Maintenance Handbook03-2007

THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
MINISTRY OF INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR TANZANIA
Engineering Division 2007

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR TANZANIA
(BMST)
In cooperation with:
TANROADS Norwegian Public

Tanzania National Roads Agency Roads Administration
Engineering Division Directorate of Public Roads
Handbook for Bridge Maintenance
Second Edition, 2007
This Handbook for Bridge Maintenance is the property of the Tanzania National Roads
agency (TANROADS) of the United Republic of Tanzania. It may not be used or reproduced
by unauthorised persons without prior permission in writing of the Chief Executive,
TANROADS.
Handbook for Bridge Maintenance Bridge Management System for Tanzania
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This Second Edition of the Handbook for Bridge Maintenance has been prepared by a team of five
engineers comprising Eng. Ebenezer R. Mollel and Eng. Alfred S. Ndumbaro of the Tanzania National
Roads Agency (TANROADS) and Eng. Otto Kleppe, Eng. Gunnar Djuve and Eng. Odd Roennestad of
the Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA). It is the third of the five handbooks of the Bridge
Management System for Tanzania (BMST).
This edition incorporates experiences and ideas from the users from TANROADS, both at Headquarters
and the Regional Managers Offices’ (RMO). The team is, in this respect grateful to all users for their
valuable remarks and contributions.
The Team is particularly delighted that TANROADS has recognised the importance of the bridge
management system and hence has approved financing of its operations and upgrading as necessary.
There is a clear budgetary allocation for the system and actual bridge maintenance works unlike in the
past. As such the severity and enormity of problems associated with the TANROADS bridge stock is
being reduced year after year. These are all indicators of the success of the Bridge Management
System.
The Team is also grateful to NORAD for the financial support accorded to TANROADS for the
operations and upgrading of the BMST.
The Team could not have prepared this volume without the help of a number of institutions and
individuals. Many of them have contributed directly the ideas that have gone straight into this
Maintenance Handbook, and in other cases their views have been unconsciously absorbed by the team
in the updating process.
The Team is indebted to far too many people for it to name them individually, but it would be remiss of
the team if it did not place on record its foremost thanks to TANROADS and NPRA Executives for
their excellent guidance and encouragement during the entire preparation of this Handbook.
The Team would also like to thank all the Regional Managers and their staff who came forward with
additional contributions and comments on the document through training programmes, discussion and
individual comments.
i
Bridge Management System for Tanzania Handbook for Bridge Maintenance
FOREWORD
The importance of adequate and timely maintenance of bridges cannot be over-emphasised. Deferred or
inadequate maintenance of bridges leads to their deterioration and even to total collapse. The
importance of adequate and timely maintenance was particularly witnessed in 1997when the EL-Nino
phenomenon caused extensive damage to the road network in Tanzania including road washouts and a
large number of collapsed bridges. The damage to the road network resulted in loss of investment,
increased transportation costs, reduced reliability of transport services and even loss of lives and
property and heavy re-investment.
An assessment of the aftermath of the El.Nino phenomenon has revealed that the damage caused by
El.Nino was aggravated by inadequate maintenance of the road network. This outcome emphasizes the
supreme need to pursue a rational and systematic approach to organising and carrying out bridge
maintenance activities including taking of inventory, inspection or condition appraisal all of which lead
to timely execution of bridge preventive maintenance and major repairs. The approach also facilitates
proper planning of bridge maintenance so as to effectively utilize the meagre resources available in the
country for bridge activities.
In recognition of the need to have an effective bridge maintenance system, the Tanzania National Roads
Agency (TANROADS) has adopted and continued to upgrade the Bridge Management System
developed by the former Ministry of Works. As a result, the Agency has updated the three major
handbooks of the system i.e. the Handbook for Bridge Inventory, Handbook for Bridge Inspection and
the current Handbook for Bridge Maintenance.
