1.1 Radiation: Interaction of Radiation With Matter

Interaction of Radiation with Matter
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 RADIATION
Illustration of the relative abilities of three different types of ionizing

radiation to penetrate solid matter. Typical alpha particles (α) are stopped by a
sheet of paper, while beta particles (β) are stopped by an aluminium plate. Gamma
radiation (γ) is damped when it penetrates lead. Note caveats in the text about this
simplified diagram.
In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form
of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. This includes:
 electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared,
visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma radiation (γ)
 particle radiation, such as alpha radiation (α), beta radiation (β), and neutron
radiation (particles of non-zero rest energy)
 acoustic radiation, such as ultrasound, sound, and seismic waves (dependent
on a physical transmission medium)
 gravitational radiation, radiation that takes the form of gravitational waves,
or ripples in the curvature of space time.
Radiation is often categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing depending
on the energy of the radiated particles. Ionizing radiation carries more than 10 eV,
which is enough to ionize atoms and molecules, and break chemical bonds. This is
an important distinction due to the large difference in harmfulness to living
organisms. A common source of ionizing radiation is radioactive materials that
emit α, β, or γ radiation, consisting of helium nuclei, electrons or positrons,
and photons, respectively. Other sources include X-rays from medical radiography
Dept. Of Physics Page 1

examinations and muons, mesons, positrons, neutrons and other particles that

constitute the secondary cosmic rays that are produced after primary cosmic rays
interact with Earth's atmosphere.
Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light
constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word "ionize"
refers to the breaking of one or more electrons away from an atom, an action that
requires the relatively high energies that these electromagnetic waves supply.
Further down the spectrum, the non-ionizing lower energies of the lower
ultraviolet spectrum cannot ionize atoms, but can disrupt the inter-atomic bonds
which form molecules, thereby breaking down molecules rather than atoms; a
good example of this is sunburn caused by long-wavelength solar ultraviolet. The
waves of longer wavelength than UV in visible light, infrared and microwave
frequencies cannot break bonds but can cause vibrations in the bonds which are
sensed as heat. Radio wavelengths and below generally are not regarded as
harmful to biological systems. These are not sharp delineations of the energies;
there is some overlap in the effects of specific frequencies.
The word radiation arises from the phenomenon of waves radiating (i.e.,
traveling outward in all directions) from a source. This aspect leads to a system
of measurements and physical units that are applicable to all types of radiation.
Because such radiation expands as it passes through space, and as its energy is
conserved (in vacuum), the intensity of all types of radiation from a point
source follows an inverse-square law in relation to the distance from its source.
Like any ideal law, the inverse-square law approximates a measured radiation
intensity to the extent that the source approximates a geometric point.
1.2 TYPES OF RADIATION

Electromagnetic radiation

A linearly polarized sinusoidal electromagnetic wave, propagating in the

direction +z through a homogeneous, isotropic, dissipation less medium, such as
vacuum. The electric field (blue arrows) oscillates in the ±x-direction, and the
orthogonal magnetic field (red arrows) oscillates in phase with the electric field,
but in the ±y-direction.
In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to
the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating
(radiating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy.[1] It
includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays,
and gamma rays.
Classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves,
which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields. In a vacuum
electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, commonly denoted c. In
homogeneous, isotropic media, the oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular
to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation,
forming a transverse wave. The wavefront of electromagnetic waves emitted from
a point source (such as a light bulb) is a sphere. The position of an electromagnetic
wave within the electromagnetic spectrum can be characterized by either
its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves of different
frequency are called by different names since they have different sources and
effects on matter. In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength
these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.
Electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically charged
particles undergoing acceleration, and these waves can subsequently interact with
other charged particles, exerting force on them. EM waves carry energy,
momentum and angular momentum away from their source particle and can impart
those quantities to matter with which they interact. Electromagnetic radiation is
associated with those EM waves that are free to propagate themselves ("radiate")
without the continuing influence of the moving charges that produced them,
because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges. Thus, EMR is

sometimes referred to as the far field. In this language, the near field refers to EM

fields near the charges and current that directly produced them
specifically, electromagnetic induction and electrostatic induction phenomena.
In quantum mechanics, an alternate way of viewing EMR is that it consists
of photons, uncharged elementary particles with zero rest mass which are
the quanta of the electromagnetic force, responsible for all electromagnetic
interactions.[6] Quantum electrodynamics is the theory of how EMR interacts with
matter on an atomic level. Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR,
such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-
body radiation. The energy of an individual photon is quantized and is greater for
photons of higher frequency. This relationship is given by Planck's
equation E = hν, where E is the energy per photon, ν is the frequency of the
photon, and h is Planck's constant. A single gamma ray photon, for example, might
carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light.
The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms
depend both upon the radiation's power and its frequency. EMR of visible or lower
frequencies (i.e., visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves) is
called non-ionizing radiation, because its photons do not individually have enough
energy to ionize atoms or molecules or break chemical bonds. The effects of these
radiations on chemical systems and living tissue are caused primarily by heating
effects from the combined energy transfer of many photons. In contrast, high
frequency ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are called ionizing radiation, since
individual photons of such high frequency have enough energy to ionize molecules
or break chemical bonds. These radiations have the ability to cause chemical
reactions and damage living cells beyond that resulting from simple heating, and
can be a health hazard.
Particle Radiation
Particle radiation is the radiation of energy by means of fast-
moving subatomic particles. Particle radiation is referred to as a particle beam if
the particles are all moving in the same direction, similar to a light beam.

Due to the wave–particle duality, all moving particles also have wave character.
Higher energy particles more easily exhibit particle characteristics, while lower
energy particles more easily exhibit wave characteristics.
Gravitational wave
Gravitational waves are disturbances in the curvature of space time,
generated by accelerated masses, that propagate as waves outward from their
source at the speed of light. They were proposed by Poincare in 1905 and
subsequently predicted in 1916[2][3] by Albert Einstein on the basis of his general
theory of relativity.[4][5] Gravitational waves transport energy as gravitational
radiation, a form of radiant energy similar to electromagnetic radiation. Newton's
law of universal gravitation, part of classical mechanics, does not provide for their
existence, since that law is predicated on the assumption that physical interactions
propagate instantaneously (at infinite speed) – showing one of the ways the
methods of classical physics are unable to explain phenomena associated with
relativity.
Gravitational-wave astronomy is a branch of observational astronomy that
uses gravitational waves to collect observational data about sources of detectable
gravitational waves such as binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron
stars, and black holes; and events such as supernovae, and the formation of
the early universe shortly after the Big Bang.
In 1993, Russell A. Hulse and Joseph H. Taylor, Jr. received the Nobel
Prize in Physics for the discovery and observation of the Hulse-Taylor binary
pulsar, which offered the first indirect evidence of the existence of gravitational
waves.
On 11 February 2016, the LIGO and Virgo Scientific Collaboration
announced they had made the first direct observation of gravitational waves. The
observation was made five months earlier, on 14 September 2015, using
the Advanced LIGO detectors. The gravitational waves originated from
a pair of merging black holes. After the initial announcement the LIGO
instruments detected two more confirmed, and one potential, gravitational wave

events. In August 2017, the two LIGO instruments and the Virgo instrument
observed a fourth gravitational wave from merging black holes and a fifth
gravitational wave from a binary neutron star merger. Several other gravitational
wave detectors are planned or under construction.
In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Rainer Weiss, Kip
Thorne and Barry Barish for their role in the direct detection of gravitational
waves. Deep gravity wells and coalescing into a single larger black hole,
gravitational waves will propagate outwards as the black holes spin past each
other.
1.3 USES OF RADIATION

Medicine
Radiation and radioactive substances are used for diagnosis, treatment, and
research. X-rays, for example, pass through muscles and other soft tissue but are
stopped by dense materials. This property of X-rays enables doctors to find broken
bones and to locate cancers that might be growing in the body. Doctors also find
certain diseases by injecting a radioactive substance and monitoring the radiation
given off as the substance moves through the body. Radiation used for cancer
treatment is called ionizing radiation because it forms ions in the cells of the
tissues it passes through as it dislodges electrons from atoms. This can kill cells or
change genes so the cells cannot grow. Other forms of radiation such as radio
waves, microwaves, and light waves are called non-ionizing. They don't have as
much energy and are not able to ionize cells.
Communication
All modern communication systems use forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Variations in the intensity of the radiation represent changes in the sound, pictures,
or other information being transmitted. For example, a human voice can be sent as
a radio wave or microwave by making the wave vary to corresponding variations
in the voice. Musicians have also experimented with gamma sonification, or using
nuclear radiation, to produce sound and music.

