-51.
19. al-Rawandi 1957-1960, 2: 403-11; al-Qalqashandi
1938, 3: 41-45; Taskoprizade 1895, 130-36. See also
Sabra's commentary on the proportioned script in Ibn
al-Haytham 1989, 2: 99.
20. See al-Tawhidi 1948, where this saying is repeated
on pp. 6 and 15. Al-Tawhidi's acquaintance with the
Brethren is discussed in Kraemer 1986,165-68. For
ninth- and tenth-century mathematical treatises on
ratio and proportion, see part 4, n. 129, above.
21. Translated in Abu Deeb 1979, 282.
22. For Sabra's enlightening discussion of the con-
cept of proportion in medieval Islamic sources, see Ibn
al-Haytham 1989, 2: 99-101.
23. Ibid., 2: 97.
24. Ibid., 1: 138-207.
25. Ibid., 1: 205.
26. Ibid., 1: 205.
27. Ibid., 1: 201.
28. Ibid., 1: 139, 200, 203.
29. See the Philebus in Plato 1961,1132-33, where
Socrates says: "The beauty of figures which I am now
trying to indicate is not what most people would under-
stand as such, not the beauty of a living creature or a
picture; what I mean, what the argument points to, is
something straight or round, and the surfaces of solids
which a lathe or a carpenter's rule and square, produces
from the straight and the round. . . . Things like that
I maintain, are beautiful not, like most things, in a rela-
tive sense; they are always beautiful in their very nature,
and they carry pleasures peculiar to themselves which
are quite unlike the pleasures of scratching. And there
are colors too which have this characteristic."
30. Ikhwan al-Safa' 1978, 57.
31. Ikhwan al-Safa' 1928,1: 42.
32. Ibn al-Nadim 1970, 2: 608.
33. Proclus 1970, 29.
34. Ibid., 4.
35. Ibid., 18.
36. Ibid., 38, 87. Referring to the three ways of "mov-
ing upward" as outlined in the Phaedrus of Plato,
Proclus noted that just as the senses of sight and hearing
used beautiful objects and harmonious sounds as inter-
mediaries in their upward journey, the philosophic
nature turned to mathematical forms as stepping stones
toward intellectual understanding; see idem, 18.
37. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 2: 130-31. For the full quote,
see part 3, pp. 103-4, in the present volume.
38. Ibn Sina 1978-1985,1: 98.
39. Translated in Cantarino 1975,147.
40. For al-Ghazali, see Fakhry 1983, 217-32; and
Davidson 1992,127-80. For Ibn Sina's influence on
Aquinas and the prohibition of his works in Europe,
see Goichon 1971.
41. Cited in Ettinghausen 1947,165.
42. Ibid. Grabar defined ornament as a relationship of
love in The Mediation of Ornament, where he quoted
Plato's discussion on love in the Symposium: "Ornament
is itself or exhibits most forcefully an intermediate order
between viewers and users of art, perhaps even creators
of art, and works of art"; see Oleg Grabar 1992, 45.
43. Cited in Ettinghausen 1947,162.
44. Ibid., 164.
45. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 2: 397-98.
46. Translation mine; see Taskoprizade 1895, 405-6.
47. al-Dawwani 1839, 3 - For the inscription, see part
2
5, n. 37, above.
48. Ibid., 117-26.
49. See "Plotin et les origines de l'esthetique
medievale," in Andre Grabar 1992, 29-87. For a recent
critique and revision of Grabar's article, see Gurtler
1989. For Byzantine aesthetics, see also Mathew 1963.
50. Augustine 1950, chaps. 8-11.
51. For Augustine's theory of beauty, see Barasch 1985,
60-63.
52. For Boethius, see de Bruyne 1946, 1: 3-34.
53. For Grosseteste, see part 4, n. 91, above; de Bruyne
1946, 3: 134-35; and Crombie 1953. Theories of light and
vision are discussed in Sabra 1967; Lindberg 1967; idem
1976; and the chapter "The Aesthetics of Light," in Eco
1986, 43-51.
54. For the aesthetics of Aquinas, see de Bruyne 1946,
3: 317-28; Barasch 1985, 97-101; and Thomas Aquinas
1970.
55. Cited in Panofsky 1946, 63, 65. See also Kostof 1985,
325: "Proportional schemes are of course a function of
geometry, and geometry was, like music, an 'anagogical'

activity—that is, it had the ability to lead the mind from
the world of appearances to the contemplation of the
divine order. It is not surprising that so much attention
should be paid to geometric proportions in later medie-
val architecture, and that even in its wildest expressive
fury Romanesque sculpture should follow in its struc-
ture and composition a firm regimen of geometry."
For a critique of Panofsky's interpretation of Suger, see
Kidson 1987.
56. Eco 1986, 15.
57. Ibid., 16. For the "analogical mode of thought" in
medieval Persian poetics, see Meisami 1987, 30-39.
58. Plotinus 1956, 58. For Boethius, see de Bruyne
1946,1: 26-32. A survey of classical and medieval theo-
ries of imagination is undertaken in Bundy 1927; and the
chapter "Naissance d'images," in Vernant 1979,105-37.
59. For the relationship between artistic creativity and
dream inspirations, see Meier 1966, 423. The relation-
ship among dreams, imagination, and the imaginal
realm is discussed in Rahman 1966.
60. al-Tawhidi 1948, 9. Seneca wrote that the writer
should follow the example of the bee, who gathers nec-
tar from the flowers and breathing into it makes honey;
cited in Summers 1987,120.
61. Sai 1989, 52-56,140-42,172,118-19, fols. 2b-3a,
c
14b. The sixteenth-century Ottoman writer Eyyubi
described Sinan's inspired talent in similar terms, refer-
ring to his God-given power of sanctity by which
miracles are worked (kerdmet) and to his advanced spiri-
tual states: "Ana virmis. hiidasi cok keramet / Komis.
sadnnda anun ozge halat" (God has given him much
power of sanctity / Placing in his heart special spiritual
states). He praised Sinan as the "philosopher of the age"
(zamdne feylesofi) to whom Aristotle would have become
a disciple; see Eyyubi 1991,190. For Evliya (^elebi's refer-
ences to miraculous saintly powers in artistic creation,
see part 4, n. 132, above.
62. Ibn Sina 1968,14-15; idem 1963,14; Ibn Khaldun
1967, 2: 347. For the Brethren, see Wolfson 1935, 77. Ibn
Sina is also discussed in Kemal 1991,142-43.
63. Wolfson 1935.
64. Mahdi 1980, 45-46.
65. Summers 1987, esp. pp. 262-63; Wolfson 1935,
114-31. For Aquinas's discussion of the internal senses,
see de Bruyne 1946, 3: 317-28.
66. Summers 1987, 204.
67. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 2: 347.
68. Wolfson 1935, 69-95. For al-Kindi's discussion of
the internal senses, see Fakhry 1983, 86-88.
69. For the Brethren's discussion of the internal
senses, see Ikhwan al-Safa' 1975,187-208. For their
definition of "making," see idem, 519. The same
definition appears in epistle 8 in idem 1928,1: 211, 218.
NOTES TO PART 5
For the loftiness of the crafts, see idem 1975, 6-7; and
epistle 8 in idem 1928,1: 219-21. Not all crafts were con-
sidered honorable in Islam; their hierarchy is discussed
in Brunschvig 1962.
70. Ibn Sina 1978-1985,1: 98.
71. Wolfson 1935, 69-133; Davidson 1992, 89-123.
72. Wolfson 1935, 95-102. For Ibn Sina's theory of the
internal senses, see Gatje 1965; Fakhry 1983, 139-44; and
Ibn Sina 1952, 30-40. Al-Farabi's and Ibn Sina's theories
of imagination are explained in Kemal 1991, 89-169.
73. For al-Ghazali's classification of the inner senses,
see Fakhry 1983, 248-49; Davidson 1992,127-44; and
Wolfson 1935,101-4.
74. Cited from the Kimyd-i sa ddat (Chemistry of hap-
c
piness) in Ettinghausen 1947,163.
75. Cited in ibid., 163.
76. Cited in ibid., 164-65.
77. For a translation of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitdb
al-mandzir, see Ibn al-Haytham 1989; this source is also
discussed in Sabra 1978; idem 1987a; and idem 1989. For
the observatory in Islam, see Sayih i960.
78. Ibn al-Haytham 1989,1: 128.
79. Ibid., 1: 130.
80. Ibid., 1: 208-9, 223.
81. Ibid., 1: 129, 222.
82. Ibid., 1: 208.
83. Ibid., 1: 206.
84. Ibid., 1: 274-75.
85. Cited in Grabar 1978,144, and published in Goury
and Jones 1842-1845. For the Arabic inscriptions of the
Alhambra and their Spanish translations, see Garcia
Gomez 1985.
86. For the term im dn-i nazar, see Evliya Qelebi,
c
Seydhatndme, vol. 2, MS B. 304, fols. 22ir, 246r, Topkapi
Sarayi Miizesi Kiitiiphanesi, Istanbul; and idem vol. 3,
MS B. 305, fol. 47V, Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi Kiitiiphanesi,
Istanbul.
87. Translated in Kraemer 1986,163.
88. Translated in Abu Deeb 1979, 264-65. For the fre-
quent connection between art and magic in premodern
Islamic texts, see Biirgel 1988; and part 4, n. 132, above.
89. Soucek 1972,11-19.
90. The passages from Khwandamir are translated in
Thackston 1989, 205, 224. The eulogy of Ahmad Lahori is
cited from the collection of poems by his son Lutf Allah,
in Begley and Desai 1989, 267. See also Evliya Qelebi,
Seydhatndme, vol. 1, MS B. 304, fol. n8r, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi Ktittiphanesi, Istanbul; idem vol. 2, MS B. 304,
fol. 224V, Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi Kiitiiphanesi, Istanbul;
and idem vol. 4, MS B. 305, fols. 314V-315, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi Kiitiiphanesi, Istanbul.
91. Translated in Thackston 1989, 353, 355.
92. Translated in Dickson and Welch 1981,1: 259-70.
225
93. Translated in ibid., 1: 260.
94. Translated in ibid., 1: 264-65. For poetic imita-
tion, see Meisami 1987, 307-12.
95. Clinton 1979, 81, 92-93.
96. For the science of metrics, see Weil and Meredith-
Owens i960; and Elwell-Sutton 1987. The ideal forms
of the five circles were called buhur (from bahr, lit.,
"river"). In his prosody manual written in 1549, Sururi
drew six circles and referred to nineteen fundamental .
meters, the last three of which are generally described
as Persian meters that were added to the traditional six-
teen Arabic ones. He said that the fundamental meters
(buhur-i asliye) generated many variants, thirty-four
of which were famous among Persian poets; see Sururi,
Bahr el-ma drif, MS H. 659, fols. 6 r - i 8 r , Topkapi Sarayi
c
Miizesi Kiitiiphanesi, Istanbul. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 3:
375-76.
97. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 3: 379.
98. Ibid., 3: 342, 2: 346, 354-55-
99. Ibn Sina is cited in Fakhry 1983,140-41; and
Nizami Aruzi 1978, 32. Nizami Aruzi referred to artistic
c c
imagination (khiydl) as "a faculty located in the poste-
rior portion of the anterior ventricle of the brain, which
preserves what the 'Composite [or Common] Sense'
(hiss-i mushtarak) has apprehended from the external
senses, so that it remains in it after the subsistence of
the sense-impressions"; see idem, 8-12.
100. See al-Farabi's treatise on music, translated into
French in d'Erlanger 1930-1934,1: 23-24. For the con-
cept of maqdm and related bibliography, see Powers
1980.
101. d'Erlanger 1930-1934,1: 8-13, 30.
102. Ibid., 1: 39.
103. Ibid., 2: 40-48. For craft analogies in Persian
poetics, see Meisami 1987, 316-37; and Clinton 1979.
104. Goury and Jones 1842-1845, commentary on
pi. 10.
105. Wright 1993. Cafer Efendi correlated the twelve
c
principal modes (maqdm) of seventeenth-century
Ottoman music with the twelve signs of the zodiac and
their various derivatives with the four elements, the
seven planets, and the twenty-four hours of the day; see
Cafer Efendi 1987, 26-27.
c
106. Ibn Sina 1952, 38. For Ibn Sina's theory of the
hierarchical grades of abstraction, see idem, 33-56; and
idem 1968, 27-28, 46-48, 52-53. Sana'i is quoted in
Meisami 1987, 303-4.
107. For the Renaissance perspectivalism and the
Baroque vision, see Jay 1988.
108. Cheetham 1991.
109. For Matisse's fascination with the Islamic decora-
tive arts, see Bois 1993. For Fauvism and the arabesque,
see Benjamin 1993. The so-called Turkish painter's man-
226 NOTES TO PART 5
ual is cited in Cheetham 1991, 5, 19; and in Herbert 1958,
151 n. 21, where it is described as follows: "The copy, in
Seurat's hand, is in the Signac Archives. Mme Cachin-
Signac has established the fact that the original source
is a manuscript by the Turkish poet Vehbi Mohamed
Zunbul-Zade [i.e., Vehbi Siinbiilzade] (died 1809)."
Although Herbert suggested that this text must have
been based on an Ottoman original composed by
Siinbiilzade, Cheetham believed that it was an apochry-
phal text written by Gauguin himself; see Cheetham
1991, 5. I have not been able to locate Siinbiilzade's origi-
nal text to determine the degree to which Gauguin made
use of it. Extensive quotations from the "Turkish
painter's manual" were published in Gauguin's Avant et
apres; see Gauguin 1923, 55-59. These excerpts suggest
that Gauguin probably elaborated upon an original
Ottoman text that may well be discovered one day. The
manual recommends the use of primary colors and
deliberate ornamentation to efface the realism of repre-
sented objects in order to move the heart of connois-
seurs with a sense of beauty. For Siinbiilzade's literary
works, see Kopriilii 1966, 17-72,197, 208, 215-16, 306,
403; and Beyzadeoglu 1993. The "Turkish painter's man-
ual" is not listed among his known works.
110. Hodgson 1974, 2: 506. Dost-Muhammad's preface
and Dughlat's Tarikh-i Rashidi (History of Rashid) are
translated in Thackston 1989, 336, 349, 361-62. See also
Dughlat 1895.
111. For biographies of painters and calligraphers,
see part 5, n. 3, above. The petition is translated in
Thackston 1989, 332.
112. Translated in Cantarino 1975, 91-92. Ibn Sina
wrote, "The kind of objective truthfulness in poetry is
ugly from the standpoint of the art and what is neces-
sary for it"; see idem, 218.
113. Translated in ibid., 218-20.
114. For example, al-Jurjani clearly expressed a prefer-
ence for artificiality by declaring that "the best poetry is
that which lies most"; see ibid., 164.
115. For the role of wonder, see Kemal 1991,154-69.
116. See ibid., 161-62: "In the case of poetic utter-
ances, pleasurable awe is our response to the meaningful
harmony in their composition, and we must see it as
a qualitatively distinct experience even if it has parallels
with and eventually may even depend on demonstra-
tive certainty."
117. Gibb 1958-1967,1: 127-29, 2: 11-13; Rypka 1968,
281-82.
118. Subtelny 1986. According to Gibb, imitational
monorhyme poems were known as nazira, or parallel,
and poems written in emulation of longer works were
called jewdb, or response. He observed that the fascina-
tion with imitational poetry "lay in the endeavour to
outdo one's fellow-craftsman on his own chosen
ground"; see Gibb 1958-1967, 1: 99-100.
119. I am grateful to Paul Losensky for sending me the
chapters on Timurid-Turkmen and Safavid-Mughal
poetry from his Ph.D. dissertation at the University of
Chicago. See Losensky 1993. The tendencies in the visual
arts highlighted by Losensky are discussed in Lentz and
Lowry 1989.
120. Lentz and Lowry 1989, 221, 204.
121. Quoted in Subtelny 1986, 57-58. See also
Dawlatshah al-Samarqandi 1901.
122. Subtelny 1986, 59.
123. For the inscription, see Notkin 1995. This inscrip-
tion is transliterated and translated in part 1, n. 124,
above. The relationship between poetic enigmas and the
Timurid visual arts is discussed in Lentz and Lowry
1989, 284-85.
124. From the viewpoint of the psychology of aesthetic
perception outlined in Muslim sources, the question
that Golombek and Wilber asked about whether
Timurid audiences would have understood geometric
harmonization becomes irrelevant: "But could the
fifteenth-century person, even of raised conscious-
ness, distinguish a geometrically proportioned space
from one that was not? Alas, the question cannot be
answered! ... To what extent the average visitor was
sensitive to the geometric harmonization of the building
is impossible to gauge. There were probably enough
clues, however, in the surface decoration and vaulting,
to suggest deeper geometric involvement and to lead
him to the conclusion that the entire work had been
proportionally conceived. It matters not, therefore,
whether the total harmonization can be perceived in the
final product. It is sufficient that the observer believe the
principles of harmonization had been followed at the
stage of conception"; see Golombek and Wilber 1988,1:
211-12. This passage assumes that visual communication
had to be a conscious process, whereas the medieval
Islamic texts we have considered suggest that an uncon-
scious, mysterious emotional quality was at work that
transcended expression in words. No wonder, then, that
descriptions of objects or buildings rarely attempted to
linguistically articulate what constituted the basis of
visual beauty. Instead they tended to express wonder and
amazement, usually followed by remarks about the inex-
pressibility of aesthetic experience.
125. Lentz and Lowry 1989, 210.
126. For Nawa'i's restoration of the Great Mosque of
Herat, see O'Kane 1984, 70-72.
127. For the cultural ethos of the early modern age,
see Necipoglu 1993a. The theme of desacralization in
the early modern Ottoman world is treated in Kafadar
forthcoming.
128. Losensky 1993. The earliest examples of sabk-i
Hindi poetry were composed by the Persian poet Urfi
c
of Shiraz (1555-1590), who moved to India, and by his
associate Fayzi.
129. Gibb 1958-1967,1:129-30. The new style of
poetry emerged in the late classical age of the Ottoman
empire, enjoying popularity during the seventeenth and
early eighteenth centuries among such poets as Nef i c
and Nabi. For the reception of the sabk-i Hindi in the
Ottoman context, see Nabi 1994, 205-57.
130. Losensky 1993.
131. Translated in Dickson and Welch 1981,1: 264.
132. Translation mine. Cited from Siinbiilzade in
Beyzadeoglu 1993, 53: "Ptibar eyleme hendeseye / Diisme
ol da'ire-i vesveseye." For the term visual regime, see
Foster 1988, ix-xiv.
133. See Necipoglu 1990b; and idem 1992a.
134. Kanbu is cited in Riazul Islam 1970, 171.
135. Translated in Begley and Desai 1989, 82-83.
136. See Koch 1991; Asher 1992; and Welch 1985.
137. Cited from the Mamluk writer al-Samhudi's
(1440-1506) history of Medina in Creswell 1932-1940,
1: 149.
138. Muqaddasi is cited in ibid., 1: 66.
139. Ibn Khaldun 1967, 2: 286-87, 302, 347-52.
140. Ibid., 1: 347, 351-58; 2: 235-39, 351-463-
141. Ibid., 2: 430-31.
142. Talikizade Mehmed Subhi Qelebi b. Muhammed
c
el-Fenari, Tebriziye, MS R. 1299, fol. 38, Topkapi Sarayi
Miizesi Kutiiphanesi, Istanbul.
143. For an outline of shifting paradigms in palace
architecture, correlated with dominant political con-
figurations, see Necipoglu 1993b.
144. For a methodological discussion of the question
of intercultural exchange in Muslim and Christian fron-
tier societies and the fluidity of cultural identities in late
medieval Anatolia, see Kafadar 1995.
CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

LIST OF PATTERN TYPES The t w o - and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l drawings o f the
T o p k a p i scroll were generated by u n d e r l y i n g geo-
m e t r i c g r i d systems consisting o f i n k e d construc-
t i o n lines or u n i n k e d , incised lines. Based o n
a l i m i t e d vocabulary o f geometric shapes trans-
f o r m e d by the s y m m e t r y operations o f t r a n s l a t i o n ,
reflection, glide reflection, and r o t a t i o n , these
c o m p l e x drawings e x e m p l i f y the role o f a f o r m a l
g r a m m a r i n s t r u c t u r i n g design t h i n k i n g . Specific
p o i n t s o n the c o n s t r u c t i o n lines were connected t o
generate a final p a t t e r n or to create a secondary
g r i d n e t w o r k t h a t c o u l d be f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d i n t o
a m u l t i l a y e r e d design. I n these drawings weblike
linear crossings, or k n o t s , often f o r m star centers
w i t h n - f o l d r o t a t i o n a l symmetry, s u r r o u n d e d by
polygons, star polygons, and t h e i r fragments.
Points a r o u n d w h i c h design elements are radially
organized are often c o m p l e m e n t e d by vertical,
h o r i z o n t a l , diagonal, and o b l i q u e axes o f symme-
t r y along w h i c h elements are repeated or reflected.
C o m p l e x patterns w i t h s h i f t i n g r h y t h m s are some-
times stabilized by h i g h l i g h t i n g certain elements
w i t h color, or by emphasizing some lines and eras-
i n g others. A t times the generating g r i d lines c o n -
stitute an integral part o f the final p a t t e r n , b u t
m o r e often they act as u n d e r l y i n g u n i n k e d " d e a d "
c o n s t r u c t i o n lines t h a t structure the p a t t e r n .
The drawings o f the T o p k a p i scroll can be clas-
sified i n terms o f d i s t i n c t p a t t e r n types whose
shared characteristics are s u m m a r i z e d below. I t
is, o f course, possible to p r o v i d e a m o r e precise
m a t h e m a t i c a l classification based o n the u n d e r l y -
i n g s y m m e t r i c a l properties o f each d r a w i n g . Such a
231
classification using the scientific language o f sym-
m e t r y n o t a t i o n developed by g r o u p t h e o r y and
crystallography, however, falls beyond the p u r v i e w
o f this b o o k . The f o l l o w i n g classification c o n s t i -
tutes a descriptive catalog o f the T o p k a p i scroll's
contents, n o t a rigorous scientific analysis o f each
p a t t e r n . The catalog o f p a t t e r n types is f o l l o w e d
by a list o f i n d i v i d u a l drawings w i t h b r i e f descrip-
tions e x p l a i n i n g the possible functions and g r i d
systems o f each p a t t e r n and p r o v i d i n g guidelines
for future analysis.
Group I: Two-Dimensional Patterns Generated by
Squared Grids (cat. nos. 1, 37, 40, 43, 45, 47, 51, 65, 68b,
69a, 72a, 74-77, calligraphic details of cat. nos. 38, 41)
Drawings b e l o n g i n g to this g r o u p are t w o -
d i m e n s i o n a l calligraphic and geometric patterns,
or a c o m b i n a t i o n o f the t w o . They were i n t e n d e d
m a i n l y for bannai b r i c k masonry, a l t h o u g h they
c o u l d also be applied to other media such as
carved or p a i n t e d plaster, stone carving, w o o d -
w o r k , and mosaic tile w o r k . T h e i r squared grids,
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o d u l a r glazed or unglazed
b r i c k shapes used i n bannai masonry, facilitated
the task o f masons i n laying o u t p a t t e r n e d bricks
o f standard shapes i n 45, 90, and 135 degrees.
Repeat patterns o f this type were c o m m o n l y used
i n the exteriors o f T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n m o n u m e n t s
and i n t h e i r c o u r t y a r d facades covered w i t h revet-
ments i n the bannai technique. These b o l d pat-
terns, easily read f r o m a distance, were usually
232 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI
accompanied by m o r e i n t r i c a t e , m i n u t e l y rendered
c u r v i l i n e a r designs and cursive i n s c r i p t i o n s i n
mosaic or cuerda seca tile w o r k . Used sparingly, the
latter rarely counterbalanced the r i g i d a n gul a ri t y
o f geometric bannd'Tbvick masonry patterns so
d o m i n a n t i n the exterior revetments o f T i m u r i d -
Turkmen monuments.
M o s t drawings generated by squared grids
i n the T o p k a p i scroll consist o f square panels
i n w h i c h b o t h the g r i d n e t w o r k and the p a t t e r n
generated by i t are rendered i n b l a c k - i n k lines
(cat. nos. 1, 37, 43, 45, 47, 51b, 5 i f - h , 65, 76). Some
drawings i n this g r o u p , however, are d r a w n i n red
or orange i n k over a checkered black g r i d i n order
to separate the final p a t t e r n f r o m its u n d e r l y i n g
g r i d (cat. nos. 5ie, 5 i i , 68b, 69a). M o r e c o m p l i -
cated composite calligraphic designs are executed
i n several colors that indicate the s y m m e t r i c a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f different fields o f glazed bricks i n
varied colors. Some use black and red, or black
and orange (cat. nos. 75, 77), others a c o m b i n a t i o n
o f orange, yellow, and green, w i t h black l e t t e r i n g
(cat. n o . 74).
M o s t o f these square panels display r o t a t i o n a l
symmetry; t h e i r patterns revolve a r o u n d a fixed
center f o r m i n g an e i g h t - p o i n t e d star, square,
cross, or swastika at the m i d d l e o f the square
frame (cat. nos. 1, 37, 43, 47, 51b, 511. 69a, 74-77)-
Those t h a t are asymmetrical consist o f square
kufic calligraphy meant to be read i n a c o u n t e r -
clockwise d i r e c t i o n (cat. nos. 45, 5 i h , 65, 68b). The
r e m a i n i n g drawings generated by squared grids are
SCROLL
c o n t a i n e d i n rectangular frames t h a t f o r m either
self-contained panels or strips o f linear repeat
u n i t s , often possessing bilateral symmetry, meant
to be extended i n t w o directions (cat. nos. 37, 40,
51a, 5 i c - g , 72a). They, t o o , are color coded or
s i m p l y d r a w n i n black i n k , depending o n t h e i r
relative complexity. Patterns b e l o n g i n g to this
g r o u p i n c l u d e the calligraphic details o f cat. nos.
38 and 41 contained i n r o t a t e d square- and r h o m -
bus-shaped c o m p a r t m e n t s whose grids are c o m -
posed o f squares or rhombuses d r a w n i n black i n k .
The T o p k a p i scroll's geometric designs gener-
ated by checkered grids are all standard repeat
patterns d o m i n a t e d by squares, octagons, star
octagons, and their fragments, most o f w h i c h have
p r e - T i m u r i d precedents and also appear after the
T i m u r i d p e r i o d . The scroll's calligraphic patterns
consist o f relatively c o m m o n pious phrases or the
s y m m e t r i c a l l y repeated names Allah, c
Ali, and
Muhammad. Except for one h a d i t h i n s c r i p -
t i o n i n the naskhi script adapted to the bannai
technique (cat. n o . 51a), and a p a r t i a l Koranic one
(cat. n o . 74), none o f the square kufic designs
consists o f l o n g sentences or f u l l q u o t a t i o n s f r o m
the K o r a n . M o r e extensive i n s c r i p t i o n s , often
rendered i n the cursive scripts, were generally
designed by the professional calligraphers o f c o u r t
s c r i p t o r i a (kitabkhana or kutubkhdna) according
to the specific epigraphic programs o f i n d i v i d u a l
m o n u m e n t s . They are therefore absent i n the
T o p k a p i scroll, w h i c h does n o t i n c l u d e c u r v i l i n e a r
motifs d r a w n by painter-designers.
The square kufic i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the T o p k a p i
scroll are standard phrases that include the n i n e t y -
nine names o f G o d and w e l l - k n o w n Arabic pious
aphorisms such as the M u s l i m professions o f faith
"There is no G o d b u t G o d and M u h a m m a d is his
P r o p h e t , " " M u h a m m a d is the Prophet o f G o d , "
"Praise be to G o d , " " G o d is Great," "Sovereignty
is God's," "Generosity is God's," and " A u t h o r i t y
is God's," occasionally accompanied by Persian
phrases such as " M a y He be Blessed." C o n t a i n e d
i n framed panels, such i n s c r i p t i o n s — m o s t o f t h e m
easily legible b u t some r e q u i r i n g a greater effort
to decode—became a t r a d e m a r k o f T i m u r i d -
T u r k m e n m o n u m e n t a l epigraphy. They p r o v i d e d
a calligraphic analogue to the geometric c o m -
positions t h a t often accompanied t h e m , b o t h
generated by squared grids related to standard
b r i c k shapes.
Group II: Two-Dimensional Patterns Generated
by Triangulated Grids (cat. nos. 71, 91)
O n l y two drawings i n the T o p k a p i scroll were gen-
erated by isometric grids composed o f equilateral
triangles i n contact, d r a w n i n black i n k . B o t h o f
t h e m depict hexagonal calligraphic medallions
w i t h r o t a t i o n a l symmetry. Such t r i a n g u l a t e d grids
( w i t h m u l t i p l e s o f 60-degree angles t h a t give the
designer c o n t r o l over h o r i z o n t a l and diagonal
r h y t h m s ) were c o m m o n l y used i n generating
geometric patterns based o n the hexagon and

its derivatives. They are d o m i n a t e d i n the T o p k a p i
scroll by squared grids w i t h patterns f o r m i n g 45-,
90-, and 135-degree angles better suited t o the
standardized b r i c k shapes o f bannai masonry.
Group III: Two-Dimensional Star-and-Polygon
Patterns Generated by Composite Radial Grids
(cat. nos. 4a, 8, 10b, 28-36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 46, 48-50,
52-64, 66, 67, 68a, 69b, 70,72b-d, 73, 81a, 90a, 105,114)
These patterns were generated b y s u b d i v i d i n g
w i t h equidistant r a d i i the circumferences and
arcs o f composite systems o f concentric circles,
d i s t r i b u t e d at congruent intervals o n an i n f i n i t e l y
extendable plane and often cut b y h o r i z o n t a l ,
vertical, diagonal, and o b l i q u e axes o f d y n a m i c
symmetry. P r o l o n g i n g the p o i n t s o r r a d i i o f stars
generated b y such u n i n k e d radial grids i n straight
lines u n t i l they meet creates i n t e r l o c k i n g polygons,
star polygons, and t h e i r fragments, displaying a
h i g h degree o f symmetry. The largest stars i n each
p a t t e r n f o r m n-fold r o t a t i o n a l symmetry, w i t h the
smaller p e r i p h e r a l stars revolving a r o u n d t h e m
possessing lesser degrees o f r o t a t i o n a l symmetry,
so that the plane as a w h o l e is studded w i t h r o t o -
centers o f differing intensities.
The c o m p o s i t i o n o f star-and-polygon patterns
i n t e r l o c k i n g i n an i n f i n i t e variety o f angles, there-
fore, involves a search for p e r m u t a t i o n s o f pos-
sible arrangements o f star centers i n a plane. T h e
n u m b e r o f possibilities is l i m i t e d b y the precise
LIST
way i n w h i c h each star center has t o be related t o
its s u r r o u n d i n g neighbors, since the correct rela-
tive sizes o f congruent tilings o f m u l t i p l e star
m o t i f s f o l l o w fixed geometric rules. The w i d e v a r i -
ety o f repeat units for such patterns i n c l u d e d i n
the T o p k a p i scroll reveals t h a t its designers were
well versed i n these u n d e r l y i n g geometric rules
that they skillfully m a n i p u l a t e d .
N o t every p a t t e r n was suitable for the differ-
ently p r o p o r t i o n e d panels t h a t fragment the sur-
faces o f T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n m o n u m e n t s . T h e
square o r rectangular frames o f revetment panels
composed o f star centers d i s t r i b u t e d at regular
intervals corresponded t o certain p r o p o r t i o n a l
relationships. Generally each corner o f such q u a d -
rangular panels was occupied by a quarter star, b u t
some o f t h e m also featured h a l f stars along t h e i r
sides. Square panels were d o m i n a t e d b y patterns
w i t h f o u r - , eight-, o r twelve-sided stars and p o l y -
gons f o r m i n g 45-, 90-, and 135-degree angles.
Repeat u n i t s w i t h hexagonal stars and polygons
were suitable for rectangular panels whose diago-
nals f o r m e d a 60-degree angle w i t h the base.
Panels composed o f five- and t e n - p o i n t e d stars
i n t e r l o c k i n g w i t h pentagons and decagons, h o w -
ever, were based o n rectangular repeat units whose
diagonal f o r m e d an angle o f 36 degrees. This
explains w h y so m a n y variants o f similar star-and-
p o l y g o n patterns contained i n differently p r o p o r -
t i o n e d quadrangular repeat u n i t s are i n c l u d e d
i n the T o p k a p i scroll. The scroll also has some
examples o f star-and-polygon patterns i n rectan-
OF P A T T E R N TYPES 233
gular o r square frames adapted t o the curved
profiles o f arched panels (cat. nos. 35, 39,105) as
well as t r i a n g u l a r o r kite-shaped designs (cat.
nos. 4a, 10b, 90a) for the curved surfaces o f vaults.
W i t h a practical knowledge o f the angular p r o p -
erties o f polygons and star polygons generated b y
u n i n k e d radial g r i d systems o r i e n t e d along axes
o f d y n a m i c symmetry, a p a t t e r n c o u l d be f o u n d t o
suit a revetment panel o f almost any p r o p o r t i o n .
The t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l star-and-polygon patterns
o f the T o p k a p i scroll were p r i m a r i l y i n t e n d e d for
mosaic tiles and the inset technique (using plaques
made o f mosaic o r cuerda seca tile w o r k ) . The inset
technique allowed the designer t o accentuate some
geometric c o m p a r t m e n t s w i t h plaques bearing
c u r v i l i n e a r vegetal motifs o r rosettes. A few star-
a n d - p o l y g o n patterns i n the scroll feature t h i c k
outlines (cat. nos. 50, 53, 57, 61) that w o u l d have
been translated i n t o mosaic tile w o r k as sepa-
rate bands o u t l i n e d b y parallel lines, u n l i k e the
m a j o r i t y o f patterns w i t h t h i n lines i n d i c a t i n g c o n -
tiguous borders o f i n t e r l o c k i n g forms. Star-and-
p o l y g o n patterns were also c o m m o n l y used i n
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n carved o r p a i n t e d plasterwork,
largely confined t o i n t e r i o r s , and less frequently
i n stone carving and w o o d w o r k .
(III. i.) Patterns with Dotted or Solid Grid Lines
(cat. nos. 4a, 28, 29, 31-34, 44, 48, 50, 52-64,
72c-d, 90a)
A large n u m b e r o f star-and-polygon patterns i n
the T o p k a p i scroll are p r o v i d e d w i t h u n d e r l y i n g
234 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND D R A W I N G S
d o t t e d or c o l o r - c o d e d solid g r i d lines, defining
polygons i n contact or stars i n t e r l o c k i n g w i t h p o l y -
gons. These grids are accentuated w i t h r e d - or
b l a c k - d o t t e d lines, w i t h the black dots gone over
i n solid orange or w i t h solid orange and red lines,
so that they clearly stand o u t f r o m the final star-
a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n d r a w n i n black i n k . I n one
example (cat. n o . 4a) o n l y a b l a c k - d o t t e d g r i d o f
polygons i n contact is s h o w n , w i t h o u t p r o v i d i n g
the final p a t t e r n generated by i t . This g r o u p can
be d i v i d e d i n t o three subsets:
(Ill.i.a.) Grids with Stars and Polygons in Contact
(cat. nos. 28, 29, 31, 32, 34)
I n these examples some p o i n t s o f g r i d lines repre-
sented by black dots gone over i n solid orange
coincide w i t h the centers o f stars or polygons
d r a w n i n smaller scale i n black i n k . The orange
grids t h a t delineate stars and polygons i n contact,
t h e n , d e t e r m i n e the c o n g r u e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
smaller star centers w i t h i n each repeat u n i t . These
grids often consist o f quarter stars t h a t occupy one
or t w o diagonal corners o f a repeat u n i t (cat. nos.
28, 29, 31, 32, 34); some o f t h e m also feature h a l f
stars along the edges (cat. nos. 31, 34). Occasion-
ally, u n i n k e d o b l i q u e axes o f s y m m e t r y cut the
repeat u n i t i n t o congruent sections (cat. n o . 34),
d e t e r m i n i n g the p o i n t s where the centers o f h a l f
stars and h a l f polygons d r a w n i n black i n k fall
along the edges o f the outer frame.
I t is the respective p o s i t i o n i n g o f h a l f stars
along the sides and o f quarter stars at the corners
o f repeat u n i t s t h a t guides the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the
I N THE T O P K A P I SCROLL
orange g r i d lines t h a t generate star-and-polygon
patterns o n a smaller scale d r a w n i n black i n k .
These drawings, t h e n , consist o f t w o superimposed
layers o f p r o p o r t i o n a l l y related star-and-polygon
patterns i n different scales, the larger master g r i d
h i g h l i g h t e d i n orange, and the smaller patterns
generated by i t o u t l i n e d i n black. The designer
c o u l d either juxtapose the two systems o f super-
i m p o s e d drawings i n the final executed p a t t e r n
or e l i m i n a t e one o f t h e m . I n one example (cat.
no. 28) three layers o f p a t t e r n are superimposed: a
d o t t e d g r i d o f polygons i n contact, an orange g r i d
w i t h stars and polygons i n contact, and a b l a c k - i n k
star-and-polygon p a t t e r n generated by the first
two g r i d systems.
(III.Lb.) Grids with Polygons in Contact (cat. nos.
28 33, 44, 48, 50, 52-58, 60, 62-64,
y 7 d,
2
90a)
I n these examples d o t t e d or solid g r i d lines i n red
that define polygons i n contact generate i n t e r l o c k -
i n g stars and polygons by means o f two crossing
straight lines i n black i n k t h a t bisect the sides
o f the p o l y g o n a l grids. I n several examples (cat.
nos. 48, 53, 54, 56) some o f the r e d - d o t t e d g r i d
lines are trisected by pairs o f t w o crossing black-
i n k lines. The crossed lines t h a t bisect or trisect
the sides o f d o t t e d polygons i n contact f o r m s i m i -
lar angles; they are p r o l o n g e d u n t i l they meet lines
e m a n a t i n g f r o m n e i g h b o r i n g polygons.
I n such drawings the p o i n t s o f smaller-scale
star-and-polygon patterns rendered i n black i n k
i n v a r i a b l y fall o n t o the centers o f the sides o f the
d o t t e d polygons i n w h i c h they are c o n t a i n e d (the
o n l y exceptions are drawings w i t h trisected g r i d
lines). The repeat u n i t s o f these polygonal grids
feature different c o m b i n a t i o n s o f corner quarter
stars and o f lateral h a l f stars. The most c o m m o n
c o m b i n a t i o n consists o f t w o quarter stars at
adjacent corners and one h a l f star situated i n the
m i d d l e o f the opposite side (cat. nos. 33, 44, 56,
58, 60, 6 2 - 6 4 ) . A n o t h e r c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t w o
quarter stars at opposite diagonal corners results
i n m o r e d y n a m i c c o m p o s i t i o n s i n v o l v i n g diag-
onal and o b l i q u e axes o f s y m m e t r y that cut the
repeat u n i t i n t o congruent sections (cat. nos. 50,
52-55> 57, 72d).
The p o l y g o n a l grids that p r i m a r i l y served as
guidelines for artisans were meant t o be e l i m i -
nated f r o m the final executed p a t t e r n . These p o l y -
gons i n contact, w h i c h condensed u n i n k e d radial
g r i d lines o f concentric circles s u b d i v i d e d by
equidistant r a d i i i n t o s h o r t h a n d formulas, m u s t
have facilitated the transfer o f c o m p l e x patterns
o n t o w a l l surfaces.
(III.Lc.) Grids Featuring Squares with Four
Prolonged Sides (cat. nos. 59, 61, 72c)
This g r o u p o f drawings is based o n composite
grids c o m b i n i n g u n i n k e d radial networks and r e d -
d o t t e d small squares w i t h four p r o l o n g e d sides
t h a t p r o p o r t i o n a l l y cut the larger square repeat
u n i t s c o n t a i n i n g t h e m i n t o congruent parts. These
c o n g r u e n t parts consist o f a central square sur-
r o u n d e d either by four triangles or by four rec-
tangles. T w o o f the examples b e l o n g i n g to this
category (cat. nos. 61, 72c) have square repeat