The Agency has also strengthened the budget allocation for bridge maintenance where now there is a
distinct budget allocation for bridge preventive maintenance and that for bridge major repairs. For a
start, this is a major step ahead and efforts will continue to improve further the allocation of funds to
bridges in order to attain the intended objective of the Bridge Management System to have reliable and
safe bridges.
This handbook for Bridge Maintenance gives a general guidance on how to adequately carry out
various bridge maintenance activities as recommended during bridge inspection. In any case this
handbook should therefore not be taken as ‘The Solution’. Engineering ingenuity and judgment in the
preparation of working methods for each bridge maintenance activity must be employed.
This handbook presents, in a simple and understandable form, different bridge elements and materials,
their description, defects associated to them, maintenance activities and their applications, work
procedures for maintenance activities, scheduling and measurement and payment.
I urge everyone involved in the management of bridges to put this handbook into use in order to come
forward with practical suggestions and recommendations which could be utilised to improve
subsequent editions.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................1
2.0 MATERIALS..............................................................................................................................................2
2.1 CONCRETE.............................................................................................................................................2
2.1.1 Quality requirements for Concrete ......................................................................................................2
2.2 STEEL......................................................................................................................................................9
2.2.1 Quality requirements for Steel...........................................................................................................10
2.3 MASONRY............................................................................................................................................11
2.3.1 Quality requirements for Masonry ....................................................................................................11
2.4 TIMBER ................................................................................................................................................12
2.4.1 Quality requirements for Timber .......................................................................................................14
2.5 MATERIAL TESTING FOR EXISTING BRIDGES ............................................................................14
2.5.1 Rebound hammer test ........................................................................................................................14
2.5.2 Carbonation test ................................................................................................................................14
2.5.3 Concrete cover measuring.................................................................................................................15
2.5.4 Concrete core drilling........................................................................................................................15
3.0 MANAGEMENT OF BRIDGE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES.......................................................16
3.1 MAINTENANCE PLANNING .......................................................................................................................17
3.2 BRIDGE EMERGENCY MAINTENANCE......................................................................................................19
3.2.1 Preparedness .....................................................................................................................................19
3.2.2 Mitigation ..........................................................................................................................................20
3.2.3 Response ............................................................................................................................................20
3.2.4 Restoration.........................................................................................................................................20
3.3 MAINTENANCE EXECUTION...........................................................................................................21
3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................22
4.0 GUIDE FOR MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES ....................................................................................23
4.1 MAINTENANCE OF RIVER COURSE ...............................................................................................24
4.1.1 River cleaning....................................................................................................................................25
4.1.2 Underpinning.....................................................................................................................................26
4.1.3 River training.....................................................................................................................................29
4.1.4 Cut-off walls ......................................................................................................................................30
4.1.5 Rip-rap...............................................................................................................................................32
4.1.6 Stone pitching ....................................................................................................................................35
4.1.7 Gabions..............................................................................................................................................37
4.1.8 Piled walls .........................................................................................................................................41
4.1.9 Sand bags...........................................................................................................................................43
4.1.10 De-silting.......................................................................................................................................44
4.2 MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS .................................................................................45
4.2.1 Preparatory works .............................................................................................................................46
4.2.2 Shotcreting.........................................................................................................................................52
4.2.3 Ordinary Concrete Casting ...............................................................................................................54
4.2.4 Crack filling .......................................................................................................................................56
4.2.5 Surface treatment...............................................................................................................................58
4.2.6 Strengthening.....................................................................................................................................59
4.2.7 Plastering...........................................................................................................................................61
4.3 MAINTENANCE OF STEEL ELEMENTS ..........................................................................................62
4.3.1 Repainting..........................................................................................................................................63
4.3.2 Corrosion protection of corrugated steel culverts.............................................................................67
4.3.3 Strengthening and bracing ................................................................................................................69
4.3.4 Replacement.......................................................................................................................................71