Science
Researchers use radioactive atoms to determine the age of materials that
were once part of a living organism. The age of such materials can be estimated by
measuring the amount of radioactive carbon they contain in a process
called radiocarbon dating. Similarly, using other radioactive elements, the age of
rocks and other geological features (even some man-made objects) can be
determined; this is called Radiometric dating. Environmental scientists use
radioactive atoms, known as tracer atoms, to identify the pathways taken by
pollutants through the environment.
Radiation is used to determine the composition of materials in a process
called neutron activation analysis. In this process, scientists bombard a sample of a
substance with particles called neutrons. Some of the atoms in the sample absorb
neutrons and become radioactive. The scientists can identify the elements in the
sample by studying the emitted radiation.

CHAPTER 2
INTERACTION OF PHOTONS AND NEUTRONS WITH
MATTER
2.1 INFRARED
A pseudo color image of two people taken in long-wavelength infrared

(body-temperature thermal) light.
This infrared space telescope image has (false-color) blue, green and red
corresponding to 3.4, 4.6, and 12 µm wavelengths, respectively.
Infrared radiation (IR), sometimes called infrared light,
is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with longer wavelengths than those of visible
light, and is therefore generally invisible to the human eye, although IR at
wavelengths up to 1050 nanometers (nm)s from specially pulsed lasers can be seen
by humans under certain conditions. IR wavelengths extend from the
nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (frequency 430 THz),
to 1 millimeter(300 GHz). Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near

room temperature is infrared. As with all EMR, IR carries radiant energy and

behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon.
Infrared radiation was discovered in 1800 by astronomer Sir William
Herschel, who discovered a type of invisible radiation in the spectrum lower in
energy than red light, by means of its effect on a thermometer. Slightly more than
half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the
form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has
a critical effect on Earth's climate.
Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change
their rotational-vibrational movements. It excites vibrational modes in a molecule
through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for
study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared
spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared
range.
Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, military, law enforcement,
and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared
illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being
detected. Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty
regions of space such as molecular clouds, detect objects such as planets, and to
view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe. Infrared
thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to
observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical
apparatus.
Extensive uses for military and civilian applications include target
acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal
body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm (micrometers).
Non-military uses include thermal efficiency analysis, environmental monitoring,
industrial facility inspections, detection of grow-ops, remote temperature sensing,
short-range wireless communication, spectroscopy, and weather forecasting.

Applications
Spectroscopy
Infrared vibrational spectroscopy (see also near-infrared spectroscopy) is a
technique that can be used to identify molecules by analysis of their constituent
bonds. Each chemical bond in a molecule vibrates at a frequency characteristic of
that bond. A group of atoms in a molecule (e.g., CH 2) may have multiple modes of
oscillation caused by the stretching and bending motions of the group as a whole.
If an oscillation leads to a change in dipole in the molecule then it will absorb
a photon that has the same frequency. The vibrational frequencies of most
molecules correspond to the frequencies of infrared light. Typically, the technique
is used to study organic compounds using light radiation from 4000–400 cm−1, the
mid-infrared. A spectrum of all the frequencies of absorption in a sample is
recorded. This can be used to gain information about the sample composition in
terms of chemical groups present and also its purity (for example, a wet sample
will show a broad O-H absorption around 3200 cm−1). The unit for expressing
radiation in this application, cm−1, is the spectroscopic wave number. It is the
frequency divided by the speed of light in vacuum.
Astronomy
Beta Pictoris with its planet Beta Pictoris b, the light-blue dot off-center, as
seen in infrared. It combines two images, the inner disc is at 3.6 µm.
Astronomers observe objects in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum using optical components, including mirrors, lenses and solid state digital

detectors. For this reason it is classified as part of optical astronomy. To form an

image, the components of an infrared telescope need to be carefully shielded from
heat sources, and the detectors are chilled using liquid helium.
The sensitivity of Earth-based infrared telescopes is significantly limited by
water vapor in the atmosphere, which absorbs a portion of the infrared radiation
arriving from space outside of selected atmospheric windows. This limitation can
be partially alleviated by placing the telescope observatory at a high altitude, or by
carrying the telescope aloft with a balloon or an aircraft. Space telescopes do not
suffer from this handicap, and so outer space is considered the ideal location for
infrared astronomy.
The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for
astronomers. Cold, dark molecular clouds of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow
with radiated heat as they are irradiated by imbedded stars. Infrared can also be
used to detect protostars before they begin to emit visible light. Stars emit a
smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects
such as planets can be more readily detected. (In the visible light spectrum, the
glare from the star will drown out the reflected light from a planet.)
Infrared light is also useful for observing the cores of active galaxies, which
are often cloaked in gas and dust. Distant galaxies with a high redshift will have
the peak portion of their spectrum shifted toward longer wavelengths, so they are
more readily observed in the infrared.
Communications
IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among
computer peripherals and personal digital assistants. These devices usually
conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data Association. Remote
controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit
infrared radiation that is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow beam. The beam
is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to prevent interference from other sources
of infrared (like sunlight or artificial lighting). The receiver uses
a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an electric current. It

responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters
out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared
communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR
does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining
rooms. Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command
appliances. Infrared remote control protocols like RC-5, SIRC, are used to
communicate with infrared.
Free space optical communication using infrared lasers can be a relatively
inexpensive way to install a communications link in an urban area operating at up
to 4 gigabit/s, compared to the cost of burying fibre optic cable, except for the
radiation damage. "Since the eye cannot detect IR, blinking or closing the eyes to
help prevent or reduce damage may not happen."
Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications
systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or
1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.
IR data transmission of encoded audio versions of printed signs is being
researched as an aid for visually impaired people through the RIAS (Remote
Infrared Audible Signage) project. Transmitting IR data from one device to
another is sometimes referred to as beaming.
2.2 VISIBLE LIGHT
A triangular prism dispersing a beam of white light. The longer

wavelengths (red) and the shorter wavelengths (blue) are separated.

Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of

the electromagnetic spectrum. The word usually refers to visible light, which is the
portion of the spectrum that can be perceived by the human eye.[1] Visible light is
usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometers(nm),
or 4.00 × 10−7 to 7.00 × 10−7 m, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths)
and the ultraviolet(with shorter wavelengths). This wavelength means
a frequency range of roughly 430–750 terahertz (THz).
Beam of sun light inside the cavity of Rocca ill'Abissu at Fondachelli

Fantina, Sicily
The main source of light on Earth is the Sun. Sunlightprovides
the energy that green plants use to create sugars mostly in the form of starches,
which release energy into the living things that digest them. This process
of photosynthesis provides virtually all the energy used by living things.
Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire, from
ancient campfires to modern kerosene lamps. With the development of electric
lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight. Some
species of animals generate their own light, a process called bioluminescence. For
example, fireflies use light to locate mates, and vampire squidsuse it to hide
themselves from prey.
The primary properties of visible light are intensity, propagation direction,
frequency or wavelength spectrum, and polarization, while its speed in a vacuum,
299,792,458 meters per second, is one of the fundamental constants of nature.
Visible light, as with all types of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), is
experimentally found to always move at this speed in a vacuum.