u n i t s w i t h a r e d - d o t t e d smaller square o f four p r o -
longed sides i n the m i d d l e (one o f t h e m r o t a t e d ) .
The f o u r p o i n t s at w h i c h the p r o l o n g e d sides o f
the i n n e r square meet the f r a m i n g outer square
d e t e r m i n e the centers o f the quarter o r h a l f stars
that generate the p a t t e r n d r a w n i n black i n k .
A t h i r d v a r i a n t using this type o f composite
g r i d is the square repeat u n i t o f a p a t t e r n symmet-
rically d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r quarters, each c o n t a i n i n g
a r e d - d o t t e d r o t a t e d square o f f o u r p r o l o n g e d
sides (cat. n o . 59). Once again the p o i n t s at w h i c h
the d o t t e d lines intersect the f r a m i n g outer square
d e t e r m i n e the centers o f quarter and h a l f stars
generated b y u n i n k e d radial g r i d lines. The four
d o t t e d lines intersecting at the m i d d l e o f the c o m -
p o s i t i o n define the center o f yet another star w i t h
six p o i n t s . The d o t t e d g r i d lines were p r o b a b l y
e l i m i n a t e d f r o m the final p a t t e r n .
(IILii.) Patterns without Dotted or Solid Grid Lines
(cat nos. 8,10b, 30, 35, 36, 38, 3% 4h 42, 4$> 49> 66> 67>
68a, 69b, 70, 72b, 73, 81a, 105,114)
This g r o u p o f s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns does n o t
feature d o t t e d o r s o l i d g r i d lines. Its patterns are
generated b y u n i n k e d radial grids accompanied
by u n i n k e d axes o f d y n a m i c symmetry. They are
all d r a w n i n black i n k , w i t h some elements h i g h -
l i g h t e d i n orange. The patterns are m o s t l y c o n -
t a i n e d i n square o r rectangular repeat u n i t s , w i t h
the exception o f a slightly curved t r i a n g u l a r pat-
t e r n o f a vault section (cat. n o . 10b). This g r o u p
can be d i v i d e d i n t o three subsets:
LIST
(IILii.a.) Patterns Generated by Uninked Radial
Grids Oriented along Axes of Dynamic Symmetry
nos. 8,10b, 30, 35,36, 39, 42, 46, 66, 72b, 73, 81a, 105)
I n most o f the square and rectangular repeat
units o f this g r o u p star centers are d e t e r m i n e d b y
u n i n k e d vertical, h o r i z o n t a l , o b l i q u e , or diagonal
axes o f s y m m e t r y t h a t intersect at the m i d d l e
o f the c o m p o s i t i o n , p r o p o r t i o n a l l y c u t t i n g i t
i n t o c o n g r u e n t parts. The p o i n t s at w h i c h these
u n i n k e d axis lines intersect the outer frame o f each
repeat u n i t define the centers o f quarter and h a l f
stars or o f other p o l y g o n a l shapes generated b y
radial g r i d lines (cat. nos. 8, 30, 36, 39, 42, 46, 66,
72b, 73, 81a). These are c o m p l e m e n t e d b y star-and-
p o l y g o n patterns adapted t o arch profiles (cat.
nos. 35, 39, 105) and t o vault sections (cat. n o . 10b).
(IH.ii.b.) Patterns Generated by Composite Grids
with Rotated Squares or Rhombuses Containing
Swastikas (cat. nos. 41, 67, 68a, 69b, 70)
Star-and-polygon patterns t h a t fall i n t o this g r o u p
are composed o f composite radial g r i d systems
w i t h r o t a t e d squares o r rhombuses c o n t a i n i n g
swastikas. T h e i r u n i n k e d u n d e r l y i n g composite
grids often feature s u b d i v i d e d squares or r h o m -
buses t h a t generate swastikas d r a w n i n black i n k .
(III.H.c.) Double-Layered Patterns for Relief Mosaic
Tile Work (cat. nos. 38, 49)
This g r o u p consists o f rectangular repeat units f o r
double-layered patterns i n different scales, p r o -
p o r t i o n a l l y related t o one another. They were gen-
erated b y u n i n k e d composite grids composed o f
OF P A T T E R N TYPES 235
arcs and circles s u b d i v i d e d b y equidistant r a d i i
(cat. and o r i e n t e d along axes o f d y n a m i c symmetry.
The smaller-scale st ar - an d - po ly g o n patterns i n the
b a c k g r o u n d are superimposed w i t h large fore-
g r o u n d motifs o f stars, polygons, and t h e i r frag-
ments. These drawings were i n t e n d e d f o r relief
mosaic tile panels i n w h i c h the large f o r e g r o u n d
elements w o u l d have been slightly raised above the
b a c k g r o u n d . T h e i r peculiar characteristic is t h a t
the raised f o r e g r o u n d m o t i f s w o u l d f o r m a c o n t i n u -
ous field i f j o i n e d together; moreover, t h e i r cor-
ners coincide w i t h the centers o f some large stars
b e l o n g i n g t o the i n t r i c a t e b a c k g r o u n d p a t t e r n .
(III.Hi.) Curvilinear Pattern (cat. no. 114)
O n l y one d r a w i n g , the last, i n the T o p k a p i scroll
is completely c u r v i l i n e a r . Its frame indicates
t h a t n o other patterns f o l l o w e d i t . Generated b y
u n i n k e d circles superimposed o n an u n i n k e d
o r t h o g o n a l g r i d f o r m e d b y h o r i z o n t a l , vertical, and
diagonal lines, i t is a c u r v i l i n e a r v a r i a n t o f angu-
lar st ar - an d - po ly g o n patterns d r a w n i n black i n k .
C u r v e d hexagons fill the spaces left i n between
each s i x - f o l d rosette.
Group IV: Three-Dimensional Star-and-Polygon
Patterns for Vaults and Transitional Zones (cat. nos. 2,
3, 4b, 5-7, 9,10a, 10c, 11-27, 78-80, 81b, 82-89, 90b,
92-104,106-113, details of cat. nos. 2, 25)
These t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l patterns consist o f t r i a n -
gular, quadrangular, and kite-shaped repeat u n i t s
236 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THETOPKAPI
for vaults and vault sections. They range f r o m rela-
tively simple linear drawings o f stellate arch-net
and muqarnas vault projections w i t h basic p o l y g o -
nal u n i t s , to m o r e complex, c o l o r - c o d e d and
stippled designs for star-studded muqarnas vaults
e m a n a t i n g f r o m fan-shaped or shell-shaped hoods.
They can be d i v i d e d i n t o t w o subsets:
(IV.i.) Stellate Arch-Net Vaults (cat. nos. 83c, 89a, 90b,
92a, 93, 94,111b, details of cat. nos. 2, 25)
Vaults w i t h intersecting arches f o r m i n g nets that
fill squinches and create stellate patterns a r o u n d
the bases o f domes became w i d e l y used for the
first t i m e i n T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n architecture. The
T o p k a p i scroll provides designs for arch-net vaults
of various types, all o f t h e m generated by u n i n k e d
radial grids consisting o f one o r m o r e concen-
t r i c circles or arcs d i v i d e d i n t o equal parts by
shared r a d i i t h a t emanate f r o m a single center.
T h e i r varied n u m b e r o f circles and r a d i i result i n
different stellate configurations.
Besides square and rectangular repeat u n i t s o f
arch-net quarter and h a l f vaults (cat. nos. 92a, 93,
94), the T o p k a p i scroll also provides examples o f
arch-net vault fragments t h a t c o m p l e m e n t larger
vault patterns (cat. nos. 2, 25, 83c, 89a, 90b, 111b).
T h e latter were p r o b a b l y meant to be used i n
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the a c c o m p a n y i n g vault design,
m o s t l y i n s q u i n c h corners or geometric c o m -
p a r t m e n t s at the t r a n s i t i o n a l zones o f vaults. A l l
patterns i n this g r o u p are rendered i n b l a c k - i n k
lines and t h e i r u n d e r l y i n g radial grids are u n i n k e d .
SCROLL
Occasionally some c o m p a r t m e n t s are m a r k e d
by stippled dots to code spatial properties
(cat. nos. 93, 94).
(IV.il) Stellate Muqarnas Vaults
(IV.ila.) Fan-Shaped Radial Muqarnas Vaults
(cat. nos. 4b, 5, 6,11,12,13a, 14,15a, 16, iya-b, 18,19b,
20-22, 24, 26, 78b, 79, 80, 82, 83a, 84, 85, 88, 92b, 98,
102,106c, 107-110,111a); Muqarnas Fragments
(cat. nos. 9,10a, 10c, 13b, 15b, 17c, 78a, 81b)
These drawings constitute the largest g r o u p i n
the T o p k a p i scroll. They i n c l u d e a wide variety o f
muqarnas quarter, half, and f u l l vault patterns
contained i n square or rectangular frames, all o f
t h e m e m a n a t i n g f r o m fan-shaped stellate hoods.
W h e n q u a d r u p l e d , the quarter repeat u n i t s w o u l d
f o r m muqarnas full vaults, a n d w h e n d o u b l e d they
created h a l f vaults for arched portals, iwans, and
nichelike recesses such as m i h r a b s . N o t all o f the
repeat u n i t s for muqarnas quarter vaults, however,
were meant for full vaults. The use o f asymmet-
rical p o l y g o n a l u n i t s along one side i n some
examples indicates t h a t they were i n t e n d e d for h a l f
vaults and w o u l d have been d o u b l e d o n l y along the
s y m m e t r i c a l edge w i t h a h a l f star (cat. nos. 5,11,
13a, 14, 84, 85, 8 8 , 1 0 8 - 1 0 ) . The irregular p o l y g o n a l
u n i t s c o u l d be m a n i p u l a t e d by elongating o r
s h o r t e n i n g w h i l e adjusting the muqarnas p a t t e r n
to a given arch profile. M u q a r n a s patterns belong-
ing to this g r o u p are sometimes c o n t a i n e d i n t r i -
angular or kite-shaped r h o m b o i d a l repeat u n i t s
t h a t c o u l d generate f u l l vaults w h e n m u l t i p l i e d o r
be used i n geometric c o m p a r t m e n t s and squinches
at the t r a n s i t i o n a l zones o f vaults.
These drawings, largely i n t e n d e d for p r e f a b r i -
cated plaster muqarnas vaults (sometimes inset
w i t h star-shaped tile plaques), can be g r o u p e d i n
terms o f f o u r basic types. The first consists o f
muqarnas quarter, half, o r full vault patterns c o n -
tained i n square and rectangular frames t h a t
feature a star placed i n the s q u i n c h corner (cat.
nos. 5, 6,11,12,14,16,17b, 18,19b, 2 0 - 2 2 , 24, 26,
79, 84, 85, 88, 92b, 98, 102, 106c, 107-10). I n one
example (cat. n o . 88) irregular p o l y g o n a l filler
u n i t s have been arranged asymmetrically at the
corner o f a rectangular repeat u n i t t h a t is n o t
occupied by a star. A l t h o u g h most o f these vault
patterns have m u l t i p l e tiers o f star-studded
muqarnas u n i t s , some o f t h e m constitute a d i s t i n c -
tive subgroup characterized by fewer muqarnas
tiers w i t h less variegated stars. The latter are rela-
tively simple muqarnas patterns for square bays,
each o f t h e m featuring a twelve- or sixteen-
p o i n t e d central stellate h o o d (cat. nos. 17b, 19b,
2 0 - 2 2 , 26, 92b, 98,107).
Permutations w i t h i n this g r o u p p r i m a r i l y are
caused by v a r y i n g the n u m b e r o f r a d i i t h a t i n t e r -
sect the circumferences o f differently spaced
concentric circles and arcs along w h i c h m u l t i p l e
muqarnas tiers are f o r m e d . Smaller subsidiary
systems o f circles s u b d i v i d e d by equidistant r a d i i
s u r r o u n d each o f the stars i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the
corbeled muqarnas tiers. The fan-shaped stellate
hoods, the first rows o f muqarnas u n i t s attached to

the hoods, and the circular orbits o f stars obey a
r i g i d geometry, b u t the spaces i n between the stars
and along the outer edges o f the repeat units are
often c o m p l e t e d w i t h p o l y g o n a l or small p r i s m a t i c
filler u n i t s whose less precise geometry w o u l d
allow t h e m to be adapted t o the v a r y i n g profiles
o f arches d u r i n g the c o n s t r u c t i o n process.
The radial g r i d systems t h a t are responsible
for generating these muqarnas projections are
u n i n k e d dead drawings; the muqarnas u n i t s d r a w n
i n black i n k are often, t h o u g h n o t always, h i g h -
l i g h t e d w i t h s t i p p l i n g and color c o d i n g i n red and
black i n k i n order to differentiate spatial levels
and t o demarcate the boundaries o f successively
corbeled tiers. S t i p p l i n g is generally used to i n d i -
cate muqarnas units o n a lower tier w i t h respect to
u n s t i p p l e d adjacent areas; for example the p o i n t s
o f stars b e n d i n g t o w a r d a higher plane are n o t
stippled to differentiate t h e m f r o m stippled p o i n t s
o c c u p y i n g a lower spatial level. Sometimes, h o w -
ever, t w o different colors o f s t i p p l i n g are used
to d i s t i n g u i s h the bent p o i n t s o f stars f r o m u n b e n t
ones. Such stars w i t h bent p o i n t s are differentiated
f r o m flat stars o n a single h o r i z o n t a l plane parallel
to the h o r i z o n that are either u n s t i p p l e d , fully
stippled, or colored (cat. nos. 17b, 18,19b, 21a, 26a,
79, 82, 83a, 88, 92b, 107b, 108-10). M o r e o v e r , filler
u n i t s i n the shape o f bipeds, triangles, or r h o m -
boids are often color coded t o make t h e m stand
o u t f r o m other u n i t s ; as such they accentuate
the boundaries between different muqarnas tiers,
w h i c h are either c o n t i n u o u s rows or made u p o f
LIST
star clusters. Some simple muqarnas projections
i n this g r o u p are, however, rendered i n basic
b l a c k - i n k outlines w i t h or w i t h o u t black s t i p p l i n g
(cat. nos. 79, 98,102,106c, 107-110). These
drawings p r o v i d e less detailed graphic i n f o r m a -
t i o n about the spatial properties o f t h e i r m u q a r -
nas p r o j e c t i o n s , leaving m o r e o p t i o n s for varied
interpretations.
The second type consists o f muqarnas quarter
vault patterns contained i n square or rectangular
frames, w i t h the squinch corner cut o f f by a diago-
nal line (cat. nos. 13a, 15a, 78b). The triangle
created by the diagonal is filled i n each case w i t h a
fragmentary muqarnas p a t t e r n , most l i k e l y meant
to be used i n the t r a n s i t i o n zone o f the p o l y g o n a l
muqarnas vault depicted i n the m a i n p a t t e r n .
The t h i r d type (cat. nos. 4b, 17a, 80, 82, 83a,
111a) consists o f kite-shaped r h o m b o i d a l or t r i a n -
gular repeat u n i t s t h a t c o u l d be m u l t i p l i e d to
create h a l f or f u l l vaults; they c o u l d also be used
i n d i v i d u a l l y to fill the fragmented c o m p a r t m e n t s
o f t r a n s i t i o n a l zones i n vaults.
The f o u r t h type is a g r o u p o f muqarnas frag-
ments (cat. nos. 9,10a, 10c, 13b, 15b, 17c, 78a, 81b)
that either c o m p l e m e n t larger vault projections or
are d r a w n i n separate small frames. I t is difficult to
i d e n t i f y the purpose o f all these fragments, most
o f w h i c h seem t o be repeat u n i t s for linear m u q a r -
nas friezes or cornices t h a t c o u l d be used along the
i n n e r or outer baselines o f domes, i n c o l u m n capi-
tals, and i n corbeled m i n a r e t balconies (cat. nos. 9,
13b, 17c). T w o o f t h e m depict semicircles w i t h star-
OF P A T T E R N TYPES 237
shaped muqarnas tiers that represent muqarnas
cornices i n t e n d e d for the organ-pipe ribs o f r i b b e d
domes (cat. n o . 81b). M u q a r n a s fragments that
accompany larger vault patterns were p r o b a b l y
meant t o be used i n the latter's t r a n s i t i o n a l zone
(cat. nos. 10a, 10c, 13b, 15b, 78a).
(IV.ii.b.) Muqarnas Vaults with Simple Quadrangular
and Polygonal Compartments (cat nos. 3,19a, 23, 27,
87a, 89b, 95-97, 99-101,103,104, w6a-b, 112,113)
Patterns b e l o n g i n g t o this category are closely
related to the relatively simple fan-shaped stellate
muqarnas patterns o f the previous g r o u p (cat.
nos. 17b, 19b, 2 0 - 2 2 , 26, 92b, 98,107). U n l i k e the
latter's fan-shaped hoods, their centers are occu-
p i e d by large octagons (cat. nos. 3, 27, 95, 96, 104,
106b), r o t a t e d squares, and r o t a t e d squares f o r m -
i n g eight- or t w e l v e - p o i n t e d stars (cat. nos. 19a, 23,
97, 99-101,103,106a). I n these patterns the sur-
faces o f vaults are fragmented i n t o g r o i n e d c o m -
p a r t m e n t s w i t h relatively simple muqarnas u n i t s
that are framed by squares, rectangles, rhombuses,
and polygons, units that c o u l d be executed i n
plaster, b r i c k , or w o o d . They either have no star-
shaped muqarnas units or s i m p l y f o u r - and eight-
p o i n t e d stars l i m i t e d to the square m o d u l e w i t h 45,
90, and 135 degrees. The m a j o r i t y o f this g r o u p
consists o f repeat u n i t s or f u l l patterns for square
bays; a few examples represent rectangular and
p o l y g o n a l vaults. T h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n is sometimes
guided by u n i n k e d composite radial and o r t h o g o -
nal grids ( w i t h p r o p o r t i o n a l l y related squares and
238 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND D R A W I N G S
rectangles) that subdivide vaults i n t o quadrangular
c o m p a r t m e n t s ( n i n e - p a r t i t e square bays being the
most c o m m o n ) (cat. nos. 3,19a, 23, 27, 87a, 89b,
9 5 - 9 7 , 99-101,103,104,112b). I n some cases the
large-scale muqarnas c o m p a r t m e n t s are frag-
m e n t e d i n t o smaller u n i t s , p a r t i a l l y i n d i c a t e d at
the edges (cat. nos. 95, 96, 100,101, 103, 104). I n
other cases they consist o f simple linear schemata
i n black i n k t h a t c o u l d either be used as shown or
further s u b d i v i d e d i n t o small muqarnas u n i t s (cat.
nos. 97, 99). I n one example (cat. n o . 103) a draw-
i n g i n b l a c k - i n k outlines is p r o v i d e d w i t h s t i p p l i n g
and color c o d i n g at its lower left quarter to give
m o r e precise i n d i c a t i o n s about its spatial p r o p e r -
ties t h a t are otherwise ambiguous and open to
different i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . A g r o u p o f drawings
b e l o n g i n g to this category, o n the other h a n d , c o n -
sists o f repeat units for radial muqarnas vaults
w i t h o u t any stars, composed o f a stellate or p o l y g -
onal central m e d a l l i o n s u r r o u n d e d by simple
p o l y g o n a l u n i t s w i t h or w i t h o u t s t i p p l i n g (cat.
nos. i o 6 a - b , 112,113). The r e m a i n i n g muqarnas
vault patterns are fully m a r k e d w i t h s t i p p l i n g and
color c o d i n g (cat. nos. 3, 19a, 23, 27, 87a, 89b).
(IV.ii.c.) Shell-Shaped Radial Muqarnas Vaults
(cat nos. 2, 7, 25, 83b, 86, 87b)
Drawings b e l o n g i n g t o this category depict radially
s y m m e t r i c a l stellate muqarnas vault projections
emanating f r o m conchlike or shell-shaped fluted
hoods t h a t occupy most o f the repeat u n i t . T h e i r
square and rectangular repeat u n i t s represent
quarter or h a l f vaults, the c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f w h i c h
I N THE T O P K A P I SCROLL
varies according to the n u m b e r o f r a d i i that divide
the concentric arcs along w h i c h the muqarnas
u n i t s are aligned. They have o n l y a single tier o f
stars, u n l i k e the m a j o r i t y o f t h e i r m u l t i t i e r e d fan-
shaped counterparts. These drawings treat the
s q u i n c h zone i n different ways, just as the fan-
shaped ones do. Some consist o f quarter vaults i n
square frames, w i t h the squinch corner occupied
by a large star (cat. nos. 7, 86, 87b). Others are
rectangular, square, or kite-shaped r h o m b o i d a l
repeat u n i t s o f p o l y g o n a l muqarnas vaults accom-
panied by squinch zones filled w i t h arch-nets o f
different configurations (cat. nos. 2, 25, 83b).
Shell-shaped radial muqarnas vault projections
appear m u c h less often i n the T o p k a p i scroll t h a n
the fan-shaped type and its closely related variant
w i t h simple c o m p a r t m e n t s . This is i n keeping w i t h
the general T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n preference for
angular geometric forms that d o m i n a t e c u r v i l i n e a r
ones. The graphic conventions used i n d e p i c t i n g
shell-shaped muqarnas vault projections are
the same as those used for the fan-shaped type;
s t i p p l i n g and color c o d i n g h i g h l i g h t all o f the
b l a c k - i n k drawings whose u n d e r l y i n g radial grids
r e m a i n u n i n k e d dead drawings. The stippled areas
i n the shell-shaped hoods indicate projections
on a higher plane t h a n the u n s t i p p l e d concave
flutes. By contrast the stippled p o i n t s o f stars w i t h
bent p o i n t s occupy a lower plane, as i n the fan-
shaped muqarnas patterns. Once again, filler u n i t s
i n the shape o f bipeds, triangles, and r h o m b o i d s
are differentiated f r o m regular muqarnas u n i t s by
color c o d i n g .
 239

LIST OF DRAWINGS The m a j o r i t y o f the scroll patterns were generated h o r i z o n t a l l i n e is o n l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the over-
f r o m u n i n k e d , incised c o n s t r u c t i o n lines t h a t lay drawings w h e n i t was j u d g e d to be relevant
appear o n the paper as "dead drawings." These to the p a t t e r n .
c o n s t r u c t i o n lines are sometimes r e d u n d a n t , fea- Some scroll patterns e x h i b i t irregularities i n
t u r i n g unnecessary or irregular elements unrelated r e n d e r i n g , such as missing lines, w h i c h w o u l d have
to the final i n k d r a w i n g . There are also cases where been corrected d u r i n g execution. Irregularities o f
n o t all o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n lines necessary for this sort—also seen i n the slightly v a r y i n g d i m e n -
generating the final i n k d r a w i n g are i n c l u d e d i n sions o f repeat u n i t frames and their g r i d s — d i d
the "dead d r a w i n g , " suggesting t h a t some patterns n o t m a t t e r so l o n g as the geometric schemes o f
may have been copied f r o m earlier drawings acting patterns were legible t o artisans already acquainted
as models. Coordinates occasionally were deter- w i t h the m o d u l a r design language o f girihs. The
m i n e d n o t by fully rendered c o n s t r u c t i o n lines dimensions p r o v i d e d i n the f o l l o w i n g list o n l y
b u t by i n d e n t e d compass p o i n t s n o t always visible indicate variations i n measurement t h a t exceed
u n d e r the i n k and c o l o r i n g . 0.1 c m . D i m e n s i o n s are consistently given w i t h
Given such variations and inconsistencies, height preceding w i d t h . The dimensions p r o v i d e d
some e d i t i n g o f the actual c o n s t r u c t i o n lines was for cat. nos. 38 and 40-114, w h i c h have t h i c k b o r -
r e q u i r e d before a t t e m p t i n g to reproduce t h e m . A n ders o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.4 c m , are measured f r o m
a t t e m p t has therefore been made to i n t e r p r e t the the i n t e r i o r o f the frames.
ideal u n d e r l y i n g g r i d scheme used i n generating
each p a t t e r n . The i l l u s t r a t i o n s t h a t accompany the
List o f Drawings show the " e d i t e d " c o n s t r u c t i o n
lines as d a r k black overlay drawings s u r p r i n t e d o n
photographs o f the i n d i v i d u a l scroll segments.
The overlay drawings were rendered p a r t i a l l y i n
a few c o m p l i c a t e d examples (see cat. nos. 38, 49)
where i t w o u l d have been r e d u n d a n t t o reproduce
the crisscross u n i n k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n lines o f the
w h o l e p a t t e r n . Overlay drawings have n o t been
p r o v i d e d for patterns generated by squared or
t r i a n g u l a t e d grids t h a t lack or have o n l y a few
u n i n k e d lines g u i d i n g t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n . I n a d d i -
t i o n , m o s t parts o f the scroll have a c o n t i n u o u s
h o r i z o n t a l l i n e passing t h r o u g h the center; this
240 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
1. 2.
Subject: Square kufic c a l l i g r a p h i c panel based o n a Subject: Shell-shaped r a d i a l m u q a r n a s h a l f v a u l t w i t h
squared g r i d w i t h a c e n t r a l e i g h t - p o i n t e d star sur­ a single r o w o f f o u r - p o i n t e d stars c o n t a i n i n g smaller
r o u n d e d by an octagon and r a d i a t i n g p o l y g o n a l f o u r - p o i n t e d stars. B o t h s q u i n c h corners are filled by
patterns. arch-nets; d o u b l i n g the repeat u n i t w o u l d y i e l d a
Dimensions: C o n t a i n e d i n outer frame, 25.5 x 24 c m . T h e sixteen-sided p o l y g o n a l f u l l vault.
i n k e d square is 16 x 16 c m . Each square o f the g r i d mea­ Dimensions: 25.5 x 13 c m . T h e corner triangles have
sures 0.4 x 0.4 c m . baselines m e a s u r i n g 10.7 c m a n d equal sides o f 7.5 c m .
Condition: Fine. T h e sides o f the sixteen-sided v a u l t measure 5 c m .
Technique: T h e b l a c k - i n k d r a w i n g is s u p e r i m p o s e d o n a Condition: Fine.
squared g r i d d r a w n i n black i n k . T h e g r i d was i n i t i a l l y Technique: U n i n k e d r a d i a l g r i d lines o f c o n c e n t r i c s e m i ­
m a r k e d by i n k lines i n d i c a t i n g the squares to be filled circles w i t h fifteen r a d i i ( f u l l v a u l t w o u l d have t h i r t y -
i n w i t h i n k . Some o f these lines used i n setting o u t the t w o - f o l d r a d i a l s y m m e t r y ) a n d smaller subsidiary
c o m p o s i t i o n are s t i l l visible under the w h i t e p a i n t t h a t systems o f c o n c e n t r i c circles a n d arcs. T h e b l a c k - i n k
was used to cover up mistakes. d r a w i n g is h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h s t i p p l i n g i n b l a c k i n k a n d
Inscriptions: " S u b h ä n A l l a h " (Praise be to G o d ) , c o l o r c o d i n g i n black a n d red i n k . T h e s t i p p l e d areas
repeated f o u r times. i n the shell-shaped m u q a r n a s h o o d i n d i c a t e p r o j e c t i n g
peaks o n a higher plane t h a t are d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m the
concave flutes. O n e p o i n t o f each f o u r - p o i n t e d red star
is left u n c o l o r e d to show t h a t it bends to a different
plane; the a r r o w - s h a p e d bipeds a n d o t h e r filler u n i t s
are h i g h l i g h t e d i n c o l o r .
3-
Subject: Fragment o f a stellate m u q a r n a s v a u l t for a
square bay, based o n a c o m p o s i t e o r t h o g o n a l and r a d i a l
g r i d system, w i t h a large central octagon i n s c r i b e d i n
a square a n d s m a l l f o u r - p o i n t e d corner stars c o n t a i n e d
i n squares. T h e o n l y other stars used i n this c o m p o s i ­
t i o n , d o m i n a t e d by 45-, 9 0 - , and 135-degree angles, are
e i g h t - p o i n t e d h a l f stars. M o s t o f the r e m a i n i n g large
p o l y g o n a l m u q a r n a s c o m p a r t m e n t s are framed by
rectangles a n d squares.
Dimensions: 25.5 x 10.7 c m .
Condition: Pasted a l o n g the r i g h t edge. T h e m i s s i n g h a l f
o f this f r a g m e n t a r y p a t t e r n appears later i n the s c r o l l as
cat. n o . 27.
Technique: A n u n i n k e d central circle w i t h sixteen r a d i i
a n d smaller c o n c e n t r i c circles and arcs i n each corner,
c o m b i n e d w i t h an o r t h o g o n a l g r i d o f squares a n d
rectangles. T h e b l a c k - i n k d r a w i n g is h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h
s t i p p l i n g i n black i n k ; its arrow-shaped bipeds are c o l o r
coded w i t h black a n d red i n k .

4-
Subject: (a) Vault fragment with black-dotted polygonal
grid lines denning large decagons and small pentagons
in contact; the star-and-polygon pattern that would
have been generated by this grid has not been indicated.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 4b in a
rectangular frame, 25.7 x 21 cm (top), 19.3 cm (bottom).
The baseline of the vault fragment measures 16 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge and in the middle.
The design is partially cut off at the left.
Technique: Crisscross, irregular uninked radial grid lines
define several circles and arcs containing decagons and
decagon fragments; each is subdivided by equidistant
radii that are prolonged to define the sides of pentagons.
Not all of the uninked construction lines coincide with
the black-ink drawing.
Subject: (b) Triangular one-twentieth repeat unit of a
decagonal vault composed of stellate muqarnas elements
consisting of four-, five-, and seven-pointed stars. When
doubled, the repeat unit forms a rhomboidal kite-shape
that could be used in the transitional zones of vaults.
Dimensions: The sides of the triangle measure 25.7 x
24.5 x 8 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the middle of the rectangular
frame; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric circles
and arcs subdivided by equidistant radii. The black-ink
drawing superimposed on them has stippling in black
ink to differentiate spatial levels (the unstippled points
of stars bend toward different planes). The filler units
have not been highlighted with color coding. The criss-
cross irregular uninked construction lines include many
redundant lines.
L I S T OF
5-
Subject: Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds, followed by a single row of five-pointed stars
alternating with four-pointed stars; the squinch corner
is filled with a large eight-pointed star. The use of asym-
metrical polygonal units along the upper edge indicates
that the repeat unit was not meant for a full vault but
for a half vault. (See "The Muqarnas" in the present vol-
ume for computer drawings and analysis.)
Dimensions: 25.7 x 25.7 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with eleven radii (half vault would
have twenty-four-fold radial symmetry) and smaller
subsidiary systems of concentric circles alternating with
uninked squares, each containing a small circle and
crossed diagonals. The black-ink drawing has stippling
in black ink to differentiate spatial levels, and its filler
units in the shape of bipeds and triangles are color
coded in red and black ink to demarcate the boundaries
of muqarnas tiers surrounding the stars.
DRAWINGS 241
6.
Subject: Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds, followed by two alternating rows of four- and
five-, and five- and six-pointed stars. The squinch
corner, filled with a large eight-pointed star, is flanked
by a pair of four-pointed stars forming a subsidiary row.
Dimensions: Contained in a square repeat unit, 25.7 x
25.7 cm. Inner square measures 24 x 24 cm.
Condition: Pasted toward the middle where the design
has slipped slightly. Some of the bipeds along the right
side of the star in the squinch corner are left uncolored
unlike their symmetrical counterparts.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with fifteen radii (full vault would have sixty-
four-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of concentric circles that in the first row
alternate with uninked small squares. The black-ink
drawing has stippling in black and color coding in black
and red ink to differentiate spatial levels. The unstippled
points of stars bend toward different planes, and the
filler units are color coded to delineate the relatively
continuous boundaries of corbeled muqarnas tiers.
242 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS
7-
Subject: Shell-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault with
a single row of four-pointed stars; the squinch corner is
filled with a large eight-pointed star.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 25.7 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with fifteen radii (full vault would have sixty-
four-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of concentric circles and arcs. Stippling and
color coding used to differentiate spatial levels and to
highlight bipeds and other filler units as in cat. no. 2.
IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
8.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit for strapwork pattern with
stars and polygons generated by ten-pointed quarter
stars at the upper left and lower right corners.
Dimensions: 25.J x 17.7 (top), 17.2 cm (bottom).
Condition: Pasted at the right half where the originally
symmetrical design has slipped.
Technique: The uninked radial grid lines of the two
ten-pointed quarter stars occupying diagonal corners
(contained in concentric quarter circles with four radii
each) generate the pattern drawn in black ink. These
are complemented by uninked parallel lines, not all of
them related to the final design. They define pentagons,
subdivided by ten radii, in contact with rhomboids.
An uninked diagonal axis of symmetry connecting the
starred corners intersects at the middle of the compo-
sition with an unindicated oblique axis of symmetry
along which the five-pointed stars are aligned. An
uninked vertical axis of symmetry bisects the rectangu-
lar repeat unit into two equal halves. The pattern is
also symmetrical along a second uninked oblique axis
passing through its center. The elements of design are
aligned along uninked lines forming an N shape (the
diagonal connecting the starred corners and the first
radii emanating from those corners that bisect the five-
pointed stars).
9.
Subject: (a) Rectangular repeat unit for a stellate muqar-
nas fragment, most likely a linear frieze or cornice.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 9b-d
in a rectangular frame, 25.7 x 4 cm. The repeat unit
measures 3 x 4 cm.
Condition: Fine. Hole at the right.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles subdivided by two radii emanating from the
upper left corner. The black-ink drawing is stippled in
black ink to differentiate spatial levels.
Subject: (b) Same as cat. no. 9a. The lower right corner
has a twelve-pointed quarter star.
Dimensions: 3.5 x 4 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles subdivided by five equidistant radii emanating
from the lower right corner. The pattern drawn in black
ink is highlighted with black stippling and color coding
in red and black ink.
Subject: (c) Same as cat. no. 9a. The bottom edge has a
six-pointed half star.
Dimensions: 2.5 x 4 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles subdivided by five equidistant radii emanating
from the center of the repeat unit's bottom edge.
Coding same as cat. no. 9b.
Subject: (d) Same as cat. no. 9a. The upper and lower
right corners have twelve-pointed quarter stars, and the
middle of the repeat unit is occupied by a five-pointed
star.
Dimensions: 9.5 x 4 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles subdivided by five radii at the upper and
lower right corners with smaller concentric circles of ten
radii inserted in between. An uninked horizontal axis of
symmetry bisects the repeat unit into two identical
halves. Coding same as cat. no. 9b. The unstippled
points of the five-pointed star bend to a different level.

a I c
b
10.
Subject: (a, c) Triangular repeat units of muqarnas
details, probably for vault sections or transitional zones
of vaults.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame,
25.7 x 8.7 cm. Each triangle measures 2.5 x 13 x 13 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked concentric radial grids of quarter
and half circles subdivided by equidistant radii generate
the muqarnas units. The black-ink drawings feature
black stippling and red and black color coding. The
unstippled points of stars bend toward different levels,
and the filler units are accentuated.
Subject: (b) Curved triangular vault section providing
the one-twelfth repeat unit of a polygonal vault
decorated with five- and ten-pointed stars interlocking
with hexagons and rhomboids.
Dimensions: The triangle has a baseline of 8.7 cm and is
24.7 cm high.
Condition: Fine. There is a redundant line near the half
star along the left edge.
Technique: Drawn in black ink over an uninked radial
grid with concentric arcs and small circles subdivided
by equidistant radii. An uninked vertical line bisects
the triangular repeat unit, which is crisscrossed with
redundant uninked lines that do not always coincide
with the final pattern.
L I S T OF
11.
Subject:Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with hexagons and arrow-shaped double bipeds,
followed by two rows of five- and six-pointed stars and
a third row of alternating four- and five-pointed stars.
The squinch corner is occupied by a large nine-pointed
star. The use of asymmetrical polygonal units along the
upper right edge indicates that the repeat unit was not
meant for a full vault but for a half vault.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 25.7 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with nineteen radii (half vault would
have forty-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of concentric circles alternating with uninked
squares containing concentric circles subdivided by
radii. The black-ink drawing has stippling in black and
color coding in red and black ink to differentiate spatial
levels. The unstippled points of stars bend toward differ-
ent planes, and biped-shaped or triangular filler units
are highlighted in color to demarcate the boundaries of
muqarnas tiers.
DRAWINGS 243
12.
Subject: Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault gen-
erated from a sixteen-pointed quarter star at the upper
right corner. A row of one-third twelve-pointed stars
alternating with pentagons is followed by hexagons,
arrow-shaped double bipeds, and a continuous row of
two types of five-pointed stars, with a six-pointed star at
the center of the composition. The squinch corner is
filled with a large eight-pointed star.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 24.7 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge where part of the
design is missing.
Technique: An uninked quarter circle at the upper right
corner is subdivided by three radii (full vault would have
sixteen-fold radial symmetry). Along the first and third
radii are uninked one-third circles subdivided by seven
radii and followed by smaller subsidiary systems of con-
centric circles; see cat. no. 17a for a similar composition.
Stippling and color coding same as cat. no. 11.
 244 CATALOG: PATTERN
a a
13.
Subject: (a) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
starting with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped
double bipeds, followed by two rows of five- and six-
pointed stars and a third row of alternating five- and
seven-pointed stars. A slight asymmetry is caused by the
rectangular format. The use of asymmetrical polygonal
units along the lower left edge indicates that the repeat
unit was not meant for a full vault but for a half vault.
Since its squinch corner is cut off, the design was proba-
bly intended for a vaulted space in the shape of a half
octagon.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular repeat unit,
25-7 x 33-5 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the right edge where the design
has slipped.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with twenty-one radii (half vault would
have forty-four-fold radial symmetry) and smaller
subsidiary systems of concentric circles subdivided by
equidistant radii; some of them have hexagons inscribed
with six-pointed stars. Stippling and color coding same
as cat. no. 12.
Subject: (b) The empty corner triangle is filled with the
rectangular repeat unit of a muqarnas fragment proba-
bly intended for a cornice or frieze running along the
baseline of the polygonal vault depicted in cat. no. 13a.
Dimensions: 4 x 6.5 cm.
Condition: The originally symmetrical design, of which
the left part is partially missing, was deformed by the
pasting of paper.
Technique: The original pattern was generated by
uninked concentric quarter circles at the upper right
and left corners, each subdivided by two radii. Coding
the same as cat. no. 13a.
TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
14.
Subject:Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
adapted to the elongated rectangular format of the
repeat unit. Rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds, followed by filler elements, polygons, a six-
pointed star, and a five-pointed corner star. The repeat
unit was probably meant to be doubled and used for a
long and narrow space; the irregular polygonal units
along the right edge suggest that it was not meant to be
quadrupled.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 7.7 cm.
Condition: Holes at the top.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with nine radii (half vault would have twenty-
fold radial symmetry), two superimposed six-pointed
stars, and smaller concentric circles. Stippling and color
coding same as cat. no. 13. The uninked construction
lines reflect the loose geometry of this muqarnas
pattern, dominated by asymmetrically arranged filler
units consisting of bipeds, triangles, and polygons.
15.
Subject: (a) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
starting with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped
double bipeds, followed by multiple rows of four-, five-,
six-, seven-, and eight-pointed stars. The design is asym-
metrical because of the rectangular format of the repeat
unit. The empty triangular squinch corner of the octag-
onal vault is provided with a complementary pattern.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame, 25.7 x 35
(top), 34.5 cm (bottom). The triangular squinch corner
measures 21 x 14.3 x 14.3 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with fifteen radii (full vault would have
sixty-four-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of concentric circles, the first row of which
alternates with rectangles. Stippling and color coding
used to differentiate spatial levels and to demarcate the
boundaries of tiers composed of relatively continuous
rows of stars that are not separated into clusters by
filler units.
Subject: (b) Rectangular and triangular repeat units for
muqarnas fragments probably intended to be used in
the transitional zone of the octagonal dome depicted in
cat. no. 15a.
Dimensions: The rectangle measures 2 x 6.5 cm. The tri-
angle has a base of 6.5 cm and two equal sides of 5.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: The rectangular muqarnas pattern is gener-
ated by uninked concentric semicircles subdivided by
seven radii emanating from the midpoint of the upper
edge of the repeat unit. The other pattern is generated
by uninked concentric arcs at each corner of the
triangle; the lower arcs are each divided by two radii,
those at the apex of the triangle by three radii. Stippling
and color coding are used only in the rectangle.

16.
Subject:Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with alternating pentagons and trisected hexagons
(each with three kite-shaped rhomboids), followed by
two rows of four- andfive-,and four- and six-pointed
muqarnas stars. The squinch corner,filledwith a large
nine-pointed star, is flanked by twofive-pointedstars
forming a subsidiary row.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 25.7 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact. A line is
missing from the first row where the hexagon should
have been subdivided into a pentagon.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with eleven radii (full vault would have forty-
eight-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of concentric circles the first row of which alter-
nates with rectangles, each inscribed with a small circle
subdivided by radii. Stippling and color coding same as
cat. no. 15, but here color-codedfillerunits define star
clusters that do not constitute continuous rows as in
cat. no. 15.
L I S T OF D RAW I N G S 245
b c
17.
Subject: (a) Rhomboidal one-eighth repeat unit of an Condition: Fine.
octagonal fan-shaped radial muqarnas vault, starting Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
with rows of sixteen-pointed quarter stars alternating ter circles with seven radii (full vault would have thirty-
with rhomboids as in cat. no. 12. These are followed by two-fold radial symmetry) and concentric circles at the
arrow-shaped double bipeds, hexagons, and two rows lower right corner. Stippling and color coding same as
of unbentfive-and six-pointed stars contained in poly- cat. no. 17a.
gons. The two complementary drawings that accompany Subject: (c) Rectangular repeat unit of stellate muqarnas
it, cat. no. 17 b-c, were probably intended to be used in fragment, probably for a linear cornice used along the
conjunction with this octagonal muqarnas vault. They base of the octagonal vault depicted in cat. no. 17a.
all include unbent stars on a single plane contained in It features unbentfive-pointedstars contained in
polygons. pentagons and six-pointed half stars along its
Dimensions: Contained in a frame, 25.7 x 24.5 (top), upper edge.
25 cm (bottom). The rhomboid-shaped repeat unit Dimensions: 6.2 x 9.3 (top), 9.7 cm (bottom).
deformed by the irregular pasting measures 24.5 x 26.5 x Condition: Right edge slightly cut off.
12 x 8.5 cm. Technique: Along the midpoint of the upper edge of the
Condition: Pasted along the right edge where some of repeat unit a series of concentric uninked semicircles
the design has disappeared. Hole at the top. with five radii are flanked by concentric quarter circles
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric arcs with two radii at the two upper corners. Three uninked
with two radii (full vault would have twenty-four-fold vertical lines subdivide the repeat unit into four equal
radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary systems of cir- strips. Stippling and color coding same as cat. no. 17b.
cles. The rhomboidal repeat unit is divided into three
sections by two uninked radii emanating from the upper
left corner. Along the horizontal upper edge of the
repeat unit and the second radius are drawn concentric
arcs subdivided by three and seven radii, respectively
(see cat. no. 12 for a similar composition). These are fol-
lowed by uninked pentagons and hexagons in circles
alternating with small circles. Stippling and color coding
are used to differentiate spatial levels and the boun-
daries of tiers. The stippling of the stars indicates that
they do not have bent points.
Subject: (b) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
starting with a row of hexagons and arrow-shaped
double bipeds. It has no intermediary rows of stars; a
six-pointed unbent star occupies the squinch corner,
framed by an irregular hexagon.
Dimensions: 12.5 x 12.5 cm.
246 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS
18.
Subject: Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
starting with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped
double bipeds, followed by a row offive-pointedstars
contained in pentagons, and a subsidiary row of four-
pointed small stars. The squinch corner is occupied by
a large six-pointed star.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 25.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with eleven radii (full vault would have forty-
eight-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of concentric circles. Stippling and color coding
are used to differentiate spatial levels and the boundaries
of polygonal star clusters surrounded by colored bipeds,
triangles, and otherfillerunits. The black-stippled stars
do not have bent points.
IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
19. 20.
Subject: (a) Stellate muqarnas full vault for a square bay Subject:Fan-shaped muqarnas full vault for a square bay
based on a composite radial and orthogonal grid. At the based on a radial grid, with a central twelve-pointed star
center two rotated squares form a star octagon, each surrounded by rows of hexagons, arrow-shaped double
corner has an eight-pointed half star. The pattern is bipeds, and a single row of four-pointed stars contained
based on 45-, 90-, and 135-degree angles. in rhombuses. Each corner contains a four-pointed star.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame, 25.7 x Dimensions: 25.5 x 25.5 cm.
12.5 cm. Square repeat unit measures 12.5 x 12.5 cm. Condition: Pasted near the middle; intact. Hole at the
Condition: Fine. upper left corner.
Technique: An uninked composite radial grid with a cen- Technique: Uninked radial grid with concentric circles
tral circle subdivided by eight radii that coincide with at the center subdivided by twenty-four radii. Along
the diagonal, horizontal, and vertical axes of symmetry alternating radii are placed rhombuses whose uninked
governing the composition. Two rotated squares with diagonals and bisectors generate four-pointed stars. At
extended sides that intersect the outer square frame of each corner of the repeat unit are uninked small circles.
the repeat unit are inscribed in an uninked central octa- Stippling and color coding same as cat. no. 19b.
gon. An uninked semicircle with seven radii (whose
diameter coincides with the alternating sides of the
uninked octagon) is placed in each of the four corners.
Stippling and color coding are used to differentiate
spatial levels.
Subject: (b) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
starting with hexagons and arrow-shaped double bipeds.
It has no intermediary rows of stars; the squinch corner
has afive-pointedunbent star contained in a larger stip-
pledfive-pointedstar whose fifth point is eliminated.
Dimensions: 12.5 x 12.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked composite radial grid lines of con-
centric quarter circles with seven radii emanating from
the lower right corner (full vault would have thirty-two-
fold radial symmetry) and subsidiary concentric circles
at the upper left corner. Stippling and color coding are
used to differentiate spatial levels and to highlight filler
units in the shape of bipeds and triangles.
 L I S T OF D R A W I N G S 247

21. 22. 23.