4.4 MAINTENANCE OF MASONRY ELEMENTS ..................................................................................74
4.4.1 Crack filling .......................................................................................................................................75
4.4.2 Re-pointing ........................................................................................................................................76
4.4.3 Plastering...........................................................................................................................................78
4.4.4 Replacement of masonry units ...........................................................................................................80
4.5 MAINTENANCE OF TIMBER ELEMENTS .......................................................................................82
4.5.1 Treatment of the surface ....................................................................................................................84
iii
4.5.2 Replacement.......................................................................................................................................85
4.6 MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGE APPROACHES AND WEARING COURSE.....................................87
4.6.1 Patching of potholes ..........................................................................................................................88
4.6.2 Crack filling .......................................................................................................................................90
4.6.3 Resealing of the surface.....................................................................................................................91
4.6.4 Regravelling of the surface................................................................................................................93
4.6.5 Back-filling of eroded approach........................................................................................................95
4.6.6 Grass cutting......................................................................................................................................96
4.6.7 Grass planting ...................................................................................................................................98
4.6.8 Installation of bridge signs ................................................................................................................99
4.7 MAINTENANCE OF BEARINGS......................................................................................................100
4.7.1 Cleaning of bearings .......................................................................................................................101
4.7.2 Replacement of bearings..................................................................................................................103
4.7.3 Adjustment of bearings ....................................................................................................................105
4.7.4 Repair of bearing seats....................................................................................................................106
4.8 MAINTENANCE OF JOINTS ............................................................................................................107
4.8.1 Cleaning of joints.............................................................................................................................108
4.8.2 Fixing of cover plates ......................................................................................................................109
4.8.3 Armouring of the joints....................................................................................................................111
4.8.4 Resealing of the joints......................................................................................................................113
4.9 MAINTENANCE OF THE DECK AND DRAINAGE SYSTEM.......................................................114
4.9.1 Cleaning of the drainage system......................................................................................................115
4.9.2 Cleaning of the deck ........................................................................................................................117
4.9.3 Replacement of drain pipes .............................................................................................................118
4.9.4 Extension of drain pipes ..................................................................................................................120
4.10 MAINTENANCE OF PARAPETS......................................................................................................122
4.10.1 Steel parapets ..............................................................................................................................123
4.10.2 Concrete Parapets.......................................................................................................................125
5.0 BRIDGE PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE........................................................................................126
5.1 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE ..............................................................................................................126
5.2 PERIODIC MAINTENANCE .............................................................................................................126
6.0 REPORTS ...............................................................................................................................................128
6.1 REPORT FORMS .....................................................................................................................................128
6.2 DAILY SITE DIARY .................................................................................................................................130
6.3 MONTHLY REPORT ................................................................................................................................130
6.4 QUARTERLY REPORT ............................................................................................................................130
6.5 FINAL REPORT ......................................................................................................................................130
6.6 COMPUTER SYSTEM ..............................................................................................................................130
7.0 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ....................................................................................................................132
7.1 PLAN FOR WORKERS HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS .....................................................................132
7.2 TRAFFIC CONTROL ................................................................................................................................133
7.3 CONSTRUCTION SITE.............................................................................................................................136
7.4 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT.....................................................................................................137
7.4.1 Labour .............................................................................................................................................138
7.4.2 Chemical Products ..........................................................................................................................138
7.5 EMERGENCY PLAN ................................................................................................................................138
iv
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Many of the bridges in service today in the country were built back in 1940s. By now, probably all of
these bridges are older than their typical design life. Typical design life for bridges can be between 50
and 100 years. This means that these bridges need to be rehabilitated, which is a very costly
undertaking.
Again quite a large number of bridges in operation today were designed for less and smaller traffic,
slower speeds and lighter loads than the current standard design requirements. Most of these bridges
have therefore become functionally outdated.