In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of

any wavelength, whether visible or not. In this sense, gamma rays, X-
rays, microwaves and radio waves are also light. Like all types of EM radiation,
visible light propagates as waves. However, the energy imparted by the waves is
absorbed at single locations the way particles are absorbed. The absorbed energy
of the EM waves is called a photon, and represents the quanta of light. When a
wave of light is transformed and absorbed as a photon, the energy of the wave
instantly collapses to a single location, and this location is where the photon
"arrives." This is what is called the wave function collapse. This dual wave-like
and particle-like nature of light is known as the wave–particle duality. The study of
light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics.
2.3 ULTRAVIOLET
Portable ultraviolet lamp

UV radiation is also produced by electric arcs. Arc welders must wear eye
protection and cover their skin to prevent photokeratitis and serious sunburn.
Ultraviolet (UV) is electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nm
to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is
present in sunlight, and contributes about 10% of the total electromagnetic
radiation output from the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized
lights, such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although
long-wavelength ultraviolet is not considered an ionizing radiation because
its photons lack the energy to ionize atoms, it can cause chemical reactions and
causes many substances to glow or fluoresce. Consequently, the chemical and

biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and many practical
applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules.
Suntan and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure of the skin to UV,
along with higher risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be severely
damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by
the Earth's atmosphere More energetic, shorter-wavelength "extreme" UV below
121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground.
Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin
D in most land vertebrates, including humans (specifically, UVB). The UV
spectrum thus has effects both beneficial and harmful to human health.
The lower wavelength limit of human vision is conventionally taken as
400 nm, so ultraviolet rays are invisible to humans, although some people can
perceive light at slightly shorter wavelengths than this (see below). Insects, birds,
and some mammals can see near-UV (i.e. slightly lower wavelengths than humans
can see).
Applications
Photography
A portrait taken using only UV light between the wavelengths of 335 and
365 nanometers.
Photographic film responds to ultraviolet radiation but the glass lenses of
cameras usually block radiation shorter than 350 nm. Slightly yellow UV-blocking
filters are often used for outdoor photography to prevent unwanted bluing and

overexposure by UV rays. For photography in the near UV, special filters may be
used. Photography with wavelengths shorter than 350 nm requires special quartz
lenses which do not absorb the radiation. Digital cameras sensors may have
internal filters that block UV to improve color rendition accuracy. Sometimes
these internal filters can be removed, or they may be absent, and an external
visible-light filter prepares the camera for near-UV photography. A few cameras
are designed for use in the UV.
Photography by reflected ultraviolet radiation is useful for medical,
scientific, and forensic investigations, in applications as widespread as detecting
bruising of skin, alterations of documents, or restoration work on paintings.
Photography of the fluorescence produced by ultraviolet illumination uses visible
wavelengths of light.
Aurora at Jupiter's north pole as seen in ultraviolet light by the Hubble

Space Telescope.
In ultraviolet astronomy, measurements are used to discern the chemical
composition of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of
stars. Because the ozone layer blocks many UV frequencies from reaching
telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most UV observations are made from space.
Polymers
Electronic components that require clear transparency for light to exit or
enter (photovoltaic panels and sensors) can be potted using acrylic resins that are
cured using UV energy. The advantages are low VOC emissions and rapid curing.
Effects of UV on finished surfaces in 0, 20 and 43 hours.

Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with photoinitiators

and resins. When exposed to UV l ight, polymerization occurs, and so the
adhesives harden or cure, usually within a few seconds. Applications include glass
and plastic bonding, optical fiber coatings, the coating of flooring, UV coating and
paper finishes in offset printing, dental fillings, and decorative fingernail "gels".
UV sources for UV curing applications include UV lamps, UV LEDs,
and Excimer flash lamps. Fast processes such as flexo or offset printing require
high-intensity light focused via reflectors onto a moving substrate and medium so
high-pressure Hg(mercury) or Fe (iron, doped)-based bulbs are used, energized
with electric arcs or microwaves. Lower-power fluorescent lamps and LEDs can
be used for static applications. Small high-pressure lamps can have light focused
and transmitted to the work area via liquid-filled or fiber-optic light guides.
The impact of UV on polymers is used for modification of the
(roughness and hydrophobicity) of polymer surfaces. For example, a poly(methyl
methacrylate) surface can be smoothed by vacuum ultraviolet.
UV radiation is useful in preparing low-surface-energy polymers for
adhesives. Polymers exposed to UV will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of
the polymer. Once the surface energy of the polymer has been raised, the bond
between the adhesive and the polymer is stronger.
Photolithography
Ultraviolet radiation is used for very fine resolution photolithography, a
procedure wherein a chemical called a photoresist is exposed to UV radiation that
has passed through a mask. The exposure causes chemical reactions to occur in the
photoresist. After removal of unwanted photoresist, a pattern determined by the
mask remains on the sample. Steps may then be taken to "etch" away, deposit on
or otherwise modify areas of the sample where no photoresist remains.
Photolithography is used in the manufacture of semiconductors, integrated
circuit components, and printed circuit boards. Photolithography processes used to
fabricate electronic integrated circuits presently use 193 nm UV and are
experimentally using 13.5 nm UV for extreme ultraviolet lithography.

2.4 X-RAY
X-ray of human lungs

X-rays make up X-radiation, a form of high-energy electromagnetic
radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers,
corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to
3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are
shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. In
many languages, X-radiation is referred to as Röntgen radiation, after the
German scientist Wilhelm Röntgen, who discovered it on November 8, 1895,He
named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation. Spelling of X-
ray(s) in the English language includes the variants x-ray(s), xray(s), and X ray(s).
SCATTERING
X-rays interact with matter in three main ways,
through photoabsorption, Compton scattering, and Rayleigh scattering. The
strength of these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays and the
elemental composition of the material, but not much on chemical properties, since
the X-ray photon energy is much higher than chemical binding energies.
Photoabsorption or photoelectric absorption is the dominant interaction mechanism
in the soft X-ray regime and for the lower hard X-ray energies. At higher energies,
Compton scattering dominates.

Photoelectric absorption
The probability of a photoelectric absorption per unit mass is approximately
proportional to Z3/E3, where Zis the atomic number and E is the energy of the
incident photon. This rule is not valid close to inner shell electron binding energies
where there are abrupt changes in interaction probability, so called absorption
edges. However, the general trend of high absorption coefficients and thus
short penetration depths for low photon energies and high atomic numbers is very
strong. For soft tissue, photoabsorption dominates up to about 26 keV photon
energy where Compton scattering takes over. For higher atomic number
substances this limit is higher. The high amount of calcium (Z=20) in bones
together with their high density is what makes them show up so clearly on medical
radiographs.
A photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the electron with which it
interacts, thus ionizing the atom to which the electron was bound and producing a
photoelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path. An outer electron will
fill the vacant electron position and produce either a characteristic x-ray or
an Auger electron. These effects can be used for elemental detection through X-ray
spectroscopy or Auger electron spectroscopy.
Compton Scattering
Compton scattering is the predominant interaction between X-rays and soft
tissue in medical imaging. Compton scattering is an inelastic scattering of the X-
ray photon by an outer shell electron. Part of the energy of the photon is
transferred to the scattering electron, thereby ionizing the atom and increasing the
wavelength of the X-ray. The scattered photon can go in any direction, but a
direction similar to the original direction is more likely, especially for high-energy
X-rays. The probability for different scattering angles are described by the Klein–
Nishina formula. The transferred energy can be directly obtained from the
scattering angle from the conservation of energy and momentum.

Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh scattering is the dominant elastic scattering mechanism in the X-
ray regime. Inelastic forward scattering gives rise to the refractive index, which for
X-rays is only slightly below 1.
Other notable uses of X-rays
Each dot, called a reflection, in this diffraction pattern forms from the
constructive interference of scattered X-rays passing through a crystal. The data
can be used to determine the crystalline structure.
X-ray crystallography in which the pattern produced by the diffraction of
X-rays through the closely spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and then
analysed to reveal the nature of that lattice. In the early 1990s, experiments were
done in which layers a few atoms thick of two different materials were deposited
in a Thue-Morse sequence. The resulting object was found to yield X-ray
diffraction patterns. A related technique, fiber diffraction, was used by Rosalind
Franklin to discover the double helical structure of DNA.X-ray astronomy, which
is an observational branch of astronomy, which deals with the study of X-ray
emission from celestial objects. X-ray microscopic analysis, which
uses electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very
small objects. X-ray fluorescence, a technique in which X-rays are generated
within a specimen and detected. The outgoing energy of the X-ray can be used to
identify the composition of the sample. Industrial radiographyuses X-rays for
inspection of industrial parts, particularly welds.

Using X-ray for inspection and quality control: the differences in the
structures of the die and bond wires reveal the left chip to be counterfeit.[117]
Authentication and quality control, X-ray is used for authentication and
quality control of packaged items.Industrial CT (computed tomography) is a
process which uses X-ray equipment to produce three-dimensional representations
of components both externally and internally. This is accomplished through
computer processing of projection images of the scanned object in many
directions. Paintings are often X-rayed to reveal underdrawings and pentimenti,
alterations in the course of painting or by later restorers. Many pigments such
as lead whiteshow well in radiographs. X-ray spectromicroscopy has been used to
analyse the reactions of pigments in paintings. For example, in analysing colour
degradation in the paintings of van Gogh.Airport security luggage scanners use X-
rays for inspecting the interior of luggage for security threats before loading on
aircraft. Border control truck scanners and domestic police departments use X-rays
for inspecting the interior of trucks.
X-ray fine art photography of needlefish by Peter Dazeley

X-ray art and fine art photography, artistic use of X-rays, for example the
works by Stane Jagodič X-ray hair removal, a method popular in the 1920s but
now banned by the FDA.[119]Shoe-fitting fluoroscopeswere popularized in the
1920s, banned in the US in the 1960s, banned in the UK in the 1970s, and even
later in continental Europe. Roentgen stereophotogrammetry is used to track
movement of bones based on the implantation of markers X-ray photoelectron

spectroscopy is a chemical analysis technique relying on the photoelectric effect,

usually employed in surface science. Radiation implosion is the use of high energy
X-rays generated from a fission explosion (an A-bomb) to compress nuclear fuel to
the point of fusion ignition (an H-bomb).
2.5 GAMMA Ray
Illustration of an emission of a gamma ray (γ) from an atomic nucleus
Gamma rays are emitted during nuclear fission in nuclear explosions.

gamma ray, or gamma radiation (symbol γ), is a
penetrating electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic
nuclei. It consists of the shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves and so imparts
the highest photon energy. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist,
discovered gamma radiation in 1900 while studying radiation emitted by radium.
In 1903, Ernest Rutherford named this radiation gamma rays based on their
relatively strong penetration of matter; he had previously discovered two less
penetrating types of decay radiation, which he named alpha rays and beta rays in
ascending order of penetrating power.

Gamma rays from radioactive decay are in the energy range from a few
kiloelectron volts (keV) to approximately 8 megaelectronvolts (~8 MeV),
corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with reasonably long lifetimes.
The energy spectrum of gamma rays can be used to identify the
decaying radionuclides using gamma spectroscopy. Very-high-energy gamma
rays in the 100–1000 teraelectron volt (TeV) range have been observed from
sources such as the Cygnus X-3 microquasar.
Natural sources of gamma rays originating on Earth are mostly as a result of
radioactive decay and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions
with cosmic ray particles. However, there are other rare natural sources, such
as terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, which produce gamma rays from electron action
upon the nucleus. Notable artificial sources of gamma rays include fission, such as
that which occurs in nuclear reactors, and high energy physics experiments, such
as neutral pion decay and nuclear fusion.
Gamma rays and X-rays are both electromagnetic radiation, and since they
overlap in the electromagnetic spectrum, the terminology varies between scientific
disciplines. In some fields of physics, they are distinguished by their origin:
Gamma rays are created by nuclear decay, while in the case of X-rays, the origin is
outside the nucleus. In astrophysics, gamma rays are conventionally defined as
having photon energies above 100 keVand are the subject of gamma ray
astronomy, while radiation below 100 keV is classified as X-rays and is the subject
of X-ray astronomy. This convention stems from the early man-made X-rays,
which had energies only up to 100 keV, whereas many gamma rays could go to
higher energies. A large fraction of astronomical gamma rays are screened by
Earth's atmosphere.
Gamma rays are ionizing radiation and are thus biologically hazardous. Due
to their high penetration power, they can damage bone marrow and internal organs.
Unlike alpha and beta rays, they pass easily through the body and thus pose a
formidable radiation protection challenge, requiring shielding made from dense
materials such as lead or concrete.

Uses
Gamma-ray image of a truck with two stowaways taken with

a VACIS (vehicle and container imaging system)
Gamma rays provide information about some of the most energetic
phenomena in the universe; however, they are largely absorbed by the Earth's
atmosphere. Instruments aboard high-altitude balloons and satellites missions, such
as the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, provide our only view of the universe
in gamma rays.
Gamma-induced molecular changes can also be used to alter the properties
of semi-precious stones, and is often used to change white topaz into blue topaz.
Non-contact industrial sensors commonly use sources of gamma radiation
in refining, mining, chemicals, food, soaps and detergents, and pulp and paper
industries, for the measurement of levels, density, and thicknesses [13]. Gamma-
ray sensors are also used for measuring the fluid levels in water and oil
industries [14]. Typically, these use Co-60 or Cs-137 isotopes as the radiation
source.
In the US, gamma ray detectors are beginning to be used as part of
the Container Security Initiative (CSI). These machines are advertised to be able to
scan 30 containers per hour.
Gamma radiation is often used to kill living organisms, in a process
called irradiation. Applications of this include the sterilization of medical
equipment (as an alternative to autoclavesor chemical means), the removal of
decay-causing bacteria from many foods and the prevention of the sprouting of
fruit and vegetables to maintain freshness and flavor.
Despite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat
some types of cancer, since the rays also kill cancer cells. In the procedure
called gamma-knife surgery, multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are
directed to the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells. The beams are aimed

from different angles to concentrate the radiation on the growth while minimizing
damage to surrounding tissues.
Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in nuclear medicine in
imaging techniques. A number of different gamma-emitting radioisotopes are
used. For example, in a PET scan a radiolabeled sugar
called fludeoxyglucose emits positrons that are annihilated by electrons, producing
pairs of gamma rays that highlight cancer as the cancer often has a higher
metabolic rate than the surrounding tissues. The most common gamma emitter
used in medical applications is the nuclear isomer technetium-99mwhich emits
gamma rays in the same energy range as diagnostic X-rays. When this
radionuclide tracer is administered to a patient, a gamma camera can be used to
form an image of the radioisotope's distribution by detecting the gamma radiation
emitted (see also SPECT). Depending on which molecule has been labeled with
the tracer, such techniques can be employed to diagnose a wide range of conditions
(for example, the spread of cancer to the bones via bone scan).
2.6 INTERACTION OF NEUTRONS