Subject: (a, b ) Fan-shaped m u q a r n a s quarter vaults
w i t h n o i n t e r m e d i a r y r o w o f stars. A five-pointed
occupies the s q u i n c h c o r n e r o f cat. n o . 21b, whereas i n
cat. n o . 21a a five-pointed star f r a m e d by a p e n t a g o n is
attached to a f o u r - p o i n t e d star c o n t a i n e d i n a hexagon
i n the s q u i n c h corner.
Dimensions: C o n t a i n e d i n a rectangular frame, 25.7 x
12.5 c m . Each square repeat u n i t measures 12.5 x 12.5 c m .
Condition: Fine.
Technique: U n i n k e d r a d i a l g r i d lines o f c o n c e n t r i c
q u a r t e r circles w i t h seven r a d i i ( f u l l v a u l t w o u l d have
t h i r t y - t w o - f o l d r a d i a l s y m m e t r y ) c o m p l e m e n t e d by
u n i n k e d smaller arcs. S t i p p l i n g and c o l o r c o d i n g used to
differentiate spatial levels and to accentuate the b i p e d -
and triangle-shaped filler u n i t s s u r r o u n d i n g the stars at
each corner. T h e r e d five-pointed star c o n t a i n e d i n a
pentagon i n cat. n o . 21a is u n b e n t , u n l i k e the one i n
cat. n o . 21b whose u n s t i p p l e d p o i n t bends t o w a r d
a n o t h e r plane.
Subject: Fan-shaped m u q a r n a s f u l l v a u l t for square bay
star based o n a r a d i a l g r i d , w i t h a central t w e l v e - p o i n t e d
star, s u r r o u n d e d by a single r o w o f five-pointed stars;
each s q u i n c h corner has a f o u r - p o i n t e d star.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 25.7 c m .
Condition: Pasted r e g u l a r l y near the r i g h t edge. Holes at
the u p p e r left corner.
Technique: A n u n i n k e d central circle w i t h t w e n t y - f o u r
r a d i i s u r r o u n d e d by twelve smaller subsidiary systems o f
c o n c e n t r i c circles, each s u b d i v i d e d by t e n r a d i i . A t each
corner are r h o m b u s e s c o n t a i n i n g an u n i n k e d small
circle s u b d i v i d e d by eight r a d i i . S t i p p l i n g is used to
i n d i c a t e the bent p o i n t s o f stars, and c o l o r c o d i n g is
used to h i g h l i g h t filler u n i t s d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g the outer
frame o f the repeat u n i t .
Subject: (a) Stellate m u q a r n a s f u l l v a u l t for a square bay
based o n a c o m p o s i t e o r t h o g o n a l and r a d i a l g r i d , w i t h a
central star octagon created by t w o r o t a t e d squares that
g r o w i n t o a larger octagon. Small f o u r - p o i n t e d stars
c o n t a i n e d i n squares occupy each corner.
Dimensions: C o n t a i n e d i n a rectangular frame, 25.7 x
12.3 c m . T h e square repeat u n i t measures 12.3 x 12.3 c m .
Condition: Fine. T h e r h o m b o i d a l c o m p a r t m e n t inside
the square at the l o w e r left corner is s t i p p l e d by mistake.
Technique: U n i n k e d c o n c e n t r i c circles at the center sub­
d i v i d e d by sixteen r a d i i are s u p p l e m e n t e d by u n i n k e d
squares c o n t a i n i n g c o n c e n t r i c circles at each c o r n e r .
T h e f u l l v a u l t has s i x t e e n - f o l d r a d i a l s y m m e t r y , a n d
the u n i n k e d o r t h o g o n a l g r i d lines d i v i d e i t i n t o n i n e
c o m p a r t m e n t s o f squares a n d rectangles. The black
d r a w i n g is coded w i t h s t i p p l i n g a n d c o l o r i n g i n black
to differentiate spatial levels.
Subject: ( b ) Stellate m u q a r n a s f u l l v a u l t for a square bay
based o n a c o m p o s i t e r a d i a l a n d o r t h o g o n a l g r i d , w i t h a
central square c o n t a i n e d i n a r o t a t e d square a n d eight-
p o i n t e d q u a r t e r stars at the corners. T h i s is a nearly
exact replica o f cat. n o . 99 ( w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f the
c e n t r a l square), w h i c h o n l y provides the schematic
b l a c k - i n k o u t l i n e s o f the same p a t t e r n and o m i t s m o s t
o f the u n i n k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n lines.
Dimensions: 12.3 x 12.3 c m .
Condition: Fine.
Technique: A n u n i n k e d central circle w i t h sixteen r a d i i
a n d an u n i n k e d r o t a t e d square whose corners m a r k the
centers o f the outer square frame. F o u r u n i n k e d arcs are
d r a w n f r o m these f o u r p o i n t s a n d f r o m the f o u r corners
o f the repeat u n i t ; the latter are s u b d i v i d e d by three
r a d i i . Pairs o f u n i n k e d h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l axes sub­
d i v i d e the repeat u n i t i n t o a n i n e - p a r t i t e o r t h o g o n a l
g r i d o f squares a n d rectangles. T h e black l i n e d r a w i n g is
s t i p p l e d a n d c o l o r coded i n black i n k as i n cat. n o . 23a.
248 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI
24.
Subject:Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds, followed by a single row of five-pointed stars;
the squinch corner is occupied by a six-pointed star.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 25.7 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with eleven radii (full vault would have forty-
eight-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of concentric circles. Black-ink drawing with
stippling in black and color coding in red and black to
differentiate spatial levels and to highlight filler units
surrounding the star clusters in different tiers.
SCROLL
25.
Subject: Shell-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault sur-
rounded by a single row of five-pointed stars, followed
by arch-nets that fill the corners of the octagonal dome.
The triangular squinch corner is provided with a
complementary drawing of a semicircular stellate arch-
net that probably would have been used in the dome's
transitional zone.
Dimensions: 25.5 x 23.3 (top), 23 cm (bottom). The base
of the equilateral squinch triangle measures 21 cm; its
two sides are 14.7 cm each.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge where the partly
missing design has slipped. Hole near the middle of the
right edge.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with nineteen radii (full vault would have
eighty-fold radial symmetry) and smaller systems of
subsidiary concentric circles and arcs. Stippling and
color coding same as cat. nos. 2 and 7. The triangular
squinch corner contains two uninked concentric semi-
circles with seven radii.
26.
Subject: (a, b) Fan-shaped quarter muqarnas vaults for
square bays starting with rows of hexagons, arrow-
shaped double bipeds, and pentagons without interme-
diary rows of stars. Their squinch corners have a
five-pointed star.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame, 25.5 x
12.3 cm. Each square repeat unit measures 12.3 x 12.3 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with seven radii (full vault would have thirty-
two-fold radial symmetry) and smaller concentric circles
in the squinch corners. Stippling and color coding are
used to differentiate spatial levels and to highlight filler
units demarcating tiers. Although the unbent five-
pointed corner star with one point missing in cat. no.
26a is on a single plane, that of cat. no. 26b has one
bending point that is unstippled.

27.
Subject: Fragment of a stellate muqarnas vault based on
a composite orthogonal and radial grid, with a large
central octagon inscribed in a square and four-pointed
small corner stars contained in squares. This is the miss-
ing half of cat. no. 3.
Dimensions: 25.5 x 14.7 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the right edge. The missing side
of this fragmentary design appears earlier in the scroll as
cat. no. 3. Hole at the upper left corner.
Technique: Same as cat. no. 3.
L I S T OF DRAWINGS 249
28.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a two-dimensional star-
and-polygon design with three superimposed layers of
pattern. The solid orange lines form a large-scale grid of
stars and polygons in contact (ten-pointed quarter stars,
rhomboids, irregular hexagons, and double trapezoids
in the shape of bow ties). They emanate from a ten-
pointed quarter star at the upper left corner and another
quarter star of the same shape at the missing lower right
corner, partially torn off. The points where the orange
grid lines, passing through several circle centers, inter-
sect determine the centers of all the ten-pointed stars
drawn in black ink and of some of the five-pointed stars.
The red-dotted polygonal grid consists of decagons in
contact with pentagons and rhombuses (with double
trapezoids in the shape of bow ties and elongated hexa-
gons at the upper left and lower right corners, within
the areas defined by the orange quarter stars). The sides
of each red-dotted polygon are bisected by two crossing
lines in black ink that meet each other to form a
smaller-scale pattern of five- and ten-pointed stars
interlocking with polygons.
Dimensions: 25.5 x 49.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the right and left edges. Right
side missing.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
circles with ten and twenty radii, respectively, surround
each of the stars drawn in black ink and the red-dotted
polygons in contact. Orange lines over black dots,
red-dotted lines, and black lines superimposed on the
uninked radial grid lines represent three different
layers of pattern. The orange lines are formed by joining
some radii of the circles containing the ten-pointed
stars. Although the orange and black lines (defining pro-
portionally related star-and-polygon patterns based on
five- and ten-pointed shapes in differing scales) could be
juxtaposed in the final pattern, the red-dotted polygonal
construction lines would have been eliminated.
250 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES
29.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern with two superimposed layers. The large-scale grid
with black dots gone over in solid orange defines stars
and polygons in contact (a ten-pointed quarter star and
arrow-shaped six-pointed polygons). It emanates from a
ten-pointed quarter star at the lower right corner and
another quarter star of the same shape at the missing
upper left corner, partially torn off. The points where
the orange grid lines, which join several circle centers
by linking their radii, intersect determine some of the
ten-pointed star centers of the pattern drawn in black
ink. The latter consists of ten-pointed stars interlocking
with pentagons and other polygons.
Dimensions: 25.5 x 24.5 (top), 24.3 cm (bottom).
Condition: Pasted along the left edge where part of the
design is missing.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric circles
with twenty radii surround each of the ten-pointed stars
drawn in black ink. The black-dotted lines gone over in
solid orange and the black lines represent two different
layers of pattern, proportionally related to one another.
Each could be used alone or together. The pattern in
black ink is generated by uninked decagons in contact
with elongated hexagons, star pentagons, and double
trapezoids in the shape of bow ties.
AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
30.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon
pattern without dotted or solid grid lines, composed of
a sixteen-pointed quarter star at the upper left corner
and two thirteen-pointed half stars along the bottom
and right edges. These large-scale stars are surrounded
by subsidiary five-pointed stars, star fragments, and
arrow-shaped double bipeds interlocking with other
polygons. The center of the composition is occupied by
a triple-armed irregular polygon terminating with star
fragments.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 24.7 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the right edge where part of the
design is missing.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter and half circles with seven and twelve radii, respec-
tively, generate the quarter and half stars. These radii
meet along three uninked axes of symmetry that cut the
square repeat unit into three congruent parts. The three
axes intersect with three others at the center of the
repeat unit. The points at which the latter three uninked
axis lines meet the outer frame of the repeat unit deter-
mine the centers of the quarter and half stars drawn in
black ink.
31.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a pattern with two super-
imposed layers, both of them based onfive-and ten-
pointed stars and polygons. The black-dotted grid gone
over in solid orange, defining stars and polygons in con-
tact, grows from a ten-pointed quarter star at the upper
left corner and afive-pointedhalf star along the right
edge that interlock with irregular hexagons. The points
at which the orange grid lines, created by joining some
radii of uninked circles, meet determine the centers of
the ten-pointed stars drawn in black ink. The orange
grid is proportionally related to the smaller-scale
pattern drawn in black ink, composed of ten- and five-
pointed stars interlocking with pentagons and other
polygons.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 35.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
circles and arcs with twenty and ten radii, respectively,
surround each of the stars drawn in black ink. They
form an uninked grid of polygons in contact, consisting
of decagons, pentagons, and rhombuses. The upper left
corner, delineated by the orange quarter star, features
uninked elongated hexagons alternating with double
trapezoids in the shape of bow ties.

32.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a pattern with two super-
imposed layers, both of them based onfive-and ten-
pointed stars and polygons. The black-dotted grid gone
over with solid orange lines grows from two ten-pointed
quarter stars at the upper left and lower right corners; it
defines polygons in contact with stars (rhomboids,
irregular hexagons, andfive-pointedstars). The points
where these orange grid lines (created by joining the
radii of uninked circles) intersect determine the centers
of all the ten-pointed stars drawn in black ink and of
some five-pointed stars. The black-ink pattern consists
of ten- andfive-pointedstars interlocking with poly-
gons; each of its four corners is symmetrically occupied
by ten-pointed quarter stars.
Dimensions: 25.5 x 35.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted toward the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
circles and arcs with ten and twenty radii surround each
of the stars drawn in black ink. The dotted orange grid
and black lines superimposed on it constitute two
different layers of pattern. They could be used either
jointly or separately. The uninked grid lines that gener-
ate the black-ink pattern consist of circles in contact
with curved pentagons. Inside the two five-pointed
stars defined by the orange grid are uninked concentric
circles, each inscribed with a pentagon, that generate
the pairedfive-pointedstars drawn in black ink. The
composition is symmetrical along its central uninked
horizontal axis (as well as its central vertical axis, which
is not indicated among the uninked construction lines).
The repeat unit is also symmetrical with respect to
the various uninked oblique and diagonal axis lines
intersecting at its center. Along one of these uninked
axes the two pairedfive-pointedstars that stand out
from others are aligned.
LIST OF D R AW I N G S 251
33-
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon
pattern with two superimposed layers. The red-dotted
grid lines define polygons in contact (quarter and half
decagons, trapezoids, and an arrow-shaped six-sided
polygon at the center) whose sides are bisected by two
crossed black lines that meet to form the star-and-poly-
gon pattern. The black-ink drawing grows out of two
ten-pointed quarter stars at the upper corners and a ten-
pointed half star at the center of the bottom edge. The
extended lines of these large stars form an interlocking
pattern of star fragments and polygons.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 25.5 (top), 25.3 cm (bottom).
Condition: Pasted near the left edge where the design has
slipped slightly.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles and quarter circles with nine and four radii,
respectively, define the half and quarter stars that gener-
ate the black-ink pattern. These uninked radial grids are
superimposed with red-dotted polygonal grid lines and
the pattern in black ink. The repeat unit is bilaterally
symmetrical with respect to its uninked vertical axis
passing from the center of the composition. Two other
uninked vertical lines complement the central vertical
axis, subdividing the repeat unit into four equal strips.
Another uninked horizontal line passes from the center
of the composition.
252 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES
34.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a pattern with two
superimposed layers, both of them based on five- and
ten-pointed stars and polygons. The black-dotted grid
gone over in solid orange defines interlocking stars and
polygons (five-pointed half stars, hexagons, and a ten-
pointed composite polygon at the center). The intersec-
tion points of the orange grid lines formed by linking
the radii of uninked circles determine the centers of all
the ten-pointed stars drawn in black ink and of some
five-pointed stars. The black-ink pattern, which grows
from ten-pointed quarter stars at the upper right and
lower left corners, consists of five- and ten-pointed
stars interlocking with various polygons.
Dimensions: 25.8 x 25.8 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the right edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric circles
and arcs with twenty and ten radii coincide with each of
the stars drawn in black ink. Two uninked oblique axes
of symmetry passing through the center of the repeat
unit divide it into congruent parts. One of these oblique
axes determines the centers of the two orange half stars
along the upper and lower edge of the framing square.
The two points where it intersects the outer frame of the
repeat unit are accentuated by paired five-pointed half
stars drawn in black ink. The other uninked oblique axis
determines the centers of two orange half hexagons
AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
along the right and left edges of the repeat unit, bisect-
ing the ten-pointed composite polygon aligned with it at
the center of the composition. The repeat unit is also
symmetrical with respect to the uninked horizontal and
vertical axes intersecting at its center. The orange-dotted
and black-ink lines superimposed on the uninked grid
lines form two interrelated layers of pattern that could
be used either jointly or separately. The pattern in black
ink is generated by uninked decagons (inscribed in
circles) in contact with pentagons, elongated hexagons,
trapezoids, and rhombuses. At the center of the repeat
unit the area defined by the orange ten-pointed compos-
ite polygon, which is surrounded by irregular hexagons,
is filled with a black-ink pattern echoing the same com-
position twice (i.e., two ten-pointed composite polygons
interlocking with irregular hexagons).
35.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a pattern with five-,
eight-, and twelve-pointed stars interlocking with poly-
gons and star fragments (including double bipeds facing
each other and triple-armed polygons terminating with
star fragments). A curved line (highlighted in a thick
black-ink contour) passes through three of the twelve-
pointed quarter, half, and full stars, dividing them
unequally into five- and seven-pointed sections and
at the same time bisecting the rhomboids and double
bipeds facing each other along the same path. The
curved line, which represents a pointed arch profile,
suggests that the repeat unit was intended for arch span-
drels and arched panels. It is closely related to cat. nos.
36 and 39, which constitute two fragmentary parts of a
single repeat unit, also depicting a pointed arch profile
with stars and polygons properly aligned or bisected
along the curve of the arch. The geometric complexity
of this pattern is exemplified by its use of three different
types of stars; most of the two-dimensional star-and-
polygon patterns in the scroll feature only one or two
star types (except for cat. nos. 38, 39, and 44, all of
which use three different types of stars). The star-and-
polygon pattern of this repeat unit recurs in cat. no. 38.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 35.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
circles, semicircles, and quarter circles subdivided
by twenty-four, sixteen, and ten radii, respectively,
coincide with each of the stars drawn in black ink. The
uninked construction lines include curved pentagons
in contact with curved hexagons (double trapezoids)
that surround the circles and arcs.

36.
Subject: Fragmentary pattern in a rotated square, the
missing part of which appears later in the scroll as cat.
no. 39, which depicts a star-and-polygon pattern with a
pointed arch profile as in cat. no. 35. The two consecu-
tive repeat units would have followed one another in the
original order of the scroll. When joined with its miss-
ing component, cat. no. 35 forms a rotated square adja-
cent to an arch profile. Each of its corners is occupied
by eight-pointed quarter stars that interlock with five-
pointed stars, hexagons, and rhomboids. The center of
the rotated square has an octagon.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame,
25.7 x 10.1 (top), 10.3 cm (bottom).
Condition: Pasted along the right edge. The missing side
of this fragmentary design appears later in the scroll as
cat. no. 39.
Technique: When the two parts of this design are joined
together, its uninked radial grid lines become intact.
They consist of concentric quarter circles at each corner
of the square subdivided by three radii and inscribed
with quarter octagons in contact with uninked penta-
gons containing circles with ten radii. At the center of
the square frame uninked horizontal, vertical, and diag-
onal axes of symmetry intersect. The linear pattern is
drawn in black ink.
L I S T OF DRAWINGS 253
37-
Subject: Repeat unit of a fragmentary square panel
drawn on a squared grid composed of square kufic and
geometric patterns. The square panel has an octagon
around a central eight-pointed star formed by two rotat-
ing squares containing an inscription. It is accompanied
by a linear strip of geometric patterning along the upper
edge of the repeat unit. The linear strip contains a bilat-
erally symmetrical geometric repeat pattern.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 17 (top), 16.5 cm (bottom). Each
square of the uninked squared grid measures 0.4 x
0.4 cm. The thick frame is 0.4 cm wide. Measuring from
the interior of the frame along the right edge, the lower
pattern is 17.5 cm high, and the top pattern is 6.5 cm
high.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge. The left side is
missing.
Technique: An uninked squared grid is incised on the
paper in the form of dead lines, unlike most of the other
squared grids of the scroll, which are gone over in black
ink. The patterns generated by the grid are rendered in
black ink. Although the linear strip pattern is bilaterally
symmetrical, the square one possesses radial symmetry
(except for its central inscription).
Inscription: Square kufic "Allah" at the central rotated
square.
254 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES
38.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a double-layered pattern
for relief mosaic tile work with large polygonal shapes
and a central calligraphic panel superimposed over a
minute background pattern of interlocking stars and
polygons. The square kufic inscriptions are framed by
a hexagon composed of three interlocking rhombuses,
creating an illusion of three-dimensionality. The repeat
unit is surrounded by large triangles and quadrangles
meant to be raised in low relief over the minutely
patterned tile mosaic background. The corners of the
large polygonal foreground units coincide with the
centers of some twelve-pointed background stars.
Moreover, if joined, these raised units would create a
continuous field of tilings with no gaps. The minutely
rendered background pattern is composed of five-,
eight-, and twelve-pointed stars interlocking with poly-
gons, a pattern that is a replica of cat. no. 35. Like cat.
nos. 39 and 44 it uses three different star types. The
intricacy and elaborate coloring of this pattern, by far
the most labor intensive of all drawings included in the
scroll, suggest that it was regarded as a tour de force
deserving more decorative treatment. A comparable
repeat unit for a relief mosaic tile pattern is cat. no. 49.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 40 (top), 40.5 cm (bottom).
Condition: Middle and right edge pasted. The design has
slipped slightly at the middle part.
Technique: The multicolored pattern is generated by
intricate uninked radial grid lines of concentric circles
and arcs painstakingly subdivided by equidistant radii
that generate the stars. The relief patterns outlined in
thick black-ink lines are not colored. The thick outlines
at the left and upper edges of the repeat unit were omit-
ted because the pattern would be multiplied along those
edges. When quadrupled, the repeat unit would create a
AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
symmetrical pattern with its center occupied by a hexa-
gon and each of its four quarters featuring a central
hexagonal calligraphic panel of the same size. Contained
in three rhombuses subdivided into black-ink grids of
smaller rhombuses, the inscriptions are rendered in red.
The background pattern is differentiated from the rest
by its elaborate color coding. Light blue, gray, pink,
orange, yellow, and black are used in addition to the
creamy color of the paper to indicate the symmetrical
properties of the pattern that would be executed in
mosaic tile work of different colors. Each color marks a
specific shape; light blue is used for the twelve-pointed
stars, orange for the five-pointed stars, and gray for the
eight-pointed stars. Some of the units have tiny rosettes,
suggesting that they were meant to be executed in
patterned mosaic tiles. Since this repeat unit is painted
over in colors, its indented uninked grid lines are only
faintly visible. Hence, the overlay only partially indicates
the minute crisscross construction lines that repeat the
scheme of cat. no. 35. The design is radially symmetrical
around an uninked central circle with twenty-four radii
that pass through twelve-pointed star centers aligned
along an orthogonal grid of vertical, horizontal, and
diagonal lines.
Inscriptions: Square kufic in red, the word repeated three
times is undeciphered. Although two of the rhombuses
contain identical inscriptions, the third one has a differ-
ent first letter, probably a mistake.
39-
Subject: Repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pattern with
five-, eight-, and twelve-pointed stars interlocking with
polygons and star fragments, including overlapping
double bipeds, double trapezoids in the shape of bow
ties, and ten-pointed composite polygons. A curved line
representing the profile of a pointed arch passes through
the centers of three eight-pointed stars, bisecting at the
same time the hexagons placed along the same path.
Like cat. no. 35, which also features a curved arch
profile, this is a pattern intended for an arched panel.
It forms a single repeat unit with cat. no. 36 and would
have followed cat. no. 35 in the original order of the
scroll. Unlike cat. no. 35, where the star-and-polygon
pattern fills the arch spandrel, here a pattern framed
by a rotated square is provided (the missing part is
included in cat. no. 36). The composition in the rotated
square has five- and eight-pointed stars, unlike the one
framed by the arch profile where three different star
types are used.
Dimensions: 25.7 x 48.5 cm. The size of the arched panel
along the top edge is 44.7 cm; along the bottom edge it
is 19.9 cm. The sides of the rotated square measure
approximately 18 cm.
Condition: Pasted along both ends. The remainder of the
fragmentary right part appears in cat. no. 36.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric arcs
and small circles subdivided by equidistant radii gener-
ate the five-, eight-, and twelve-pointed stars in black
ink. Inside the large circles are inscribed uninked poly-
gons; the extended radii of these large circles define
curved pentagons containing the five-pointed stars
drawn in black ink. The left half of the repeat unit is
dominated by uninked polygons, including rhombuses
and elongated hexagons. The star-and-polygon pattern
generated by these uninked construction lines is
rendered in black ink. The uninked grid system of the
geometrically related pattern framed by the rotated
square is described in cat. no. 36.

40.
Subject: Linear repeat unit of a square kufic inscription
contained in a cartouche with fragments of eight-
pointed stars at each end; it is drawn on a squared grid.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 8.3 cm. The squares of the grid
measure 0.4 x 0.4 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact. The thick
frame (approximately 0.4 cm wide) of the scroll starts
here. The only thick-framed repeat unit preceding this
one is cat. no. 37.
Technique: Both the squared grid and the bilaterally
symmetrical geometric pattern, vertically extendable at
both ends, are rendered in black ink.
Inscription: Square kufic "Subhan Allah wa a," meant to
be continued as "al-hamd li'llah" (Praise be to God and
thanks to God!).
L I S T OF
4-
A
Subject: Repeat unit composed of rotated squares and
rhombuses with kufic calligraphy. The calligraphic pan-
els alternate with rotated squares containing swastikas
that are attached to triangles forming four-pointed
stars.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm. The small squares and
rhombuses of the grids measure 0.4 x 0.4 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: The kufic inscriptions are based on square-
and rhombus-shaped grids outlined in black ink. The
rest of the pattern is also rendered in black ink. The
swastikas are framed by uninked rotated squares, some
of which are subdivided into sixteen smaller uninked
squares (0.8 x 0.8 cm) guiding the outlines of the
swastikas contained in them. The whole composition
is divided into four equal quadrants by two uninked
vertical and horizontal axes that pass from its center.
No other construction lines are indicated.
Inscriptions: Square kufic in black "Allahu" at the central
rhombus (and the four half rhombuses along the edges
of the repeat unit), surrounded by four rotated squares
inscribed "Akbar" and meant to be read together as
"Allahu Akbar" (God is Great).
DRAWINGS 255
42.
Subject: Repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pattern with-
out dotted or solid grid lines, in which the composition
is oriented along two oblique axes of symmetry that
intersect at the center of the composition and divide the
repeat unit into four congruent parts. Along these axes
are aligned a pair of double bipeds and hexagons inter-
locking at the center of the composition. The points at
which the two oblique axes intersect the frame of the
repeat unit determine the centers of four half stars.
Those along the upper and bottom edges are nine-
pointed half stars; the other pair along the lateral edges
are eleven-pointed half stars. Extending the lines of
these stars generates a pattern composed of smaller five-
pointed stars interlocking with polygons.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 21 cm.
Condition: Pasted toward the middle where the design
has slipped slightly.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles subdivided by eight and ten radii, respectively,
generate the four half stars along the edges. Their
extended radii form uninked pentagons in contact and a
central elongated hexagon aligned with the two uninked
oblique axes of symmetry that intersect at the center
of the repeat unit (their point of intersection is not
indicated). The pattern generated by the uninked con-
struction lines is rendered in black ink.
256 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI
43.
Subject: Geometric panel based on a squared grid,
composed of a central star octagon containing a square
kufic inscription, formed by two rotated squares and
surrounded by pentagons. The four corners of the
repeat unit are occupied by eight-pointed quarter stars.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm. The squares of the inked
grid measure 0.5 x 0.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Both the squared grid and the geometric
pattern generated by it are rendered in black ink. A few
uninked construction lines guide the composition (par-
allel lines that extend the sides of the central rotated
squares until they meet the outer frame, cutting off a
triangle at each corner).
Inscription: Square kufic "Allah" in the center.
SCROLL
44-
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern in two layers. The lines of the solid red grid of poly-
gons in contact (pentagons, a half dodecagon, and
quarter decagons) are bisected by two crossing lines that
generate the pattern rendered in black ink. The latter is
composed offive-,ten-, and twelve-pointed stars, poly-
gons, and triple-armed polygons terminating with star
fragments. Like cat. nos. 35, 38, and 39, it is composed of
three different star types.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 19.5 (top), 19.3 cm (bottom).
Condition: Pasted toward the middle where the design
has slipped slightly.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles, with four radii each, at the upper and lower
right corners and larger concentric semicircles, with
eleven radii, along the left edge generate the large stars.
Their extended radii define the contours of uninked
pentagons that contain the smallerfive-pointedstars
drawn in black ink. The design is bilaterally symmetrical
along an uninked horizontal axis of symmetry passing
through its center.
45-
Subject: Square kufic calligraphic panel based on a
squared grid; the inscription is contained in a rotated
central square whose corners touch the midpoints of the
repeat unit's edges. The triangles formed at each of the
four corners arefilledwith geometric patterns.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm. The squares of the inked
grid measure 0.5 x 0.5 cm.
Condition: Fine. Error on the sixth horizontal grid line
from the top. The geometric design at the upper left
corner is incomplete.
Technique: The rotated central square is delineated with
uninked construction lines. Two uninked horizontal and
vertical axes intersect at the center of the composition.
Both the squared grid and the patterns generated by it
are rendered in black ink. The pattern wasfirstmarked
on the grid squares by indented points made by a
compass.
Inscription: Square kufic "Man kana li'llah" (I belong
to God).

46.
Subject:Repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pattern with-
out dotted or solid grid lines, composed of a pair of six-
pointed quarter stars at the upper right and lower left
corners that interlock with double pentagons and other
polygons.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 7.8 cm.
Condition: Fine. A line at the upper left corner, which
would have made the drawing symmetrical, is missing.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles appear at the upper right and lower left
corners; they are each subdivided by five radii that
extend up to an uninked oblique axis of symmetry that
bisects the central double pentagons, cutting the repeat
unit into two congruent parts.
L I S T OF
47-
Subject: Geometric pattern based on a squared grid,
composed of a central eight-pointed star formed by
two rotated squares and interlocked with pentagons,
squares, and ten-pointed composite polygonal shapes
(combining two pentagons and a rotated square).
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm. The squares of the inked
grid measure 0.4 x 0.4 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: An uninked orthogonal grid of squares and
rectangles regulates the pattern. Both the squared grid
and the geometric design superimposed on it are
rendered in black ink. The squares filled in with black
ink were first marked as indented points made by the
point of a compass.
DRAWINGS 257
48.
Subject: Repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pattern with
two layers. The red-dotted grid lines define polygons in
contact whose sides are bisected by two crossing lines
that meet to form the asymmetrically composed main
pattern drawn in black ink. The red-dotted grid lines
are also trisected at one point by two pairs of crossing
lines forming a rhombus at the intersection of two over-
lapping arrow-shaped polygons. The pattern in black
ink grows from two quarter stars of unequal size (eight-
and ten-pointed) occupying the upper right and lower
left corners.
Dimensions: Contained in a larger frame, 25.5 x 4.5 cm.
The repeat unit measures 18 x 4.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles, each with four radii, appear at the two
corners occupied with quarter stars. An uninked vertical
line passing from the center cuts the asymmetrical pat-
tern. Other uninked construction lines divide the repeat
unit into congruent parts that frame the polygonal
shapes drawn in black ink. The red-dotted grid and the
pattern in black ink constitute two layers superimposed
on the uninked dead lines.
258 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

49. 49a 50.

Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a double-layered pattern Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
for relief mosaic tile work (as in cat. no. 38). When tern in two layers. The red-dotted grid defines polygons
quadrupled, the thickly outlined large polygons and star in contact (quarter decagons, elongated hexagons, and
fragments raised in relief would form a composition double trapezoids in the shape of bow ties) whose sides
with a central ten-pointed star, and four ten-pointed are bisected by pairs of crossing lines that meet to form
quarter stars at each corner of the frame. Joining the a pattern rendered in thick black-ink outlines. This pat-
large polygonal shapes, whose corners coincide with the tern grows from two ten-pointed quarter stars at the
centers of some smaller stars of the background pattern, upper left and lower right corners, whose extended
would form a continuousfieldof tilings with no gaps. lines form interlocking polygons. This is a variant of
The minutely rendered background pattern, drawn in cat. no. 52.
thin black-ink outlines, is composed of ten-pointed stars Dimensions: 24.5 x 17.5 cm.
interlocking with various polygons. Condition: Fine.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 46.5 cm. Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
Condition: Pasted toward the middle; intact. quarter circles, with four radii each, coincide with the
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar- corner stars. All the red-dotted grid lines and the paral-
ter circles, subdivided by four radii, coincide with the lel boundaries of the thick lines are indented on the
quarter stars at the upper left and lower right corners. paper. Two uninked oblique axes of symmetry forming
These guide the distribution of the large polygonal a V shape (one of them coinciding with the first radius
shapes, complemented by multiple uninked parallel of the upper left corner) bisect the two elongated hexa-
diagonal, vertical, and horizontal lines that crisscross gons of the red-dotted grid (as well as the polygonal
the surface and coincide with some of the thick outlines shapes drawn in black ink along the same axes).
of the large polygonal shapes. It was not possible to
record all of the lines along which the centers of
background ten-pointed stars are aligned. The small-
scale background pattern (see overlay 49a) is generated
by intricate uninked circles inscribed with decagons,
subdivided by twenty radii, in contact with elongated
hexagons and double trapezoids in the shape of bow
ties. The thick borders of the large polygons are omitted
on the bottom and right edges along which the repeat
unit would be multiplied.
 L I S T OF DRAWINGS 259

b c
51.
Subject: (a) Strip of a naskhi inscription for bannai
brick masonry, based on a squared grid and accom-
panied by geometric filler patterns along the edges.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame together
with cat. nos. 51b — i, 73 x 24.5 cm. Cat. no. 51a measures
7.8 x 73 cm. The squares of the inked grid measure
0.3 x 0.3 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the middle; intact.
Technique: Both the squared grid and the inscription
superimposed on it are rendered in black ink. The inked
squares were first marked by black dots; those marking
the wrong squares were corrected with white paint.
Inscription: The hadith "Qal al-nabi alayhi al-salam
c
al-dunya mazraat al-akhirat" (The Prophet, on Him be
c
d efg h i
Subject: (d) Linear repeat unit of geometric pattern Subject: (h) Square kufic calligraphic panel on a squared
based on a squared grid, consisting of four-petaled grid.
rosettes framed by rotated squares cut off at the corners. Dimensions: 5.5 x 5.5 cm.
Dimensions: 14.5 x 7.8 cm. Condition: Pasted in the middle; intact.
Condition: Fine. The design at the lower right corner Technique: Both the squared grid and the inscription are
is inaccurate. There is also a redundant line along the rendered in black ink.
twelfth horizontal line from the bottom edge of the grid. Inscription: Undeciphered.
Technique: Both the squared grid and the bilaterally Subject: (i) Square kufic calligraphic panel on a squared
symmetrical geometric pattern generated by it are ren- grid, contained in a square frame divided into four
dered in black ink. equal quadrants with a central swastika.
Subject: (e) Rectangular square kufic calligraphic panel Dimensions: 16 x 16 cm.
on a squared grid. Condition: Fine. Redundant line along the fourth hori-
Dimensions: 5 x 9.3 cm. zontal line from the top of the grid.
Condition: Fine. Technique: The red-ink inscriptions are superimposed

peace, said, "The world is a sowing field for the other Technique: The inscription is rendered in orange over on the squared grid drawn in black ink; the two hori-
world" [i.e., You shall reap what you sow]). the squared grid drawn in black ink. zontal and vertical axes dividing the panel into four
Subject: (b) Square kufic calligraphic panel with a Inscriptions: "Al-hukm li'llah" (Authority is God's), equal quadrants are also indicated in thick black-ink
swastika in the center based on a squared grid. repeated twice. outlines (0.3 cm).
Dimensions: 16 x 16 cm. Subject: (f) Rectangular square kufic calligraphic panel Inscriptions: "Muhammad Nabiyyu Allah" (Muhammad
Condition: Fine. on a squared grid. is the Prophet of God), repeated twice in each quadrant.
Technique: Both the squared grid and the inscriptions Dimensions: 5 x 9.3 cm.
are rendered in black ink. Condition: Fine.
Inscriptions: "La ilaha ilia Hah" (There is no God but Technique: Both the squared grid and the inscription are
God) and "huwa" (He [a name of God]), rotated four rendered in black ink.
times, once in each quadrant of the square frame. Inscriptions: "Al-mulk li'llah" (Sovereignty is God's),
Subject: (c) Linear repeat unit of a square kufic inscrip- repeated twice.
tion contained in a geometric pattern of two super- Subject: (g) Rectangular square kufic calligraphic panel
imposed rotated squares, based on a squared grid. on a squared grid.
Dimensions: 15.8 x 10 cm. Dimensions: 5.3 x 9.3 cm.
Condition: Fine. Condition: Fine.
Technique: The squared grid lines are drawn in black Technique: Both the squared grid and inscription are
ink, while the pattern itself is rendered in black and rendered in black ink. Mistakes were corrected with
pinkish red ink. The upper and lower halves of the geo- white paint.
metric pattern are colored differently to show two pos- Inscriptions: "Al-karam li'llah" (Generosity is God's),
sible options for the ordering of glazed bricks. repeated twice.
Inscription: "Akbar" (Great), meant to be accompanied
by "Allahu" to complete the phrase "Allahu Akbar"
(God is Great).
260 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES
52.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon
pattern in two layers. The lines of the red-dotted grid
of polygons in contact (quarter and full decagons, elon-
gated hexagons, rhombuses, and double trapezoids in
the shape of bow ties) are bisected by pairs of crossed
lines in black ink that intersect to form the main pattern.
The black-ink pattern is composed of ten-pointed stars
interlocking with pentagons and other polygons; there
are two ten-pointed quarter stars at the lower right and
upper left corners. This is a variant of cat. no. 50.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 33.8 (top), 33.5 cm (bottom).
Condition: Pasted toward the right edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles and circles with four and twenty radii, respec-
tively, coincide with the stars. Two uninked oblique axes
of symmetry intersect at the center of the repeat unit;
one of them is the diagonal connecting the upper left
and lower right corners occupied by quarter stars, the
other passes through the centers of the two ten-pointed
stars. Together with the uninked horizontal and vertical
axes passing through the center, they divide the compo-
sition into congruent parts. These uninked construction
lines are superimposed with red-dotted grid lines defin-
ing polygons in contact and the pattern in black ink.
AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
53.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern in two layers. The red-dotted grid lines form poly-
gons in contact (quarter decagons, trapezoids, and
rhombuses) whose sides are bisected by two crossing
thick black-ink lines. The red-dotted line passing from
the center of the composition, however, is trisected by
two pairs of crossing lines forming a central rhombus at
the intersection of two overlapping double bipeds. The
pattern in thick black ink is composed of interlocking
polygons growing from two ten-pointed quarter stars at
the upper left and lower right corners. This is a variant
of cat. no. 72d, which also has two overlapping double
bipeds interlocking with a pair of pentagons at the cen-
ter. It is also a variant of the next repeat unit (cat. no.
54) featuring a similar dotted grid line that passes from
the center of the composition and is trisected by two
pairs of crossing lines forming a central rhombus.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 18 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles, each with four radii, appear at the two
corners occupied by stars. The diagonal connecting
these corners and two radii emanating from each of the
corner stars form an N shape constituting three axes of
symmetry along which the polygonal shapes of the
black-ink pattern are aligned. An oblique axis of
symmetry also passes through the center of the repeat
unit, dividing it into congruent halves. These uninked
axes of symmetry that guide the composition are com-
plemented by an uninked horizontal line passing
through some important points.
54.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern in two layers. The red-dotted grid divides the frame
into four polygonal parts. The grid lines are trisected by
two pairs of crossing lines in black ink that meet to form
the main pattern. The black-ink pattern is composed of
two ten-pointed quarter stars at the upper left and lower
right corners whose extended lines form interlocking
polygons. The center of the composition has a rhombus
created by two overlapping rhomboids that interlock
with a pair of pentagons. The red-dotted grid line pass-
ing from the center is trisected by two pairs of crossing
lines forming that rhombus, as in cat. no. 53.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 18 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles, each with four radii, appear at the two
corners occupied by stars. An uninked oblique axis of
symmetry intersects at the center of the composition
with the diagonal axis of symmetry connecting the
two starred corners, cutting the repeat unit into four
congruent parts.