Harsh service and weather conditions, deferred maintenance and lack of adequate maintenance budget
for bridges gives rise to severe deterioration problems even to newer structures, making them
structurally deficient hence unsafe. With introduction of the Bridge Management system whose main
objective is management of bridge maintenance, budget allocation for bridge maintenance has increased
considerably. However, based on the number of old bridges in the network, additional effort is
necessary in order to ensure that these structures serve for as much period as possible before they are
replaced.
Maintenance activities for bridges are many and at times appear miscellaneous. This situation therefore
necessitates having a guide document for the staff dealing with bridge maintenance.
This handbook is designed to address the proper planning, prioritisation, execution and control in
Quality, Time and Cost of bridge maintenance activities. It has been prepared to be used as guide by
anybody charged with planning, execution and supervision of bridge works. It is neither meant to be
all-inclusive nor to rule out other maintenance procedures but rather a guidance to ensure cost-
effectiveness in bridge maintenance activities.
The Handbook begins with chapter one which provides an introduction and the overview of the
Handbook.
Chapter two gives a review of the basic materials used in bridges, their quality requirements and
workmanship.
Chapter three is about Maintenance Planning, Activity and Resource Scheduling and Work execution
Chapter Four describes various bridge maintenance activities, where and when they are applied
including guidelines of the work procedures and how measurements and payments are made.
Explanation on Preventive Maintenance is made on Chapter Five which is followed by schedule of
reporting for Daily, Monthly and Quarterly in chapter six.
The Maintenance Handbook has devoted one full chapter on safety precautions during repairs and
maintenance.
The Handbook has tried as much as it was possible to elaborate maintenance activities by sketches,
diagrams and photographs.
1
2.0 MATERIALS
Most bridge maintenance activities are carried out using materials of one type or another. The output of
the maintenance works highly depends on the right selection of material. This chapter is meant to
highlight on the required quality and preparation of different materials used in bridge maintenance
works such as concrete, steel, masonry and timber.
For materials that have to be prepared like concrete and masonry, more information is given on the
procedures for preparing them and for those materials that have to be selected like steel and timber,
explanation on the defects to be avoided has been given.
2.1 CONCRETE
Concrete is among the most widely used construction material and is a vital material for bridge
maintenance works. Concrete is usually made from a mixture of cement, sand (fine aggregates), coarse
aggregates and water. Some chemical admixtures are sometimes added into the concrete mix in order to
alter or improve the properties of the fresh or hardened concrete or both.
During preparation of concrete, the above components are mixed in specific proportions according to
the required strength of the concrete. The main determinant in any mix is normally the cement. As a
general principle, the higher the amount of cement in a mix the higher the strength of the concrete.
However, increasing the cement content of a mix beyond the necessary amount for the required strength
results in higher shrinkage. There are calculations for determination of the concrete ratios but are
beyond the scope of this handbook. Nevertheless, common ratios are 1:4:8 which is normally used for
blinding, 1:3:6 for mass concrete, 1:2:4 and 1:11/2:3 for reinforced concrete where the first number
stands for cement, the second is sand and the third shows coarse aggregates.
The ratio between water and cement known as a water-cement ratio is very important when preparing
concrete. This ratio varies from 0.4 - 0.7 depending on the method of compaction and degree of dryness
of the aggregates.
Concrete cast at the site is called in-situ concrete while concrete cast outside the structure is called pre-
cast concrete.
2.1.1 Quality requirements for Concrete

The success of all concrete related maintenance activities depends upon the quality of the concrete and
the manner in which it is placed.
The quality of concrete highly depends on the quality of its constituent materials, preparation and its
care after preparation. For best results particularly for high precision works, proportioning the
constituent materials by weight is recommendable. This however, is not always possible and so
proportioning by volume is mostly used. Concrete for bridge maintenance works shall comply with the
requirements for strength of concrete as specified in the Ministry of Works, Standard Specification for
Road Works 2000 Sub clause 6404.