Neutron radiation is a form of ionizing radiation that presents as free
neutrons. Typical phenomena arenuclear fission or nuclear fusion causing the
release of free neutrons, which then react with nuclei of other atoms to form
new isotopes—which, in turn, may trigger further neutron radiation. Free neutrons
are unstable, decaying into a proton, an electron, plus an anti-electron-
neutrino with a mean lifetime of 887 seconds (about 14 minutes, 47 seconds).
Effects on materials
High-energy neutrons damage and degrade materials over time;
bombardment of materials with neutrons creates collision cascades that can
produce point defects and dislocations in the material, the creation of which is the
primary driver behind microstructural changes occurring over time in materials
exposed to radiation. At high neutron fluences this can lead to embrittlement of
metals and other materials, and to swelling in some of them. This poses a problem

for nuclear reactor vessels and significantly limits their lifetime (which can be
somewhat prolonged by controlled annealing of the vessel, reducing the number of
the built-up dislocations). Graphite moderator blocks are especially susceptible to
this effect, known as Wigner effect, and must be annealed periodically.
The Windscale fire was caused by a mishap during such an annealing operation.
Radiation damage to materials occurs as a result of the interaction of an
energetic incident particle (a neutron, or otherwise) with a lattice atom in the
material. The collision causes a massive transfer of kinetic energy to the lattice
atom, which is displaced from its lattice site, becoming what is known as
the primary knock-on atom (PKA). Because the PKA is surrounded by other lattice
atoms, its displacement and passage through the lattice results in many subsequent
collisions and the creations of additional knock-on atoms, producing what is
known as the collision cascade or displacement cascade. The knock-on atoms lose
energy with each collision, and terminate as interstitials, effectively creating a
series of Frenkel defects in the lattice. Heat is also created as a result of the
collisions (from electronic energy loss), as are possibly transmuted atoms. The
magnitude of the damage is such that a single 1 MeV neutron creating a PKA in an
iron lattice produces approximately 1100 Frenkel pairs. The entire cascade event
occurs over a timescale of 10^-13 seconds, and therefore, can only be 'observed' in
computer simulations of the event
The knock-on atoms terminate in non-equilibrium interstitial lattice
positions, many of which annihilate themselves by diffusing back into neighboring
vacant lattice sites and restore the ordered lattice. Those that do not or cannot leave
vacancies, which causes a local rise in the vacancy concentration far above that of
the equilibrium concentration. These vacancies tend to migrate as a result of
thermal diffusion towards vacancy sinks (i.e., grain boundaries, dislocations) but
exist for significant amounts of time, during which additional high-energy particles
bombard the lattice, creating collision cascades and additional vacancies, which
migrate towards sinks. The main effect of irradiation in a lattice is the significant
and persistent flux of defects to sinks in what is known as the defect wind.

Vacancies can also annihilate by combining with one another to form dislocation

loops and later, lattice voids.
The collision cascade creates many more vacancies and interstitials in the
material than equilibrium for a given temperature, and diffusivity in the material is
dramatically increased as a result. This leads to an effect called radiation enhanced
diffusion, which leads to microstructural evolution of the material over time. The
mechanisms leading to the evolution of the microstructure are many, may vary
with temperature, flux, and fluence, and are a subject of extensive study
 Radiation-induced segregation results from the aforementioned flux of

vacancies to sinks, implying a flux of lattice atoms away from sinks: but not
necessarily in the same proportion to alloy composition in the case of an
alloyed material. These fluxes may therefore lead to depletion of alloying
elements in the vicinity of sinks. For the flux of interstitials introduced by
the cascade, the effect is reversed: the interstitials diffuse toward sinks
resulting in alloy enrichment near the sink.
 Dislocation loops are formed if vacancies form clusters on a lattice plane. If
these vacancy concentration expand in three dimensions, a voidforms. By
definition, voids are under vacuum, but may became gas-filled in the case
of alpha-particle radiation (helium) or if the gas is produced as a result
of transmutation reactions. The void is then called a bubble, and leads to
dimensional instability (swelling) of parts subject to radiation. Swelling
presents a major long-term design problem, especially in reactor
components made out of stainless steel.[9] Alloys with
crystallographic isotropy, such as Zircaloys are subject to the creation of
dislocation loops, but do not exhibit void formation. Instead, the loops form
on particular lattice planes, and can lead to irradiation-induced growth, a
phenomenon distinct from swelling, but that can also produce significant
dimensional changes in an alloy.
 Irradiation of materials can also induce phase transformations in the
material: in the case of a solid solution, the solute enrichment or depletion

at sinks radiation-induced segregation can lead to the precipitation of new

phases in the material. The mechanical effects of these mechanisms
include irradiation hardening, embrittlement, creep, and environmentally-
assisted cracking. The defect clusters, dislocation loops, voids, bubbles, and
precipitates produced as a result of radiation in a material all contribute to
the strengthening and embrittlement (loss of ductility) in the
materialEmbrittlement is of particular concern for the material comprising
the reactor pressure vessel, where as a result the energy required to fracture
the vessel decreases significantly. It is possible to restore ductility by
annealing the defects out, and much of the life-extension of nuclear reactors
depends on the ability to safely do so. Creep is also greatly accelerated in
irradiated materials, though not as a result of the enhanced diffusivities, but
rather as a result of the interaction between lattice stress and the developing
microstructure. Environmentally-assisted cracking or, more
specifically, irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking (IASCC) is
observed especially in alloys subject to neutron radiation and in contact
with water, caused by hydrogen absorption at crack tips resulting
from radiolysis of the water, leading to a reduction in the required energy to
propagate the crack.

CHAPTER: 3
INTERACTION OF ELECTRON AND POSITRON WITH
MATTER
Electron:
The interaction and transfer of energy from photons to tissue has two
phases. The first is the "one-shot" interaction between the photon and an electron
in which all or a significant part of the photon energy is transferred; the second is
the transfer of energy from the energized electron as it moves through the tissue.
This occurs as a series of interactions, each of which transfers a relatively small
amount of energy.
Several types of radioactive transitions produce electron radiation including
beta radiation, internal conversion (IC) electrons, and Auger electrons. These
radiation electrons interact with matter (tissue) in a manner similar to that of
electrons produced by photon interactions.
In photoelectric interactions, the energy of the electron is equal to the
energy of the incident photon less the binding energy of the electron within the
atom. In Compton interactions, the relationship of the electron energy to that of the
photon depends on the angle of scatter and the original photon energy. The
electrons set free by these interactions have kinetic energies ranging from
relatively low values to values slightly below the energy of the incident photons.
As the electrons leave the interaction site, they immediately begin to
transfer their energy to the surrounding material, as shown below. Because the
electron carries an electrical charge, it can interact with other electrons without
touching them. As it passes through the material, the electron, in effect, pushes the
other electrons away from its path. If the force on an electron is sufficient to
remove it from its atom, ionization results. In some cases, the atomic or molecular
structures are raised to a higher energy level, or excited state. Regardless of the
type of interaction, the moving electron loses some of its energy. Most of the
ionization produced by x- and gamma radiation is not a result of direct photon
interactions, but rather of interactions of the energetic electrons with the material.