55.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern in two layers. The black-dotted grid lines form
polygons in contact (a ten-pointed quarter star at the
upper right corner, rhombuses, and a quarter decagon
at the lower left corner). These dotted grid lines are
bisected by two crossing thick red lines (filling two par-
allel lines in black ink). The red-ink pattern, growing
from two ten-pointed quarter stars of different sizes at
the upper right and lower left corners, is composed of
interlocking polygons and star fragments.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 18 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles, each with four radii, coincide with the two
quarter stars at diagonal corners. The four radii emanat-
ing from the upper right corner extend the whole length
of the repeat unit, bisecting the polygons lined up along
them. The two parts of the repeat unit that are clustered
around each of the quarter stars form completely asym-
metrical compositions separated by a quarter decagon
drawn in thick red-ink lines. The area at the upper right
corner delineated by that quarter decagon has inter-
locking hexagons and nine-pointed composite polygons
(combining a trapezoid and a star fragment). The rest of
the repeat unit has a different type of polygonal pattern
in which pentagons interlock with double trapezoids in
the shape of bow ties. (For a similar composition see
cat. nos. 48 and 56.) The repeat unit is cut into two con-
gruent triangles by an uninked diagonal axis of symme-
try joining the upper right and lower left corners.
L I S T OF
56.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon
pattern in two layers. The solid red grid lines form poly-
gons in contact (quarter and half decagons, pentagons,
rhombuses, rhomboids, and trapezoids) whose sides are
bisected by two crossing black-ink lines that meet to
form a star-and-polygon pattern. Some of the polygonal
grid lines are trisected by pairs of crossing black-ink
lines that delineate overlapping arrow-shaped polygons
whose intersection forms a rhombus. The pattern drawn
in black ink grows from two ten-pointed quarter stars at
the upper and lower right corners and a ten-pointed half
star along the left edge. These quarter and half stars are
each surrounded by pairs of parallel quarter and half
decagons drawn in black ink that mark areas filled with
different types of polygons (hexagons interlocking with
nine-pointed composite polygons combining a
trapezoid and a star fragment). Areas falling beyond
them have a different polygonal pattern. (For a similar
composition see cat. nos. 48 and 55.)
Dimensions: 24.5 x 30 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the right edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles and semicircles with four and nine radii,
respectively, coincide with the two quarter stars and half
star, as well as the quarter and half decagons that
surround them at a distance. These construction lines
are accompanied by an uninked horizontal axis of sym-
metry that passes through the center of the bilaterally
symmetrical composition. Alternating radii emanating
from the upper and lower right corners intersect the
horizontal axis at a point coinciding with the center of a
pentagon drawn in black ink. The composition is radi-
ally symmetrical along several axis lines that converge at
the center of that pentagon.
DRAWINGS 26l
57.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern in two layers. The red-dotted grid lines divide the
repeat unit into polygons in contact whose sides are
bisected by pairs of crossing thick lines in black ink. The
thickly outlined main pattern grows from two eight-
pointed quarter stars at the upper left and lower right
corners that interlock with polygons; its center has a
composite polygon with star fragments at both ends.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 10 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with three radii each, appear at the upper left
and lower right corners. Along the right and left edges
uninked semicircles generate star fragments and half
octagons. The center of each is determined by the points
at which the radii of the quarter stars in diagonal
corners intersect with the outer frame. The repeat unit
is cut into congruent parts by two axes of symmetry that
intersect at the center of the composition. One of these
is the uninked diagonal that joins the two starred
corners and the other one (unindicated in the repeat
unit) is an oblique axis passing through the centers of
the half octagons along the lateral edges. These are com-
plemented by a third uninked horizontal line that
bisects the repeat unit into two symmetrical halves.
262 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES
58.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern in two layers. The red-dotted grid lines form poly-
gons in contact (pentagons, quarter and half decagons,
and half and full elongated octagons) whose sides are
bisected by pairs of crossing black-ink lines that meet to
form the main pattern. The design in black ink grows
from ten-pointed quarter stars along the upper and
lower right corners and a ten-pointed half star along the
left edge. It is composed of five-pointed stars (contain-
ing smaller red five-pointed stars, probably denoting
inset plaques) that interlock with various polygons and
an irregular eight-pointed star at the center.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 32.7 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles and semicircles with four and nine radii,
respectively, coincide with the ten-pointed quarter and
half stars (and the red-dotted quarter and half decagons
surrounding the stars). The five-pointed stars contained
in dotted pentagons are generated by small uninked
concentric circles with ten radii. An uninked horizontal
axis of symmetry passes through the center of the com-
position, bisecting it into two symmetrical halves.
AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
59-
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern in two layers. The red-dotted grid lines define four
rotated squares in each quadrant. The four prolonged
sides of each square join at the center and sides of the
repeat unit, forming a red-dotted grid of congruent tri-
angles and kite-shaped rhomboids in contact with four
rotated squares. The points at which the prolonged sides
of the rotated squares intersect the outer frame of the
repeat unit determine the centers of the six-pointed
quarter and half stars drawn in black ink at the corners
and along the edges of the repeat unit. The red-dotted
grid lines meeting at the middle of the composition
determine the center of a six-pointed star. The stellate
pattern in black ink is composed of interlocking
polygons with each rotated square grid containing
swastika-like forms.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric circles
and arcs with two, five, and twelve radii, respectively,
coincide with the quarter, half, and full stars. Two
uninked horizontal and vertical axes of symmetry inter-
secting at the center divide the repeat unit into four
equal quadrants. The red-dotted grid of polygons in
contact probably would be eliminated from the final
pattern.
60.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern with two layers. The red-dotted grid lines define
polygons in contact (pentagons, rhombuses, and quarter
and half decagons) whose sides are bisected by the
crossing black lines of the main pattern. The black-ink
pattern grows from two ten-pointed quarter stars at
the upper corners and a ten-pointed half star along the
bottom edge. It is composed of interlocking polygons,
five-pointed stars, and star fragments.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 15.8 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles and semicircles with four and nine radii,
respectively, coincide with the ten-pointed quarter and
half stars. Small uninked circles with ten radii, inscribed
in dotted pentagons, generate the five-pointed stars.
These uninked construction lines are accompanied
by an uninked vertical axis of symmetry that passes
through the center of the composition, bisecting it into
bilaterally symmetrical halves. The two radii of the
upper corners that extend up to the midpoint of the
bottom edge and form a V shape also constitute uninked
axes of symmetry along which design elements are
aligned.

61.
Subject:Repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pattern in
two layers. The red-dotted grid defines a central square
with four extended sides that divide the repeat unit
into four rectangles. The points where the extended
sides of the dotted central square meet the outer frame
determine the centers of four eight-pointed half stars,
one along each edge of the repeat unit. These stars,
drawn in thick black-ink lines, interlock with pentagons,
double pentagons, and a swastika-like form framed by
the central red-dotted square.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted near both ends; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of four semicircles,
each with seven radii, generate the half stars. These
construction lines are accompanied by the red-dotted
grid that would have been eliminated from the final pat-
tern. An uninked horizontal construction line passes
through the center of the composition, determining
the midpoint of the swastika-like form.
62.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern in two layers. The red-dotted grid lines define poly-
gons in contact (quarter and half decagons, elongated
hexagons, and double trapezoids in the shape of bow
ties) whose sides are bisected by the crossing lines of
the pattern in black ink. The pattern grows from two
ten-pointed quarter stars at the upper corners and a
ten-pointed half star along the bottom edge, which
interlock with various polygons.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 16 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines consist of two quar-
ter circles and a semicircle with four and nine radii,
respectively, that generate the quarter and half stars. An
uninked vertical axis of symmetry passing through the
center bisects the repeat unit into bilaterally symmetri-
cal halves. The first radii of the upper corners, which
join to form a V shape at the center of the bottom edge,
also constitute axes of symmetry along which design ele-
ments are aligned.
LIST OF DRAWINGS 263
63.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern in two layers. The red-dotted grid lines define poly-
gons in contact (pentagons, trapezoids, and quarter and
half dodecagons) whose sides are bisected by pairs of
crossing lines forming the pattern in black ink. The pat-
tern grows from two twelve-pointed quarter stars at the
upper corners and a twelve-pointed half star along the
bottom edge, which interlock with polygons, double
bipeds, and triple-armed composite polygons with star
fragments.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 28.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles and semicircles with five and eleven radii,
respectively, generate the stars at the two upper corners
and along the bottom edge. These radii extend up to
three red-dotted grid lines, constituting axes of symme-
try, that intersect at the midpoint of the triple-armed
composite polygon with star fragments. The latter is
bisected by an uninked vertical axis of symmetry passing
through the center of the bilaterally symmetrical
composition. An uninked horizontal line crossing the
midpoint of the repeat unit coincides with some impor-
tant points. The two radii of the upper corners, which
extend to the midpoint of the bottom edge and form a V
shape, also constitute uninked axes of symmetry along
which design elements are aligned. Two other uninked
axes of symmetry are the radii of the upper corners that
extend up to the lateral edges of the repeat unit,
intersecting at the central vertical axis of symmetry.
264 CATALOG! PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

64. 65. 66.

Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon
pattern in two layers. The red-dotted grid lines define
polygons in contact (pentagons and quarter and half
decagons) whose sides are bisected by pairs of crossing
lines in black ink. The pattern grows from two ten-
pointed quarter stars at the upper corners and a ten-
pointed half star along the bottom edge, interlocking
with polygons and double bipeds.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 35.2 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the right edge where the design
has slipped slightly.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles and semicircles with four and nine radii,
respectively, at the upper corners and along the bottom
edge generate the stars. Alternating radii emanating
from the two upper corners form a V shape and extend
up to the uninked vertical axis of symmetry that bisects
the pattern into bilaterally symmetrical halves. An
uninked horizontal line passing from the center of the
composition coincides with some sides of polygons
aligned along it.
Subject: Square kufic calligraphic panel on a squared
grid.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm. Each square of the grid mea-
sures 0.4 x 0.4 cm.
Condition: Fine. Mistake has been corrected in one place
by pasting a piece of squared paper on top of the error.
Technique: Both the squared grid and the kufic inscrip-
tion are rendered in black ink. The inked squares of
the grid were first marked as dots by the point of a com-
pass or joined with a black-ink line before being filled
with ink.
Inscription: Undeciphered.
Subject:Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern with no dotted or solid grid lines. The symmetrical
pattern has ten-pointed quarter stars at each corner that
interlock with pentagons and other polygons; the center
of the composition is occupied by a four-pointed star.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.3 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the middle where the design has
slipped slightly.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with four radii appear at each corner.
Two uninked diagonal axes of symmetry cross at the
center of the four-pointed star (these axis lines are not,
however, extended up to the four corners of the repeat
unit). In addition, two uninked horizontal and vertical
lines intersect at the center of the repeat unit, passing
from some important points.

67.
Subject:Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
tern with rotating squares containing swastikas. The
pattern grows from two eight-pointed quarter stars at
the upper corners and an eight-pointed half star along
the bottom edge, which interlock with various polygons.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 20.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles and semicircles with three and seven radii,
respectively, generate the stars at the upper corners and
along the bottom edge. Two of the radii emanating from
the upper corners extend up to the midpoint of the bot-
tom edge of the repeat unit, forming a V-shaped axis
of symmetry along which design elements are aligned.
An uninked horizontal line passes through the center
of the composition, determining the midpoints of the
swastikas. It is accompanied by an uninked vertical axis
of symmetry that bisects the pattern into bilaterally
symmetrical halves. The two swastikas are generated by
two rotated squares subdivided into sixteen smaller
squares, but these construction lines are not indicated
on the pattern.
LIST
a a
b b
68.
Subject: (a) Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon
pattern with a rotated central swastika. The drawing in
black ink grows from ten-pointed quarter stars at each
corner.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 68b
in a rectangular frame, 24.5 x 11 cm. The repeat unit
measures 11 x 11 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the right edge; intact. A line
at the upper left corner (which would have made the
composition symmetrical) is missing.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with four radii generate the stars at each
corner. These are accompanied by an uninked rotated
central square subdivided into a checkered grid of
sixteen uninked small squares that guide the outlines
of the swastika.
Subject: (b) Square kufic calligraphic panel on a squared
grid.
Dimensions: 11 x 11 cm. The squares of the inked grid
measure 0.4 x 0.4 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the right edge; intact.
Technique: The inscription in red ink is superimposed
on the squared grid drawn in black ink. The redundant
black-ink lines joining some of the squares are corrected
with white paint.
Inscription: "La ilaha ilia' llah Muhammad Rasul Allah"
(There is no God but God and Muhammad is his
Prophet), the Muslim profession of faith.
OF D R AW I N G S 265
69.
Subject: (a) Square kufic calligraphic panel on a squared
grid.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 69b in a
rectangular frame, 24.5 x 11 cm. The repeat unit
measures 11 x 11 cm. The squares of the inked grid mea-
sure 0.4 x 0.4 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: The red inscriptions are superimposed on the
squared grid drawn in black ink.
Inscriptions: "Mubarak bad" (May he [or it] be blessed!,
or, Good fortune attend you!), rotated four times.
Subject: (b) Repeat unit for a polygonal pattern with
four rotated swastikas; the center is occupied by an
octagon.
Dimensions: 11 x 11 cm.
Condition: Fine. Two lines that would have created a
pentagon along the left edge of the repeat unit are
missing.
Technique: The uninked grid lines consist of two vertical
and horizontal axes of symmetry intersecting at the
center of the repeat unit. Each of the quadrants defined
by these axes features an uninked rotated square sub-
divided into sixteen smaller squares that guide the out-
lines of the swastikas drawn in black ink. The pattern
is also symmetrical along its unindicated diagonal axes
passing from the center of the composition.
266 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN
70.
Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a pattern with swastika
motifs. It grows from two twelve-pointed quarter stars
at the upper left and lower right corners, interlocking
with rhomboids, half hexagons, and rhombuses contain-
ing swastikas.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 14 cm.
Condition: Fine. The orange metallic paint has tarnished
into silvery gray.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles, each with five radii, generate the stars at the
upper left and lower right corners. Other uninked
construction lines consist of six rhombuses, each sub-
divided into a grid of sixteen small rhombuses that
guide the outlines of the swastikas drawn over them in
black ink. The repeat unit also has two uninked axes of
symmetry that intersect at the center; one of them is the
diagonal that joins the two starred corners. The other
is an oblique axis that determines the centers of the half
hexagons along the lateral edges, bisecting the central
rhombus between them. The black-ink pattern is high-
lighted with orange, possibly to indicate differently
colored tiles or inset plaques.
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
71.
Subject: Hexagonal panel with kufic inscriptions drawn
on a triangulated grid.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame, 24.5 x
28.5 cm. Each side of the hexagon measures 14.2 cm.
The equilateral triangles of the grid measure 0.8 cm on
each side.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: The empty triangles at the four corners of
the repeat unit crisscross with uninked arcs used in gen-
erating the outer hexagon. Several uninked lines guide
the composition inside the hexagon. The triangulated
grid and the outer hexagonal inscription band are
rendered in black ink; the inner hexagon and its inscrip-
tions are in red ink. This color coding probably refers
to the differently colored tiles meant to be used in the
rotationally symmetrical panel.
Inscriptions: Around the hexagonal outer band
"Muhammad" is repeated six times; inside the central
hexagon " A 1 T " is rotated three times.
C

b c
72.
Subject: (a) Linear repeat unit of a composite square
kufic calligraphic panel with a central cross-shaped pat-
tern, drawn on a squared grid.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 72b-d in
a rectangular frame, 24.5 x 33.2 cm. The repeat unit
measures 12.2 x 33.2 cm. The squares of the grid measure
0.5 x 0.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact. The orange
metallic paint has tarnished into silvery gray.
Technique: The squared grid in black ink is super-
imposed with black-ink kufic letters contained in the
central cross and the two partial crosses attached to it.
The lateral T-shaped frames feature orange kufic letter-
ing. The color coding refers to the differently colored
glazed bricks meant to be used in bannai masonry
for this design, extendable in two directions along a
linear axis.
Inscriptions: The central cross in black ink contains "Al-
hamd li'llah" (Praise be to God!) repeated twice; the two
arms of the incomplete black-ink crosses attached to it
feature fragments of the same phrase that were meant
to be completed by multiplying the repeat unit. The
lateral T-shaped frames each contain "Subhan Allah"
(Praise be to God!) colored in orange paint. There are
errors in the spelling of "Allah" and "Subhan" at the
upper and lower T-shaped frames on the right side.
Subject: (b) Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon
pattern with no solid or dotted grid lines. It is composed
of two six-pointed quarter stars at the upper left and
lower right corners, interlocking with various polygons
drawn in black ink.
Dimensions: 11.8 x 8.7 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with two radii generate the stars at the upper
left and lower right corners. No other uninked construc-
tion lines are indicated, even though the repeat unit is
symmetrical with respect to its diagonal axis connecting
LIST OF DRAWINGS 267
d
73-
the starred corners and an oblique axis passing from the Subject: Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon pat-
center that bisects the double trapezoids in the shape of tern without dotted or solid grid lines. It grows from
a bow tie. two ten-pointed quarter stars at the upper right and
Subject: (c) Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon lower left corners, interlocking with polygons and
pattern in two layers. The red-dotted grid lines define double bipeds.
a central rotated square with four extended sides that Dimensions: 24.5 x 17.8 cm.
intersect with the points of the ten-pointed quarter Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact.
stars in each corner. The pattern in black ink that grows Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
from these stars is composed of interlocking polygons; ter circles, each with four radii, appear at the starred
its center is occupied by a four-pointed star fitted into diagonal corners. The repeat unit has two uninked axes
the red-dotted rotated square. of symmetry that intersect at the center of the compo-
Dimensions: 11.8 x 11.8 cm. sition. One of them is the diagonal that joins the two
Condition: Fine. starred corners; the other is an oblique axis that passes
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar- through the intersection point of the two central double
ter circles with four radii appear at each corner. The bipeds facing each other. These construction lines are
incised outlines of the rotated central square, subdivided accompanied by an uninked horizontal axis of symme-
into four uninked small squares, and its four extended try that divides the composition into two symmetrical
sides are gone over in red-dotted lines that probably halves.
would have been eliminated from the final design.
Subject: (d) Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon
pattern in two layers. The red-dotted grid lines define
stars and polygons in contact (quarter dodecagons,
eight-pointed quarter stars, rhombuses, and elongated
hexagons) whose sides are bisected by the crossing lines
of the main pattern drawn in black ink. The pattern
grows from two twelve-pointed quarter stars at the
upper left and lower right corners, interlocking with
various polygons and overlapping double bipeds at the
center. This is a variant of cat. no. 53, which also has two
overlapping central bipeds along its diagonal axis that
connects the corner stars.
Dimensions: 11.8 x 11.8 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with three and five radii, respectively, appear
at the four corners. The repeat unit has two uninked
axes of symmetry, the diagonals that connect opposite
corners and intersect at the center of the composition.
268 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

74- 75- 76.

Subject: Composite square kufic calligraphic panel
drawn on a squared grid with interlocking I- and T-
shaped fields, colored green and yellow. Together with
the light pink areas around the edges of the repeat unit,
these colors define individual fields for differently
colored glazed bricks. The orange lines framing these
color-coded fields form swastikas at the four corners,
the midpoints of the four sides, and at the center of
the repeat unit.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm. The squares of the inked
Subject: Composite square kufic calligraphic panel
drawn on a squared grid with black letters separated by
parallel red lines (each of them one square wide) form-
ing swastikas at the center of each of the four quadrants
and at the center of the repeat unit.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 (top), 24.7 cm (bottom). The
squares of the inked grid measure 0.3 x 0.3 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge where the paint is
smudged.
Technique: The squared grid in black ink is filled with
Subject: Square kufic calligraphic roundel drawn on a
squared grid.
Dimensions: Contained in a square frame, 24.5 x 24.5
cm. The squares of the inked grid measure 0.7 x 0.7 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Both the squared grid and the calligraphic
roundel are rendered in black ink. Uninked parallel
circles and horizontal and vertical axes of symmetry
intersecting at the center guide the composition.
Inscriptions: "Muhammad, A1I," rotated four times,
C

grid measure 0.3 x 0.3 cm. black lettering and parallel red lines that frame the once in each quadrant.
Condition: The metallic orange paint has tarnished into letters.
silvery gray, and the faded light pink color is uneven. Inscriptions: "Muhammad Nabiyyu" (Muhammad is the
Some parts of the design are torn. Some spelling errors Prophet [of God]) and "Allah Ahad" (God is unique),
(e.g., "al-mutakabbir"). repeated twice in each frame and once in the half frames
Technique: The squared grid in black ink is filled with along the sides of the repeat unit.
various colors, including green, orange, light pink, and
yellow. The kufic lettering is black.
Inscriptions: The yellow I-shaped areas are filled with the
following Beautiful Names of God (i.e., al-asmd' al-
husna)\ "al-rahman" (the Beneficient), "al-rahim" (the
Merciful), "al-malik" (the Sovereign Lord), "al-quddus"
(the Holy One), "al- aziz" (the Majestic), "al-jabbar"
c

(the Compeller), "al-mutakabbir" (the Superb), and "al-

khaliq" (the Creator). The green I-shaped areas quote
parts of the Koranic verse (59:23) in which some of the
ninety-nine Beautiful Names of God are mentioned,
but the ones already cited in the yellow I-shaped areas
(i.e., "al-malik," "al-quddus," "al- aziz," "al-jabbar,"
c

and "al-mutakabbir") are not repeated here. The green

and yellow T-shaped areas distributed along the repeat
unit's frame read "li'llah" (God's) and "al-sultan" (the
Sultan). The small light pink rectangles also lined up
along the repeat unit's frame contain only "li'llah"
(God's).

77-
Subject: Composite square kufic calligraphic panel
drawn on a squared grid, with orange letters contained
in square compartments occupying each corner and at
the center of the composition. The remaining letters in
black ink are framed by red lines that form swastikas
at the center of each side of the repeat unit.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm. The squares of the inked
grid measure 0.3 x 0.3 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact. A red line is
missing along the bottom edge where "Muhammad" is
written. Some of the orange metallic paint has tarnished
into silvery gray.
Technique: The squared grid in black ink is filled with
orange and black lettering and framing red lines.
Inscriptions: The four longest black-lettered frames read
"La ilaha ilia' llah Muhammad," and each of the orange-
lettered squares is filled with "Rasul Allah." Together
they form the Muslim profession of faith, "La ilaha ilia'
llah Muhammad Rasul Allah" (There is no God but
God and Muhammad is his Prophet). The four shorter
L-shaped frames contain "Muhammad," and the small
rectangular ones along the repeat unit's edges read
"li'llah" (God's).
LIST OF DRAWINGS 269
78. 79-
Subject: (a) The corner triangle has the repeat unit of Subject: Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
a kite-shaped rhomboidal muqarnas fragment probably starting with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped
meant to be used in the transitional zone of the octa- double bipeds, followed by a single row of five-pointed
gonal vault depicted in cat. no. 78b. If used indepen- stars merging with the five-pointed star in the squinch
dently, it could be multiplied eight times to form an corner, which is filled by polygonal shapes.
octagonal vault. Its fan-shaped radial muqarnas units Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
are composed of simple polygons and arrow-shaped Condition: Pasted along the middle where the design has
double bipeds with no stars. slipped slightly. The symmetry of the repeat unit is
Dimensions: Contained in a square frame, 24.6 x 24.6 cm. destroyed by errors in stippling in the right half, where
The base of the triangle measures 19.9 cm; its two equal two stippled bipeds are missing. At the upper right edge
sides are 13.5 cm. the points of a half star have been stippled by mistake.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact. Hole near the center.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric arcs Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
with three radii (full vault would have thirty-two-fold quarter circles with fifteen radii (full vault would have
radial symmetry). The black-ink drawing is only sixty-four-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
highlighted with stippling in black; no color coding is systems of circles. The black-ink drawing has only
used because of the relative simplicity of the pattern. black stippling used to highlight the double bipeds
Subject: (b) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault and the filler units demarcating the tiers around the
with the squinch corner cut off; multiplying the repeat star clusters. As in cat. no. 80 the stars have not been
unit four times would create an octagonal vault. It starts stippled or color coded to differentiate spatial levels.
with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double bipeds,
followed by a single row of five-pointed stars.
Dimensions: Same as cat. no. 78a.
Condition: Same as cat. no. 78a. A color-coded biped,
which should have been adjacent to the central star,
is missing from what would otherwise have been a
symmetrical composition.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with fifteen radii (full vault would have
sixty-four-fold radial symmetry) emanate from the
lower right corner; these are accompanied by smaller
subsidiary systems of concentric circles. The drawing in
black ink has stippling and color coding in black and red
ink to differentiate spatial levels and to highlight the
filler units surrounding the star clusters. Two different
densities of black stippling are used to indicate that the
five-pointed stars bend toward three different planes.
270 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN
a a
b b
80.
Subject: (a) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas pattern
contained in a triangle constituting the one-eighth
repeat unit of a square full vault, or the one-half
fragment of a square pattern for the transitional zone
of a vault. Rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds are not accompanied by intermediary stars;
one corner has a five-pointed half star.
Dimensions: Contained in a square, 24.5 x 24.5 cm. The
diagonal line constituting the base of each triangular
repeat unit is 34.6 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric arcs
with five radii (full vault would have forty-eight-fold
radial symmetry), accompanied by concentric semi-
circles generating the half star in the lower corner. The
black-ink drawing has only black stippling because of
the relative simplicity of its muqarnas design, which
lacks multiple stars. Stippling is used only to highlight
the single and double bipeds; the corner star is left
unstippled as in cat. nos. 79 and 80b.
Subject: (b) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas contained in a
triangle, sharing the same characteristics as cat. no. 80a.
It starts with rows of hexagons and double bipeds and
its corner is occupied by a five-pointed star framed by
an irregular octagon. It could be used to fill a triangular
squinch corner or a triangular frame along the baseline
of a dome, or doubled to form a square full vault. These
two drawings seem to present two possible vaulting
options using similar design elements.
Dimensions: Same as cat. no. 80a.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles with fifteen radii (full vault would have thirty-
two-fold radial symmetry), complemented by smaller
concentric circles around the corner star; graphic
conventions same as cat. no. 80a. Two uninked diago-
nals and a horizontal line intersect at the center of the
square repeat unit containing cat. no. 80.
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
a
81.
Subject: (a) Quarter repeat unit of a star-and-polygon
pattern in black ink without dotted or solid grid lines. It
is composed of four seven-pointed half stars, one along
each edge, interlocking with pentagons adjacent to a
central rotated square.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame, 24.5 x
9.3 cm. The square repeat unit measures 9.3 x 9.3 cm.
Condition: Fine. Hole at the top.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles, each with six radii, generate the half stars. Their
centers are determined by two uninked oblique axes of
symmetry intersecting at the middle of the composition.
An uninked vertical line passing from the center of the
repeat unit coincides with the central axis of the accom-
panying pattern cat. no. 81b.
Subject: (b) Two variants of stellate muqarnas cornices
for the organ-pipe ribs of ribbed domes.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame,
15 x 9.3 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles (the one on top has nine radii and the bottom
one has seven) generate the stellate muqarnas patterns
drawn in black ink. Each example has been highlighted
with stippling in black ink and color coding in black and
red ink to differentiate spatial levels and to highlight
biped-shapedfillerunits.
82.
Subject: (a, b) Two similar design options for a fan-
shaped muqarnas vault, each with a central unbent five-
pointed star on a single plane. Both rhomboidal patterns
represent the one-eighth repeat unit of a muqarnas full
vault starting with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped
double bipeds, followed by rows of stars. In cat. no. 82a
a row offive-pointedstars contained in decagons is fol-
lowed by another row of four-pointed stars framed by
rotated squares that alternate with other four-pointed
stars. In cat. no. 82b there are two central five-pointed
stars, one of them unbent and the other one with two
bent points. The use of asymmetrical polygonal units
along the two long left sides of each rhomboidal repeat
unit indicates that they probably were meant not for full
vaults but for octagonal half vaults. Since both repeat
units have half stars along their right edges, they would
have been multiplied along those edges and were not
intended for the kite-shaped transitional zones of vaults.
Dimensions: Contained in a frame, 24.5 x 24.3 cm. The
short sides of the rhomboids measure 10 cm. The corner
triangle has a base of 20.3 cm and two equal sides of
14.3 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge where the design has
slipped slightly.
Technique: An uninked diagonal divides the repeat
unit into two halves. Each drawing has uninked radial
grid lines of concentric arcs with seven radii (half
vaults would have thirty-two-fold radial symmetry) and
smaller subsidiary systems of circles. Cat. no. 82a is a
black-ink drawing color coded with black and red ink;
cat. no. 82b is a black-ink drawing highlighted with
black stippling and color coding in black and red ink.
In both drawings the unbent flat stars are colored red
and black, perhaps to indicate mosaic tile insets used in
conjunction with plaster. Only cat. no. 82b has a black-
stippled corner star with two bent points.

83.
Subject: (a) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas pattern repre-
senting the rhomboidal one-eighth repeat unit of an
octagonal vault. The use of asymmetrical polygonal
units along the upper left edge, however, suggests that
the repeat unit was intended for an octagonal half vault.
The half star along the right edge reveals that the
pattern, which would have been repeated along that
edge, was not meant for the kite-shaped transitional
zones of vaults. It starts with rows of hexagons and
arrow-shaped double bipeds, followed by a single row
of six- and seven-pointed stars.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 83b-c in a
square, 24.5 x 24.5 cm. The shorter sides of the
rhomboids measure 10 cm. The corner triangle has a
base of 20.2 cm and equal sides measuring 14 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric arcs
with seven radii (half vault would have thirty-two-fold
radial symmetry) accompanied by smaller subsidiary
systems of circles. The black-ink drawing is highlighted
with red and black stippling and color coding in red and
black ink to differentiate spatial levels. Colors highlight
thefillerunits surrounding the black-stippled stars
whose bent points are indicated by red stippling.
Subject: (b) Shell-shaped radial muqarnas pattern repre-
senting the one-eighth rhomboidal repeat unit of an
octagonal vault; it could also be used in the kite-shaped
transitional zone of a vault. It has a single five-pointed
star contained in a pentagon, flanked by simple polygo-
nal units.
Dimensions: Same as cat. no. 83a.
Condition: Pasted along the right edge; intact. Although
a rhombus along the left side has stippling (probably a
mistake), the corresponding rhombus along the right
side is unstippled.
LIST
Technique: Uninked radial grid consisting of an arc with
three radii (full vault would have thirty-two-fold radial
symmetry). The black-ink drawing has stippling in
black and color coding in black and red ink to differen-
tiate spatial levels and to highlightfillerunits. The five-
pointed unbent red star is on a single plane.
Subject: (c) Arch-net quarter vault with an eighteen-
sided polygon at the center; it was probably meant to be
used as a semidome at the transitional zone of the vaults
depicted in cat. no. 83a-b.
Dimensions: 6.2 x 7.4 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: An uninked arc with eight radii generates the
stellate pattern drawn in black ink.
OF DRAWINGS 271
84.
Subject:Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds, followed by a single row offive-pointedstars,
with the squinch corner occupied by a large seven-
pointed star. The use of asymmetrical polygonal units at
the upper right edge indicates that the repeat unit was
not meant for a full vault but for a half vault.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Fine. Filler unit at the left end of the bottom
edge is uncolored, unlike its symmetrical counterpart
along the upper right edge of the repeat unit.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles withfifteenradii (half vault would have
thirty-two-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of circles. Stippling and color coding in black
and red ink are used to differentiate spatial levels and
to highlightfillerunits surrounding the stars. The five-
pointed stippled stars contain red-colored stars, perhaps
meant to be executed as mosaic tile insets embedded in
the plaster. All the stars stippled in red and black ink
have one point bending toward a different plane.
272 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

a b

85. 86. 87.

Subject: Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds, followed by a single row of six-pointed stars,
with the squinch corner filled by a large seven-pointed
star flanked by small four-pointed stars. The use of
asymmetrical polygonal units at the upper right edge
indicates that the repeat unit was not meant for a full
vault but for a half vault.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge where the design has
slipped slightly.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with fifteen radii (half vault would have
thirty-two-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of circles. Graphic conventions same as cat.
no. 84. Here the six-pointed stars that contain smaller
six-pointed flat stars have two points bending toward a
different plane. The large seven-pointed corner star
also has a black-colored flat star polygon set into it.
Subject:Shell-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault with
simple polygonal units; the squinch corner is occupied
by a six-pointed star.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked quarter circle with five radii (full
vault would have twenty-four-fold radial symmetry)
accompanied by smaller concentric circles in the squinch
corner. Graphic conventions same as cat. no. 84. The
three red-dotted points of the corner star fall on a
different plane than the black-dotted ones. Uninked
vertical and horizontal lines intersect at the center of
the composition.
Subject: (a) Repeat unit for a stellate muqarnas quarter
vault based on a composite orthogonal and radial grid
system with patterns limited to 45, 90, and 135 degrees.
It is composed of four- and eight-pointed stars regulated
by a grid of square and rectangular compartments. The
accompanying drawing, cat. no. 87b, probably was
meant to be used in conjunction with this one. When
quadrupled this repeat unit would create a flat square
muqarnas vault (probably rendered in wood or brick),
with a square area at its center that may have been filled
by multiplying cat. no. 87b four times. It is closely
related to cat. no. 89.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: The repeat unit is subdivided into square
and rectangular compartments that are not, however,
indicated as uninked vertical and horizontal lines. The
rectilinear grid shown in the overlay is not present
among the uninked construction lines, which only
include circles containing the eight-pointed stars and
an uninked oblique line touching the corner of cat.
no. 87b. Stippling and color coding in black and red ink
are used to differentiate spatial levels and to accentuate
bipeds. Black stippling is used only in the triangular
compartments that surround the frame of cat. no. 87b.
Subject: (b) Shell-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
with its squinch corner occupied by a five-pointed star
with one point missing. When quadrupled this pattern
would form a square dome with an eight-fluted central
shell; it was probably meant to fill the center of the vault
depicted in cat. no. 87a. The drawings are proportionally
related and share sixteen-fold radial symmetry.
Dimensions: 11 x 11 cm.
Condition: Fine. A line that should have divided the
rhombus at the middle of the right edge into two
triangles is missing.
Technique: Uninked arc with three radii (full vault would
have sixteen-fold radial symmetry) and a smaller circle,
subdivided by ten radii, at the corner. Graphic conven-
tions same as cat. no. 87a.

88.
Subject:Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds, followed by a single row of five-pointed stars.
The squinch corner has simple filler elements. The rec-
tangular format has led to a relatively asymmetrical
composition. The use of asymmetrical polygonal units
along the upper right edge indicates that the repeat unit
was meant not for a full vault but for a half vault.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 37 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with fifteen radii (half vault would have
thirty-two-fold radial symmetry) and smaller subsidiary
systems of circles. Two uninked vertical lines, bisected
by a horizontal one passing from the center of the com-
position, subdivide the rectangular repeat unit into six
squares. Graphic conventions same as cat. no. 87.
L I S T OF DRAWINGS 273
89.
Subject: (a) Arch-net quarter vault with a central uninked orthogonal grid of squares and rectangles.
sixteen-sided polygon. Large uninked circles containing a rotated square
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 89b in a occupy the lower right corner. Several uninked diagonal
square frame, 24.5 x 24.5 cm. Repeat unit of arch net lines cross the orthogonal grid. The three radii of cat.
measures 8.6 x 8.6 cm. The larger square around it is no. 89a pass through the centers of the stars. The com-
12.2 x 12.2 cm. The corner triangle has a base of 24.5 cm plementary drawings, cat. no. 89a and cat. no. 89b, are
and two equal sides of 17.3 cm. proportionally related; they share sixteen-fold radial
Condition: Pasted near the middle of the square frame symmetry. Stippling and color coding in red and black
containing cat. no. 89; intact. ink are used to differentiate spatial levels and to mark
Technique: An uninked quarter circle with three radii filler units in the shape of bipeds and triangles. This pat-
(full vault would have sixteen-fold radial symmetry) tern for a flat muqarnas vault (probably rendered in
generates the stellate pattern drawn in black ink. The brick or wood) is closely related to cat. no. 87.
three uninked radii are extended through the accompa-
nying drawing, cat. no. 89b, where they pass from the
centers of stars.
Subject: (b) Stellate muqarnas quarter vault based on a
composite orthogonal and radial grid system, composed
of four- and eight-pointed stars interlocking with
squares and rhombuses limited to 45, 90, and 135
degrees. The four-pointed stars are contained in
octagons just like the eight-pointed corner star. When
quadrupled, a square vault with a central star octagon
would be formed, with each corner filled by an eight-
pointed star. Cat. no. 89a probably was meant to be
used at the center of the vault depicted in cat. no. 89b
or in conjunction with it.
Dimensions: Contained in a square, 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Same as cat. no. 89a. A color-coded biped,
which should have divided one of the rhombuses adja-
cent to the four-pointed star along the bottom edge, is
missing.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
circles and arcs with eight and sixteen radii, respectively,
generate each of the four- and eight-pointed stars.
These construction lines are accompanied by an
274 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS
90.
Subject: (a) Kite-shaped rhomboidal vault section
constituting the one-tenth repeat unit of a decagonal
dome; it could also be used alone in the kite-shaped
transitional zones of vaults. It is decorated with two-
dimensional star-and-polygon patterns accompanied
by red-dotted grid lines. The red dots define polygons
in contact (triangles, pentagons, trapezoids, elongated
hexagons, and decagon fragments) whose sides are
bisected by pairs of crossing lines in black ink. The main
pattern is composed of five- and ten-pointed stars inter-
locking with polygons and star fragments; a ten-pointed
star occupies the apex of the dome.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 90b in a
rectangular frame, 24.5 x 14.4 cm. The short sides of the
rhomboid measure 8 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked arcs and circles subdivided by
equidistant radii generate each of the stars (full vault
would have twenty-fold radial symmetry). An uninked
central radius divides the repeat unit into two bilaterally
symmetrical halves. Some uninked parallel lines guide
the composition in black ink.
Subject: (b) Arch-net quarter vault with a central
sixteen-sided polygon. It probably was doubled and
used either in the transitional zone of the decagonal
vault depicted in cat. no. 90a or in conjunction with
the latter.
Dimensions: 8.3 x 8.3 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: An uninked quarter circle with seven radii
(full vault would have thirty-two-fold radial symmetry)
generates the stellate pattern in black ink. Uninked lines
intersect at the center of the four-pointed corner star.
IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
91.
Subject: Hexagonal calligraphic panel with kufic letters
superimposed on a triangulated grid. The center of the
composition is marked by a six-pointed star.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangle, 24.5 x 28 cm. Each
side of the hexagon measures 14 cm. The sides of the
equilateral triangles of the grid measure 0.6 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the middle where the design has
slipped slightly.
Technique: The triangulated grid lines drawn in black
ink are superimposed with an outer hexagonal band
of kufic inscriptions in black ink. In the middle is a
rotating hexagonal inscription surrounded by a red
hexagonal frame with decorative white triangles and
rhombuses. Several uninked parallel oblique lines and
horizontal and vertical axis lines intersecting at the
center guide the composition.
Inscriptions: "Muhammad" in black ink is repeated six
times along the outer band, and at the center " Ali" in
c
red ink is rotated six times.

a a
b b
92.
Subject: (a) Stellate arch-net quarter vault with a central
twenty-sided polygon. It provides an alternative option
for vaulting with respect to cat. no. 92b.
Dimensions: Contained together with 92b in a rectan-
gular frame, 24.4 x 12.2 cm. The square repeat unit
measures 12.2 x 12.2 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: An uninked quarter circle with nine radii
(full vault would have forty-fold radial symmetry)
generates the stellate pattern in black ink.
Subject: (b) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
starting with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped
double bipeds with no intermediary rows of stars; the
squinch corner has a four-pointed star.
Dimensions: 12.2 x 12.2 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with seven radii (full vault would have thirty-
two-fold radial symmetry). The corner star is contained
in an uninked square bisected by one of the radii and
marked by diagonal and horizontal lines intersecting at
its center. Stippling in red ink and color coding in red
and black ink are used to differentiate spatial levels and
to highlight triangularfillerunits. Theflatcorner star
has no bent points.
LIST
93-
Subject: (a) Stellate arch-net quarter vault with a central
twelve-pointed star. It provides an alternative vaulting
option with respect to cat. no. 93b.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 93b in a
rectangular frame, 24.4 x 12.2 cm. The square repeat
unit measures 12.2 x 12.2 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked quarter circles withfiveradii (full
vault would have twenty-four-fold radial symmetry)
generate the stellate pattern in black ink. Stippling with
red ink is used at the edges to differentiate spatial levels.
Subject: (b) Stellate arch-net quarter vault with a central
sixteen-pointed star.
Dimensions: 12.2 x 12.2 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked quarter circles with seven radii (full
vault would have thirty-two-fold radial symmetry) gen-
erate the stellate pattern in black ink, highlighted by red
stippling along the edges to differentiate spatial levels.
OF DRAWINGS 275
a
c
94-
Subject: (a) Detail of a stellate arch-net vault with an
elongated four-pointed star. It contains a smaller five-
pointed star framed by a pentagon. Cat. no. 94b-c
provides alternative options for arch-net vault patterns.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 94b-c in
a rectangular frame, 24.4 x 17.8 cm. The repeat unit
measures 7.6 x 13.2 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact.
Technique: An uninked circle inscribed with a pentagon
drawn in red ink is subdivided by ten radii. The black-
ink drawing is stippled with red ink to differentiate
spatial levels.
Subject: (b) Stellate arch-net half vault with a central
sixteen-pointed star.
Dimensions: 9 x 17.8 cm.
Condition: Same as cat. no. 94a. Spot of black ink.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles withfifteenradii (full vault would have thirty-
two-fold radial symmetry) generate the stellate drawing
in black ink. Stippling in red ink is used at the edges to
differentiate spatial levels.
Subject: (c) Stellate arch-net half vault with a central
fourteen-pointed star.
Dimensions: 7.8 x 17.8 cm.
Condition: Same as cat. no. 94a. Triangle along the left
edge was left unstippled unlike its symmetrical counter-
part along the right edge.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles with thirteen radii (full vault would have twenty-
eight-fold radial symmetry) generate the black-ink
drawing whose graphic conventions are the same as cat.
no. 94b.
276 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI
95.
Subject: Stellate muqarnas full vault composed of simple
polygonal compartments. A central octagon that grows
into an eight-pointed star defines square and triangular
compartments along the edges meant to befilledwith
minute fan-shaped muqarnas units, only some of which
are indicated. Drawings in this part of the scroll (cat.
nos. 95-105) provide simpler black-ink outlines for pat-
terns schematically representing the main compartmen-
tal divisions of vaults. Some compartments have been
fragmented by broken lines to indicate that they would
have been composed of three-dimensional elements.
Dimensions: 24.4 x 24.4 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: An uninked circle inscribed with the central
inked octagon has sixteen radii that extend to the outer
frame of the repeat unit. Each of the square and triangu-
lar compartments along the edges of the pattern that are
filled with muqarnas units features uninked radial grid
lines of concentric quarter circles and arcs accompanied
by smaller subsidiary circles, all of them subdivided
by equidistant radii. The drawing is rendered only in
black ink.
SCROLL
96.
Subject: Stellate muqarnas vault for a full square bay
based on a composite orthogonal and radial grid system,
with a large central octagon and four-pointed corner
stars contained in squares. This is a nearly exact replica
of cat. nos. 3 and 27 (constituting two halves of a single
drawing) from which the stippling and color coding
have been eliminated.
Dimensions: 24.4 x 24.4 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked horizontal, vertical, and diagonal
axes of symmetry converge at the center of the composi-
tion. Neither the orthogonal grid of squares and rectan-
gles nor the radial construction lines seen in cat. nos. 3
and 27 have been indicated, suggesting that the pattern
was copied from a model.
97.
Subject: Stellate muqarnas vault for a full square bay
based on a composite orthogonal and radial grid system.
It has a central star octagon formed by two rotated
squares and framed by an octagon that grows into an
eight-pointed star. The four corner squares formed by
extending the sides of the central square arefilledwith
four-pointed stars containing central octagons.
Dimensions: 24.4 x 24.4 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked horizontal, vertical, and diagonal
axes of symmetry converge at the center of the composi-
tion. The inked orthogonal grid, formed by extending
the lines of the central square, divides the repeat unit
into nine compartments of squares and rectangles that
guide the composition of the pattern drawn in black ink.