Cement
Cement should be dry before use and must not contain any lumps of hardened cement. Cement should
not be stored on-site for more than six weeks. It should be used as quickly as possible. However, if the
cement has to be stored for sometime before use within the six weeks, it has to be carefully handled to
avoid breakage and spillage and must be stored in a well-ventilated dry shed to avoid moisture and
other factors which may lead to deterioration of the cement. The cement bags have to be arranged in
such a way that maximum ventilation between the bags is achieved. They should be raised by at least
30 cm above the floor level so that they will not be in contact with the ground floor or the walls.
Different brands of cement shall be stored separately.
Types of cement used in concrete works may be any of the following: (a) Ordinary Portland cement or
Rapid hardening Portland cement. (b) Portland blast-furnace cement and (c) Sulphate-resistant cement.
Of all these types, Ordinary Portland cement is the one that is commonly used and the use of the other
2
types will be subject to approval of the Engineer.
Sand
Sand is sometimes termed as fine aggregates and have particles of cross sectional size less than 4.75
mm. Sand may be found in riverbeds, pits, lakes and sea shores. Sand should be free from excessive
quantities of silt, any impurities or dirt. A simple test for dirt and impurities is to fill half a glass with
the sample of sand, then add some water up to 3/4 full. The mixture is then well shaken and left still for
about two hours to allow it to settle. If more than 5% of the height of materials is impurities, dirt or clay
then the sand will have to be cleaned before use. Seashore sand is not recommended for use in bridge
works due to the presence of chlorides that cause efflorescence and corrosion to reinforcement.
However, if it should be used, then it must be thoroughly washed with clean water ensuring that all
chlorides are removed before accepting it for use. Angular grained sand has good interlocking
properties and is therefore better than round grained sand.
Coarse aggregates
Coarse aggregates are crushed or natural stones with size more than 4.75 mm but normally not
exceeding 32 mm. Sometimes aggregates of up to 50 mm in size may be used in mass concrete. They
should be chemically inactive, strong, hard, durable, non-porous, clean and free from any organic
matters or excessive quantities of dust. In common practice, suitable and strong aggregates should have
an Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) of about 30 - 40% and should comply with requirements of the
Ministry of Works Standard Specification for Road Works 2000, Sub clause 6402(b). Aggregates from
seabed should never be used unless they are thoroughly washed with clean water.
Normally, the aggregates have to be graded in order to have variation in size of the aggregates so that
smaller aggregates fill spaces between the bigger aggregates and form dense and strong concrete.
Grading of aggregates can be checked by sieve analysis the results of which are normally reported in
tabular form as shown below.
Fig. 2.1.1: Example of Sieve Analysis given in tabular form.
However, the results of a sieve analysis can be more easily grasped if presented graphically. For this
reason grading curves are normally used where it is possible to see just at a glance whether the grading
of a given sample of aggregates conforms to the specifications. The following graph shows an example
of a grading curve using the data shown in Table 2.1 above.
3
Fig. 2.1.2: Example of Aggregates Grading Curve
If only single size aggregates are available at the nearby quarries, then a minimum of two sizes shall be
purchased and mixed in equal proportions in order to produce a reasonable grading. Flat shaped
aggregates shall be avoided.
Water
Clean water is the most appropriate water for concrete. Water for concrete works shall be free from
impurities, acids, alkali, sugar, salt and other organic or chemical substances. If only some dirty water
is available, then it has to be stored in containers to allow for the dirt to settle down and the upper water
can be used.
Proportioning
For small scale concrete works, which are common in bridge maintenance works, proportioning of the
constituent materials is mostly done by volume. The batching should be done accurately in order to
attain the required strength of concrete. For easy batching a wooden box with a volume of 0.036m3 that
is equivalent to the volume of one bag of cement can be prepared. A box of internal dimensions of 30
cm x 30 cm x 40 cm or 20cm x 40 cm x 45 cm attains a volume of 0.036m3. Depending on conditions
at site a box with any of the internal dimensions above can be used in proportioning the constituent
materials of concrete.