For example, in air, radiation must expend an average energy of 33.4 eV per
ionization. Consider a 50-keV x-ray photon undergoing a photoelectric interaction.
The initial interaction of the photon ionizes one atom, but the resulting energetic
electron ionizes approximately 1,500 additional atoms.
Ionization Produced by a Radiation Electron

The total distance an electron travels in a material before losing all its
energy is generally referred to as its range. The two factors that determine the
range are (1) the initial energy of the electrons and (2) the density of the material.
One important characteristic of electron interactions is that all electrons of the
same energy have the same range in a specific material, as illustrated immediately
below. The general relationship between electron range and energy is shown in the
second following figure. The curve shown is the range for a material with a density
of 1 g/cm3. This is the density of water and the approximate density of muscle
tissue.
The Range of Electrons with the Same Initial Energies

Relationship of Electron Range to Initial Energy in a Material with a Density

of 1 g/cm3 (Soft Tissue)
The electron range in other materials can be determined by dividing the
range given in the figure above by the density of the material. Let us now apply
this procedure to determine the range of 300-keV beta particles in air. (Air has a
density of 0.00129 g/cm3.) From the figure we see that a 300-keV electron has a
range of 0.76 mm in a material with a density of 1 g/cm 3. When this value is
divided by the density of air, we find the range to be 59 cm.
In general, the range of electron radiation in materials such as tissue is a
fraction of a millimeter. This means that essentially all electron radiation energy is
absorbed in the body very close to the site containing the radioactive material.
Application
Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a method of bombarding a
crystalline material with a collimated beam of electrons and then observing the
resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the material. The
required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20–200 eV. The reflection
high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of a beam
of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline
materials. The beam energy is typically in the range 8–20 keV and the angle of
incidence is 1–4°.
The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen.
Some electrons change their properties, such as movement direction, angle, and
relative phase and energy as the beam interacts with the material. Microscopists

can record these changes in the electron beam to produce atomically resolved
images of the material.] In blue light, conventional optical microscopes have a
diffraction-limited resolution of about 200 nm By comparison, electron
microscopes are limited by the de Broglie wavelength of the electron. This
wavelength, for example, is equal to 0.0037 nm for electrons accelerated across a
100,000-volt potential. The Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected
Microscope is capable of sub-0.05 nm resolution, which is more than enough to
resolve individual atoms. This capability makes the electron microscope a useful
laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging. However, electron microscopes
are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain.
Two main types of electron microscopes exist: transmission and scanning.
Transmission electron microscopes function like overhead projectors, with a beam
of electrons passing through a slice of material then being projected by lenses on
a photographic slide or a charge-coupled device. Scanning electron
microscopes rasteri a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the
studied sample to produce the image. Magnifications range from 100× to
1,000,000× or higher for both microscope types. The scanning tunneling
microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the
studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.
Other applications
In the free-electron laser (FEL), a relativistic electron beam passes through a
pair of undulators that contain arrays of dipole magnets whose fields point in
alternating directions. The electrons emit synchrotron radiation
that coherently interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the radiation
field at the resonance frequency. FEL can emit a coherent high-
brilliance electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies,
from microwaves to soft X-rays. These devices are used in manufacturing,
communication, and in medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.
Electrons are important in cathode ray tubes, which have been extensively
used as display devices in laboratory instruments, computer

monitors and television sets. In a photomultiplier tube, every photon striking

the photocathode initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable
current pulse. Vacuum tubes use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical
signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics
technology. However, they have been largely supplanted by solid-state
devices such as the transistor.
POSITRON
Recall that a positron is the same size as an electron, but has a positive charge.
It is also different from the electron in that it is composed of what is referred to as
antimatter. This leads to a type of interaction that is quite different from the
interactions among electrons.
The interaction between a positron and matter is in two phases, as
illustrated below. These are ionization and annihilation. As the energetic positron
passes through matter, it interacts with the atomic electrons by electrical attraction.
As the positron moves along, it pulls electrons out of the atoms and produces
ionization. A small amount of energy is lost by the positron in each interaction. In
general, this phase of the interaction is not too unlike the interaction of an
energetic electron, but the positron pulls electrons as it races by and electrons push
electrons away-from the path. Also, when the positron has lost most of its kinetic
energy and is coming to a stop, it comes into close contact with an electron and
enters into an annihilation interaction.
A Positron Interaction That Produces Annihilation Radiation
The annihilation process occurs when the antimatter positron combines with
the conventional-matter electron. In this interaction, the masses of both particles

are completely converted into energy. The relationship between the amount of
energy and mass is given by
E= mc2.
The energy equivalent of one electron or positron mass is 511 keV. The
energy that results from the annihilation process is emitted from the interaction site
in the form of two photons, each with an energy of 511 keV. The pair of photons
leave the site in opposite directions. With special imaging equipment it is possible
to capture both photons and to determine the precise three-dimensional location of
the interaction site. Since the range of a positron, like that of an electron, is
relatively short, the site of interaction is always very close to the location of the
radioactive nuclei.
Application :
• Certain kinds of particle accelerator experiments involve colliding positrons
and electrons at relativistic speeds. The high impact energy and the mutual
annihilation of these matter/antimatter opposites create a fountain of diverse
subatomic particles. Physicists study the results of these collisions to test
theoretical predictions and to search for new kinds of particles.
• The ALPHA experiment combines positrons with antiprotons to study
properties of antihydrogen.
• Gamma rays, emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer),
are detected in positron emission tomography (PET) scanners used in
hospitals. PET scanners create detailed three-dimensional images of
metabolic activity within the human body.
• An experimental tool called positron annihilation spectroscopy (PAS) is
used in materials research to detect variations in density, defects,
displacements, or even voids, within a solid material.

CHAPTER: 4
INTERACTION OF HEAVY CHARGED PARTICLES
WITH MATTER
Heavy charged particles are all energetic ions with mass of one atomic mass
unit or greater, such as protons, alpha particles (helium nuclei) or fission
fragments. Especially knowledge of the interaction of fission fragments and
alpha particles must be well known in the engineering of nuclear reactors.
Description of Alpha Particles
Alpha particles are energetic nuclei of helium. The production of alpha

particles is termed alpha decay. Alpha particles consist of two protons and
two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus. Alpha
particles are relatively large and carry a double positive charge. They are not very
penetrating and a piece of paper can stop them. They travel only a few
centimeters but deposit all their energies along their short paths. In nuclear
reactors they are produced for example in the fuel (alpha decay of heavy nuclei).
Alpha particles are commonly emitted by all of the heavy radioactive nuclei
occuring in the nature (uranium, thorium or radium), as well as the transuranic
elements (neptunium, plutonium or americium). Especially energetic alpha
particles (except artificially accelerated helium nuclei) are produced in a nuclear
process, which is known as a ternary fission. In this process, the nucleus of
uranium is spitted into three charged particles (fission fragments) instead of the

normal two. The smallest of the fission fragments most probably (90% probability)
being an extra energetic alpha particle.
Nature of Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter

Since the electromagnetic interaction extends over some distance, it is not
necessary for the light or heavy charged particle to make a direct collision with an
atom. They can transfer energy simply by passing close by. Heavy charged
particles, such as fission fragments or alpha particles interact with matter
primarily through coulomb forces between their positive charge and the negative
charge of the electrons from atomic orbitals. On the other hand, the internal energy
of an atom is quantised, therefore only certain amount of energy can be
transferred. In general, charged particles transfer energy mostly by:
 Excitation. The charged particle can transfer energy to the atom, raising
electrons to a higher energy levels.
 Ionization. Ionization can occur, when the charged particle have enough
energy to remove an electron. This results in a creation of ion pairs in
surrounding matter.
Fission fragments after a nucleus fission. Fission fragments interact strongly

with the surrounding atoms or molecules traveling at high speed, causing them to
ionize.