98.
Subject: Stellate muqarnas vault for a full square bay
based on a radial grid system, with a central twelve-
pointed star and small four-pointed stars contained in
squares at each corner of the composition. The central
star is surrounded by a single row of five-pointed stars
interlocking with polygons and filler units.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact. Two bipeds
are missing along the right edge of the repeat unit,
which should have been symmetrical with the left edge.
The square framing the star at the upper right corner is
not fully stippled.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric circles
with twenty-four radii converging at the center of the
radially symmetrical composition are surrounded by
smaller subsidiary systems of twelve circles subdivided
by ten radii. The corner stars are generated by uninked
squares with centrally intersecting lines. The drawing is
rendered in black ink and coded with black stippling to
indicate the bent points of stars; the filler units are not
highlighted with color coding. It presents a close parallel
to cat. no. 22, which is provided with more detailed
graphic information, being color coded with black and
red ink, in addition to stippling.
LIST
99-
Subject: Stellate muqarnas vault for a full square bay
based on a composite orthogonal and radial grid system.
The black-ink drawing is composed of a central rotated
square, a square at the center of each of the four quad-
rants, and eight-pointed quarter stars in each corner.
It is a nearly exact replica of cat. no. 23b with the excep-
tion of the central square. It eliminates stippling and
color coding, schematically providing only the main
outlines for vault compartments.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked horizontal, vertical, and diagonal
axes of symmetry converge at the center of the compo-
sition. None of the uninked construction lines seen in
cat. no. 23b are included.
OF DRAWINGS 277
100.
Subject:Stellate muqarnas vault for a full square bay,
with a central star octagon formed by two rotating
squares and contained in an octagon; each corner has a
square. The black-ink pattern is composed of simple
polygonal compartments without stars. Some of the
compartments have been fragmented by broken lines to
indicate that they would have been composed of three-
dimensional elements.
Dimensions: 24.7 x 24.7 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: An uninked circle with sixteen radii circum-
scribes the central star octagon; its radii constitute
the axes of radial symmetry that guide the linear design
in black ink. No other construction lines are indicated
in this pattern, which is based on an implied orthogonal
grid of squares and rectangles dividing the repeat unit
into nine parts. The grid is formed by extending the
sides of the central square up to the outer frame.
278 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI
101.
Subject: Stellate muqarnas vault for a full square bay.
The center is occupied with a star octagon, formed by
two rotating squares, that is contained in an octagon.
Each corner has an eight-pointed half star. At the upper
left corner small muqarnas elements are indicated that
would have been repeated in the other compartments
as well.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the right edge; intact.
Technique: An uninked central circle with sixteen radii
guides the composition. The muqarnas units at the
upper left corner are generated by uninked radial grids
with concentric arcs subdivided by equidistant radii.
The drawing is rendered in black ink with no color cod-
ing or stippling to differentiate spatial levels. No other
construction lines are shown in this repeat unit with
an implied orthogonal grid of squares and rectangles
formed by extending the sides of the central square up
to the outer frame.
SCROLL
102.
Subject: Fan-shaped radial muqarnas half vault starting
with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double bipeds
featuring no intermediary row of stars; the squinch cor-
ners have four-pointed stars. Like other drawings in this
part of the scroll (cat. nos. 95-105), only the main out-
lines of the muqarnas compartments are indicated.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 12 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles with fifteen radii (full vault would have thirty-
two-fold radial symmetry) generate the design rendered
in simple black-ink outlines. No stippling or color cod-
ing is used to differentiate spatial levels or to highlight
filler units.
103.
Subject: Stellate muqarnas full vault for a square bay.
The rotated red squares at the center form a twelve-
pointed star polygon surrounded by two black-ink
dodecagons, one of which grows into a twelve-pointed
star interlocking with squares containing four-pointed
stars and with other polygons. Each corner has a four-
pointed star framed by a half octagon. The vault is com-
posed of simple polygonal compartments framing
four-pointed stars.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: An uninked central circle with twenty-four
radii generates the pattern drawn in black ink; the three
rotated squares at the middle are highlighted in red ink.
Only the lower left quadrant of the pattern is further
subdivided into color-coded red bipeds and triangles,
accompanied by stippling to differentiate spatial levels.

104.
Subject: Stellate muqarnas full vault for a square bay
composed of simple polygonal compartments. A central
octagon adjacent to triangles and four-pointed corner
stars containing octagons defines the main outlines
of the vault's compartments, which would have been
further fragmented into tiny fan-shaped muqarnas
units as indicated at the upper left corner.
Dimensions: 24.3 x 24.3 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact.
Technique: An uninked central circle with sixteen radii is
accompanied by a secondary radial grid of concentric
arcs at the upper left corner subdivided by five radii.
The pattern is rendered in black ink with no stippling or
color coding to differentiate spatial levels.
LIST OF DRAWINGS 279
105.
Subject:Elevation drawing with three arches (a large
pointed central arch flanked by smaller lobed arches)
crowned by a two-dimensional star-and-polygon
pattern. The components of the composition are
proportionally related to one another. The design may
represent a tripartite mihrab.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: The composition is divided into four parts by
two uninked intersecting axes, a vertical axis and a hori-
zontal one passing through the springing of the central
pointed arch (which coincides with the tops of the two
rectangles framing the flanking lobed arches). Uninked
radial grid lines of concentric arcs are drawn above the
horizontal axis; their nine radii converge at the inter-
section of the two axes. The outermost semicircle is
aligned with two uninked vertical lines that bisect the
lobed arches. Other uninked construction lines include
rhombuses with central crosses.
280 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS IN THE TOPKAPI
a a
b c
106.
Subject: (a) Stellate muqarnas octagonal half vault with
a central eight-pointed star, composed of simple poly-
gonal compartments and double bipeds that do not
include stars. The two other drawings, cat. no. io6b-c,
that accompany this one provide alternative design
options for vaulting, all of them based on sixteen-fold
radial symmetry.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. io6b-c in
a square frame, 24.5 x 24.5 cm. The repeat unit measures
12.2 x 24.5 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact. Two redun-
dant lines near the lower right corner.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles with seven radii (full vault would have sixteen-
fold radial symmetry) generate the drawing in black ink.
The arrow-shaped double bipeds are highlighted with
black stippling to differentiate spatial levels.
Subject: (b) Stellate muqarnas octagonal quarter vault
with a central dodecagon, composed of simple polygo-
nal shapes and bipeds with no stars.
Dimensions: 12.2 x 12.2 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with three radii (full vault would have sixteen-
fold radial symmetry) generate the pattern drawn in
black ink. The bipeds and double bipeds are stippled
in black to differentiate spatial levels.
Subject: (c) Stellate muqarnas quarter vault with arch-
net elements. An eight-pointed quarter star at the upper
left corner, surrounded by a row of five-pointed stars
and an elongated four-pointed star in the squinch cor-
ner. The lower left corner has been further fragmented
into smaller compartments that could be extended to the
whole vault if desired.
SCROLL
Dimensions: 12.2 x 12.2 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: An uninked arc with three radii (full vault
would have sixteen-fold radial symmetry) appears at the
upper left corner. Two uninked circles coincide with the
five-pointed stars. The design is rendered in black ink
with no stippling or color coding because of the linear
quality of the pattern composed of arch-net elements.
b
107.
Subject: (a) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
starting with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped
double bipeds, with no intermediary row of stars; the
squinch corner is occupied by a four-pointed star
framed by a polygon.
Dimensions: Contained together with cat. no. 107b in a
rectangular frame, 24.7 x 12.3 cm. The square repeat unit
measures 12.3 x 12.3 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric quar-
ter circles with seven radii (full vault would have thirty-
two-fold radial symmetry) generate the black drawing
whose single and double bipeds and triangular filler
units are stippled in black ink, just like the two points
of the corner star. An uninked polygon with eight radii
generates the corner star.
Subject: (b) Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault of
the same type as cat. no. 107a. Its squinch corner has a
five-pointed star with one point missing.
Dimensions: 12.3 x 12.3 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Same as cat. no. 107a; here the star in the
squinch corner is unbent. It is generated by an uninked
irregular polygon with ten radii.

108.
Subject: Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds, followed by a single row of five-pointed stars
contained in pentagons, with the squinch corner occu-
pied by a six-pointed star. Two small four-pointed stars
flank the pair of five-pointed stars. The use of asymmet-
rical polygonal units at the bottom edge indicates that
the repeat unit was meant not for a full vault but for a
half vault.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 24.7 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the middle; intact.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with eleven radii (half vault would
have twenty-four-fold radial symmetry) and smaller
subsidiary systems of circles around the unbent stars.
The drawing in black ink is highlighted with stippling
in black to differentiate spatial levels. Stars, double
bipeds, and filler units are stippled with no differentia-
tion, as in cat. no. 107. Uninked horizontal and vertical
lines intersect at the middle of the repeat unit.
L I S T OF
109.
Subject:Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault start-
ing with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped double
bipeds, followed by a single row of five-pointed stars
contained in pentagons and a continuous row of rhom-
buses, with the squinch corner occupied by a seven-
pointed star. The use of asymmetrical polygonal units
along the lower left edge of the repeat unit indicates that
it was meant not for a full vault but for a half vault.
Dimensions: 24.3 x 24.3 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with fifteen radii (half vault would have
thirty-two-fold radial symmetry), accompanied by a row
of circles and concentric circles in the squinch corner
subdivided by fourteen radii. The design in black ink
is highlighted with black stippling, used to mark filler
units that delineate the boundaries of corbeled muqar-
nas tiers. The five-pointed stars inscribed in pentagons
are on a single plane, unlike the seven-pointed corner
star with two bent points that are stippled.
DRAWINGS 28l
110.
Subject: Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault
starting with rows of hexagons and arrow-shaped
double bipeds, followed by a row of five-pointed stars
contained in pentagons and another subsidiary row of
four-pointed stars that flank the squinch corner with
its six-pointed star. The use of asymmetrical polygonal
units along the lower left edge indicates that the repeat
unit was meant not for a full vault but for a half vault.
Dimensions: 24.3 x 24.3 cm.
Condition: Pasted near the left edge; intact. Five-pointed
half star missing from the half pentagon along the upper
right edge of the repeat unit.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with eleven radii (half vault would have
twenty-four-fold radial symmetry), a row of circles, and
concentric corner circles with twelve radii. The black-
ink drawing is stippled with black ink in only a few
places; the two points of the four-pointed stars bend
toward different planes, as in cat. no. 111a. No color
coding is used to highlight filler units. Uninked hori-
zontal and vertical lines intersect at the center of the
repeat unit.
282 CATALOG: PATTERN TYPES AND DRAWINGS
a
b
111.
Subject: (a) Triangular one-fourth repeat unit for a
square stellate muqarnas vault with a central twenty-
four-pointed star surrounded by a single row of alter-
nating four- and five-pointed stars. This pattern could
also be used in the triangular transitional zone of a
vault.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangle, 24.6 x 12.3 cm.
The two equal sides of the triangle measure 17.4 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: An uninked radial grid consisting of an arc
with eleven radii (full vault would have forty-eight-fold
radial symmetry) and smaller circles generates the black-
ink pattern. Black stippling is used only to highlight
the two points of the five-pointed bent stars, as in cat.
no. 110.
Subject: (b) Stellate arch-net quarter vault with a central
twelve-pointed star. It was probably meant to
accompany the vault design depicted in cat. no. 111a.
Dimensions: 6.1 x 6.1 cm.
Condition: Fine.
Technique: An uninked radial grid of concentric quarter
circles with five radii (full vault would have twenty-four-
fold radial symmetry) generates the stellate pattern in
black ink.
IN THE TOPKAPI SCROLL
a b
c d e
112.
Subject: (a) Stellate muqarnas half vault with a central Subject: (d) Stellate muqarnas half vault for a rectangu-
twelve-pointed star surrounded by rhombuses, triangles, lar space, with a central ten-pointed star surrounded by
and corner squares. simple polygonal compartments.
Dimensions: Contained in a rectangular frame, 24.7 x Dimensions: 15.2 x 9.6 cm.
31.4 cm. The repeat unit measures 11.7 x 6 cm. Condition: Same as cat. no. 112a.
Condition: The large rectangle containing cat. no. ma-c Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
is pasted toward the middle; intact. One line (which circles with nine radii (full vault would have twenty-fold
would have made the pattern symmetrical) is missing in radial symmetry) generate the black-ink stellate pattern.
the lower left. Black stippling is used to highlight bipeds, accompanied
Technique: An uninked radial grid of concentric semi- by dotted lines.
circles with eleven radii (full vault would have twenty- Subject: (e) A variant of cat. no. ii2d.
four-fold radial symmetry) generates the stellate pattern Dimensions: 15.2 x 7.7 cm.
in black ink. Condition: Same as cat. no. 112a.
Subject: (b) Stellate muqarnas full vault for a rectangular Technique: Same as cat. no md.
space, composed of simple polygonal compartments. It
has a central star octagon formed by two rotated squares
extended into a second eight-pointed star, interlocking
with squares and other polygons.
Dimensions: 9.5 x 15 cm.
Condition: Same as cat. no. 112a. The right and left parts
of the design are asymmetrical because some lines are
missing at the right side.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric circles
with eight radii generate the stellate drawing in black
ink, stippled with black dots at the corners and occupied
by bipeds. The implied orthogonal grid of squares
and rectangles that subdivides the repeat unit is not
indicated.
Subject: (c) Stellate muqarnas half vault for a rectangular
space. It features a central six-pointed star surrounded
by simple polygonal units.
Dimensions: 12.9 x 9.3 cm.
Condition: Same as cat. no. 112a.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric semi-
circles with five radii (full vault would have twelve-fold
radial symmetry) generate the stellate pattern drawn in
black ink. Stippling in black ink is used to highlight the
bipeds.

113.
Subject:Fan-shaped radial muqarnas quarter vault with
no stars, composed of simple polygonal compartments
and bipeds.
Dimensions: 24.7 x 24.7 cm.
Condition: Fine. Some lines and stippling are missing
from the design, which should have been symmetrical
along the diagonal axis connecting the upper left and
lower right corners.
Technique: Uninked radial grid lines of concentric
quarter circles with seven radii (full vault would have
thirty-two-fold radial symmetry) generate the black-ink
pattern with black-stippled bipeds and triangles. No
color coding has been used in this relatively simple
muqarnas pattern that does not feature any stars.
LIST OF DRAWINGS 283
114.
Subject: Repeat unit of a curvilinear pattern in black ink
based on a composite orthogonal and radial grid system.
Six-petaled rosettes alternate with curved hexagons.
Only one of the rosettes has curved black-ink lines
intersecting at the middle.
Dimensions: 24.5 x 25.2 cm.
Condition: Pasted along the left edge; intact.
Technique: Uninked circles with twelve radii (inscribed
in the six-petaled rosettes), accompanied by an uninked
orthogonal grid of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal
lines, generate the black-ink pattern.
THE TOPKAPI SCROLL: A COLOR REPRODUCTION
NOTES ON THE SCROLL REPRODUCTION The Topkapi scroll is reproduced o n the pages
that f o l l o w at 50% o f its actual size. I n an effort
to avoid adding a n y t h i n g extraneous to the scroll
patterns or subtracting a n y t h i n g f r o m t h e m ,
the f o l l o w i n g parameters were observed. O n l y as
many patterns were reproduced o n a single page as
w o u l d fit w i t h o u t crossing the book's b i n d i n g (the
single exception to this rule occurs i n cat. n o . 51,
w h i c h because o f its exceptional length had to be
reproduced over a two-page spread). I n sections o f
the scroll where two patterns were drawn or pasted
together, the d i v i s i o n was made along the edge o f
the contiguous patterns. Where an interval existed
between two segments that had to be separated to
c o n t i n u e the r e p r o d u c t i o n o n the next page, this
interval was bisected at the t o p and b o t t o m and a
d i v i s i o n was made t h r o u g h these m i d p o i n t s . As a
result, the sides o f the p o r t i o n o f the scroll shown
on a single page are n o t always perpendicular,
reflecting the fact that the o r i g i n a l drawings are
slightly irregular. The tattered extreme upper and
lower edges o f the scroll, w h i c h are well outside o f
the image area, have been cropped m i n i m a l l y to
straighten t h e m and make t h e m parallel.
288 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL

1 2 3
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 289

4 a b 5
290 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL

6 7
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 291

8 9abcd loabc 11
 292 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL

12 13 a b
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 293

15 a

14 15 b
294 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

17 a

16 17 b c
 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL 295

18 19 ab
296 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

20 21 ab
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 297

22 23 ab
298 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

24
25
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 299

26 ab 27
300 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

28
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 301

29 30
302 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

31
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 303

32
304 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

33 34
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 305

35 36
 306 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

37 ab 38
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 307

39
308 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

40 41
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 309

42 43
3io THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

44 45
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 311

46 47
•
312 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

49
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 313

50
314 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

51 a

51 b c d e f g h
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 315

51 i 52
316 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

53 54
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 317

55 56
318 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

57 58
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 319

60
59
320 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL

• 62
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 321

63
322 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

64
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 323

66
65
324 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

67 68 ab 69 ab
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 325

70 71
326 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

72 a

72 b c d 73
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 327

74 75
328 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

76 77
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 329

78 ab 79
330 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

80 ab
81 ab
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 331

83 a

83 b

82 ab 83 c
332 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

84 85
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 333

86 87 ab
334 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

88
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 335

89 ab 90 ab
 336 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

n 92 ab 93 ab
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 337

94 a bc 95
338 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

96 97
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 339

98 99
340 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

100 101
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 341

102 103
342 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

104 105
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 343

106 a

106 b c 107 a b
344 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

108 109
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 345

110
in a b
 346 THE TOPKAPI SCROLL

112 a b

112 d e
C

113
 THE T O P K A P I SCROLL 347

114
THE MUQARNAS: A GEOMETRIC
The muqarnas is a v a u l t i n g system based o n the
r e p l i c a t i o n o f units arranged i n tiers, each o f
w h i c h supports another one corbeled o n t o p o f
i t . The final result is a stairlike arrangement that
is sometimes referred to as h o n e y c o m b or stalac-
tite v a u l t i n g . The units are made o f w o o d , b r i c k ,
plaster, or stone and can be p a i n t e d , or, as i n
the case o f the b r i c k or plaster ones, covered w i t h
glazed tiles. M u q a r n a s c o m p o s i t i o n s can be
located i n different parts o f a b u i l d i n g , a r t i c u l a t -
i n g a c o l u m n capital, s u p p o r t i n g a minaret's
balcony, or v a u l t i n g over an entry p o r t a l , niche,
or hall. M u q a r n a s vaults are usually part o f a
double-shell arrangement and are therefore visible
o n l y f r o m the inside o f a b u i l d i n g . I n some cases,
as i n the mausoleums o f N u r a l - D i n i n Damascus
(1172) and I m a m D u r i n Samarra (circa 1085),
the muqarnas is also reflected o n the outside.
The muqarnas can fulfill a s t r u c t u r a l role.
The muqarnas vaults o f the m a i n d o m e o f the
f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Cairene madrasa o f the sultan
B a r q u q (r. 1382-1398), for example, f u n c t i o n as
pendentives p r o v i d i n g a t r a n s i t i o n a l zone between
the square base and the circular d o m e . M o s t
ANALYSIS BY MOHAMMAD
muqarnas vaults, however, are p u r e l y decorative,
and t h e i r u n i t s are suspended f r o m , or connected
t o , a s t r u c t u r a l element. For example, the m u q a r -
nas vaults covering the H a l l o f T w o Sisters and
the H a l l o f the Abencerrajes (constructed i n the
f o u r t e e n t h century) o f the A l h a m b r a i n Granada
consist o f n o n s t r u c t u r a l plaster units suspended
f r o m the roofs.
The c h r o n o l o g i c a l and geographic origins o f
the muqarnas are controversial subjects. T e n t h -
century northeastern I r a n , eleventh-century N o r t h
Africa, and eleventh-century Baghdad have all
been proposed as centers f r o m w h i c h the m u q a r -
nas m i g h t have o r i g i n a t e d . W h a t is definite is that
1
by the twelfth century the muqarnas had become
a c o m m o n u n i f y i n g feature c o n n e c t i n g the diverse
architectural p r o d u c t i o n s o f the Islamic w o r l d ,
f r o m N o r t h Africa to I r a n . As Grabar has p o i n t e d
o u t , the muqarnas "is an entirely M u s l i m i n v e n -
t i o n . . . and i t is a f o r m used i n all kinds o f Islamic
monuments, not only mosques." 2
I n spite o f its i m p o r t a n c e as a signifier o f the
architecture o f the Islamic w o r l d , and a l t h o u g h
a large n u m b e r o f m o n u m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g m u q a r -
AL-ASAD
nas c o m p o s i t i o n s have survived, this architectural
feature remains l i t t l e u n d e r s t o o d . The debate
continues c o n c e r n i n g w h e n and where i t o r i g i -
nated. T a x o n o m i c d o c u m e n t a t i o n cataloging
its f o r m a l and technical characteristics is i n c o m -
plete and scattered a m o n g n u m e r o u s studies. Even
the etymology o f the w o r d muqarnas is unclear. 3
A c c o r d i n g to one source, i t is b o r r o w e d f r o m the
Greek w o r d koronis, w h i c h is also believed t o have
supplied the English w o r d cornice. 4
According
to another, i t is derived f r o m the Greek w o r d for
r o o f i n g tiles. I f one looks up the r o o t qrns or qrns
5
i n medieval Arabic lexicons such as I b n M a n z u r ' s
Kitdb Lisan al- Arab, c
1291, and al-Fayruzabadi's
al-Qamus al-Muhit wa al-Qamus al-Wasit, 1414,
one finds that the muqarnas is n o t even defined as
an architectural element because medieval Arabic
dictionaries record m a i n l y the language o f the
b e d o u i n Arabs o f pre- and early Islamic times and
therefore often do n o t include technical t e r m i n o l -
ogy that o r i g i n a t e d i n c u l t u r a l centers outside
the A r a b i a n peninsula. Words listed under the r o o t
qrns or qrns have other meanings i n c l u d i n g a
technical t e r m i n falconry (qirnas), a sword i n the
350 THE MUQARNAS: A GEOMETRIC
shape o f a stair (muqarnas), a n d an overhanging
cliff (qirnas or qurnas). 6
This last meaning may
be the one f r o m w h i c h the architectural t e r m
muqarnas developed since b o t h are based o n the
idea o f corbeling. The etymological c o n n e c t i o n
between the topographic qirnas and the architec-
t u r a l muqarnas is alluded to i n Persian lexi-
cons such as A l i A k b a r D i h k h u d a ' s (1879-1955)
c
Lughat-nama. I n contrast to the difficulty faced
i n f i n d i n g an architectural m e a n i n g for the w o r d
muqarnas i n medieval Arabic dictionaries, i n
the m a t h e m a t i c a l treatise Miftah al-hisab written
i n Arabic by al-Kashi, the t e r m describes the same
architectural feature k n o w n to us today. 7
The study o f the muqarnas is c o m p l i c a t e d by
the lack o f c o n t e m p o r a r y texts describing i t . M e d i e -
val texts f r o m the Islamic w o r l d are generally silent
about their architectural s u r r o u n d i n g s . The p r i -
m a r y s u r v i v i n g discussion o f the muqarnas is a
short section i n al-Kashi's Miftah al-hisab that
contains a relatively detailed geometric analysis.
A n o t h e r set o f c o n t e m p o r a r y documents deal-
ing w i t h the muqarnas consists o f s u r v i v i n g plan
drawings o f muqarnas c o m p o s i t i o n s . These
include the muqarnas plans f o u n d i n the T o p k a p i
scroll, those made by a sixteenth-century a r c h i -
tect o f Bukhara, a n d the I l k h a n i d clay tablet repre-
senting a plan o f a muqarnas vault f o u n d i n
excavations o f T a k h t - i Sulayman. M o r e recent
examples include n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y scrolls
belonging t o M i r z a A k b a r , w h i c h are n o w i n the
V i c t o r i a & A l b e r t M u s e u m . M o r o c c a n artisans
9
c o n t i n u e t o use such plans for c o n s t r u c t i n g
ANALYSIS
muqarnas vaults t o d a y . 10
Although unannotated,
these visual documents can help us understand
h o w medieval geometers, master builders, and
artisans represented the muqarnas and c o m m u -
nicated i n f o r m a t i o n about i t to each other.
One o f the most fascinating characteristics o f
the muqarnas is its geometry. A l t h o u g h often
analyzed, by n u m e r o u s authors ranging f r o m Jones
and G o u r y i n the nineteenth century to m o r e
c o n t e m p o r a r y scholars such as N o t k i n a n d M i c h e l
Ecochard, the muqarnas remains a mystery to
most architectural historians, p a r t l y because o f the
mathematics required for its analysis. 11
I t can,
however, be studied at different levels o f mathe-
matical intensity, and i t was n o t o n l y discussed
by mathematicians such as al-Kashi b u t also
designed a n d constructed by artisans o f m o d -
est education w i t h o n l y a basic knowledge o f
Euclidean geometry.
Geometric analysis requires dissecting the
8
muqarnas i n t o its c o m p o n e n t parts, that is, its
tiers a n d u n i t s . O n e must shift to a different level
o f p e r c e p t i o n , one i n w h i c h the gestalt is i g n o r e d
and the i n d i v i d u a l u n i t becomes the p r i m a r y focus
o f a t t e n t i o n . I n p l a n , most muqarnas f o r m a t i o n s
consist o f t r i a n g u l a r a n d quadrilateral u n i t s .
I n some instances other geometric shapes, such
as floral, p o l y g o n a l , a n d star patterns, can also
be f o u n d . I n later muqarnas vaults, such as
t h i r t e e n t h - a n d f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Spanish a n d
N o r t h A f r i c a n ones, muqarnas units i n c o r p o r a t e
tapering projections t h a t hang f r o m the ceilings,
w h i c h explains h o w the t e r m stalactite came t o be
attached to this v a u l t i n g system. I n p l a n , the
o u t l i n e o f these tapered units is identical to that
o f nontapered ones.
A n y geometric analysis o f the muqarnas w i l l fall
partially under the heading o f stereometry as a
result o f its three-dimensional character. O n the
levels o f the i n d i v i d u a l u n i t , r o w , or whole c o m -
p o s i t i o n , the muqarnas always involves all three
coordinates o f w i d t h , height, a n d d e p t h . Repre-
senting the muqarnas i n plan or elevation, or even
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h , does n o t clearly c o m m u -
nicate its three-dimensional character. Such draw-
ings o n l y p r o v i d e two o f the dimensions a n d have
to be supplemented by three-dimensional repre-
sentations. H a r b p r o v i d e d isometric drawings
o f his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the muqarnas clay tablet
excavated at T a k h t - i Sulayman, a n d N o t k i n
constructed a wooden m o d e l o f a muqarnas vault
for his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f one o f the Bukharan
drawings i n T a s h k e n t . 12
To show h o w a muqarnas plan is transformed
i n t o a three-dimensional c o m p o s i t i o n , one o f
the muqarnas plans o f the Topkapi scroll (see cat.
n o . 5) w i l l be used as an example. The d r a w i n g
represents a quarter vault whose apex is located at
the lower r i g h t corner o f the frame. I f d u p l i c a t e d
along its r i g h t or lower border, the quarter vault is
transformed i n t o a half vault similar t o those
covering entry portals. The d r a w i n g represents
w h a t has been described i n the catalog o f p a t t e r n
types as a fan-shaped radial muqarnas vault. I t
consists o f a quarter vault at the lower r i g h t w i t h
muqarnas u n i t s filling the r e m a i n i n g part. A

n u m b e r o f the u n i t s are h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h red i n k ,
black i n k , or black dots. The d r a w i n g also contains
g r i d or c o n s t r u c t i o n lines incised w i t h a sharp
i n s t r u m e n t (see overlay o f cat. n o . 5). These r a d i -
ally organized lines ( r e p r o d u c e d w i t h slight
adjustments i n i l l . 1 as gray lines) consist o f raylike
straight lines and concentric quarter circles cen-
t e r i n g o n the lower r i g h t corner o f the d r a w i n g
frame. A g r o u p o f smaller concentric circles and
h a l f circles are centered along the straight raylike
c o n s t r u c t i o n lines and are d i v i d e d by a series
o f r a d i i . These arrangements define the f o u r - ,
five-, and e i g h t - p o i n t e d stars o f the d r a w i n g .
The straight c o n s t r u c t i o n lines emanating f r o m
the lower r i g h t corner o f the d r a w i n g divide i t
i n t o twelve segments. O f these, the central diago-
nal line c o n n e c t i n g the lower r i g h t and upper left
corners divides the c o m p o s i t i o n i n t o s y m m e t r i c a l
halves. The s y m m e t r y is p a r t i a l l y b r o k e n at the
lower left side o f the d r a w i n g , w h i c h w o u l d be
expected to c o n t a i n h a l f o f a five-pointed star
arrangement c o m p l e t i n g the r o w o f five-pointed
stars o c c u p y i n g that part o f the d r a w i n g . The
b r o k e n s y m m e t r y suggests that the d r a w i n g was
n o t meant to be q u a d r u p l e d i n t o a full vault
b u t used o n l y as a h a l f vault.
The units located w i t h i n the boundaries o f the
circular and q u a r t e r - c i r c u l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n lines
are regular i n plan and are organized according to
a radially s y m m e t r i c a l system. The u n i t s located
outside these o r g a n i z i n g lines, i n the upper
r i g h t and lower left sides o f the frame, lack this
regularity and are s y m m e t r i c a l o n l y along the cen-
THE MUQARNAS: A GEOMETRIC
tral diagonal c o n s t r u c t i o n line. These irregular
units represent the t r a n s i t i o n a l areas between the
square base and the circular h a l f vault.
A few c o m m e n t s s h o u l d be made c o n c e r n i n g
the accuracy o f p r e m o d e r n drawings such as those
o f the Topkapi scroll. The i n t e n t i o n o f the drafts-
m a n was clearly that o f d i v i d i n g the frame i n t o
twelve equidistant segments w i t h lines e m a n a t i n g
f r o m the lower r i g h t corner and separated f r o m
each other by an angle o f 7.5 degrees. The intersec-
t i o n p o i n t s o f some o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n lines are
i n t e n d e d to locate the centers o f the f o u r - , five-,
and e i g h t - p o i n t e d stars, divide a u n i t i n half, or
locate the p o i n t s o f intersection o f two or m o r e
units. However most o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n lines do
n o t pass t h r o u g h the exact i n t e n d e d l o c a t i o n , and
g r i d lines that are supposed to intersect at one
p o i n t , or pass t h r o u g h the intersection p o i n t o f
two u n i t s , do n o t . Such deficiencies are under-
standable. C o n s i d e r i n g the inaccuracy o f d r a f t i n g
i n s t r u m e n t s before the m o d e r n era, m a k i n g such
a large n u m b e r o f lines pass t h r o u g h the exact
i n t e n d e d p o i n t s must have been a difficult task.
Since these drawings p r o b a b l y f u n c t i o n e d as
sketchbooks or source books o f patterns and since
they adequately c o m m u n i c a t e the i n t e n t i o n s
o f the designer, exacting standards o f precision
were n o t r e q u i r e d .
Using Computervision CADDS4X, a computer-
aided design p r o g r a m , I converted cat. n o . 5 i n t o a
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o m p o s i t i o n . Such programs
1 3
are a valuable t o o l for c o n s t r u c t i n g c o m p l e x
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l objects and offer n u m e r o u s
ANALYSIS 351
advantages over t r a d i t i o n a l d r a f t i n g methods; the
user can make changes w i t h relative ease, view
the constructed object f r o m an u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r
o f angles and distances, and easily replicate repeti-
tive u n i t s . This last facility is i m p o r t a n t since
even the most irregular muqarnas c o m p o s i t i o n s
include a good deal o f r e p e t i t i o n . W i t h a c o m p u t e r -
aided design p r o g r a m , the constructed object can
be d i v i d e d i n t o separate layers, each o f w h i c h can
be viewed or w o r k e d o n separately. A n o t h e r i m p o r -
tant advantage o f such programs is that any p o i n t
fed i n t o the c o m p u t e r needs to be specified accor-
d i n g to its t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l coordinates capable
o f p r o d u c i n g isometric views. This is i n contrast to
the s i t u a t i o n encountered w i t h t w o - or even three-
d i m e n s i o n a l designs d r a w n by h a n d , w h i c h o n l y
p r o v i d e one view o f the constructed object and do
n o t preserve t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n b u t
translate i t to the single t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l plane o f
the d r a w i n g surface.
W h e n r e p r o d u c i n g the plan here (see i l l . 1 ) ,
a n u m b e r o f m o d i f i c a t i o n s were made, some o f
t h e m for the sake o f realizing the i n t e n t i o n s o f the
designer. Since c o m p u t e r - a i d e d design programs
can achieve h i g h degrees o f accuracy, lines that
were i n t e n d e d to cross at one p o i n t have been
made to do so even i f they do n o t cross that p o i n t
i n the actual d r a w i n g . I n a d d i t i o n , the arrange-
m e n t o f units i n the lower left side o f the frame
was m o d i f i e d to complete the radial s y m m e t r y o f
the r o w o f five-pointed stars.
Since a plan d r a w i n g can c o n t a i n o n l y l i m i t e d
i n f o r m a t i o n about a muqarnas f o r m a t i o n , trans-
352 THE MUQARNAS! A GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS

1. Additive analytical
plans of cat. no. 5. From
left to right: construction
lines; construction lines
with row 1; construction
lines with rows 1-2; con-
struction lines with rows
1-3; construction lines
with rows 1-4; construc-
tion lines with rows 1-5;
construction lines with
rows 1-6; construction
lines with rows 1-7; con-
struction lines with rows
1-8; complete plan.
 THE M U Q A R N A S ! A GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS 353

f o r m i n g i t i n t o a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o m p o s i t i o n is nas vaults: the p l a i n or simple (sadhijj), clay-

an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e process i n w h i c h the interpreter
needs to supply the missing data. A l t h o u g h the
c o d i n g o f some o f the plan units w i t h dots and
colors provides some o f that i n f o r m a t i o n , one still
has to make use o f the i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d
by other sources such as s u r v i v i n g examples o f
muqarnas vaults and al-Kashi's section o n the
muqarnas i n his Miftah al-hisab. Even so, no single
correct t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
the plan exists and w h a t is p r o v i d e d here is o n l y
one version o f the possible i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
A l t h o u g h the conversion o f these plans i n t o three-
d i m e n s i o n a l objects may seem to the m o d e r n eye
to be a h i g h l y i n t e r p r e t a t i v e process, i t was stan-
dardized for medieval artisans. D u r i n g that p e r i o d ,
the procedure was a carefully guarded secret
k n o w n o n l y to members o f guilds, w h o often
belonged to the Sufi orders, or tariqas, and under-
went the r e q u i r e d years o f apprenticeship under
the guidance o f a master craftsman.
A l t h o u g h the language o f al-Kashi's Miftah
al-hisab is often obscure and parts o f i t are difficult
to decipher, i t remains a valuable source. M u c h
o f al-Kashi's discussion is devoted to the measure-
m e n t o f surface areas, and the goal o f the sec-
t i o n o n the muqarnas p r o b a b l y was to p r o v i d e a
m e t h o d o f calculating the a m o u n t o f materials
needed for the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f muqarnas v a u l t s .
I n his discussion, al-Kashi m e n t i o n e d that a
muqarnas c o m p o s i t i o n is d i v i d e d i n t o tiers
(tabaqa) that i n t u r n are d i v i d e d i n t o units
He also enumerated the different types o f m u q a r -
covered (mutayyan), arch (qaws), and Shirazi
(shirazi). The sadhijj is the simplest o f the four and
is characterized by angular elevational outlines;
the mutayyan is similar to the sadhijj except that
its tiers are n o t all o f the same height; and the qaws
has c u r v i n g elevational outlines. The Shirazi is the
most complex o f the four. U n l i k e the other types,
w h i c h i n p l a n consist exclusively o f triangles and
quadrilaterals such as squares, rectangles, bipeds,
rhombuses, and r h o m b o i d s , a Shirazi muqarnas
contains other polygons such as pentagons, hexa-
gons, octagons, and m u l t i p o i n t e d stars. G o l o m b e k
and W i l b e r stated that i n contrast to the three
other types, w h i c h are organized according to an
o r t h o g o n a l g r i d , the Shirazi is organized according
to a radial g r i d . 1 5
The d r a w i n g used i n this study
(cat. n o . 5) is an example o f a Shirazi muqarnas.
To supplement his section o n the muqarnas,
al-Kashi i n c l u d e d two drawings. The first consists
o f plans o f i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s i d e n t i f i e d as a square,
2. From left to right: An
illustration based on the
r h o m b u s , b i p e d , lozenge (lawza), and a jawdanaj drawing accompanying al-
(an elongated lozenge or "barley g r a i n " ) . The Kashi's addendum explain-
lozenge and jawdanaj are b o t h r h o m b o i d s . The ing how to calculate the
curvature of the ceiling of a
second d r a w i n g , w h i c h accompanies an a d d e n d u m
muqarnas unit; resulting
to the section, illustrates the elevational curvature outline of the elevation of a
o f the ceiling o f a muqarnas u n i t ( i l l . 2 ) . 1 6
I t is muqarnas unit.
o f extreme i m p o r t a n c e since other s u r v i v i n g draw-
14
ings o f the muqarnas consist o n l y o f plans; i n f o r -
m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the t h i r d d i m e n s i o n was
generally c o m m u n i c a t e d by w o r d o f m o u t h . This
{bayt). d r a w i n g accompanies an e x p l a n a t i o n o f h o w
the c u r v a t u r e o f a muqarnas u n i t is o b t a i n e d . Here
354 THE MUQARNAS: A GEOMETRIC
3a. Plans of square, rhombus, rhomboid, and biped
muqarnas units.
3b. Three-dimensional interpretations of muqarnas
units. From left to right: square; rhombus with
curvature located along one of the acute angles; rhom-
bus with curvature located along one of the obtuse
angles; rhomboid with curvature located along one of
the acute angles; rhomboid with curvature located
along one of the obtuse angles; biped unit.
ANALYSIS
al-Kashi also m e n t i o n e d that the height o f a u n i t
should equal a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice its depth. H o w -
ever he added that height is a flexible d i m e n s i o n
that can be lengthened or shortened. Such flexi-
b i l i t y i n the ratio o f height to w i d t h is unavoidable
since the units o f a muqarnas tier do n o t neces-
sarily have the same d e p t h , b u t they generally have
the same height.
W i t h the a i d o f the guidelines p r o v i d e d by
al-Kashi, muqarnas plans can be converted i n t o
three-dimensional compositions. I began by
i n t e r p r e t i n g the basic i n d i v i d u a l u n i t plan o f the
square, r h o m b u s , r h o m b o i d , a n d biped (ills. 3a,
3b). O t h e r units are variants o f these basic ones,
differing o n l y i n p r o p o r t i o n s a n d degree o f regu-
larity. I t t u r n e d o u t that two interpretations are
possible for each o f the r h o m b u s and r h o m b o i d
plans. W h i c h is used depends o n the p o s i t i o n
o f the curvature, w h i c h can be located along either
the obtuse o r acute angles o f these quadrilaterals.
The correct p o s i t i o n o f the curvature is deter-
m i n e d by the o r i e n t a t i o n o f the u n i t w i t h i n the
muqarnas c o m p o s i t i o n .
The plan o f the muqarnas quarter vault has
units coded w i t h dots a n d colors; this coding
proved to be i n f o r m a t i v e even t h o u g h i t cannot
be completely deciphered. I n some cases different
types o f units have the same c o d i n g , a n d i n others,
similar types o f units are p r o v i d e d w i t h different
coding. A l t h o u g h all bipeds are h i g h l i g h t e d , for
example, the uppermost r o w o f double bipeds
is d o t t e d , b u t the r e m a i n i n g ones are colored. I n
a d d i t i o n to the first r o w o f double bipeds, a
n u m b e r o f the units s u r r o u n d i n g the stars are
d o t t e d . These include one o f the units s u r r o u n d i n g
the f o u r - p o i n t e d stars, four o f the units s u r r o u n d -
ing the five-pointed stars, and six o f the units
s u r r o u n d i n g the e i g h t - p o i n t e d star. These d o t t e d
units are located o n a lower tier than the u n m a r k e d
ones, a n d the c u r v i n g surfaces o f the d o t t e d units
face the center o f the stars they s u r r o u n d , b u t
the c u r v i n g surfaces o f the empty ones face away
f r o m the star centers. Even t h o u g h the use o f color
is m a i n l y reserved for bipeds, i t is also applied to
some o f the f o u r - p o i n t e d stars a n d some o f the t r i -
angular units located along the edge o f the frame.
A necessary step i n t r a n s f o r m i n g a muqarnas
plan i n t o a three-dimensional c o m p o s i t i o n is
d i v i d i n g i t i n t o its c o m p o n e n t rows. I n p l a n , a
r o w represents a tier o f single units o f equal height
placed adjacent to each other. Often a tier is
accompanied by a r o w o f bipeds occupying the
same elevational p o s i t i o n . I n elevation, a tier
o f bipeds is never separate b u t is always located i n
f r o n t o f a tier o f nonbipeds. I n contrast to other
quadrilateral units such as rectangles a n d r h o m -
buses, biped units taper t o w a r d the b o t t o m a n d
therefore do n o t have the necessary w i d t h to
sustain a tier independently.
As al-Kashi p o i n t e d o u t , tier height is a flexible
d i m e n s i o n t o be determined by the aesthetic
j u d g m e n t o f the b u i l d e r , the profile o f the arch or
vault s u r r o u n d i n g the muqarnas, a n d the overall
f o r m a l characteristics o f the space i n w h i c h the
muqarnas is located. I n order to s i m p l i f y the p r o -
cess o f p r o v i d i n g a three-dimensional p r o j e c t i o n
 THE MUQARNAS: A GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS 355

o f the plan analyzed i n this study, one height has 4. Process of trans-
been used for all tiers. The uppermost tier was
forming a plan of a
muqarnas row into a
designated as the reference tier. I t is the most regu- three-dimensional
lar tier and consists o n l y o f identical units and h a l f composition. From left
units. The height used for the tiers equals twice the to right: plan of a row
depth o f the units o f the uppermost row. A n o t h e r
with construction lines;
isometric of the plan;
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n based o n a different height, or projection of a row with
heights, for the tiers w o u l d be equally correct. construction lines; pro-
The plan can be d i v i d e d i n t o eight rows, most jection of a row without
construction lines;
o f w h i c h s u p p o r t a r o w o f bipeds. The top four
carving of muqarnas
rows (rows 5 - 8 ) , w h i c h are located w i t h i n the units out of projection;
boundaries o f the circular c o n s t r u c t i o n lines, are worm's-eye line draw-
regular i n p l a n , and are arranged according to a
ing of a muqarnas row;
worm's-eye shaded
system o f radial symmetry. The b o t t o m four rows image of a muqarnas
(rows 1 - 4 ) , w h i c h are located i n p r o x i m i t y to the row.
outer edges o f the muqarnas, are irregular and are
o n l y symmetrical along the diagonal axis connect-
i n g the upper left and lower r i g h t corners o f the
p l a n . One p a r t i a l exception to this g r o u p o f i r r e g u -
lar rows is the one c o n t a i n i n g the units f o r m i n g
the e i g h t - p o i n t e d star located i n the upper left
corner o f the p l a n . This star is defined by c o n -
s t r u c t i o n lines consisting o f three concentric
circles that are d i v i d e d i n t o sixteen equal segments
by sixteen r a d i i separated f r o m each other by an
angle o f 22.5 degrees. The units s u r r o u n d i n g each
o f the stars are d i v i d e d a m o n g two adjacent tiers,
the d o t t e d ones belonging to the lower tier.
The process o f t r a n s f o r m i n g a r o w f r o m a plan
i n t o a three-dimensional c o m p o s i t i o n is d e m o n -
strated i n i l l u s t r a t i o n 4, w h i c h uses the eighth and
u p p e r m o s t r o w as an example. The plan is first
projected by the d e t e r m i n e d height. The c u r v i n g
356 THE MUQARNAS: A GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS

5. Additive isometric views of rows 1-8.

From left to right: row 1; rows 1-2; rows 1-3;
rows 1-4; rows 1-5; rows 1-6; rows 1-7;
rows 1-8.

outlines o f the muqarnas units are then carved
out o f the p r o j e c t i o n according to the guidelines
p r o v i d e d by al-Kashi i n the a d d e n d u m to his
chapter. As the process o f p r o j e c t i o n and carving is
repeated for each tier, care must be taken to place
that tier i n its correct elevational p o s i t i o n . The
highest plane, or roof, o f each tier should be
placed at the same level as the b o t t o m plane o f the
tier located above i t . I n the final result, each r o w
maintains its l o c a t i o n i n plan and is only shifted
along the height coordinate ( i l l . 5).
The final p r o d u c t o f this process o f p r o j e c t i n g ,
carving, and shifting represents a quarter vault
( i l l . 6). I f m i r r o r e d along either the right or lower
side o f the frame o f the plan, the result is a half
vault similar to those placed above entry portals
( i l l . 7). W h e n placing a muqarnas half vault b e h i n d
the arch o f such a p o r t a l , the muqarnas arrange­
ment needs to be fitted w i t h i n the outlines o f the
arch. There is considerable flexibility i n achieving
this. For example a large n u m b e r o f outlines are
available for arches since they can be designed
according to one, t w o , three, or four centers. 17
Any
muqarnas v a u l t i n g arrangement also can be made
to fit w i t h i n the boundaries o f an arch by adjusting
the heights o f its tiers. I l l u s t r a t i o n 8 shows the
constructed half vault placed b e h i n d the four-
centered arch o f an entry p o r t a l . I n this case the
tier heights were left unchanged, and o n l y the h a l f
dome was flattened to correspond m o r e closely to
the o u t l i n e o f the c r o w n o f the arch. The irregular
units along the edges o f the muqarnas plan facili­
tated adjustment to p a r t i c u l a r arch profiles.
T H E M U Q A R N A S : A G E O M E T R I C A N A L Y S I S 357
6. Views o f c o m p l e t e d muqarnas q u a r t e r vault. F r o m
left to r i g h t : p l a n ; f r o n t a l elevation; side elevation;
worm's-eye view o f inside o f vault; bird's-eye view o f
outside o f v a u l t . N o t e that muqarnas u n i t s are rarely
expressed o n the outside o f a s t r u c t u r e except i n a few
examples such as the mausoleums o f N u r a l - D i n and
I m a m D u r . Since views o f convex f o r m s are easier to
grasp visually t h a n those o f concave f o r m s , however, a
view o f the outside o f a muqarnas vault better explains
its f o r m a l qualities t h a n a view o f the inside.
One a i m o f this study has been to analyze the
muqarnas o n the levels o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l repre­
sentations and three-dimensional compositions.
The muqarnas constructed here resembles a p r o d ­
uct o f the T i m u r i d era. To achieve a better under­
standing o f the muqarnas, s i m i l a r investigations
covering a wider geographic and c h r o n o l o g i c a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n need to be carried out. The results o f
such investigations, however, w i l l fill only part
o f the gap i n our understanding o f the muqarnas.
I n f o r m a t i o n reaching us f r o m the past is most
often fragmentary and incomplete. O u r knowledge
o f the muqarnas, i n c l u d i n g its origins, p l a n n i n g
processes, c o n s t r u c t i o n methods, and meanings,
remains deficient. I n order to correct such defi­
ciencies, we not only need to examine the available
c o n t e m p o r a r y visual documents o f s u r v i v i n g
structures and drawings but also to l o o k at other
sources such as poetry, a body o f i n f o r m a t i o n that
still has n o t been used effectively by historians
o f the architecture o f the Islamic w o r l d . I t is only
t h r o u g h such a d d i t i o n a l research that o u r c o n c l u ­
sions concerning the muqarnas as an architectural
and iconographie element can be more definitively
removed f r o m the realm o f the conjectural.
358 THE MUQARNAS: A GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS

7. Elevation and bird's-

eye views of the outside
of a muqarnas half vault.