Fig. 2.1.3: Two shapes of the Batching Box.
The proportioning is done according to the specific ratios depending on the required strength of
4
concrete according to design. For each bag of cement, the quantities of other materials can be measured
using the batching box. For example, with a concrete ratio 1:2:4, each bag of cement has to be mixed
with 2 batching boxes full of sand and 4 full of coarse aggregates. The box should not be overfilled but
has to be filled to the brim and flattened. Therefore, a 1:2:4 concrete mix is equivalent to the following:
Fig. 2.1.4: Proportioning of aggregates using a batching box.
For hand mixed concrete, the proportion for water is usually between 23 and 27 litres per bag of
cement, depending on the type and moisture content of the aggregates and the ratio of the concrete. For
machine mixed concrete, the amount of water may be reduced to about 20 litres per bag of cement.
The following table shows different concrete grades and their ratios, use and proportioning:
Table 2.1.1: Concrete grades, ratios, use and proportioning.
Mixing and handling

Apart from the use of good constituent materials for concrete mixing, concreting should preferably be
carried out early in the morning, before the sun has had time to warm up the aggregate stockpiles. If
rain is forecast for the day, concrete work should be postponed.
Mixing the constituent materials for production of concrete can be done by hand or by use of a concrete
5
mixer. When mixing concrete by hand the following procedure may be followed:
Prior to starting mixing, a mixing platform must be prepared. The platform may be made of concrete,
metal sheets or timber boards. Concrete should never be prepared on soil. The size of the platform has
to allow for a continuous concrete mixing, it may be of 4m x 6m in area. A batch to be mixed in one
operation should not exceed 0.5m3, which is more or less equivalent to 12 batching boxes of coarse
aggregates for a mix of 1:2:4.
The mixing operation involves three stages, namely; mixing a dry mix of cement and sand followed by
addition of coarse aggregates and its mixing and lastly addition of water and final mixing. The
proportion for sand is normally the one to be placed and slightly spread on the platform followed by
that for cement, which is spread evenly over the sand. After proportioning the two constituents on the
platform, the mixing operation is performed by shovels. In this case, the labourers facing each other
from the opposite sides of the pile turn the dry mix of sand and cement from the original heap to a new
widely spread heap. This is repeated until the mix is uniform in colour.
The cement sand mix is then spread and coarse aggregates are proportioned and uniformly spread over
it. The mixture is then mixed in a similar way as that for the cement sand mixture up to when a uniform
colour is attained.
Water is then sprinkled gradually while the mix is turned over and over until a uniform consistency is
reached and good workability attained.
In the case of mixing using a concrete mixer, a batch for one operation will be determined by the
capacity of the mixer. Prior to the mixing operation, the inner surface of the mixer should first be
cleaned ensuring that any hardened concrete is removed. After placing the proportioned mixture in the
machine, the machine is started and a dry mix is prepared first. After attaining a uniform colour of the
mix, water is added slowly until a uniform consistency is attained.
Care should be taken when handling concrete works and dry cement, cement paste and fresh concrete
should not be touched with bare hands. Cement in any of these forms may crack bare skin and lead to
bleeding and infection.
Placing and Compacting

Concrete should be placed and compacted using appropriate tools before initial setting commences
which is normally up to 30 minutes after water has been introduced to the mix. The method of placing
must not allow for the segregation of the concrete. Prior to placing of concrete, the formworks and
reinforcements should be rigidly fixed. Thereafter, the formwork should be cleaned free from dirt,
remains of binding wires or nails and if possible oiled otherwise moistened.