Creation of pairs requires energy, which is lost from the kinetic energy of
the charged particle causing it to decelerate. The positive ions and free electrons
created by the passage of the charged particle will then reunite, releasing energy in
the form of heat (e.g. vibrational energy or rotational energy of atoms). This is the
principle how fission fragments heat up fuel in the reactor core. There are
considerable differences in the ways of energy loss and scattering between the
passage of light charged particles such as positrons and electrons and heavy
charged particles such as fission fragments, alpha particles, muons. Most of these
differences are based on the different dynamics of the collision process. In general,
when a heavy particle collides with a much lighter particle (electrons in the atomic
orbitals), the laws of energy and momentum conservation predict that only a small
fraction of the massive particle’s energy can be transferred to the less massive
particle. The actual amount of transferred energy depends on how closely the
charged particles passes through the atom and it depends also on restrictions
from quantitation of energy levels.
The distance required to bring the particle to rest is referred to as its
range. The range of fission fragments in solids amounts to only a few microns,
and thus most of the energy of fission is converted to heat very close to the point
of fission. In case of gases the range increases to a few centimeters in
dependence of gas parameters (density, type of gas etc.) The trajectory of
heavy charged particles are not greatly affected, because they interacts with light
atomic electrons. Other charged particles, such as the alpha particles behave
similarly with one exception – for lighter charged particles the ranges are
somewhat longer.
Stopping Power – Bethe Formula
A convenient variable that describes the ionization properties of surrounding
medium is the stopping power. The linear stopping power of material is defined
as the ratio of the differential energy loss for the particle within the material to
the corresponding differential path length:

,where T is the kinetic energy of the charged particle, n ion is the number of
electron-ion pairs formed per unit path length, and I denotes the average
energy needed to ionize an atom in the medium. For charged particles, S increases
as the particle velocity decreases. The classical expression that describes the
specific energy loss is known as the Bethe formula. The non-relativistic formula
was found by Hans Bethe in 1930. The relativistic version (see below) was found
also by Hans Bethe in 1932.
In this expression, m is the rest mass of the electron, β equals to v/c, what
expresses the particle’s velocity relative to the speed of light, γ is the Lorentz
factor of the particle, Q equals to its charge, Z is the atomic number of the medium
and n is the atoms density in the volume. For nonrelativistic particles (heavy
charged particles are mostly nonrelativistic), dT/dx is dependent on 1/v2. This is
can be explained by the greater time the charged particle spends in the negative
field of the electron, when the velocity is low.
The stopping power of most materials is very high for heavy charged
particles and these particles have very short ranges. For example, the range of a 5
MeV alpha particle is approximately only 0,002 cm in aluminium alloy. Most
alpha particles can be stopped by an ordinary sheet of paper or living tissue.
Therefore the shielding of alpha particles does not pose a difficult problem, but on
the other hand alpha radioactive nuclides can lead to serious health hazards when
they are ingested or inhaled (internal contamination).
Specifics of Fission Fragments
The fission fragments three two key features (somewhat different from alpha
particles or protons), which influence their energy loss during its travel through
matter.
 High initial energy. Results in a large effective charge.

 Large effective charge. The fission fragments start out with lack of many
electrons, therefore their specific loss is greater than alpha’s specific loss,
for example.
 Immediate electron pickup. Results in changes of (-dE/dx) during the
travel.
These features results in the continuous decrease in the effective charge
carried by the fission fragment as the fragment comes to rest and continuous
decrease in -dE/dx. The resulting decrease in -dE/dx (from the electron pickup) is
larger than the increase that accompanies a reduction in velocity. The range of
typical fission fragment can be approximately half that of a 5 MeV alpha particle.
Bragg Curve
Bragg Curve is typical for heavy charged particles and plots the energy loss
during its travel through matter.
The Bragg curve is typical for heavy charged particles and describes
energy loss of ionizing radiation during travel through matter. For this curve is
typical the Bragg peak, which is the result of 1/v2 dependency of the stopping
power. This peak occurs because the cross section of interaction increases
immediately before the particle come to rest. For most of the track, the charge
remains unchanged and the specific energy loss increases according to the 1/v2.
Near the end of the track, the charge can be reduced through electron pickup and
the curve can fall off.
The Bragg curve also differs somewhat due to the effect of straggling. For
a given material the range will be the nearly the same for all particles of the same

kind with the same initial energy. Because the details of the microscopic
interactions undergone by any specific particle vary randomly, a small variation in
the range can be observed. This variation is called straggling and it is caused by
the statistical nature of the energy loss process which consists of a large number of
individual collisions. This phenomenon, which is described by the Bragg curve, is
exploited in particle therapy of cancer, because this allows to concentrate the
stopping energy on the tumor while minimizing the effect on the surrounding
healthy tissue.
4.1 ALPHA PARTICLES:

Alpha particles, also called alpha ray or alpha radiation, consist of
two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-
4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also
be produced in other ways. Alpha particles are named after the first letter in
the Greek alphabet, α. The symbol for the alpha particle is α or α2+. Because they
are identical to helium nuclei, they are also sometimes written as He2+
or 4 2He2+ indicating a helium ion with a +2 charge (missing its two electrons). If
the ion gains electrons from its environment, the alpha particle becomes a normal
(electrically neutral) helium atom 42He.
Alpha particle
Alpha decay
Composition 2 protons, 2 neutrons
Statistics Bosonic
Symbol α, α2+, He2+
Mass 6.644657230(82)×10−27 kg[1]
4.001506179127(63) u

3.727379378(23) GeV/c2
Electric charg +2 e
e
Spin 0[2]
Alpha particles, like helium nuclei, have a net spin of zero. Due to the
mechanism of their production in standard alpha radioactive decay, alpha particles
generally have a kinetic energy of about 5 MeV, and a velocity in the vicinity of
5% the speed of light. (See discussion below for the limits of these figures in alpha
decay.) They are a highly ionizing form of particle radiation, and (when resulting
from radioactive alpha decay) have low penetration depth. They can be stopped by
a few centimeters of air, or by the skin.
However, so-called long range alpha particles from ternary fission are three
times as energetic, and penetrate three times as far. As noted, the helium nuclei
that form 10–12% of cosmic rays are also usually of much higher energy than
those produced by nuclear decay processes, and are thus capable of being highly
penetrating and able to traverse the human body and also many meters of dense
solid shielding, depending on their energy. To a lesser extent, this is also true of
very high-energy helium nuclei produced by particle accelerators.
When alpha particle emitting isotopes are ingested, they are far more
dangerous than their half-life or decay rate would suggest, due to the high relative
biological effectiveness of alpha radiation to cause biological damage. Alpha
radiation is an average of about 20 times more dangerous, and in experiments with
inhaled alpha emitters, up to 1000 times more dangerous than an equivalent
activity of beta emitting or gamma emitting radioisotopes.
Some science authors use doubly ionized helium nuclei (He2+)and alpha
particles as interchangeable terms. The nomenclature is not well defined, and thus
not all high-velocity helium nuclei are considered by all authors to be alpha
particles. As with beta and gamma particles/rays, the name used for the particle
carries some mild connotations about its production process and energy, but these
are not rigorously applied. Thus, alpha particles may be loosely used as a term
when referring to stellar helium nuclei reactions (for example the alpha processes),

and even when they occur as components of cosmic rays. A higher energy version
of alphas than produced in alpha decay is a common product of an
uncommon nuclear fission result called ternary fission. However, helium nuclei
produced by particle accelerators (cyclotrons, synchrotrons, and the like) are less
likely to be referred to as "alpha particles".
Applications:
• Some smoke detectors contain a small amount of the alpha
emitter americium-241. The alpha particles ionize air within a small gap. A
small current is passed through that ionized air. Smoke particles from fire
that enter the air gap reduce the current flow, sounding the alarm. The
isotope is extremely dangerous if inhaled or ingested, but the danger is
minimal if the source is kept sealed. Many municipalities have established
programs to collect and dispose of old smoke detectors, to keep them out of
the general waste stream.
• Alpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope
thermoelectric generators used for space probes and artificial heart
pacemakers. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other
forms of radioactive decay. Plutonium-238, a source of alpha particles,
requires only 2.5 mm of lead shielding to protect against unwanted
radiation.
• Static eliminators typically use polonium-210, an alpha emitter, to ionize
air, allowing the "static cling" to more rapidly dissipate.
• Researchers are currently trying to use the damaging nature of alpha
emitting radionuclides inside the body by directing small amounts towards
a tumor. The alphas damage the tumor and stop its growth, while their small
penetration depth prevents radiation damage of the surrounding healthy
tissue. This type of cancer therapy is called unsealed source radiotherapy.