8. View of a muqarnas
half vault placed
within an entry portal.
 T H E M U Q A R N A S : A G E O M E T R I C ANALYSIS 359

Translation of al-Kashi s Addendum
"Calculating the Surface Area of the
Builders draw a rectangle whose w i d t h
equals the m o d u l e [miqyas]
to His Chapter I n surveying similar ones i t is necessary 15. Golombek and Wilber 1988, i67ff.
Muqarnas" 18
to subtract f r o m or add to the coefficient 16. A translation of the addendum follows this essay.
17. For more information on the variety of arch
[ta dil]
c 1 9
that w h i c h was subtracted f r o m ,
designs found in Timurid architecture, see Golombek
or added t o , the length o f the leg o f the and Wilber 1988,152-58. See also figs. 67-69 in the
o f the m u q a r - b o a r d . W h a t remains, or is acquired, can present book and Shirbaf 1982-1983 for the method of
c

nas, a n d length equals twice the w i d t h , as
i n rectangle A B C D . Line A E is constructed
at angle A ° w h i c h creates along w i t h line
A B a t h i r d o f a right angle ( 3 0 ) . A E is
0
then d i v i d e d i n t o five equal sections.
F r o m p o i n t E, lines EF a n d EG, b o t h o f
w h i c h are equal to two-fifths o f line A E ,
are constructed. A n arc w i t h a radius
be used i n place o f the coefficient.
1. See Behrens-Abouseif 1993; Grabar 1978,175-82;
and Tabbaa 1985, 62ff.
2. Grabar 1988, 53.
3. Much of the following information on the etymol-
ogy of the term muqarnas was provided to me through
personal communication with Professor Wolfhart
Heinrichs of Harvard University's Department of Near
Eastern Languages and Civilizations.
contemporary master builders in modern Iran for con-
structing muqarnas portals.
18. For the Arabic version of this addendum, see
al-Kashi 1969, 187-88. The table containing surface area
calculations of muqarnas cells and the part containing
the lengths of segments of the elevational outline of
a unit have not been included in this translation. A
translation of the full addendum is provided in Dold-
Samplonius 1992a; and idem forthcoming.
19. Al-Kashi defined the ta'dtl as GC + Vi AFG.

equal to FG is constructed f r o m each o f

points F a n d G. The two arcs intersect
inside the rectangle A B C D at p o i n t H .
F r o m p o i n t H , arc FG, w h i c h i n length
w i l l have to equal one-sixth o f the c i r c u m -
ference, is constructed. Lines D A a n d D C
are extended to reach p o i n t s I a n d J. F r o m
t h e m , line KJ, w h i c h is parallel t o line
BC, a n d line I K , w h i c h is parallel t o line
A B , are constructed. N u m e r o u s gypsum
boards corresponding to surface K I A F G C J
( o f w h i c h FG is an arc) are made. Each
two define a muqarnas u n i t i n w h i c h line
CG is perpendicular t o the g r o u n d . . . .
I t is possible to shorten o r lengthen
the leg o f the b o a r d , m e a n i n g line GC. I f
placed b e h i n d an arch, this is needed for
b o t h o f t h e m (the muqarnas a n d the arch)
to correspond t o each other.
4. See Diez 1987; and Herzfeld 1942, 1.
5. See Hoag 1977, 405.
6. A list of medieval Arabic lexicons containing
definitions of the term muqarnas is found in Amin and
Ibrahim 1990, 1.
7. See al-Kashi 1969,185. For more information on
al-Kashi, see Vernet 1993. In the Muslim West, the term
muqarbas was also used to describe muqarnas forma-
tions. See Fernandez-Puertas 1993.
8. A discussion and English translation of al-Kashi's
section on the muqarnas is found in Dold-Samplonius
1992a; and idem forthcoming. See also Golombek
and Wilber 1988,1: 164-69.
9. For a discussion of these drawings, see part 1 above.
10. See Paccard 1980, 280-305.
11. See Goury and Jones 1842-1845; Notkin 1970,
239-54; idem 1995; and Ecochard 1977.
12. See Harb 1978, figs. 1, 33; and Notkin 1995.
13.1 would like to thank Jeffrey Barneson, Wade
Hokoda, and Professor William J. Mitchell of Harvard
University's Graduate School of Design for guiding
me in using computer-aided design programs for the
analysis of the muqarnas.
14. Golombek and Wilber 1988,165; Dold-Samplonius
1992a; idem forthcoming. See also part 4 above.
MAP OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
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INDEX

T h i s i n d e x does n o t i n c l u d e references t o the i l l u s t r a ­ A b u Bakr (a.k.a. A b h a b u c h r , a n o n y m o u s ) , 179 n . 109
t i o n s o f p a t t e r n types i n the catalog or the c o l o r r e p r o ­ Liber mensurationum, 158-59,161
d u c t i o n o f the T o p k a p i s c r o l l . References t o i l l u s t r a t i o n s A b u Bakr a l - K h a l i l al-Tajir al-Rasadi (geometer)
are i n d i c a t e d i n italic type. Dates are A . D . unless o t h e r ­ A mäl,
c
168-69
wise i n d i c a t e d . T h e A r a b i c p a r t i c l e al- is i g n o r e d i n A b u Bakr a l - Q a d i ( m a t h e m a t i c i a n , first h a l f o f the
a l p h a b e t i z i n g except for b o o k titles. F o r e i g n b o o k titles eleventh c e n t u r y ) , 179 n . 109
are arranged s t r i c t l y alphabetically; for example, Der A b u H a t i m a l - M u z a f f a r b . I s m a i l al-Isfizari,
c
a n d e m o t i o n a l response, 196,198, 204, 212, 213,
226 n . 109
E u r o p e a n , i n f l u e n c e d b y G r e c o - A r a b i c texts, 194,196,
198
o f girih patterns, 173-75,181 n . 132,194, 2 0 3 - 4
a n d h a r m o n y , 187-88,189,190,193, 215
a n d the i n t e r n a l senses, 1 9 7 - 9 9 , o i > 210
2

Ornamentenschatz is l i s t e d i n the D's r a t h e r t h a n i n 177 n . 24 o f l i g h t , 189,190, 215

the O's. A b u a l - H u d h a y l ( d . 840s), 95 a n d l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , 185, 213
A b u K a m i l Shuja (late n i n t h - c e n t u r y M u s l i m
c
a n d love o f beauty, 1 8 7 - 8 8 , 1 9 2 - 9 3 , 1 9 4 , 224 n . 12
algebraist), 157 a n d m a t h e m a t i c s , 191
A A b u U t h m a n A m r b . Bahr al-Jahiz
c c
a n d m e m o r y , 210
A b a q a K h a n ( I l k h a n i d r u l e r , r. 1265-1282), 4 Kitäb al-hayawän, 56 n . 83 a n d metaphysics, 193,196
A b b a s i d caliphate (749-1258), 99-100,111,124 n . 12. See A c k e r m a n , Phyllis m o d a l t h e o r y of, 112, 206, 208, 2 0 9 - 1 0 , 212, 219
also Baghdad A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times to the o f m u s i c , 185,187,188,190-91,194, 195, 224 n . 12
a n d the arabesque, 74, 91, 92 Present, 91-92 o f p a i n t i n g , 188
a n d beveled style, 92, 93, 94, 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 0 3 , 220 adab, 157 o f poetry, 185,188
c a l l i g r a p h y of, 104 Adelard o f Bath (twelfth-century translator o f Euclid's of p r o p o r t i o n , 187-90,194
a n d m u q a r n a s vaults, 1 0 7 - 8 Elements), 131 a n d psychology, 201, 2 0 3 - 5 , 209, 226 n . 124
sign system of, 2 2 0 - 2 1 al- Adil, al-Malik (thirteenth-century Ayyubid ruler),
c
a n d p u r i t y , 1 9 0 - 9 1 , 210, 224 n . 29
t h e o l o g y o r p h i l o s o p h y of, 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 8 - 9 152 a n d Sufism, 186
A b b a s i d Palace ( B a g h d a d ) , 100,169 aesthetics, 185-96 a n d taste, 185, 224 n . 2
c
A b d a l - Q a d i r b . G h a y b i a l - H a f i z a l - M a r a g h i ( d . 1435) o f calligraphy, 188,190, 2 0 3 - 4 theories o f i n n o v a t i o n a n d i m i t a t i o n i n , 218
Maqäsid al-alhän, 195 classical influences o n , 186,187,189,193,194, 210 a n d transcendence, 196,197, 210
A b h a b u c h r . See A b u B a k r o f c o l o r , 190, 215 a n d w o n d e r , 214, 226 n . 116, 226 n . 124
A b r a h a m Judaeus. See Bar H i y y a , A b r a h a m a n d cosmology, 1 8 7 - 8 8 , 1 9 4 A i t c h i s o n , George, 45
a b s t r a c t i o n . See arabesque; g e o m e t r i c a b s t r a c t i o n ; geo­ a n d crafts, 185
c
A l a ' a l - D i n K a y q u b a d ( A n a t o l i a n Seljuq r u l e r , r.
m e t r i c p a t t e r n i n g ; girih; s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns a n d creative i m a g i n a t i o n , 197, 225 n . 99 1219-1237), 4
A b u a l - A l a ' b . K a r n i b ( m a t h e m a t i c i a n a n d uncle o f
c
a n d d i v i n e c r e a t i o n , 196
c
A l a ' a l - D i n m o s q u e ( K o n y a ) , 100
a l - B u z j a n i ) , 176 n . 13 a n d d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n , 197 A l a e d d i n m o s q u e ( S i n o p ) , 181 n . 132
382 INDEX

alchemy, 205
c
aqd, 145. See also girih Architecture et décoration turques ( P a r v i l l é e ) , 63, 68
Al-Durrah al-fäkhirah ( J a m i ) , 126 n . 80 Aqsa m o s q u e (Jerusalem), 100 arch-net vaults, 10, 11-12, 22, 236
A l e x a n d r i a n school, 131,132,133,139 A q u i n a s . See T h o m a s A q u i n a s , Saint i n n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls, 14,15
A l f a r a b i u s . See al-Farabi
c
A r a b A t a , m a u s o l e u m o f ( T i m ) , 97, 98
c
i n Tashkent scrolls, 4.8-49
algebra, 1 5 6 - 5 7 , 1 5 8 - 5 9 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 0 - 7 1 , 1 8 0 n . 120 arabesque. See also g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n i n g i n T o p k a p i s c r o l l , 31, 4 8 - 4 9
A l h a m b r a ( G r a n a d a ) , 42, 64, 85 n . 50,102,172 a n d a b s t r a c t i o n , 74, 75 Ardalan, Nader
H a l l o f Ambassadors, 118,175 c a l l i g r a p h i c , 74 The Sense of Unity, 76, 77
H a l l o f the Abencerrajes, 349 classical o r i g i n s of, 6 4 - 6 6 , 74, 8 6 - 8 7 n n . 9 7 - 9 8 Aristotle
H a l l o f T w o Sisters, 118-19, 204, 349 d e f i n i t i o n s of, 74 De Anima, 198
i n s c r i p t i o n s i n , 122, 204 as essence o f I s l a m i c art, 65, 74, 81, 86 n . 58, 9 1 - 9 2 , De Memoria et Reminiscentia, 198
Sala de la Barca, 209 115-16 Metaphysics, 214
A l h a z e n . See I b n a l - H a y t h a m g e o m e t r i c , 74, 78 a r i t h m e t i c , 186
c
A l i (a.k.a. A l i b . A b i T a l i b , d . 661), 113-14
c
a n d magic, 86 n . 69 a n d geometry, 133,139,140,176 n . 13
A l i , M u s t a f a ( s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y O t t o m a n h i s t o r i a n ) , 114 i n m e t a l w o r k , 84 n . 2 manuals, 156-57,158,176 n . 13,179 n . 79
<Ali b . H i l a l o r i g i n s of, 92, 96 (see also Samarra, beveled style o f ) tables, 44
I b n al-Bawwab K o r a n , 104,107 o r n a m e n t a l character of, 65, 74, 75 uses of, 157-58
c
A l i b . Y u s u f b . Tashufin ( A l m o r a v i d r u l e r , r. 1106-1142), p r e - M o n g o l o r i g i n s of, 9 1 - 1 0 9 , 1 2 4 n . 7 Art of Islam ( B u r c k h a r d t ) , 8 0 - 8 1
101 a n d beveled style, 92, 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 0 3 arts. See also specific arts; aesthetics; crafts
A l i K u s c i (a.k.a. A l i b . M u h a m m a d a l - Q u s h j i , d . 1474),
c
a n d calligraphy, 104, 205 a n d a r t i f i c i a l i t y , 213
39,168 classical o r i g i n s , 6 4 - 6 6 , 74, 8 6 - 8 7 n n . 9 7 - 9 8 , 93, c o u r t patronage of, 212, 217, 221
c
A l i M a r d a n K h a n (seventeenth-century Persian n o b l e i n 95-96 a n d the i n t e r n a l senses, 198
M u g h a l I n d i a ) , 219 girih, 93, 97, i04> 108 s t r u c t u r a l affinity a m o n g , 2 0 9 - 1 0
al-Jabr ( U m a r K h a y y a m ) , 180 n . 120
c
g r i d systems, 103 The Arts of Islam ( e x h i b i t i o n a n d catalog), 80, 82
A l l e n , Terry, 86 n . 66, 9 9 - 1 0 0 , 1 2 4 n . 7,125 n . 33 and puritanism, 103-4 A r t u q i d dynasty (1102-1408), 100
Almagest ( P t o l e m y ) , 155,176 n . 13 religious c o n t e x t of, 9 2 - 9 6 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 4 , 1 0 7 , 1 0 8 asceticism, 101,102
A l m o h a d dynasty (1130-1269), 101,102 i n revetments, 97, 9 9 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 a l - A s h a r i , A b u al-Hasan ( d . 9 3 5 - 9 3 6 ) , 9 6 - 9 7 , 1 0 3 , 1 9 2
c

A l m o r a v i d dynasty (1056-1147), 101 religious s y m b o l i s m of, 7 5 - 7 6 , 78, 7 9 - 8 0 , 8 2 - 8 3 , 86 Ash ari theological school and Sunnism, 96-97,101,103,
c

A mäl
c
( A b u Bakr a l - K h a l i l ) , 168 n. 97,125 n . 33 192
c
Amal al-daira al-maqsüma bi-sab atc
aqsäm mutasäwiya a n d tawhid, 76, 81 asl. See aesthetics, m o d a l t h e o r y o f
li-Arshimïdis ( T h a b i t b . Q u r r a ) , 177 n . 18 types of, 62, 74 Aslanapa, Oktay, 99
A mäl
c
wa ashkäl vegetal, 74, 75, 78,102,103,113-14
c
A t a ' A l l a h ( s o n o f M u g h a l architect U s t a d A h m a d
o n aesthetic value o f girihs, 173-74 The Arabesque ( K ü h n e l ) , 7 4 - 7 5 , 81,102,124 n . 7 L a h o r i , seventeenth c e n t u r y ) , 155,156
a p p r o x i m a t i o n m e t h o d used i n , 1 6 9 - 7 0 The Arabian Antiquities of Spain ( M u r p h y ) , 61 a t o m i s m , 75, 86 n . 64, 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 2 4 n . 9
date a n d provenance of, 138,168-69,171 A r a b i a n style o f art, 64, 81, 84 n . 26, 84 n . 28, 84 n . 33. a n d e m a n a t i o n , 187,192
o n d r a f t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , 145, 146 See also O r i e n t a l i s m A u g u s t i n e , Saint ( 3 5 4 - 4 3 0 )
e x p e r i m e n t a l n a t u r e of, 171,172 Arabic Geometrical Pattern and Design ( B o u r g o i n ) , 73 Confessions, 194
o n s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns, 133,139, 147-50, Arabische und alt-Italienische Bau-Verzierungen Avant et après ( G a u g u i n ) , 226 n . 109
163-64,167 (Hessemer), 84 n . 14 Avennasar. See al-Farabi
a l - A m i l i , S h a i k h Baha' a l - D i n (1564-1621), 156
c
archetypes, 77, 87 n . 99,188,197 Averroes. See I b n R u s h d
A m i r Ghayb Beg A l b u m , 205 A r c h i m e d e s , 177 n . 18 A v i c e n n a . See I b n Sina
a l - A m i r i , A b u al-Hasan ( d . 992), 125 n . 35,132-33,
c
architects, 57 n . 131. See also engineer; master b u i l d e r awe. See w o n d e r
177 n . 23 biographies of, 224 n . 3 A y y u b i d dynasty (1169-late fifteenth c e n t u r y ) , 100,101
A m o r e t t i , B i a n c a m a r i a Scarcia, 109 as d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d , 197, 225 n . 61 m o n u m e n t s of, 67
A m r i m o s q u e ( Q u s ) , 124 n . 22 d r a f t i n g m e t h o d s of, 6 - 7 , 1 4 p i l g r i m a g e scrolls of, 9
Anatolia the ideal architect, 155
M o n g o l i n v a s i o n of, 102,124 n . 29 p a y m e n t of, 44,159
stone a r c h i t e c t u r e of, 23,101 role of, 3 - 4 , 6, 50, 52,158,178 n . 71 B
A n t h e m i u s o f Tralles ( B y z a n t i n e a r c h i t e c t ) , 1 3 9 - 4 0 , 1 5 6 scientist-architects, 156 B a b u r ( M u g h a l e m p e r o r ) , 7, 54 n . 20
A p o l l o n i u s o f Perga (circa 241-197 B . C . ) , 178 n . 44 status of, 177 n . 24,179 n . 83 B a c o n , Roger ( t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h p h i l o s o p h e r
Conic Sections, 152 a n d t h e o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t f r o m design, 4,116-17 a n d scientist), 166
Cutting Lines in Ratio, 138 t r a i n i n g of, 1 3 2 - 3 3 , 1 3 9 - 4 0 , 1 5 2 - 5 4 , 1 5 5 ~ 5 6 , 1 6 0 Badr a l - D i n T a b r i z i ( t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a r c h i t e c t ) , 155
Cutting Surfaces in Ratio, 138 a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d mechanics, 139,154-55 Baghdad, 6, 9 9 - 1 0 0 , 1 0 7 , 221
Apologia ( B e r n a r d o f C l a i r v a u x ) , 101 Architecture arabe (Coste), 6 1 - 6 2 c a l l i g r a p h y of, 104,112,123,124 n . 19
 I N D E X 383

Greek p h i l o s o p h y i n , 132,133 B o u r g o i n , Jules, 74, 84 n . 24 Kitab fimàyahtaju ilayhi al-sàni c

min a màl
c
al-handasa,
g r o u n d plans for, 3 Arabic Geometrical Pattern and Design, 73 123,133, i34-37> 138,167-68,170,176 n . 13
as i n t e l l e c t u a l center, 131 o n c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o m e t r i c patterns, Kitäb ma rifa c
al-dawair min al-falak, 133
m a t h e m a t i c i a n s i n , 123,132-33,138,157-58,178 n . 65 66, 6 8 - 6 9 , 71 m a t h e m a t i c a l e d u c a t i o n of, 176 n . 13
M o n g o l sack of, 102,108 o n h a r m o n y , 85 n . 43,118 Risäla ft al-nisab wa al-ta rtfät,
c
180 n . 129
m u q a r n a s vaults of, 1 0 7 - 8 Les arts arabes, 66, 67, 68, 84 n . 26, 85 n . 35 Buzurgmihri, Muhandis Zuhrah (contemporary Iranian
science i n , 131,132 Les éléments de Y art arabe, 66, 67, 69, 69, 84 n . 28, master b u i l d e r ) , 55 n . 54
Sunnism i n , 9 6 - 9 7 84 n . 33 B y z a n t i n e architecture, 117
a l - B a g h d a d i , a l - K h a t i b (1002-1071), 3 o n m o n u m e n t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e , 85 n . 41
B a h r a m M i r z a (Safavid p r i n c e ) , 113 Théorie de Vornement, 69
Bahr el-ma ärif (Suruvi),
c
207, 211-12, 224 n . 5, 225 n . 96 el B o u r i ( c o n t e m p o r a r y M o r o c c a n m u q a r n a s designer), c
B a k h t i a r , Laleh 24-25, 27, 32, 55 n . 61 Ca fer Efendi
c

The Sense of Unity, 76, 77 B o z d o g a n , Sibel, 84 n . 14, 86 n . 55 Risäle-i Mi märiyye,

c
117,152-53,174, 225 n . 105
B a k l a n o v , N i k o l a i B o r i s o v i c h , 9,12 B r e t h r e n o f P u r i t y ( I k h w a n al-Safa') Ç a g m a n , Filiz, 34, 56 n . 73
al-Balawï o n geometry, 1 9 0 - 9 1 C a i r o , 62
Shat Ahmad Ihn Tülün, 54 n . 5 o n h u m a n s vs. a n i m a l s , 198 calligraphy, 50, 105,125 n . 36
bannaï brick masonry, 9, 9, 12, 14, 34 o n the i n t e r n a l senses, 199 aesthetics of, 188,190, 2 0 3 - 4
i n n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls, 15, 21, 21 Rasä% 116-17,119,132,186-88,189 a l b u m s , 212
a n d squared grids, 49,112, 231-32 Breve compendio de la carpintería de lo blanco y tratado o f Baghdad, 104,112,123,124 n . 19,188
i n T o p k a p i s c r o l l , 31, 34, 231-32 de alarifes ( L ó p e z de A r e n a s ) , 23, 26, 27, 55 n . 59, biographies o f calligraphers, 212-13, 224 n . 3
B a n u M u s a b r o t h e r s (three n i n t h - c e n t u r y A b b a s i d 160-61 the circle as p r o p o r t i o n i n g device i n , 189
geometer-engineers), 138,156,177 n . 34 b r i c k a n d t i l e , 9,12, 18. See also mosaic tile; t e r r a - c o t t a as d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d , 197
a l - B a q i l l a n i ( A s h a r i t h e o l o g i a n , d. 1013), 97
c
i n C e n t r a l Asia, 9,12, 22, 23, 97 a n d the i n t e r n a l senses, 205
Bar H i y y a , A b r a h a m (a.k.a Savasorda, f l . 1133-1145), c o l o r used for, 12,13, 99 o n I r a n i a n m o n u m e n t s , 37
179 n . 85 a n d g r i d systems, 56 n . 105 K o r a n i c , 104, 106,107
Hibbür ha-meshihah, 161 masonry, 20 (see also bannaïbrick masonry) kufic, 10, 21, 34,107,114,125 n . 39,125 n . 50
Liber embadorum, 161 i n M o r o c c o , 23 i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Qajar scrolls, 37
B a r q u q , madrasa o f ( C a i r o ) , 349 i n n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls, 20, 22 p r o p o r t i o n e d script, 104,188
a l - B a t t a n i ( d . 929), 124 n . 32 w i t h s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns, 97, 98-99, 99 a n d squared grids, 49
Bayhaqi ( 9 9 5 - i 0 7 7 ) > 4 t e r r a - c o t t a , 12,13 a n d S u n n i s m , 107
Tärikh-i Mas üdt,
c
176 n . 5 B r u n e l l e s c h i , F i l i p p o (1377-1446), 43, 56 n . 1 0 2 , 1 6 5 - 6 6 i n T o p k a p i s c r o l l , 34, 37, 232
al-Bayhaqi, A b u al-Hasan (1100-1169/1170), 140 Bryas Palace ( C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ) , 3 Capella Palatina ( P a l e r m o ) , 120
Bayqara, Sultan H u s a y n ( T i m u r i d ruler, r. 1470-1506), 121 B r y s o n , N o r m a n , 175 carpentry, 152. See also w o o d w o r k
B a y s u n g h u r ( T i m u r i d p r i n c e , d. 1433), 50, 57 n . 128 B û c h e r , F r a n ç o i s , 43 C e n t r a l Asia, 56 n . 110
Bayt al-hikma ( B a g h d a d ) , 131,132 b u i l d e r , master. See master b u i l d e r s arch-net vaults of, 10
Bayt a l - M a m u r , 194
c
B u k h a r a n master b u i l d e r , 7, 7-13,14 b r i c k a n d tile c o n s t r u c t i o n i n , 9,12, 22, 23, 34, 97
beauty. See aesthetics Bukhara Museum, 9 c o n s t r u c t i o n o f plaster m u q a r n a s vaults i n , 46,
Behrens-Abouseif, D o r i s , 1 0 7 - 8 B u l a t o v , M i t k h a t , 9, 22,156 48
B e i j i n g , 221 o n a n o n y m o u s (Paris) m a n u s c r i p t , 169,179 n . 104 g r i d systems used i n , 13, 44
Berber dynasties. See A l m o h a d dynasty; A l m o r a v i d o n g r i d systems, 13, 32 m a t h e m a t i c a l t r a i n i n g o f architects i n , 156
dynasty Burckhardt, Titus paper, use of, 4
Bernard o f Clairvaux Art of Islam, 80-81 plaster, use of, 4
Apologia, 101 The Arts of Islam ( e x h i b i t i o n catalog), 80 revetments i n , 115
beveled style "Perennial Values i n I s l a m i c A r t , " 78 u n i t y i n a r c h i t e c t u r e of, 22
classical o r i g i n s of, 9 5 - 9 6 o n the r e l i g i o u s role o f I s l a m i c art, 86 n n . 8 8 - 9 1 Chahär Maqäla ( N i z a m i A r u z i ) , 56 n . 84
c

Samarran, 92, 93, 94, 95,103, 220 Sacred Art in East and West, 78 C h a h r Bakr shrine c o m p l e x ( B u k h a r a ) , 32, 33
a l - B i r u n i ( 9 7 3 - 1 0 5 0 ) , 168 B ü r g e l , Johann C h r i s t o p h , 86 n . 69 C h a r d i n , Jean (seventeenth-century F r e n c h t r a v e l e r ) , 6,
Blochet, Edgar, 169 b u r n i n g m i r r o r s , 177 n . 16 44, 57 n . 118
B l o o m , Jonathan, 100 Busard, H u b e r t L . , 159 Cheetham, M a r k A .
Blue m o s q u e ( T a b r i z ) , 32 B u y i d dynasty (945-1055), 95, 96,107 The Rhetoric of Purity, 210, 212
B o e t h i u s , M a n l i u s (circa 4 8 0 - 5 2 4 ) , 194,197 a l - B u z j a n i , A b u al-Wafa' ( 9 4 0 - 9 9 8 ) , 156,163,169 c h i n o i s e r i e patterns. See floral p a t t e r n s
Bois, Y v e - A l a i n , 181 n . 136 Kitäb al-manàzil fïmàyahtàju ilayhi al-kuttàb wa Choix d'ornements moresques de VAlhambra ( G i r a u l t de
Book of the Principles ( E u c l i d ) , 152 al- ummäl
c
min ilm al-hisàb,
c
157 Prangey), 63
384 INDEX

C h o r b a c h i , Wasma'a K . , 55 n . 56, 71, 85 n n . 5 3 - 5 4 Crowe, Donald W. Discourses on Architecture ( V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ) , 67

o n a n o n y m o u s (Paris) m a n u s c r i p t , 169,176 n . 14,180 Symmetries of Culture, 85 n . 51 D i w a n - i Khass, i n the Red F o r t ( D e l h i ) , 115
n.115,180 n.123 crystallography, 70, 85 n n . 5 0 - 5 2 , 85 n . 54,172 D o l d - S a m p l o n i u s , Y v o n n e , 159
C h r i s t i a n i t y , 187 cursive script. See c a l l i g r a p h y Dolmetsch, Heinrich •
C h r i s t i e , A r c h i b a l d H . , 19-20, 55 n . 49 c u r v i l i n e a r vegetal p a t t e r n s . See floral patterns; islimi Der Ornamentenschatz, 66
Traditional Methods of Pattern Designing, 19, 6 9 - 7 0 Cutting Lines in Ratio ( A p o l l o n i u s o f Perga), 138 D o m e o f the R o c k (Jerusalem), 93, 220
Ç i n i l i K ö s k ( T i l e d k i o s k ) , i n the T o p k a p i Palace Cutting Surfaces in Ratio ( A p o l l o n i u s o f Perga), 138 D o s t M u h a m m a d (calligrapher a n d p a i n t e r ) , 113-14* 118,
( I s t a n b u l ) , 39,121,126 n . 83 174, 212
circle, 133,138,189,194. See also r a d i a l g r i d drawings. See also g r o u n d plans; n i n e t e e n t h - a n d
Cistercians, 101 D t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls; Tashkent scrolls;
Clarke, Caspar P u r d o n , 1 4 , 1 9 - 2 0 , 45, 56 n . 105 D a l g i ç A h m e d ( d . 1608), 154 Topkapi scroll
classical art. See G r e c o - R o m a n art D a r b - i I m a m (Isfahan), 35, 36, 37,121 figurai sketches, 15
Clerget, Charles-Ernest D a r b - i K u s h k (Isfahan), 37, 37 grid-based, 7
Encyclopédie universelle d'ornements, 63 D a v u d A g h a ( d . 1599), 154 o n paper, 3 - 9 , 5-8
C l i n t o n , Jerome W . , 185 D a w l a t s h a h ( f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y T i m u r i d h i s t o r i a n ) , 120, on parchment, 3
C o l l i n , J. 121,126 n . 75 dreams, 197
Etude pratique de la décoration polygonale arabe, 70 Tadhkïrat al-shu ara,c
215 D u g h l a t , M i r z a M u h a m m a d Haydar (1499/1500-1551), 212
C o l l i n o t , E. a l - D a w r a n i , R a b i a ( d . 1657), 155
c
D u M a n s , Raphael ( C a p u c h i n m i s s i o n a r y a n d traveler t o
Encyclopédie des arts décoratifs de VOrient, 66 a l - D a w w a n i , M u h a m m a d (1424-1503), 117,193 the Safavid c o u r t ) , 6 - 7
color De Anima ( A r i s t o t l e ) , 198 D u r a n t , Stuart, 69
aesthetics of, 190, 215 De Architectura ( V i t r u v i u s P o l l i o ) , 177 n . 29 Ornament, 1830-1980, 82
i n b r i c k a n d tile, 12,13, 99 De aspectibus ( I b n a l - H a y t h a m ) , 166 D ü r e r , A l b r e c h t (1471-1528), 179 n . 96
i n n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls, 15 de B e a u m o n t , A d a l b e r t Unterweisung der Messung mit dem Zirkel und Richt-
a n d s y m m e t r y , 85 n n . 5 0 - 5 2 {see also crystallography) Encyclopédie des arts décoratifs de VOrient, 66 scheit in Linien, Ebenen und ganzen Körpern,
i n Tashkent scrolls, 10,13, 32 de B r u y n e , Edgar 164-65,165
i n T i m u r i d revetments, 41 Etudes d'esthétique médiévale, 186 D u t h o i t , E d m o n d , 68
i n T o p k a p i s c r o l l , 31, 32, 49,112 De diversis artibus ( T h e o p h i l u s ) , 84 n . 2 D z h a l i l o v , K h u l i , 55 n . 45
Commentarii ( G h i b e r t i ) , 166 D e l h i , 221
C o m p u t e r v i s i o n C A D D S X , 351
4 De Memoria et Reminiscentia ( A r i s t o t l e ) , 198
Confessions (Saint A u g u s t i n e ) , 194 De ortu scientiarum ( G u n d i s s a l i n u s ) , 162 E
Conic Sections ( A p o l l o n i u s ) , 152 Der Ornamentenschatz ( D o l m e t s c h ) , 66 Eco, U m b e r t o , 196
Constitutions of Masonry, 162-63 Der Stil in den technischen und tektonischen Künsten Edessa, 220
c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d s , 51 (Semper), 84 n . 23 Egypt, 23, 94
a r i t h m e t i c tables, 44 De scientiis ( a l - F a r a b i ) , 132,139,162 El arte hispanomusulman en su decoración geométrica
a n d d e c o r a t i o n , 50, 57 n . 130,180 n . 130 Description de VArménie, la Perse et la Mésopotamie ( P a v ó n M a l d o n a d o ) , 70
a n d d r a w i n g , 3 5 0 - 5 1 , 359 ( T e x i e r ) , 63 Elements of Geometry ( E u c l i d ) , 131,133
a n d measurements, 4 3 - 4 4 Description de l'Egypte, 61 Elements of Theology ( P r o c l u s ) , 187
a n d p l a s t e r w o r k , 57 n . 118 Design and Color in Islamic Architecture (Seherr-Thoss), 73 elevations, a r c h i t e c t u r a l , 43, 4 4 - 4 5 , 353-57, 353-58
a n d templates, 49 design booklets. See p a t t e r n b o o k s El lazo: Decoración geométrica musulmana (Prieto y Vives
Coste, Pascal Designs for Mosaic and Tessellated Pavements (Jones), 64 a n d G ó m e z - M o r e n o ) , 70
Architecture arabe, 61-62 "Designs for M o s a i c T i l e s " (Jones), 64 El lazo, motivo ornamental destacado en el estilo mudejar,
Monuments modernes de la Perse, 63 dhikr, 122 zu trazado simplicista (Galiay S a r a ñ a n a ) , 70
crafts. See also specific crafts; aesthetics; arts Didascalion ( H u g h o f St. V i c t o r ) , 162 emanation, 119-20,187,192
a n d c i v i l i z a t i o n , 199 Die Arabeske ( K ü h n e l ) , 7 4 - 7 5 , 81,102,124 n . 7 Encyclopedia of Islam, 74
c o u r t p a t r o n a g e of, 221 Diefenbach, L e o n h a r d Encyclopédie des arts décoratifs de l'Orient (Collinot and
d e f i n i t i o n of, 208 Geometrische Ornamentik, 66 de B e a u m o n t ) , 66
status of, 199 Die Kunstliteratur (Schlosser), 186 Encyclopédie universelle d'ornements (Clerget a n d
c r e a t i o n , artistic Diez, Ernst, 95, 99,180 n . 127 M a r t e l ) , 63
d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d , 197 D i h l a w i , A m i r K h u s r a w (1253-1325), 155 engineers, 178 n . 65. See also architects; master b u i l d e r s
d r e a m - i n s p i r e d , 197 D i l g u s h a garden palace ( S a m a r q a n d ) , 57 n . 130,120 role of, 3 - 4 , 23, 52
a n d the i n t e r n a l senses, 1 9 7 - 9 9 , 201 D i m a n d , M a u r i c e S., 74 t r a i n i n g of, 155
Critchlow, Keith d i Pellegrino, Francesco ( a u t h o r o f s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Enneads ( P l o t i n u s ) , 187,194,197
Islamic Patterns, 8 1 - 8 2 , 87 n . 99 p a t t e r n b o o k ) , 84 n . 2 epigraphy, 10, 232
 I N D E X 385

Escher, M . C , 85 n . 52,172,180 n n . 124-25 Fayzi, A b u al-Fayz ( d . 1595/1596), 218 a h i s t o r i c a l t r e a t m e n t of, 7 4 - 8 3

"Essai de p h i l o s o p h i e de Tarabesque" ( P r o b s t - B i r a b e n ) , Feucht, Jacob, 57 n . 121 a n d the beveled style, 92, 93, 94, 9 5 - 9 6 , 220
76 Fibonacci, L e o n a r d o (a.k.a. L e o n a r d o o f Pisa, t h i r t e e n t h - the circle as p r o p o r t i o n i n g device i n , 189
Essai sur l'architecture des arabes et des mores en century mathematician) a n d h a r m o n y , 103,118,138,164
Espagne, en Sicile, et en Barbarie ( G i r a u l t de Practica geometriae, 161 p o s t - M o n g o l p e r i o d , 102,111-19
Prangey), 63 figurai r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , 92, 93, 93 c a l l i g r a p h y i n , 112
Ettinghausen, R i c h a r d , 74, 75, 95,192 figurai sketches, 15 c o s m o l o g i c a l associations i n , 116-20
Etude pratique de la décoration polygonale arabe ( C o l l i n ) , Fihrist ( I b n a l - N a d i m ) , 131 decline o f g e o m e t r i c revetments i n , 115
70 fireworks, 199 floral p a t t e r n s i n , 111,114-15,124 n . 29
Etudes d'esthétique médiévale (de B r u y n e ) , 186 F i r i s h t a h N a z h a d , M u r t a z a , 55 n . 63 g e o m e t r i c a l c o m p l e x i t y i n , 112
E u c l i d (circa 3 3 0 - 2 6 0 B . C . ) , 68,178 n . 44,179 n . 96 Fi tadäkhul al-ashkäl al-mutashäbiha aw al-mutawäfiqa. girih i n , 114,115,116
Book of the Principles, 152 See A mälc
wa ashkäl p a t t e r n types i n , 112
Elements of Geometry, 131,133 floral patterns, 102,111 a n d T w e l v e r S h i i s m , 113-14
c

o n h a n d w r i t i n g , 189 M u g h a l , 113,114-15 p r e - M o n g o l p e r i o d , 9 1 - 1 0 9 , 1 1 9 - 2 3 , 1 2 4 n . 7 (see also