4.2 BETA PARTICLE
Alpha radiation consists of helium nuclei and is readily stopped by a sheet

of paper. Beta radiation, consisting of electrons or positrons, is stopped by thin
aluminum plate, but gamma radiation requires shielding by dense material such as
lead, or concrete.
A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a
high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of
an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta
decay, β− decay and β+ decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively.
Beta particles with an energy of 0.5 MeV have a range of about one metre
in air; the distance is dependent on the particle energy.
Beta particles are a type of ionizing radiation and for radiation
protection purposes are regarded as being more ionising than gamma rays, but less
ionising than alpha particles. The higher the ionising effect, the greater the damage
to living tissue.
Application
• Beta particles can be used to treat health conditions such as eye and bone
cancer and are also used as tracers. Strontium-90 is the material most
commonly used to produce beta particles.

• Beta particles are also used in quality control to test the thickness of an
item, such as paper, coming through a system of rollers. Some of the beta
radiation is absorbed while passing through the product. If the product is
made too thick or thin, a correspondingly different amount of radiation will
be absorbed. A computer program monitoring the quality of the
manufactured paper will then move the rollers to change the thickness of
the final product.
• An illumination device called a betalight contains tritium and a phosphor.
As tritium decays, it emits beta particles; these strike the phosphor, causing
the phosphor to give off photons, much like the cathode ray tube in a
television. The illumination requires no external power, and will continue as
long as the tritium exists (and the phosphors do not themselves chemically
change); the amount of light produced will drop to half its original value in
12.32 years, the half-life of tritium.
• Beta-plus (or positron) decay of a radioactive tracer isotope is the source of
the positrons used.
4.3 HELIUM PARTICLE:

Helium (from Greek: ἥλιος, romanized: Helios, lit. 'Sun') is a chemical
element with the symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless,
tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas, the first in the noble gas group in
the periodic table. Its boiling point is the lowest among all the elements. Helium is
the second lightest and second most abundant element in the
observable universe (hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant). It is present at
about 24% of the total elemental mass, which is more than 12 times the mass of all
the heavier elements combined. Its abundance is similar to this in both the Sun and
in Jupiter. This is due to the very high nuclear binding energy (per nucleon)
of helium-4, with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4
binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of both nuclear
fusion and radioactive decay. Most helium in the universe is helium-4, the vast

majority of which was formed during the Big Bang. Large amounts of new helium
are being created by nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars.
Helium, 2He
Helium is named for the Greek Titan of the Sun, Helios. It was first

detected as an unknown, yellow spectral line signature in sunlight, during a solar
eclipse in 1868 by Georges Rayet, Captain C. T. Haig, Norman R. Pogson, and
Lieutenant John Herschel, and was subsequently confirmed by French
astronomer, Jules Janssen. Janssen is often jointly credited with detecting the
element, along with Norman Lockyer. Janssen recorded the helium spectral line
during the solar eclipse of 1868, while Lockyer observed it from Britain. Lockyer
was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, which he named.
The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by
two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found
helium emanating from the uranium ore, cleveite. In 1903, large reserves of helium
were found in natural gas fields in parts of the United States, which is by far the
largest supplier of the gas today.
Liquid helium is used in cryogenics (its largest single use, absorbing about a
quarter of production), particularly in the cooling of superconducting magnets,
with the main commercial application being in MRI scanners. Helium's other
industrial uses—as a pressurizing and purge gas, as a protective atmosphere for arc
welding and in processes such as growing crystals to make silicon wafers—
account for half of the gas produced. A well-known but minor use is as a lifting
gas in balloons and airships.[10] As with any gas whose density differs from that
of air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre and
quality of the human voice. In scientific research, the behavior of the two fluid
phases of helium-4 (helium I and helium II) is important to researchers

studying quantum mechanics (in particular the property of superfluidity) and to

those looking at the phenomena, such as superconductivity, produced
in matter near absolute zero.
On Earth it is relatively rare—5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere. Most
terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy
radioactive elements (thorium and uranium, although there are other examples), as
the alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei.
This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations as great as 7%
by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature
separation process called fractional distillation. Previously, terrestrial helium—a
non-renewable resource, because, once released into the atmosphere it
readily escapes into space—was thought to be in increasingly short
supply. However, recent studies suggest that helium produced deep in the earth by
radioactive decay can collect in natural gas reserves in larger than expected
quantities, in some cases, having been released by volcanic activity.
Applications:
The largest single use of liquid helium is to cool the superconducting

magnets in modern MRI scanners.
While balloons are perhaps the best known use of helium, they are a minor
part of all helium use. Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its
unique properties, such as its low boiling point, low density, low solubility,
high thermal conductivity, or inertness. Of the 2014 world helium total production
of about 32 million kg (180 million standard cubic meters) helium per year, the
largest use (about 32% of the total in 2014) is in cryogenic applications, most of

which involves cooling the superconducting magnets in medical MRI scanners

and NMR spectrometers. Other major uses were pressurizing and purging systems,
welding, maintenance of controlled atmospheres, and leak detection. Other uses by
category were relatively minor fractions.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
 An alpha particle deposits a large amount of energy in a short distance of

travel due to its large mass and charge.
 Beta-minus particles interact with the electrons orbiting the nucleus of
atoms, causing ionization by displacing the electrons. The beta
particle loses energy with each interaction. After the beta particle loses
enough energy, it is captured in the orbital shells of an atom
 Positrons interact with matter much the same way as beta minus particles.
After the positron has lost most of its energy by ionizing atoms, it is
annihilated by interaction with an electron. The electron-positron pair
disappear and are replaced by two gammas, each with the energy equivalent
of the mass of an electron (0.51MeV).
 Neutrons interact with the matter by elastic scattering , inelastic scattering
or absorption.
 Photoelectric effect is where a gamma interacts with an electron orbiting an
atom. The entire energy of the gamma is transferred to the electron, and the
electron is ejected from its orbit.
 In Compton scattering a gamma interacts with an orbital electron, but only
part of the gamma energy is transferred to the electron. The electron is
ejected from its orbit, and the gamma is scattered off at a lower energy.
 In pair-production, a gamma interacts with the electric field of a nucleus
and is converted into an electron-positron pair. The gamma must have an
energy greater than 1.02 MeV for this to

REFERENCE
 WWW.wikipedia.Radiation
 WWW.wikipedia.interaction of radiation with matter
 Interaction of radiation with matter – Dhruba Guptha
 Medical effects of radiation interaction – Mai Yasser El-Shaer
 WWW.google.com

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Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Illustration of the relative abilities of three different types of ionizing

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examinations and muons, mesons, positrons, neutrons and other particles that

1.2 TYPES OF RADIATION

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A linearly polarized sinusoidal electromagnetic wave, propagating in the

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sometimes referred to as the far field. In this language, the near field refers to EM

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1.3 USES OF RADIATION

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A pseudo color image of two people taken in long-wavelength infrared

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room temperature is infrared. As with all EMR, IR carries radiant energy and

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detectors. For this reason it is classified as part of optical astronomy. To form an

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2.2 VISIBLE LIGHT

A triangular prism dispersing a beam of white light. The longer

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Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of

Beam of sun light inside the cavity of Rocca ill'Abissu at Fondachelli

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In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of

Portable ultraviolet lamp

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Aurora at Jupiter's north pole as seen in ultraviolet light by the Hubble

Effects of UV on finished surfaces in 0, 20 and 43 hours.

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Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with photoinitiators

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X-ray of human lungs

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Other notable uses of X-rays

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X-ray fine art photography of needlefish by Peter Dazeley

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spectroscopy is a chemical analysis technique relying on the photoelectric effect,

2.5 GAMMA Ray

Illustration of an emission of a gamma ray (γ) from an atomic nucleus

Gamma rays are emitted during nuclear fission in nuclear explosions.

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Gamma-ray image of a truck with two stowaways taken with

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2.6 INTERACTION OF NEUTRONS

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Vacancies can also annihilate by combining with one another to form dislocation

 Radiation-induced segregation results from the aforementioned flux of

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