On Divisions of Figures, 138 n a t u r a l i s m i n , 218, 219 Abassid caliphate)
E u r o p e a n O r i e n t a l i s t s . See O r i e n t a l i s m , E u r o p e a n O t t o m a n , 113,114, 115 beveled style i n , 92, 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 0 3 , 220
Evliya Ç e l e b i (seventeenth-century O t t o m a n t r a v e l e r ) , pietra dura, 115, 115 c a l l i g r a p h y i n , 104, 105,124 n . 19
54 n . 12,154,174,181 n . 132, 205 The Formation of Islamic Art ( G r a b a r ) , 75 classical o r i g i n s o f f o r m s i n , 6 4 - 6 6 , 74,
E y y u b i ( s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y O t t o m a n w r i t e r ) , 225 n . 61 F r a n k l , Paul 8 6 - 8 7 n n . 9 7 - 9 8 , 93, 9 5 - 9 6
The Gothic: Literary Sources and Interpretations c o s m o l o g i c a l associations i n , 118-21,133
through Eight Centuries, 186 girih i n , 93, 97,104,108
F Fusül al-madanï (al-Farabi), 3 g r i d systems i n , 103
Fakhry, M a j i d , 119,187 and puritanism, 103-4
fann, 185 religious c o n t e x t of, 9 2 - 9 6 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 4 , 1 0 7 , 1 0 8 ,
far .
c
See aesthetics, m o d a l t h e o r y o f G 124 n . 12
al-Farabi (a.k.a. A l f a r a b i u s o r Avennasar, 8 7 0 - 9 5 0 ) , 119, Gaganov, G. A . , 9, 70 revetments i n , 97, 9 9 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 , 1 2 4 n . 29
176 n . 14 Gailani, A . Geometrische Ornamentik ( D i e f e n b a c h ) , 66
o n the circle, 133 " T h e O r i g i n s o f I s l a m i c A r t , " 55 n . 51 geometry. See also m a t h e m a t i c s ; m e n s u r a t i o n
De scientiis, 162 Galiay S a r a ñ a n a , José a n d algebra, 1 5 6 - 5 7 , 1 5 8 - 5 9 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 0 - 7 1
Fusül al-madanï, 3 El lazo, motivo ornamental destacado en el estilo a p p r o x i m a t i o n m e t h o d , 169-70,171,177 n . 18
Ihsa al- ulüm,
c
132,139,162 mudejar, zu trazado simplicista, 70 and architect o r artisan t r a i n i n g , 132-33,139-40,152-54
o n the i n t e r n a l senses, 199 G a u g u i n , Paul (1848-1903), 210 a n d a r i t h m e t i c , 133,139,140,176 n . 13
Kitäb al-hiyal al-rühäniya wa al-asrär al-tabï ïya
c
fï Avant et après, 226 n . 109 a n d a r i t h m e t i c i r r a t i o n a l i t y o f p r o p o r t i o n s , 174
daqaiq al-ashkäl al-handasxya, \j6 n . 9 Gawhar Shad, m o s q u e o f ( M a s h h a d ) , 34 as basis o f a r c h i t e c t u r e , 177 n . 24
Kitäb bugyat al-àmàl fïsinä at c
al-raml wa taqwïm de Gayango, Pascual, 63 branches of, 139,140,162
al-ashkäl, 176 n . 9 Gayet, A l b e r t circles, 133
o n mechanics, 177 n . 19 L'art arabe, 62, 63, 76, 86 n . 69 classical influence o n
on music, 2 0 8 - 9 o n n o m a d i c tents, 84 n . 13 A l e x a n d r i a n , 131-33,139,140,155,158,159
a l - F a r a h i d i , K h a l i l b . A h m a d (a.k.a. F a r h u d i , e i g h t h - o n s p i r i t u a l i s m o f I s l a m i c a r t , 84 n n . 7 - 9 B a b y l o n i a n , 159
c e n t u r y A r a b p r o s o d i s t ) , 206 gaz, 56 n . 108 Greek, 138,152,155
Farhad (legendary s c u l p t o r ) , 155 g e o m e t r i c a b s t r a c t i o n . See also arabesque; g e o m e t r i c R o m a n o - B y z a n t i n e , 139-41,154,155-56
a l - F a r h u d i . See al-Farahadi patterning c o n i c sections, 141,145,177 n . 34
a l - F a r u q i , I s m a i l , 7 5 - 7 6 , 79
c a n d d i v i n e c r e a t i o n , 192 a n d cosmology, 133,163
F a t e h p u r S i k r i , M u g h a l palace c o m p l e x ( I n d i a ) , a n d the i n t e r n a l senses, 210 decline o f prestige of, 219
49 modes of, 210 d r a f t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , 138,141,145, 145-46,160,169,
F a t i m i d dynasty (909-1171), 62, 96,101 a n d N e o p l a t o n i s m , 192 170,177 n . 36
a n d the arabesque, 74, 91 p u r i t y of, 1 9 3 - 9 4 manuals, 153,158-59,167-75,176 n . 9 (see also A mäl
c

kufic c a l l i g r a p h y of, 107,125 n . 39, Geometric Concepts in Islamic Art (el-Said a n d P a r m a n ) , wa ashkäl; p a t t e r n b o o k s )
125 n . 50 80, 81, 86 n . 96, 209 a n o n y m o u s (Paris) m a n u s c r i p t , 167-68,176 n . 14,
resistance t o g e o m e t r i c m o d e i n , 101 g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n i n g . See also arabesque; g e o m e t r i c 178 n . 37,179 n . 104,179 n . 109,180 n . 113,
a n d S h i i s m , 101
c
a b s t r a c t i o n ; g r i d systems; islïmï; mathematics; 180 n . 115,180 n . 123
sign system of, 2 2 0 - 2 1 ornament, Islamic; star-and-polygon patterns b y a l - B u z j a n i , 133, 134~37> 139> 158, 1 6 7 - 6 8 , 1 7 0 ,
a n d vegetal patterns, 100 aesthetics of, 52,173-75,181 n . 132 176 n . 13,180 n . 1 2 9
386 INDEX

geometry (continued) m e t h o d s o f c o n s t r u c t i n g , 145 (see also geometry, Great M o s q u e (Damascus), 93

manuals (continued)
E u r o p e a n , 1 6 0 - 6 1 , 163,163-65,
b y al-Jazari, 145,150, 152,152
o n p r o p o r t i o n , 180 n . 129
manuals) Great M o s q u e (Isfahan), 99, 220
165 a n d m u l t i p l e v i e w p o i n t s , 166,175, 210 Great M o s q u e ( Q a i r a w a n ) , 93
o r i g i n s of, 93, 97,104,108,125 n . 39,170 Great Seljuq dynasty (1038-1194), 95,100
i n p o s t - M o n g o l p e r i o d , 102,111-19 and Ash ari Sunnism, 9 6 - 9 7
c

tables i n , 1 6 8 - 6 9 , 1 7 6 n . 13 as sign system, 122 a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f g e o m e t r i c style, 91, 99

b y T h a b i t b . Q u r r a , 141, 142-44,177 n . 18 a n d s u b j e c t i v i t y , 122 G r e c o - R o m a n art, 64, 85 n . 33, 95, 96
as m e t a p h o r for d i v i n e u n i t y , 81,103 G o d , 108. See also I s l a m ; S h i i s m ; S u n n i s m ;
c
tawhïd Greek art. See G r e c o - R o m a n art
a n d metaphysics, 191,193, 224 n . 55 a n d a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m , 95, 96,124 n . 12 g r i d systems, 27, 56 n . 108, 6 9 - 7 0 , 9 2 - 9 3 - See also
a n d m e t h o d s o f c o n s t r u c t i n g figures, 138, 147-50,165, a n d the a r g u m e n t f r o m design, 4, 97,116-17 geometric patterning; star-and-polygon pattern
173,177 n . 18 beauty of, 193 a n d b r i c k , 49, 56 n . 105
and nature, 162-63,164 a n d c r e a t i o n , 124 n . 32,175,192 a n d calligraphy, 49
and purity, 103-4,190-91,193 o m n i p o t e n c e of, 96, 97,192 a n d islimi, 50
ratios, 170,188 transcendence of, 95,187 as nets or lattices, 71
uses of, 132-33,176 n . 4 Goethe, Johann W o l f g a n g v o n (1749-1832) r a d i a l , 13,19, 19-20, 27, 49, 55 n . 63,103,112
G e r a r d o f C r e m o n a (1114-1182), 161,162 West-Ostlicher Divan, 75 semisquare, 13
a l - G h a r i d ( d . circa 716-717), 197 G o l o m b e k , Lisa, 32, 50, 56 n . 102, 353 square, 13,112, 231-32
al-Ghazali, M u h a m m a d (1058-1111), 96,104, 117 o n a n o n y m o u s (Paris) m a n u s c r i p t , 169 i n T o p k a p i s c r o l l , 31-32
o n aesthetics, 192-93 o n g e o m e t r y i n T i m u r i d a r c h i t e c t u r e , 41, 226 n . 124 t r i a n g u l a r , 13, 232-33
a n d A s h a r i S u n n i s m , 97,101
c
G o m b r i c h , Ernst H . Grosseteste, R o b e r t (1175-1253), 162,194
o n G o d , 4, 97,192,193 Sense of Order, 19, 55 n . 49, 82 g r o u n d plans
Ihya c
ulüm al-dïn, 192 Gómez-Moreno, Manuel a n d e l e v a t i o n , 45
o n the i n t e r n a l senses, 199, 201 El lazo: Decoración geométrica musulmana, 70 grid-based, 7, 44 (see also g r i d systems)
Kimyä-i sa ädat,
c
192 The Gothic: Literary Sources and Interpretations through method of drawing, 3
Mishkät al-Anwär, 119-20 Eight Centuries ( F r a n k l ) , 186 and p r o p o r t i o n , 4 3 - 4 4
o n prophecy, 199 Gothic architecture, 41-42 Gruppentheoretische und strukturanalytische Unter-
Ghazan K h a n ( I l k h a n i d r u l e r , r. 1295-1304), 4 d r a f t i n g m e t h o d s i n , 43 suchungen der Maurischen Ornamente aus der
G h a z n a v i d dynasty (977-1186), 100 a n d d r a w i n g s , 56 n . 91 Alhambra in Granada ( M ü l l e r ) , 70, 85 n . 50
G h i b e r t i , L o r e n z o (1378-1455) a n d geometry, 4 2 - 4 3 , 1 1 6 , 1 6 2 - 6 3 G u e n o n , R e n é (1886-1951), 7 7 - 7 8
Commentarii, 166 g r o u n d plans for, 48, 57 n . 122 G u n b a d - i Q a b u d ( M a r a g h a ) , 99
Ghiyath al-Din (fourteenth-century Ilkhanid amir), 4 p a t t e r n b o o k s f o r , 42, 43, 45, 48, 57 n . 121 G u n b a d - i S u r k h ( M a r a g h a ) , 99
G h u l a m b . M u h a m m a d A l i (designer o f a Qajar p a t t e r n
c
a n d secrecy o f masons, 57 n . 119 G u n d i s a l v o , D o m i n g o . See G u n d i s s a l i n u s , D o m i n i c u s
scroll, circa 1800), 21, 21 a n d T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n a r c h i t e c t u r e , 43 G u n d i s s a l i n u s , D o m i n i c u s (a.k.a. D o m i n g o G u n d i s a l v o ,
G h u r i d dynasty (circa 1000-1215), 100 vault p r o j e c t i o n i n , 48 t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y a u t h o r i n S p a i n ) , 179 n . 89
G i b b , Elias John W i l k i n s o n , 214, 226 n . 118 Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism (Panofsky), De ortu scientiarum, 162
G i r a u l t de Prangey, P h i l i b e r t Joseph 122 G u r g a n j , 168
Choix d'ornements moresques de VAlhamhra, 63 G o u r m o n t , Jean ( a u t h o r o f s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a t t e r n G u r - i M i r ( S a m a r q a n d ) , 50, 56 n . 77
Essai sur l'architecture des arabes et des mores en b o o k ) , 84 n . 2
Espagne, en Sicile, et en Barbarie, 63 G o u r y , Jules
Monuments arabes d'Egypte, 62 Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra, H
girih, 9, 9 2 - 9 3 , 1 3 2 . See also g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n i n g ; star- H a f i z ( d . 1390), 120
63
and-polygon patterns Haft Paykar ( N i z a m i o f Ganja), 155,178 n . 62
Grabar, O l e g
abstractness of, 166 H a g i a Sophia ( I s t a n b u l ) , 139
o n the A l h a m b r a , 102,118-19
aesthetics of, 173-75,181 n . 132,194, 2 0 3 - 4 {see also H a k i m ' s B a t h , i n F a t e h p u r S i k r i ( I n d i a ) , 49
The Formation of Islamic Art, 75
aesthetics) H a m l i n , A l f r e d D w i g h t Foster
Islamic Architecture and Its Decoration, 73
a n d classification o f patterns, 70 A History of Ornament, Ancient and Medieval, 70
The Mediation of Ornament, x i , 8 2 - 8 3 , 224 n . 42
c o m p l e x i t y of, 215 H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n , 97
o n the m u q a r n a s , 180 n . 127, 349
c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y of, 206 H a n b a l i t r a d i t i o n , 97
p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , 83
c o s m o l o g i c a l associations of, 118 A Handbook of Ornament ( M e y e r ) , 70
o n the W o r l d o f I s l a m festival, 80, 82
decline of, 114 Handbook of Regular Patterns (Stevens), 71
The Grammar of Ornament (Jones), 6 3 - 6 4 , 84 n . 16
i m p r o v i s a t i o n i n , 209 Handbuch der Ornamentik ( M e y e r ) , 70
Great I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x h i b i t i o n o f 1851 ( L o n d o n ) , 63
m a n u a l for d r a w i n g , 133,138 H a n k i n , Ernst H a n b u r y , 49
Great M o s q u e ( A l e p p o ) , 100,102,173
 I N D E X 387

H a r b , U l r i c h , 350 I b n a l - A m i d ( d . 971), 157-58

c
I b r a h i m b . Sinan ( 9 0 9 - 9 4 6 ) , 141,177 n . 34
Harmonices Mundi ( K e p l e r ) , 163,163-64,179 n . 93 I b n a l - A r a b i (1165-1240), 108
c
I b r a h i m Pasha Palace (early sixteenth century, I s t a n b u l ) ,
H a r r a n , 131,159 I b n al-Bawwab ( d . 1022), 188 119
H a r u n al-Rashid ( A b b a s i d c a l i p h , r. 7 8 6 - 8 0 9 ) , 131 K o r a n , 104, 106 Ihsa al- ulüm
c
( a l - F a r a b i ) , 132; 139
Hassan 11 ( k i n g o f M o r o c c o , 1 9 2 9 - ) , 23 I b n B i b i ( t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Seljuq h i s t o r i a n ) , 4,120 Ihya c
ulüm al-din ( a l - G h a z a l i ) , 192
Hay, D a v i d Ramsay I b n H a n b a i , A h m a d ( d . 855), 96 I k h w a n al-Safa'. See B r e t h r e n o f P u r i t y
Original Geometrical Diaper Designs, 69 I b n a l - H a y t h a m (a.k.a. A l h a z e n , 9 6 5 - 1 0 3 9 ) , 140,145,154, I l k h a n i d dynasty (1256-1336), 38,102,111
H e l l e n i s t i c art. See G r e c o - R o m a n art 156, 204 b r i c k m a s o n r y of, 12
H e r b e r t , R o b e r t L . , 226 n . 109 o n conic sections, 177 n . 34,178 n . 37 K o r a n s of, 107
H e r o o f A l e x a n d r i a ( f i r s t - c e n t u r y scientist), 139 De aspectibus, 166 paper, use of, 4
Kamarika, 158 Kitäb al-abniya wa al- uqüd,
c
141 p l a s t e r w o r k of, 4,10
H e r z f e l d , Ernst, 74, 91, 95 Kitäb al-manäzir, 1 6 6 , 1 8 9 - 9 0 , 201, 203 I l l u m i n a t i o n , 50
o n Baghdad, 99 o n m e n s u r a t i o n , 158 a n d i n t e r n a l senses, 2 0 5 - 6
o n the vegetal o r n a m e n t , 102 Perspectiva, 166 modes of, 210
Hessemer, F r i e d r i c h M a x i m i l i a n I b n H a z m ( 9 9 4 - 1 0 6 4 ) , 187 n a t u r a l i s m i n , 218
Arabische und alt-Italienische Bau-Verzierungen, I b n I r a q , A b u Nasr M a n s u r b . A l i ( f l . 1000), 168,169
c c
Illustrations of Indian Architectural Decorative Work for
84 n . 14 I b n Jubayr ( b . 1145), 102,173,180 n . 128 the Use of Art Schools and Craftsmen, 66
Hibbür ha-meshthah (Bar H i y y a ) , 161 I b n K h a l d u n (1332-1406)
c
ilm al- uqüdc
al-abniya, 140
a l - H i j a z i , A h m a d b . A b d A l l a h ( f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y poet
c
o n aesthetics, 174,193 I m a m D u r , m a u s o l e u m o f (Samarra), 107,120, 349
a n d c a l l i g r a p h e r ) , 212-13 on architecture, 6 I m a m Riza, shrine c o m p l e x o f ( M a s h h a d ) , 37
H i l l , Derek o n c o n s t r u c t i o n techniques, 180 n . 130 i m p e r i a l a r c h i t e c t u r e , 4, 6, 56 n . 80, 217, 220
Islamic Architecture and Its Decoration, 73 o n crafts, 199, 208, 221 I m p e r i a l I r a n i a n A c a d e m y o f P h i l o s o p h y ( T e h r a n ) , 82
H i l l e n b r a n d , R o b e r t , 41 o n geometry, 1 0 3 - 4 , 140, 141,152,191 Inbät al-miyäh al-khafïya ( a l - K a r a j i ) , 177 n . 27
H i s p a n o - M o r e s q u e style, 23 o n h u m a n s vs. animals, 198 I n d i a n style, 64
Historic Ornament ( W a r d ) , 66 o n m e n s u r a t i o n , 178 n . 72 i n s c r i p t i o n . See c a l l i g r a p h y
A History of Ornament, Ancient and Medieval (Hamlin), o n p a t r o n a g e o f the arts, 221 I n s t i t u t e o f O r i e n t a l Studies, A c a d e m y o f Sciences
70 o n poetry, 206, 208 ( T a s h k e n t ) , 7, 9
hiyal, 139,174 o n theology, 97,101,108 International Journal of Middle East Studies, xiii
H o d g s o n , M a r s h a l l , 120, 212 I b n M a n ' a . See K a m a l a l - D i n M u s a b . Y u n u s
c
Iqd al-farid ( I b n A b d R a b b i h ) , 224 n . 12
c

H o e c h , H a n s ( f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n a u t h o r ) , 164 I b n M i s k a w a y h ( d . 1030), 157-58 Iran

H o l y Sepulcher c h u r c h (Jerusalem), 220 Tadhtb al-akhläq, 3 arch-net vaults of, 10
h o n e y c o m b m o t i f . See m u q a r n a s I b n M u q l a ( 8 8 6 - 9 4 0 ) , 104,188, 197 b r i c k a n d tile c o n s t r u c t i o n i n , 22, 34, 97
H o u s e o f W i s d o m ( B a g h d a d ) , 131,132 I b n a l - N a d i m ( t e n t h - c e n t u r y b o o k s e l l e r ) , 124 n . 9, c a l l i g r a p h y i n , 37
H u g h o f St. V i c t o r (1096-1141) 176 n . 13 s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n s of, 55 n . 63
Didascalion, 162 Fihrist, 131 use o f paper i n , 4
a l - H u j w i r i ( d . 1070s), 125 n . 32 I b n Q u t a y b a ( 8 2 5 - 8 8 9 ) , 157 use o f plaster i n , 4
Humäyünnäma ( K h w a n d a m i r ) , 126 n . 83 I b n Rashiq (1000-1063/1064 o r 1070/1071), 191 I r a q , 22
H u n a y n b . Ishaq ( d . 877), 132 I b n R u s h d (a.k.a. Averroes, 1126-1198), 103 Irshäd al-qäsid ilä asna' al-maqäsid fï anwä c
al-ulüm
H u n t e r College ( N e w York C i t y ) , 85 n . 52 I b n Rusta ( t e n t h - c e n t u r y geographer-historian), ( I b n a l - A k f a n i ) , 140
124 n . 32 Isfahan, 6, 22
I b n Sina (a.k.a. A v i c e n n a , 9 8 0 - 1 0 3 7 ) , 117,168,187,191 al-Isfizari ( t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y a s t r o n o m e r - m a t h e m a t i c i a n -
i e m a n a t i o n i s m of, 119,192 p h i l o s o p h e r ) , 140
I b n A b b a d ( d . 995), 157
c
o n h u m a n s vs. animals, 198 Isidorus o f Miletus (sixth-century Byzantine architect),
I b n Abbas (a.k.a. A b d A l l a h b . al- Abbas, 6 1 9 - 6 8 6 / 6 8 8 )
c c c
o n the i n t e r n a l senses, 199 139,156,158
124 n . 12 Kitäb al-Shifa, 224 n . 12 I s l a m , 96. See also G o d ; S h i i s m ; Sufism; S u n n i s m
c

I b n A b d R a b b i h ( 8 6 0 - 940)
c
o n p e r c e p t i o n , 210 a n d e m a n a t i o n , 187
c
Iqd al-farid, 224 n . 12 o n poetry, 213, 226 n . 112 a n d the i n t e r n a l senses, 198
I b n A b d u n (early t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y w r i t e r o f a hisba
c
o n w o n d e r , 214 l i g h t , 119-20
m a n u a l i n Seville), 161-62 I b n T a y m i y y a (1263-1328), 108,117 M u h a m m a d , 197
I b n a l - A k f a n i ( d . 1348), 141 I b n T u l u n , m o s q u e o f ( C a i r o ) , 3, 91 M u t a z i l i s m , 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 4 n . 9,187
c

Irshäd al-qäsid ilä asna al-maqäsid fï anwä c

al-ulüm, I b n T u m a r t ( A l m o h a d r u l e r , d . 1130), 101 tawhid, 76-77, 79, 80, 81, 86 n . 90,108
140 I b n Z a m r a k (1333-1393), 118-19,125 n . 65 T w e l v e r S h i i s m , 77,109
c
388 INDEX

islämt. See islïmï K a n b u , M u h a m m a d Salih ( M u g h a l c o u r t h i s t o r i a n ) , 219 Kitäb al-Shifa ( I b n Sina), 224 n . 12

Islamic Architecture and Its Decoration ( H i l l and K a n d i n s k y , Wassily (1866-1944), 210 Kitäb bugyat al-ämäl fïsinä at c
al-raml wa taqwïm
G r a b a r ) , 73 a l - K a r a j i ( d . circa 1019-1020), 140,154,156 al-ashkäl ( a l - F a r a b i ) , 176 n . 9
Islamic Patterns ( C r i t c h l o w ) , 8 1 - 8 2 , 87 n . 99 Inbät al-miyäh al-khafïya, 177 n . 27 Kitäb fï ma rifat c
al-hiyal al-handasïyah (al-Jazari), 141,
Islamic Science ( N a s r ) , 80, 81 Kitäb uqüd c
al-abniya, 141 145,150, 15h 152,174
islïmï, 12, 85 n . 33,114 o n m e n s u r a t i o n , 158 Kitäb fïmayahtäju ilayhi al-säni c
min a mäl c
al-handasa
a n d g r i d systems, 50 kär-bandt. See s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n s ( a l - B u z j a n i ) , 123,133, 134-37» 138, 1 6 7 - 6 8 , 1 7 0 ,
i n M o r o c c o , 23 a l - K a s h i , G h i y a t h a l - D i n Jamshid M a s ' u d ( d . 1429), 32 176 n . 13
i n n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls, 15 Miftäh al-hisäb, 4 4 , 1 5 9 - 6 0 , 1 7 9 n . 79, 350, 353, 359 Kitäb fï misähat al-mujassamät al-mukafïya (Thabit b.
i n Tashkent scrolls, 9,13 o n m u q a r n a s , 173 Qurra), 142-44
I s m a i l i (Safavid shah, r. 1501-1524), 38
c
al-Kashi, Mawlana M u i n u d d i n ( T i m u r i d astronomer
c
kitäbkhäna. See s c r i p t o r i a
I s t a n b u l , 221 a n d m a t h e m a t i c i a n ) , 121,156 Kitäb ma rifa c
al-dawair min al-falak ( a l - B u z j a n i ) , 133
I s t a n b u l observatory, 201, 202 K e m p , M a r t i n , 165-66 Kitäb uqüd
c
al-abniya ( a l - K a r a j i ) , 141
I z n i k ceramic tile revetments, 114, 115, 219 Kepler, Johannes K i z i l Medrese (Sivas), 181 n . 132
Harmonices Mundi, 163, 163-64,179 n . 93 k n o t w o r k . See girih
K h a n o f B i t l i s ( s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r u l e r ) , 54 n . 12 k n o w l e d g e , h i e r a r c h y of, 191, 224 n . 36
J K h a r r a q a n , 99, 99 K o m a r o f f , L i n d a , 159
al-Jahiz, A b u U t h m a n ( n i n t h - c e n t u r y A b b a s i d a u t h o r ) ,
c al-khatt al-mansüb. See calligraphy, p r o p o r t i o n e d script Koran
38 K h a w a r n a q castle ( I r a q ) , 178 n . 62 absence o f f i g u r a i r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n m a n u s c r i p t s of,
Jalayirid dynasty (1336-1432), 5 K h a y r A l l a h (son o f M u g h a l architect U s t a d A h m a d 92
Jami, A b d a l - R a h m a n (1414-1492), 121,155, 215
c L a h o r i , seventeenth c e n t u r y ) , 155,156 a n d a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m , 95
Al-Durrah al-fäkhirah, 126 n . 80 Khusraw wa Shïrïn ( N i z a m i o f Ganja), 155 a n d calligraphy, 104, 106,107,125 n . 39
al-Jazari, I s m a i l b . al-Razzaz ( t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
c K h w a j a A l i A r i z a g a r ( f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a r t i s t ) , 205
c
a n d cosmology, 119
mechanical engineer) K h w a n d a m i r , Ghiyath a l - D i n (fifteenth-century T i m u r i d a n d d i v i n e c r e a t i o n , 124 n . 32,175,192
o n d r a f t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , 177 n . 36 h i s t o r i a n ) , 56 n . 82,120, 205 I b n al-Bawwab K o r a n , 104, 106,107
Kitäb fï ma rifat c
al-hiyal al-handasïyah, 141, 145,150, Humäyünnäma, 126 n . 83 L i g h t Verse, 119
151,152,174 al-Khwarezmi, M u h a m m a d b. Musa (ninth-century seven heavens, 118
John the Syncellus ( B y z a n t i n e ambassador t o the Baghdadi a s t r o n o m e r a n d m a t h e m a t i c i a n ) , 156-57 tawhïd i n , 79
Abbasid court), 3 Mafatïh al- ulüm,
c
177 n . 23 theories o f the created vs. u n c r e a t e d n a t u r e of, 96,
Jones, O w e n , 74 Khwarezm-Shahs (995-1017), 168, 169 97,103,107,108
o n a p p r o x i m a t i o n m e t h o d , 171 Kimyä-i sa ädat
c
( a l - G h a z a l i ) , 192 Kostof, S p i r o , 42,179 n . 83, 224 n . 55
Designs for Mosaic and Tessellated Pavements, 64, 65 a l - K i n d i ( d . circa 866) Krasnova, S. A . , 168
"Designs for M o s a i c Tiles," 64, 65 Risäla fïal-sabab alladhï lahü nasabat al-qudama K u b a d a b a d Palace (Beysehir), 4,120
o n g e o m e t r i c patterns i n the A l h a m b r a , 64,122 al-ashkäl al-khamsa ilä al-ustuqusät, 133 Kubesov, A u d a n b e k , 177 n . 15
The Grammar of Ornament, 6 3 - 6 4 , 84 n . 16 Risäla fï misähat iwän, 158 kufic calligraphy. See calligraphy, kufic
Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Risäla fï qismat al-daira thaläthat aqsäm, 177 n . 18 K u h n , Jehane R., 1 6 5 - 6 6
Alhambra, 63 Risäla fï taqrïb qaul Arshimïdis fï qadr qutr al-daira K ü h n e l , Ernst
al-Jurjani ( d . 1078), 189, 205, 226 n . 114 min muhïtha, 177 n . 18 Die Arabeske (translated i n t o E n g l i s h as The
Jurjir m o s q u e (Isfahan), 97 Risäla fï taqrïb watar al-daira, 177 n . 18 Arabesque: Meaning and Transformation of an
Risäla fï taqrïb watar al-tis , c
177 n . 18 Ornament), 74-75, 81,102,124 n . 7
Risäla taqsim al-muthallath wa al-murabba c
wa kutubkhäna. See s c r i p t o r i a
K c
amalihimä, 177 n . 18
K a b a ( M e c c a ) , 194
c
Kitäb al-abniya wa al- uqüd
c
( I b n a l - H a y t h a m ) , 141
Kaempfer, Engelbert ( s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y traveler i n Kitäb al-ahya wa al-athär (Rashid a l - D i n ) , 177 n . 28 L
Safavid I r a n ) , 6 Kitäb al-hayawän ( A b u U t h m a n A m r b . Bahr al-Jahiz),
c c
La décoration arabe (Prisse d'Avennes), 62
käghaz. See paper 56 n . 83 L a h o r i , A b d a l - H a m i d ( d . 1654/1655), 6
c

K a l i m , A b u T a l i b , o f Kashan ( d . 1651), 218, 219 Kitäb al-hiyal al-rühäniya wa al-asrär al-tabï ïyafï
c
L a h o r i , U s t a d A h m a d ( d . 1649), 155, 205
K a m a l a l - D i n A b u al-Hasan al-Farisi ( d . circa 1320), 167 daqä'iq al-ashkäl al-handasïya ( a t t r i b u t e d to L'art arabe (Gayet), 62, 63, 76, 86 n . 69
Tanqth al-manäzir, 201 a l - F a r a b i ) , 176 n . 9 L'art arabe d'après les monuments du Kaire (Prisse
K a m a l a l - D i n M u s a b . Y u n u s (a.k.a. I b n M a n ' a , Kitäb al-manäzil fïma yahtäju ilayhi al-kuttäb wa d'Avennes), 62, 68, 84 n . 28
1156-1242), 167-68,176 n . 13 al- ummäl
c
min ilm al-hisäb
c
( a l - B u z j a n i ) , 157 L'art de l'Asie-centrale ( S i m a k o v ) , 66, 70
Kamarika ( H e r o ) , 158 Kitäb al-manäzir ( I b n a l - H a y t h a m ) , 1 6 6 , 1 8 9 - 9 0 , 201, 203 L a s h k a r i Bazar ( B u s t ) , 100
 I N D E X 389

Lautensack, Hans ( f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n a u t h o r ) , M a k o v i c k y , E m i l , 85 n . 52 m a t h e m a t i c s . See also a r i t h m e t i c ; g e o m e t r y

164 M a k o v i c k y , M i l o t a , 85 n . 52 a n d aesthetics, 191
Le Maroc et Vartisanat traditionnel islamique dans M a m e d o v , K h . S., 85 n . 52 algebra, 1 5 6 - 5 7 , 1 5 8 - 5 9 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 0 - 7 1 , 1 8 0 n . 120
Varchitecture (Paccard), 23, 55 n n . 6 0 - 6 2 , 1 0 2 M a m l u k dynasty (1250-1517), 100,107,111 e d u c a t i o n , I s l a m i c art used i n , 85 n . 52
L e n i n g r a d A c a d e m y o f Sciences, 9 a l - M a ' m u n ( A b b a s i d c a l i p h , r. 813-833), 131,132 fields of, 132-133
Lentz, T h o m a s W . , 215, 217 a l - M a n s u r ( A b b a s i d c a l i p h , r. 7 5 4 - 7 7 5 ) » 3 Greek texts translated i n t o A r a b i c , 131-32,138,161
L e o n a r d o da V i n c i (1452-1519), 166 m a p o f the I s l a m i c w o r l d , 361 a n d geometric patterns, 6 8 - 6 9 , 7 0 - 7 1 , 92,125 n . 35,
L e o n a r d o o f Pisa. See F i b o n a c c i , L e o n a r d o maqäm. See m u s i c , modes i n 174
Les arts arabes ( B o u r g o i n ) , 66, 67, 68, 84 n . 26, 85 n . 35 Maqäsid al-alhän ( A b d al-Qadir b. Ghaybi al-Hafiz
c
g r o u p theory, 71, 85 n . 54
Les éléments de Vart arabe ( B o u r g o i n ) , 66, 67, 69, 69, 84 a l - M a r a g h i ) , 195 h a r m o n i c p r o p o r t i o n s , 43,138
n . 28, 84 n . 33 al-Maqdisi (tenth-century author from Balkh) h i s t o r y of, 167
Liber embadorum (Bar H i y y a ) , 161 o n a r g u m e n t f r o m design, 4 a n d metaphysics, 186
Liber mensurationum ( A b u B a k r ) , 158-59,161 M a r a g h a , 99 planar a n d spatial geometry, 13, 22, 27, 43
light M a r a g h a observatory, 200, 201 p o p u l a r i z a t i o n of, 123,132
a n d aesthetics, 189,190, 215 M a r c á i s , Georges, 75,124 n . 7 s y m m e t r y , 71, 85 n n . 5 0 - 5 2 (see also c r y s t a l l o g r a p h y )
religious significance of, 119-20 M a r k , R o b e r t , 57 n . 122 t i l i n g s a n d patterns, 71
literary criticism Martel Matisse, H e n r i - E m i l e - B e n o î t (1869-1954), 181 n . 136
aesthetics of, 185, 213 Encyclopédie universelle d'ornements, 63 M a t t h i a s C o r v i n u s ( 1 4 4 0 - 1 4 9 0 ) , 140
i n n o v a t i o n a n d i m i t a t i o n i n , 218 M a s h h a d i , M i r Sayyid A h m a d ( s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y M a t u r i d i school, 97,103
a n d p r o p o r t i o n , 189 Safavid a u t h o r ) , 112,114,117, 205 mechanics, 177 n . 20,177 n . 23
Loeb, A r t h u r L . , 169,180 n . 115 M a s j i d o f A m i r K h i z r s h a h (Yazd), 56 n . 77 a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e , 139,154-55
L o k m a n b . Seyyid H ü s e y i n (late s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y M a s j i d - i J a m i ( H e r a t ) , 217
c
manuals, 150
Ottoman court historian) M a s j i d - i J a m i (Isfahan), 37, 37
c
status of, 1 6 2 , 1 9 8 - 9 9
Shahanshähnäma, 202 M a s j i d - i J a m i ( S a m a r q a n d ) , 50, 51
c
The Mediation of Ornament (Grabar), x i , 82-83,
Surname, 125 n . 67,154 M a s j i d - i J a m i ( V a r a m i n ) , 35, 35
c
224 n . 42
L ó p e z de Arenas, D i e g o (seventeenth-century Spanish M a s j i d - i J a m i (Varzana), 34, 34, 37, 37
c
M e d i n a , 220
master carpenter a n d a r c h i t e c t ) , 174 M a s j i d - i J a m i (Yazd), 35, 35
c
M e h m e d A g h a (seventeenth-century O t t o m a n c h i e f
Breve compendio de la carpintería de lo blanco y M a s j i d - i J a m i o f Gawhar Shad ( M a s h h a d ) , 37, 37
c
c o u r t a r c h i t e c t ) , 117,152-53,154,174
tratado de alarifes, 23, 26, 27, 55 n . 5 9 , 1 6 0 - 6 1 M a s j i d - i M a y d a n - i Sang ( K a s h a n ) , 56 n . 77 M e h m e d Beg ( O t t o m a n c o u r t artist specializing i n the
Vornement polychrome ( R a c i n e t ) , 66 M a s j i d - i M u z a f f a r i y a ( T a b r i z ) , 32 girih m o d e ) , 125 n . 51
Losensky, Paul, 214-15, 218 M a s j i d - i Safid ( T u r b a t - i Jam), 49 M e h m e d 11 ( O t t o m a n sultan, r. 1444-1446 a n d
L o w r y , G l e n n D . , 215, 217 M a s j i d - i Shah (Isfahan), 113-14 1451-1481), 38, 39, 54 n . 12
Lukasheva, N . S., 70 masons, 4 5 - 4 6 Menelaus (Greek m a t h e m a t i c i a n ) , 152
L y d d a , 220 d r a f t i n g m e t h o d s of, 1 5 9 - 6 0 mensuration, 141,152,156,157,158-59,161,168
O t t o m a n , 154 D ü r e r o n , 164-65
M p a y m e n t of, 44 as a geometric science, 178 n . 72
M a b a d ( d . 743), 197
c
secrecy of, 14, 48, 57 n . 119 manuals, 173
Madden, Edward H . , 79-80 status of, 177 n . 24,179 n . 83 m e t a l w o r k , 84 n . 2
M a d e r - i Shah Madrasa (Isfahan), 56 n . 76 t r a i n i n g of, 1 3 2 - 3 3 » 139-40,153 Metaphysics ( A r i s t o t l e ) , 214
Mafàtïh al- ulüm
c
( a l - K h w a r e z m i ) , 177 n . 23 M a s s i g n o n , L o u i s , 75, 86 n . 64, 96 M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t ( N e w York C i t y ) , 85 n . 52
M a g h a k - i A t t a r i m o s q u e ( B u k h a r a ) , 100
c
master b u i l d e r s , 4 5 - 4 6 , 57 n . 131. See also architects; M e y e r , Franz Sales, Handbuch der Ornamentik, 70
M a g h r i b , 101, 221 B u k h a r a n master b u i l d e r ; engineers Miftäh al-hisäb ( G h i y a t h a l - D i n Jamshid M a s ' u d
revetments i n , 23,115 c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d s of, 46 a l - K a s h i ) , 4 4 , 1 5 9 - 6 0 , 350, 353, 359
s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n s i n , 27 d r a f t i n g m e t h o d s of, 1 9 - 2 0 , 43, 48 m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g . See p a i n t i n g , m i n i a t u r e
tile w o r k a n d w o o d w o r k i n , 27 p a t t e r n books used by, 23 M i r k h w a n d (1433-1498), 38
a l - M a h a n i , A b u A b d A l l a h M u h a m m a d b . Isa b .
c c
p a y m e n t of, 44 m i r r o r s , b u r n i n g , 177 n . 16
A h m a d (circa 8 2 5 - 8 8 8 ) , 177 n . 34 role of, 9» 22, 23, 43, 44, 50, 57 n . 127,177 n . 24 M i r z a A k b a r ( n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Qajar state a r c h i t e c t ) ,
Risäla fï al-nisba, 180 n . 129 scrolls used by, 9 14» 19
Risàlafï mushkil min amr al-nisba, 180 n . 129 secrecy of, 22, 23, 4 8 - 4 9 » 353 M i r z a A k b a r scrolls, 14, 14-20,19, 32, 55 n . 49, 86 n . 96
M a h d i , M u h s i n S., 198 M a s u d i ( G h a z n a v i d r u l e r , r. 1031-1041), 4,132
c

d r a f t i n g m e t h o d s i n , 171
M a h m u d ( G h a z n a v i d r u l e r , r. 9 9 8 - 1 0 3 0 ) , 124 n . 19 a l - M a s u d i ( d . 956), 96
c

elevations i n , 4 4 - 4 5
M a h m u d , M a w l a n a ( i l l u m i n a t o r ) , 212 mathematician-engineers, 178 n . 65 g r i d systems i n , 6 9 - 7 0
390 INDEX

Mishkät al-Anwär ( a l - G h a z a l i ) , 119-20 grid-based g r o u n d plans, 7 m u s i c , 152

models, a r c h i t e c t u r a l . See elevations, a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o n u m e n t s of, 49,114, 115 aesthetics of, 185,188,194, 195, 224 n . 12
m o d e r n i s m , 66, 73, 74 p o e t r y of, 218 a n d cosmology, 187,190-91,194, 209, 225 n . 105
m o d e r n scrolls. See M i r z a A k b a r scrolls; n i n e t e e n t h - a n d revetments of, 217-18 i m p r o v i s a t i o n i n , 209
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns of, 114-15 a n d the i n t e r n a l senses, 204
M o n d r i a n , Piet (1872-1944), 118, 210 tessellated stone mosaics of, 114-15 modes i n , 209, 225 n . 105
Mongols M u h a m m a d , the p r o p h e t , 197 N e o p l a t o n i c t r a d i t i o n of, 209
A n a t o l i a i n v a d e d by, 102 M u h a m m a d b . M u s a b . Shakir. See B a n u M u s a p s y c h o l o g i c a l effects of, 208
Baghdad sacked by, 102,108 brothers r h y t h m types, 2 0 8 - 9
inexpensive paper i n t r o d u c e d by, 4 muhandis. See engineers status of, 199
m o n u m e n t s , 6, 97,107 a l - M u h a n d i s , A b u al-Fadl b . A b d a l - K a r i m ( d .
c
M u s l i m theology. See I s l a m
Abassid, 100 1202-1203), 152 M u s t a n s i r i y a madrasa ( B a g h d a d ) , 100
A l m o r a v i d , 101 M u h a n d i s , L u t f A l l a h (son o f seventeenth-century a l - M u s t a s i m i , Yaqut ( d . 1298-1299), 104
c

A y y u b i d , 67 M u g h a l architect U s t a d A h m a d L a h o r i ) , 155,156 a l - M u t a d i d ( A b b a s i d c a l i p h , r. 8 9 2 - 9 0 2 ) , 123

c

F a t i m i d , 100 a l - M u h t a d i ( A b b a s i d c a l i p h , r. 8 6 9 - 8 7 0 ) , 96 a l - M u ' t a m i n I b n H u d , Y u s u f ( H u d i d ruler, r. 1081-1085),

I r a n i a n , 38 mukarnas. See m u q a r n a s 132
M u g h a l , 49, 114, 115 M ü l a y i m , Selçuk, 99 a l - M u t a w a k k i l ( A b b a s i d c a l i p h , r. 8 4 7 - 8 6 1 ) , 96,132
O t t o m a n , 67 Müller, Edith M u t a z i l i s m , 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 4 n . 9,187
c

religious i n s c r i p t i o n s o n , 121,124 n . 19,125 n . 39 Gruppentheoretische und strukturanalytische Unter­ M u z a f f a r i d dynasty (1314-1393), 5

r e v e t m e n t replacement i n , 220 suchungen der Maurischen Ornamente aus der
Rum Seljuq, 100-101 Alhambra in Granada, 70, 85 n . 50
science o f b u i l d i n g , 140 M u ' m i n a K h a t u n (1186), m a u s o l e u m o f ( N a k h c h i v a n ) , N
Seljuq, 67, 99 99 N a b i (seventeenth- a n d early e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n , 32, 3 4 - 3 7 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1 , 214 O t t o m a n p o e t ) , 226 n . 129
M u q a d d a s i ( t e n t h - c e n t u r y a u t h o r ) , 220
U m a y y a d , 93,101 N a k h c h i v a n , 99
m u q a r n a s , 46, 3 4 9 - 5 9
Monuments arabes d'Egypte ( G i r a u l t de Prangey), 62 N a m a z g a h m o s q u e ( B u k h a r a ) , 100
c o n s t r u c t i o n of, 46, 47, 48, 57 n . 118,160,180 n . 130,
Monuments modernes de la Perse (Coste), 63 3 5 0 - 5 1 , 359 N a p o l e o n , 61
M o r e s q u e style, 64, 84 n . 26, 85 n . 35 a n d cosmology, 119-21 Naqqash, M a w l a n a H a j j i M u h a m m a d ( T i m u r i d p a i n t e r -
M o r o c c o , 102 d e f i n i t i o n and e t y m o l o g y of, 173, 3 4 9 - 5 0 d e c o r a t o r ) , 205
g r i d systems of, 27, 55 n . 63 d r a f t i n g techniques f o r , 351 al-Nasir l i - D i n A l l a h ( A b b a s i d c a l i p h , r. 1180-1225),
H i s p a n o - M o r e s q u e style, 23 elevations of, 353-57, 353-5$ 108-9
M a g h r i b i t r a d i t i o n , 23, 27 g e o m e t r y of, 350 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, 7 6 - 7 7 , 79, 82
m u q a r n a s i n , 24-25, 27, 55 n . 62, 57 n . 118 h a l f v a u l t , 25, 358 f o r e w o r d to Islamic Patterns, 82, 86 n . 97
p a t t e r n books of, 23, 27 M o r o c c a n , 24-25, 27, 55 n . 62 i n t r o d u c t i o n to Art of Islam, 80-81
revetments i n , 23 o r i g i n s of, 100,102, 107-8,173,180 n . 127, 349 Islamic Science, 80, 81
s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n s of, 24-25, 27 a n d p l a s t e r w o r k , 4, 5, 13-14, 33, 45, 55 n . 62, 57 n . 118 Nasr b. A l i ( d . 1012), 97
c

tile use i n , 23 i n Qajar I r a n , 19, 45 N a s r i d dynasty (1230-1492), 23,102,124 n . 27

w o o d w o r k i n , 23, 27 q u a r t e r v a u l t , 10, 10-11, 15, 24, 35/ Nasuh, Matrakçi (sixteenth-century O t t o m a n
mosaic t i l e , 33, 35, 35-36, 113-14 r a d i a l grids i n , 3 5 0 - 5 1 , 352 t o p o g r a p h i c p a i n t e r ) , 38
faience, 112 Shirazi, 3 2 , 1 2 0 - 2 1 , 353 N a w a ' i , M i r A l i Shir (1441-1501), 121,155, 215, 217
c

r e l i e f t i l i n g , 37, 37 Spanish, 26, 55 n . 59 N e f i (seventeenth- a n d early e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

c

vegetal a n d c a l l i g r a p h i c p a t t e r n s o n , 12,13, 50, 93 a n d s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns, 22 {see also star-and- O t t o m a n p o e t ) , 226 n . 129

m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l w o r k , 153 p o l y g o n patterns) Neoplatonism, 119-20,133,187,189,192
mouhendis. See engineers s t r u c t u r a l role of, 349 a n d aesthetics, 193
M o u l a y H a n d ( c o n t e m p o r a r y M o r o c c a n designer o f i n Tashkent scrolls, 4 8 - 4 9 a n d m u s i c , 209
a r c h i t e c t u r a l p a t t e r n s ) , 24, 27 i n T o p k a p i s c r o l l , 31, 32, 4 8 - 4 9 , 236-38 N i m a n , John, 85 n . 52
M u d e j a r style, 23,102 types of, 353 n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls, 1 4 - 2 7 ,
M u g h a l empire M u r a d i n ( O t t o m a n s u l t a n , r. I574~i595)> 174 55 n . 56. See also M i r z a A k b a r scrolls
architects or engineers i n , 155,158 M u r a d o v , Usta S h i r i n ( U z b e k master b u i l d e r ) , 46, 47, b r i c k m a s o n r y design i n , 20, 21, 21
c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y of, 219 48, 55 n . 45> 70 c a l l i g r a p h y i n , 37
drawings o n paper, 6 M u r p h y , James Cavanah c o l o r i n , 15
floral p a t t e r n s of, 113,114-15, 2 1 9 - 2 0 The Arabian Antiquities of Spain, 61 designs a n d pounces i n , 15,19
 I N D E X 391

E u r o p e a n influences o n , 15 o r n a m e n t , I s l a m i c , 6 1 - 7 1 , 7 3 - 8 3 . See also arabesque; m u s i c of, 225 n . 105

G h u l a m b . M u h a m m a d A l i scroll, 21, 21
c
geometric patterning p o e t r y of, 218, 226 n . 129
Qajar scrolls, 37 a b s t r a c t i o n i n , 62, 65, 6 6 - 6 7 , 75, 76 revetments of, 217-18
revetments i n , 22 a n d the arabesque, 74, 75 t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l models used i n , 57 n . 110
" R o l l o f Standard Patterns for G r o i n e d V a u l t i n g , " classical o r i g i n s of, 66 treasury c o l l e c t i o n of, 29, 38
14-15 a n d c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y , 217-18, 2 1 9 - 2 0 Ö z d u r a l , Alpay, 180 n . 115
" R o l l o f Standard Patterns for Tessellated W o r k , " 14 d e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n of, 6 2 - 6 3 , 7 4 - 8 3 , 84 n . 14,
secrecy about patterns i n , 22 85 n . 49
Shiraz scroll, 21-22, 21 a n d decorative n a t u r e o f I s l a m i c art, 67, 86 n . 58, 96 P
stellate arch-net vaults i n , 14-15 a n d design, 9,13 Paccard, A n d r é , 57 n . 118
N i z a m i A r u z i ( t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Persian p o e t ) , 208,
c
encyclopedias o f o r n a m e n t a l styles, 63, 66, 84 n . 14 Le Maroc et Y artisanat traditionnel islamique dans
225 n . 99 as essence o f I s l a m i c art, 64, 74, 76, 79 Varchitecture (translated i n t o English as Tradi­
N i z a m i o f Ganja (1140-1202), 120 E u r o p e a n l i t e r a t u r e o n , 6 1 - 7 1 , 84 n . 14 tional Islamic Craft in Moroccan Architecture), 23,
Haft Paykar, 155,178 n . 62 f e m i n i z a t i o n of, 6 7 - 6 8 55 n n . 6 0 - 6 2 , 1 0 2
o n the i n t e r n a l senses, 205 a n d figurai r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , 62, 65, 67, 84 n . 7 painting
Khusraw wa Shtrtn, 155 g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s i n , 62, 67, 70, 219 aesthetics of, 188
N o r m a n , Jane, 85 n . 52 g e o m e t r i c p r i n c i p l e s of, 66, 68 biographies o f painters, 212-13, 224 n . 3
N o r t h A f r i c a , 70,102,111 g e o m e t r i c , vegetal, a n d c a l l i g r a p h i c elements of, 66, a n d e m o t i o n a l response, 212, 226 n . 109
N o t k i n , Iosif, 55 n . 36, 350 85 n . 33 a n d the i n t e r n a l senses, 204, 2 0 5 - 6 , 210, 212
o n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f plaster m u q a r n a s , 46, 48 g r a m m a r of, 209 m i n i a t u r e , 50, 51, 76, 202, 218
o n Tashkent scrolls, 9 , 1 3 - 1 4 , 48, 49, 55 n . 36, 55 n . 45 as love, 224 n . 42 a n d optics, 166
N u r a l - D i n , m a u s o l e u m o f (Damascus), 100,120, 349 m a t h e m a t i c a l analysis o f p a t t e r n s i n , 6 8 - 6 9 , 7 0 - 7 1 status of, 199
N u r a l - D i n Z a n g i ( Z a n g i d r u l e r , r. 1146-1174), 100 m o d e r n a p p l i c a t i o n s of, 62, 6 3 - 6 4 , 66, 67, 69, 70 styles of, 112,125 n . 47
a l - N u w a y r i (1279-1332), 176 n . 3 a n d m u q a r n a s , 66 T u r k i s h painter's m a n u a l , 210, 212, 226 n . 109
a n d m y s t i c i s m , 84 n n . 8 - 9 Panofsky, E r w i n
n a t u r a l i s m i n , 219 Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism, 122
o p a t t e r n b o o k s for, 66, 84 n . 2 paper. See also drawings, o n paper
O c k h a m , W i l l i a m o f ( f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h Scho­ racial i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of, 62, 63, 66, 6 7 - 6 8 , 69 m a n u f a c t u r e of, 3
lastic p h i l o s o p h e r ) , 166 a n d r a t i o n a l West vs. s p i r i t u a l East, 66 M o n g o l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f inexpensive, 4
Office o f R o y a l A r c h i t e c t s (Vefa d i s t r i c t , I s t a n b u l ) , 29, 31 semiotics of, 217-23 vs. p a r c h m e n t , 5
O'Kane, Bernard styles of, 67 vs. plaster, 5,10
Timurid Architecture in Khurasan, x i , 178 n . 71 a n d Sufism, 79 a n d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f drawings, 5
O m a r K h a y y a m . See U m a r K h a y y a m
c
syntax of, 66, 69, 70 spread o f use of, 4 - 5
On Divisions of Figures ( E u c l i d ) , 138 a n d tawhid, 7 9 - 8 0 , 86 n n . 8 9 - 9 1 , 8 6 - 8 7 n n . 9 7 - 9 9 Pappus o f A l e x a n d r i a ( f l . circa A . D . 320), 139,140,161
optics. See I b n a l - H a y t h a m , Kitäb al-manäzir a n d theology, 63, 79, 86 n . 90 parchment, 5
Oresme, N i c o l e d ' ( f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y French p r e l a t e ) , transcendental beauty of, 62 P a r m a n , Ay§e
166 travelogues d e p i c t i n g , 6 1 - 6 2 Geometric Concepts in Islamic Art, 80, 81, 86 n . 96, 209
O r i e n t a l i s m , 61-71,102. See also o r n a m e n t , I s l a m i c a n d universal design p r i n c i p l e s , 64, 74, 75, 78, 83, Parvillée, L é o n
a n d the arabesque, 62, 7 3 - 7 4 (see also arabesque) 85 n . 49 Architecture et décoration turques, 63, 68
a n d d e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n , 81, 96 and Western iconographie t r a d i t i o n , 62-63 p a t t e r n b o o k s , 73,164. See also geometry, manuals
E u r o p e a n , 22, 6 1 - 7 1 , 84 n . 29 Ornamentstil (Speltz), 66 M o r o c c a n , 23, 27
a n d h i s t o r i c a l vs. t r a d i t i o n a l cultures, 77 O t t o m a n e m p i r e (1281-1924), 158 Pattern in Islamic Art ( W a d e ) , 82
a n d h o r r o r v a c u i , 74 conquest o f T a b r i z , 38 P a v ó n M a l d o n a d o , Basilio
a n d "otherness," 7 3 - 7 4 c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y i n , 160 El arte hispanomusulman en su decoración geométrica,
racial focus of, 62, 63 c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y of, 219 70
religious focus of, 62, 63, 74, 76, 8 0 - 8 1 , 84 n n . 7 - 9 , d r a w i n g s o n paper, 6, 6 - 7 , 7 Pax M o n g ó l i c a (1260-1368), 4,102
86-87 nn. 97-99 floral p a t t e r n s of, 113,114, 115, 219 Peckham, John ( t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h p r e l a t e ) , 166
travelogues, 6 1 - 6 2 g e o m e t r y i n , 153-54 Pedoe, D a n , 179 n . 96
a n d Western i c o n o g r a p h i e t r a d i t i o n , 6 2 - 6 3 , 83 grid-based g r o u n d plans, 7, 31 p e r c e p t i o n , v i s u a l . See v i s i o n
Original Geometrical Diaper Designs ( H a y ) , 69 I t a l i a n paper used i n , 31 "Perennial Values i n I s l a m i c A r t " ( B u r c k h a r d t ) , 78
" T h e O r i g i n s o f I s l a m i c A r t " ( G a i l a n i ) , 55 n . 51 masons i n , 154 Persian style, 64, 81. See also O r i e n t a l i s m
Ornament, 1830-1980 ( D u r a n t ) , 82 m o n u m e n t s of, 67 Perspectiva ( I b n a l - H a y t h a m ) , 166
392 INDEX

Peshawar, 219 o n m a t h e m a t i c a l analysis o f g e o m e t r i c patterns, 68 Rähät al-sudür wa äyat al-surür ( M u h a m m a d b. A l i b. c

Philagathos ( t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y m o n k ) , 120 Probst-Biraben Sulayman a l - R a w a n d i ) , 105,125 n . 36

Philebus ( P l a t o ) , 190, 224 n . 29 "Essai de p h i l o s o p h i e de l'arabesque," 76 R a h m a n , Fazlur, 224 n . 2
P h i l o (circa 13 B . C . - c i r c a A . D . 50), 139 Proclus ( 4 1 0 - 4 8 5 ) , 133, 224 n . 36 Rajput dynasties, 7
plans, a r c h i t e c t u r a l . See drawings; g r o u n d plans Elements of Theology, 187 palace o f ( J a i p u r ) , 8
Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra o n m a t h e m a t i c s , 191 Raqqa, 95
( G o u r y a n d O w e n s ) , 63 prophecy, 197,199 Rasa'il ( B r e t h r e n o f P u r i t y ) , 116-17,132,186-88,189
p l a s t e r w o r k . See also d r a w i n g s P r o p h e t ' s m o s q u e ( M e d i n a ) , 220 Rashid a l - D i n ( I l k h a n i d v i z i e r a n d h i s t o r i a n , 1267-1318),
a n d m u q a r n a s vaults, 4, 5 , 1 3 - 1 4 , 33, 45, 55 n . 62, p r o p o r t i o n , 224 n . 55 4,140
57 n.118 aesthetics of, 1 8 7 - 9 0 , 1 9 4 Kitäb al-ahya wa al-athär, 177 n . 28
a n d squared grids, 49 the circle as p r o p o r t i o n i n g device, 189,194 rasm. See drawings
T i m u r i d , 54 n . 18 a n d l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , 189 rasmt u tarhï. See drawings
Plato (circa 4 2 8 - 3 4 7 o r 348), 8 6 - 8 7 n n . 9 7 - 9 8 , 1 9 1 , p r o p o r t i o n e d script. See c a l l i g r a p h y al-Rawandi, M u h a m m a d b. A l i b. Sulayman c

224 n . 12 Prosperous house (Bayt a l - M a m u r ) , 194 c

( t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Seljuq h i s t o r i a n ) , 188-89
Philebus, 190, 224 n . 29 Ptolemy (second-century astronomer and mathe- Rähät al-sudür wa äyat al-surür, 105,125 n . 36
Symposium, 224 n . 42 matician) Red F o r t ( A g r a ) , 219
Theaetetus, 214 Almagest, 155, 176 n . 13 Red F o r t ( L a h o r e ) , 219
Timaeus, 133,163 Pugachenkova, G a l i n a , 9 r e l i g i o n . See C h r i s t i a n i t y ; G o d ; I s l a m ; K o r a n
Plato o f T i v o l i ( t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y t r a n s l a t o r ) , 161 o n g r o u n d plans, 56 n . 108, 56 n . 110 R e m p e l ' , Lazar
Plessner, M . , 178 n . 44 o n master b u i l d e r s , 57 n . 127,156 o n master b u i l d e r s , 156
Plotinus (205-270) Pythagoras (circa 5 8 0 - c i r c a 500 B . C . ) , 8 6 - 8 7 n n . 9 7 ~ 9 8 , o n Tashkent s c r o l l , 9 , 1 2 - 1 3
o n aesthetics, 188,197 152 Renaissance
Enneads, 187,194,197 m u s i c o f the spheres, 1 8 7 , 1 9 0 - 9 1 a r c h i t e c t u r e , 116, i54~55> 161
Theology of Aristotle ( a p o c r y p h a l ) , 187 n a t u r a l i s m i n p a i n t i n g , 166
poetry perspective i n , 4 3 , 1 6 5 - 6 6 , 210
a n d c o m p l e x i t y , 215 Q revetments, 100-101,102
a n d d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n , 218 a l - Q a d i r ( A b b a s i d c a l i p h , r. 991-1031), 96 a n d c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y , 220, 221
a n d i m a g i n a t i v e c r e a t i v i t y , 213-14 Qajar dynasty (1779-1924), 7,19 a n d i m p e r i a l style, 217, 220
i m i t a t i o n a l , 206, 214, 226 n . 118 m u q a r n a s c o n s t r u c t i o n , 46 I z n i k ceramic tiles, 114,115, 219
I n d i a n , 218, 226 n . 128 revetments i n , 115 i n M o r o c c o , 23, 217
i n n o v a t i o n a n d i m i t a t i o n i n , 218 s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n s i n , 22 i n n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls, 22
a n d the i n t e r n a l senses, 205 w o r k s h o p practices of, 45 replaced i n m o n u m e n t s , 220
meters i n , 206 al-Qajini, al-Hakim A b u M u h a m m a d al- Adli c i n T i m u r i d a r c h i t e c t u r e , 41
a n d m i m e s i s , 213 ( g e o m e t e r ) , 140,177 n . 24 U m a y y a d , 220
M u g h a l , 218 a l - Q a l q a s h a n d i (1355-1418), 1 4 0 , 1 8 8 - 8 9 The Rhetoric of Purity ( C h e e t h a m ) , 210, 212
o r i g i n a l i t y i n , 218 Qänün al-suwar (Sadiqi B e k ) , 112, 2 0 5 - 6 , 218 Riegl, A l o i s , 84 n . 23,102
O t t o m a n , 218, 226 n . 129 Q a r a k h a n i d m a u s o l e u m ( U z g e n d ) , 97, 98, 99 Stilfragen, 6 4 - 6 5 , 91
Safavid, 218 Q a r a q o y u n l u dynasty (1380-1468), 38 Risäla ft al-nisab wa al-ta rtfät
c
( a l - B u z j a n i ) , 180 n . 129
status of, 214 Q a r a w i y y i n m o s q u e (Fez), 101 Risäla ft al-nisba ( a l - M a h a n i ) , 180 n . 129
s t r u c t u r a l m o l d s i n , 206, 208, 209, 211-12 qarbasa, 173 Risäla ft al-sabab alladht lahü nasabat al-qudamä'
a n d w o n d e r , 213, 226 n . 116 a l - Q a r t a j a n n i (1211-1285), 213 al-ashkäl al-khamsa ilä al-ustuqusät ( a l - K i n d i ) , 133
Pope, A r t h u r U p h a m , 99,111 Q a w a m a l - D i n Shirazi, U s t a d (1410-1438), 5, 43, 50, Risäla ft khawäss al-qubba al-zä'ida wa al-mukäfiya
o n Safavid floral p a t t e r n s , 113 54 n . 18, 56 n . 102,155,156 ( a l - S i j z i ) , 141
A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times to the Qazvin, 6 Risäla fï misähat twän ( a l - K i n d i ) , 158
Present, 91-92 a l - Q u h i , A b u Sahl ( f l . 9 8 0 - 1 0 0 0 ) , 141 Risäla fï mushkil min amr al-nisba ( a l - M a h a n i ) , 180 n . 129
Practica geometriae ( F i b o n a c c i ) , 161 Q u r ' a n . See K o r a n Risäla fï qismat al-dä'ira thaläthat aqsäm (al-Kindi),
P r i e t o y Vives, A n t o n i o Q u t b a l - D i n a l - S h i r a z i (1236-1311), 167, 201 177 n . 18
El lazo: Decoración geométrica musulmana, 70 Risäla fï taqrïb qaul Arshimïdis fï qadr qutr al-dä'ira min
Prisse d'Avennes, A c h i l l e - C o n s t a n t - T h é d o r e - E m i l e muhïtha ( a l - K i n d i ) , 177 n . 18
o n a l - B u z j a n i , 133 R Risäla fï taqrïb watar al-dä'ira ( a l - K i n d i ) , 177 n . 18
La décoration arabe, 62 Rab -i Rashidi (Tabriz), 4
c
Risäla fï taqrïb watar al-tis c
( a l - K i n d i ) , 177 n . 18
L'art arabe d'après les monuments du Kaire, 62, 68, Racinet, A l b e r t Charles Auguste Risäla taqsïm al-muthallath wa al-murabba c
wa
84 n . 28 L'ornement polychrome, 66 c
amalihimä ( a l - K i n d i ) , 177 n . 18
 I N D E X 393

Risäle-i Mi märiyye
c
(Ca fer E f e n d i ) , 117, 1 5 2 - 5 3 »
c
Sasanian academy ( J u n d i s h a p u r ) , 131 signs. See o r n a m e n t , semiotics o f
225 n . 105 Sasanian patterns, 93 al-Sijistani ( p h i l o s o p h e r i n late t e n t h - c e n t u r y B a g h d a d ) ,
R i x n e r , W o l f g a n g , 57 n . 121 Savasorda. See Bar H i y y a , A b r a h a m 204
Rogers, M i c h a e l , 179 n . 79 S a y y i d - A h m a d , M i r . See M a s h h a d i al-Sijzi ( 9 6 9 - 9 9 9 ) , 158
R o m a n art. See G r e c o - R o m a n art Sayyida Nafisa, t o m b o f ( C a i r o ) , 124 n . 22 o n c o n i c sections, 177 n . 34
R o m a n t i c m o v e m e n t , 61 Sayyida Ruqayya, t o m b o f ( C a i r o ) , 124 n . 22 Risäla ft khawäss al-qubba al-zaida wa al-mukäfiya,
Roriczer, M a t h i a s ( f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n a u t h o r ) , Schlosser, Julius v o n 141
164 Die Kunstliteratur, 186 S i m a k o v , N i k o l a i Evstafievich
Rosenfeld, Boris A . , 177 n . 15 Schoen, E r h a r d ( f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n a u t h o r ) , 164 Vart de VAsie-centrale, 66, 70
r o y a l edifices. See i m p e r i a l a r c h i t e c t u r e Scholastics, 196 Sinan ( O t t o m a n c h i e f architect f r o m 1538 to 1588), 117,
R u m i , M a w l a n a Jalal a l - D i n ( t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y f o u n d e r Science and Technology in Islam ( e x h i b i t i o n ) , 86 n . 96 i53-54> 197> 225 n . 61
o f the M a w l a w i o r d e r o f dervishes), 155 scribes, 157 Sinan Ç a v u ç ( O t t o m a n o w n e r o f a T i m u r i d m a t h e m a t i ­
R u m Seljuqs. See Seljuqs o f R u m script, cursive. See c a l l i g r a p h y cal m a n u s c r i p t ) , 167
Russian studies o f I s l a m i c art, 70, 85 n . 49 s c r i p t o r i a , 50, 57 n . 128, 212-13, 215, 232 S i n i m m a r (legendary a r c h i t e c t ) , 178 n . 62
Rypka, Jan, 214 scrolls, I s l a m i c a r c h i t e c t u r a l . See also M i r z a A k b a r Shat Ahmad Ibn Tülün ( a l - B a l a w i ) , 54 n . 5
scrolls; n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls; sketchbooks. See p a t t e r n b o o k s
Tashkent scrolls; T o p k a p i s c r o l l S m i t h , M y r o n , 46
s o r i g i n s of, 7, 9 Soucek, Priscilla P., 205
Sabaeans, 131-32,133,176 n . 3 secrecy a b o u t scrolls, 13-14, 22 S o u r d e l - T h o m i n e , Janine, 86 n . 58
Sabra, A b d e l h a m i d I . , 189 secretaries, 157 Soviet studies o f I s l a m i c art, 70, 85 n . 49
Sacerdote, Gustavo, 161 Seherr-Thoss, Sonia P. Spain, 70,111
Sacred Art in East and West ( B u r c k h a r d t ) , 78 Design and Color in Islamic Architecture, 73 M u d e j a r style, 23,102
Sa di ( d . 1292), 120
c
§ehzade m o s q u e ( I s t a n b u l ) , 29 use o f m u q a r n a s i n , 26, 55 n . 59
Sadiqi Bek (Safavid c o u r t p a i n t e r a n d l i b r a r i a n ) Selim i ( O t t o m a n s u l t a n , r. 1512-1520), 38,125 n . 51 w o o d w o r k i n , 26
Qänün al-suwar, 112, 2 0 5 - 6 , 218 Seljuqs, Great. See Great Seljuq dynasty Spanish U m a y y a d s . See U m a y y a d s o f Spain
Safavid dynasty (1501-1732), 6 - 7 , 32, 38,112 Seljuqs o f R u m (1077-1307) Speltz, A l e x a n d e r , Ornamentstil, 66
a n i m a t e vs. i n a n i m a t e designs i n , 116 a n d the arabesque, 74 Spiers, R. P h e n é , 46
c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y i n , 44, 57 n . 118 b r i c k m a s o n r y of, 12 s q u i n c h - n e t vaults. See arch-net vaults
c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y of, 219 m o n u m e n t s of, 67 stalactite m o t i f . See m u q a r n a s
drawings o n paper, 6 revetments of, 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n patterns, i x , 69, 9 2 - 9 3 » 124 n . 22. See
p o e t r y of, 218 a n d S u n n i s m , 77 also g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n i n g ; girih
r e l i e f t i l i n g of, 37 semiotics. See o r n a m e n t , semiotics o f aesthetic value of, 173-75,181 n . 132
revetments of, 217-18 Semper, G o t t f r i e d , Der Stil in den technischen und tekto- i n b r i c k w o r k , 97, 98-99, 99
s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n s i n , 22 nischen Künsten, 84 n . 23 c o n s t r u c t i o n techniques of, 138-39, 147-50
T w e l v e r S h i i s m of, 77,113-14
c
Seneca, 225 n . 60 c o s m o l o g i c a l associations of, 118
vegetal p a t t e r n s of, 113-14, 218 Sense of Order ( G o m b r i c h ) , 19, 55 n . 49, 82 decline of, 114-15
Sa i, M u s t a f a (late s i x t e e n t h - a n d early seventeenth-
c
The Sense of Unity ( A r d a l a n a n d B a k h t i a r ) , 76, 77, 79 i n I r a n , 55 n . 63
century poet-painter and biographer o f Sinan), Seurat, Georges (1859-1891), 210 i n M o r o c c o , 24-25, 27
117 Sezgin, Fuat, 179 n . 109 a n d m u q a r n a s , 22 (see also m u q a r n a s )
Sa'ib o f T a b r i z (1603-1677), 218 Shahanshähnäma ( L o k m a n ) , 202 i n n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls, 19,
el-Said, Issam Shah I s m a i l . See I s m a i l 1
c c
19-20, 22
Geometric Concepts in Islamic Art, 80, 81, 86 n . 96, Shah-i Z i n d a c o m p l e x ( S a m a r q a n d ) , 13,121 a n d r a d i a l grids, 49,103
209 Shah Jahan ( M u g h a l e m p e r o r , r. 1628-1657), 6, 54 n . 12, i n Spain, 26
Salah a l - D i n ( A y y u b i d r u l e r , r. 1169-1193), 100,108 57 n . 110, 219 i n Tashkent scrolls, 12-13, 12-13, 2j
S a m a n i d m a u s o l e u m ( B u k h a r a ) , 97 Shah M u z a f f a r (late T i m u r i d p a i n t e r ) , 212 i n T o p k a p i s c r o l l , 31, 32, 3 4 - 3 5 » 37» 4 9 ~ 5 0 , 231,
Samarqand rag paper, 4 - 5 , 9 S h a h r u k h ( T i m u r i d r u l e r , r. 1405-1447), 34,155 233-38
a l - S a m a r q a n d i , A b d al-Razzaq ( f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
c
Shams a l - D i n ( s o n - i n - l a w o f Rashid a l - D i n ) , 4 v o c a b u l a r y of, 55 n . 63
T i m u r i d h i s t o r i a n ) , 120 Shams-i Qays ( f l . 1204-1230), 185, 206 i n w o o d w o r k , 26, ij
Samarra, 91,103,178 n . 65 Shelby, L o n , 42, 43, 57 n . 122 State P u b l i c L i b r a r y ( T a s h k e n t ) , 9
beveled style of, 92, 93, 94, 95, 220 S h i r b a f , Asgar ( c o n t e m p o r a r y I r a n i a n master b u i l d e r ) ,
c
Stevens, Peter S.
Sana'i ( t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y G h a z n a v i d p o e t ) , 210 22, 46 Handbook of Regular Patterns, 71
san at, c
185 S h i i s m , 96,109,119,187
c
Stilfragen ( R i e g l ) , 6 4 - 6 5 , 91
Sarre, F r i e d r i c h , 91 S h i r v a n Shahs c o m p l e x ( B a k u ) , 32 stone a r c h i t e c t u r e , M o r o c c a n , 23
394 INDEX

S t o r n a l o c o , Gabriele ( f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y professional Taifas ( e l e v e n t h - c e n t u r y kings o f S p a i n ) , 101-2 Kitab fi misahat al-mujassamat al-mukafiya, 142-44,
m a t h e m a t i c i a n ) , 156 Taj a l - D i n (girih-bend), 125 n . 51 158,177 n . 33
S t r z y g o w s k i , Josef, 95 Taj M a h a l ( A g r a ) , 57 n . 110, 115, 219 Theaetetus ( P l a t o ) , 214
stucco, 23, 94 T a k h t - i S u l a y m a n , 4, 5,173, 350 theology. See also C h r i s t i a n i t y ; G o d ; I s l a m ; K o r a n
Subtelny, Eva M a r i a , 214 p l a s t e r w o r k of, 10 a r g u m e n t f r o m design, 4, 97
Sufism, 76, 77, 79,101,108 T a k r i t , 93 Theology of Aristotle ( P l o t i n u s ; a p o c r y p h a l ) , 187
dhikr, 122 T a l i k i z a d e (late s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y O t t o m a n c o u r t h i s t o -
c
T h e o p h i l u s , De diversis artibus, 84 n . 2
a n d N e o p l a t o n i c cosmology, 119 r i a n ) , 38, 221 Théorie de Yornement ( B o u r g o i n ) , 69
a n d poetry, 121 Tanqih al-manäzir ( K a m a l a l - D i n a l - F a r i s i ) , 201 T h o m a s A q u i n a s , Saint (1225-1274), 192
a n d S u n n i s m , 109 T a q i a l - D i n Dada, shrine c o m p l e x o f ( B o n d e r a b a d ) , 32, a n d aesthetics, 198
Suger, A b b o t (1081-1151), 196 33, 35 Summa Theologica, 196
a l - S u h r a w a r d i , Shihab a l - D i n (1153-1191), 108,119 Taqi a l - D i n b. M a r u f (sixteenth-century O t t o m a n
c
t i l e . See b r i c k a n d tile; I z n i k ceramic t i l e revetments;
a l - S u h r a w a r d i , U m a r ( d . 1234), 109,120
c
a s t r o n o m e r ) , 201, 202 mosaic tile
S ü l e y m a n 1 ( O t t o m a n r u l e r , r. 1520-1566), 29, 38, 220 tarh. See drawings t i l i n g s . See tessellation
S ü l e y m a n i y e m o s q u e ( I s t a n b u l ) , 154 Tarikh-i Khayrät, 57 n . 130 T i m , 99
Sultan A h m e d m o s q u e ( I s t a n b u l ) , 115, 117-18,153 Tänkh-i Mas üdt
c
( B a y h a q i ) , 176 n . 5 Timaeus ( P l a t o ) , 133,163
Sultan Hasan, madrasa c o m p l e x o f ( C a i r o ) , 119 Tashkent scrolls, 9 - 1 4 , 9-13, 54 n . 33 Timurid Architecture in Khurasan (O'Kane), x i
Sultan Hasan m o s q u e ( T a b r i z ) , 181 n . 132 a p p r o x i m a t i o n m e t h o d used i n , 170 T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n a r c h i t e c t u r e , 5, 7, 38, 56 n . 80,109,
Summa Theologica ( T h o m a s A q u i n a s ) , 196 arch-net vaults i n , 54 n . 35 111,158
S u m m e r s , D a v i d , 166,198 a n d bannai b r i c k m a s o n r y , 9, 9,12 angular g e o m e t r y of, 12-13, 2 2
> 35
S ü n b ü l z a d e . See V e h b i , S ü n b ü l z a d e c o l o r used i n , 10,13, 32 arch-net vaults of, 10
sun figures, 46, 118 c o m p l e x i t y o f girih p a t t e r n s i n , 215 a n d a r i t h e m e t i c c o m p u t a t i o n , 159,160
S u n n i s m , 77 d r a f t i n g m e t h o d s i n , 48 b r i c k m a s o n r y of, 12, 232
a n d calligraphy, 107 elevations i n , 43 c o l o r used i n , 41, 52
a n d God's o m n i p o t e n c e , 192 geometric h a r m o n i z a t i o n i n , 9 d r a f t i n g m e t h o d s of, 14
r e v i v a l of, 96-97,100,101,103-4,107,119,132 grid-based g r o u n d plans i n , 9,13, 44 g e o m e t r i c aesthetic i n , 41, 52, 57 n . 134
a n d S h i i s m , 109
c
islïmï patterns i n , 9 g e o m e t r i c design v o c a b u l a r y of, 32, 34
a n d Sufism, 109 m u q a r n a s i n , 9,10,13, 27, 54 n n . 3 4 ~ 3 5 > 1 2 1
a n d G o t h i c a r c h i t e c t u r e , 43
Surname ( L o k m a n ) , 125 n . 67,154 secrecy a b o u t designs i n , 13-14, 4 8 - 4 9 , 57 n . 124 g r i d systems of, 13, 32,171
S u r u r i , M u s l i h a l - D i n M u s t a f a (1491-1562), 185 s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f g e o m e t r y i n , 12-13 i n s c r i p t i o n s i n , 121-22, 232
Bahr el-ma ärif, c
207, 211-212, 224 n . 5, 225 n . 96 size of, 31 m o n u m e n t s of, 32, 3 4 - 3 7 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1 , 214
surveying, 165-66 s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n s i n , 12-13, 12-13, 27 m u q a r n a s of, 13-14, 32, 54 n . 18
A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times to the T a c k ö p r i z a d e (1495-1560), 140,189,193 a n d patronage o f the arts, 217
Present (Pope a n d A c k e r m a n ) , 9 1 - 9 2 tatabbu , c
206 a n d Persian poetry, 121
Suter, H e i n r i c h , 161 tawhid, 76-77, 80, 81, 86 n . 90 r e l i e f t i l i n g of, 37
Sylvius, Balthasar ( a u t h o r o f s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a t t e r n a l - T a w h i d i , A b u H a y y a n ( d . after 1009-1010), 189,197 revetments i n , 41, 52-53, 217
b o o k ) , 84 n . 2 al-tawriq, 102. See also arabesque, vegetal t h e a t r i c a l i t y of, 53, 214
Symmetries of Culture ( W a s h b u r n a n d C r o w e ) , 85 n . 51 Tebriziye ( T a l i k i z a d e ) , 56 n . 82
c
T o p k a p i scroll as m i r r o r of, 41-53
Symposium ( P l a t o ) , 224 n . 42 T e h r a n , 14 u n i t y i n , 13
Syria, 23, 220 The Ten Books on Architecture ( V i t r u v i u s ) , 139> i 5 5 ~ 5 6 , tmar. See n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls
160 T o p k a p i Palace ( I s t a n b u l ) , 152-53
tents, n o m a d i c , 67, 81, 84 n . 13 garden w o r k s h o p s , 153
T t e r r a - c o t t a , 12,13 I n n e r Treasury, 29, 38
al-Tabari (839-923), 3 tessellation, 71, 85 n . 52,103,163,172-73 M u s e u m Library, ix, x
Tabbaa, Yasser, 107,124 n . 19,124 n . 21,125 n . 39 b y Escher, 180 n n . 124-25 T o p k a p i scroll, 30
T a b r i z , 4, 38, 221 Texier, Charles Félix M a r i e a p p r o x i m a t i o n m e t h o d used i n , 170
a r c h i t e c t u r a l splendor of, 38, 56 n . 82 Description de YArménie, la Perse et la Mésopotamie, arch-net vaults i n , 31, 236
O t t o m a n conquest of, 38 bannai b r i c k m a s o n r y p a t t e r n s i n , 31, 34, 231-32
63
paper i n d u s t r y i n , 5 c a l l i g r a p h y i n , 34, 37, 232
T h a b i t b . Q u r r a ( 8 2 6 - 9 0 1 ) , 131,141
Tadhib al-akhläq (Ibn Miskawayh), 3 c o l o r used i n , 31, 32, 49,112, 231, 232, 234
c
Amal al-daira al-maqsüma bi-sab at
c
aqsäm
Tadhkxrat al-shu ara c
( D a w l a t s h a h ) , 215 c o m p l e x i t y o f girih p a t t e r n s i n , 215, 231
mutasäwiya li-Arshimïdis, 177 n . 18
Tahmasp 1 (Safavid shah, r. 1524-1576), 6, 220 date a n d provenance of, 2 9 - 3 9
o n c o n i c sections, 177 n . 34
 d r a f t i n g m e t h o d s i n , 31, 48,171 U z g e n d , 99,100 Woepcke, Franz, 68,123,133,161
elevations i n , 43 U z u n Hasan ( A q q o y u n l u r u l e r , r. 1453-1478), 37> 3 8
W o l f s o n , H a r r y A u s t r y n , 198
g r a p h i c c o m p l e x i t y of, 31, 42, 52 w o n d e r , 213-14, 226 n . 116, 226 n . 124
m e a s u r e m e n t of, 4 3 - 4 4 woodwork
mosaic tile p a t t e r n s i n , 35 v artesonado, 26, 27,118
m u q a r n a s i n , 31, 32,121, 2 3 6 - 3 8 vaults. See arch-net vaults; m u q a r n a s i n Egypt, 94
p a t t e r n types i n , 231-38 vegetal patterns, c u r v i l i n e a r . See islïmï; al-tawrïq Kassettenstil, 152
r a d i a l grids i n , 31-32,172 V e h b i , S ü n b ü l z a d e ( d . 1809), T u r k i s h painter's m a n u a l , i n M o r o c c o , 23, 27
religious a p h o r i s m s i n , 121, 232 210, 212, 226 n . 109 i n Spain, 26
secrecy about designs i n , 4 8 - 4 9 V i c t o r i a & A l b e r t M u s e u m , 14 W o r l d o f I s l a m festival, 74, 76, 80, 81, 82, 86 n . 96
size of, 29, 31, 56 n . 73 V i l l a r d de H o n n e c o u r t (circa 1225-circa 1250), 56 n . 91, w o r k s h o p practices, 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 9 - 2 0 , 38, 43, 55 n . 56
squared grids i n , 31, 231-32 162,164 plaster use, 45
s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n s i n , 31, 32, 34~35> 37> v i n e - a n d - t e n d r i l m o t i f . See islïmï W o r n u m , R a l p h N . , 84 n . 14
4 9 - 5 0 , 1 7 2 , 231, 233-38 V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , E u g è n e - E m m a n u e l , 175 W r e n , Sir C h r i s t o p h e r (1632-1723), 156
and T i m u r i d - T u r k m e n architecture, 34-37, 4i~53 Architecture et décoration turques, i n t r o d u c t i o n t o , 68 W r i g h t , O w e n , 209
t r i a n g u l a t e d grids i n , 31, 232-33 Discourses on Architecture, 67 w r i t i n g . See c a l l i g r a p h y
Traditional Islamic Craft in Moroccan Architecture Les arts arabes, i n t r o d u c t i o n t o , 66-67, 68
(Paccard), 23, 55 n n . 6 0 - 6 2 , 1 0 2 v i s i o n , 166,181 n . 136,189,190
T r a d i t i o n a l i s t School ( S w i t z e r l a n d ) , 7 7 - 7 8 , 79 a n d aesthetic j u d g m e n t , 201, 2 0 3 - 5 , 226 n . 124 Y
Traditional Methods of Pattern Designing ( C h r i s t i e ) , 19, Baroque, 210 Y a m i n a l - D a u l a Asaf K h a n ( M u g h a l official), 6
69-70 a n d external senses, 198, 201, 203 a l - Y a q u b i ( d . 897), o n g r o u n d plans, 3
c

T u l u n i d dynasty ( 8 6 8 - 9 0 5 ) , 62 glancing, 203 Yazd, 4,121

tümär. See n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls a n d i m a g i n a t i o n , 197-98 Yazdi, A b u Ishaq b . A b d A l l a h K u b a n a n i (active
c

T u r k i s h painter's m a n u a l , 210, 212, 226 n . 109 i n n e r vs. outer, 201, 210 1442-1443, i459)> 168,169,179 n . 104
T u r k i s h style, 64, 81. See also O r i e n t a l i s m a n d i n t e r n a l senses, 2 0 4 - 5 , 210 Yazdi, Sharaf a l - D i n A l i ( T i m u r i d h i s t o r i a n ) , 120
c

a l - T u s i , N a s i r a l - D i n (1210-1274), 117, 140,167,177 n . 23, a n d m e m o r y , 210 Zafarnäma, 50, 51

200 m y s t i c a l , 205, 210 yazdï bandï, 10, 54 n . 36. See also arch-net vaults
T w e l v e r S h i i s m , 77,109,113-14
c
p r o p h e t i c , 197 Yesil C a m i ( B u r s a ) , 181 n . 132
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls. See M i r z a A k b a r scrolls; a n d the s c r u t i n i z i n g gaze, 204 Y u a n dynasty (1206-1368), 102
n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y scrolls Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, 140-41
De Architectura, 177 n . 29
h a r m o n i c p r o p o r t i o n s , 43 z
u The Ten Books on Architecture, 139,155-56, 160 Zafarnäma (Sharaf a l - D i n A l i Yazdi), 50, 51
c

U l u g h Beg ( T i m u r i d r u l e r , r. 1447-1449), 159 Z a n g i d dynasty (1127-1222), 100,101

c
U m a r K h a y y a m ( d . circa A . D . 1130) Z a s y p k i n , B o r i s N i k o l a e v i c h , 70
al-Jabr, 180 n . 120 w Z u b a y d a , t o m b o f ( B a g h d a d ) , 120
U m a y y a d dynasty ( 6 6 1 - 7 5 0 ) , 93, 96,124 n . 12, 220 Wade, D a v i d
U m a y y a d s o f Spain (756-1031), 101-2, 2 2 0 - 2 1 Pattern in Islamic Art, 82, 87 n . 98
u n i t y o f G o d . See tawhïd W a h a b i s m , 220
Unterweisung der Messung mit dem Zirkel und Richtscheit a l - W a l i d 1 ( U m a y y a d c a l i p h , r. 705-715), 220
in Linien, Ebenen und ganzen Körpern (Dürer), W a r d , James
1 6 4 - 6 5 , 165 Historic Ornament, 66
c
uqda, 102. See also s t a r - a n d - p o l y g o n p a t t e r n s Washburn, Dorothy K.
c
U r f i o f Shiraz (1555-1590), 226 n . 128 Symmetries of Culture, 85 n . 51
c
U t h m a n ( t h i r d c a l i p h , r. 6 4 4 - 6 5 6 ) , 220 W a z i r K h a n , m o s q u e o f ( L a h o r e ) , 219
U z b e k master b u i l d e r . See B u k h a r a n master b u i l d e r wazn. See poetry, meters i n
Uzbeks, 10, 32, 217 West-Östlicher Divan ( G o e t h e ) , 75
b r i c k m a s o n r y of, 12 W i l b e r , D o n a l d , 32, 50, 56 n . 102, 353
c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y of, 219 on a n o n y m o u s (Paris) m a n u s c r i p t , 169
d r a f t i n g m e t h o d s of, 14 on g e o m e t r y i n T i m u r i d a r c h i t e c t u r e , 41, 226 n . 124
grid-based systems of, 7,13 W i t e l o ( t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Polish scientist), 166
a n d s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f geometry, 12-13 W i t t k o w e r , R u d o l f , 43
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY G u l r u N e c i p o g l u is the Aga K h a n Professor
o f Islamic A r t and A r c h i t e c t u r e at H a r v a r d U n i -
versity, where she has been a member o f the
faculty since 1987. She has lectured and published
w i d e l y i n the area o f Islamic art and architecture
between 1250 and 1800. H e r p u b l i c a t i o n s to date
include Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power:
The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth
Centuries ( A r c h i t e c t u r a l H i s t o r y F o u n d a t i o n and
M I T Press, 1991) and, as guest editor, " P r e - M o d e r n
Islamic Palaces," a special issue o f Ars Orientalis 23
(1993). She is c u r r e n t l y w r i t i n g a b o o k o n religious
architecture, u r b a n i s m , and architectural prac-
tice i n the age o f the architect Sinan. N e c i p o g l u is
also the editor o f Muqarnas, the project c o o r d i n a -
t o r for the p r e p a r a t i o n o f a catalog o f the T o p k a p i
Palace M u s e u m ' s Arabic and Persian i l l u m i n a t e d
manuscripts, and a member o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l teams
involved i n researching p o r t r a i t s o f O t t o m a n sul-
tans and creating a database o f the qadi c o u r t
archives o f I s t a n b u l .
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D a v i d L. Fuller, Cartographer

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