The concrete should be vibrated using a poker vibrator. The vibration compacts the fresh concrete by
eliminating the air pockets trapped in the mix during the mixing. Concrete that is over-vibrated, on the
other hand, causes separation or segregation of the aggregates. In Fig. 2.1.5, the poker has been
operated in a haphazard manner producing a substandard concrete. In order to achieve the right
standard of compaction the poker should be worked into the concrete at regular intervals in an orderly
fashion as shown in Fig. 2.1.6. Each successive layer should not be deeper than 300 mm.
Fig. 2.1.5: The incorrect use of the concrete vibrator. Fig. 2.1.6: The correct use of the concrete vibrator.
6
After placing the concrete, it should not be disturbed until the formwork is ready for removal as
provided in the Ministry of Works, Standard Specifications for Road Works 2000, Sub clause 6206
“Removing the Falsework and Formwork”.
However, when the concrete has to be cast in more than one layer, the top of the preceding layer shall
be re-vibrated together with the new layer. Any re-vibration of concrete shall normally be completed
within half an hour after placing.
Fig 2.1.7: Vibration of concrete cast in more than one layer.
Curing
Curing of concrete is most essential for attaining the required strength. The period for curing depends
on atmospheric conditions such as temperature, humidity and wind velocity but normally not less than
seven days. Curing can be done by daily sprinkling some water on the concrete, as frequently as
possible but normally, it is better to cover the surface in order to reduce evaporation and prevent the
concrete from drying out too rapidly. For slabs, better results may be attained by covering the surface
with empty cement bags, sand, grass or saw dust that have to be dampened from time to time for a
period of at least seven days. For piers, it is recommendable to wrap them with sacks that have to be
frequently dampened.
Quality Control
Quality control is a follow-up exercise carried out at site to ensure that the materials used for
production of concrete are of the required quality and the mix proportions are adhered to as closely as
possible with the available site facilities. It also includes the control testing of the concrete both at its
fresh and hardened state to ensure that it conforms to the design requirements and take corrective
measures where there are significant deviations.
Quality control is important for all concrete works no matter how small it might seem. Quality control
is achieved by different tests that are carried out during and after preparation of concrete. Apart from
the simple tests for quality of aggregates and water, the common quality control tests for concrete are
Slump test and Cube tests.
For very important works, sample concrete has to be prepared and tested in advance to check whether
the proportions meet the desired concrete specifications.
Slump Test
Slump test is the simplest and most widely used concrete test for workability. The necessary tools for
this test include a standard slump cone, steel tamping rod, steel plate and a folding ruler or any other
measuring instrument.
The slump cone is open at both ends and is made of strong metal. The cone size is 10 cm inside
diameter at the top, 20 cm at the bottom and a height of 30 cm. The cone should have two pedals to
stand on in order to hold it steady and two handles for lifting it. The steel tamping rod is normally
round headed with a diameter of 16mm and 600mm long. The steel plate for the test is 60 cm x 60 cm.
7
Slump cone Steel plate

Fig. 2.1.6: Equipment for slump test
The test involves placing of fresh concrete in the standard cone in four equal layers tamping 25 times
on each layer using the steel rod. The cone is then lifted off, and the slump is defined as the reduction in
height of the concrete. Normally, the concrete should retain the overall shape of the cone and not
collapse or shear. The concrete with excess water or segregation of the constituent materials will
collapse while a mix with inadequate consistency or low mortar content will mostly shear. Whenever a
shear or collapse slump is obtained, the test should be repeated.
True Shear Collapse
Fig. 2.1.7: Types of slumps
A true slump is measured by resting the tamping rod on top of the empty cone that has been put beside
the concrete, so that it reaches over the concrete, then, the height between the rod and the top most part
of the concrete is measured.
Fig. 2.1.8: Measuring the slump
8
The slump should conform to the requirements of Clause 6404 (e) Consistency and Workability of the
Standard Specifications for Road Works 2000. However, the ideal slump for most practical purposes is
50 mm, that is, the top of the concrete cone will sink 50 mm. Should the concrete not slump by the
required slump, a bit more water should be added to the mix by about 0.5 litre at a time using a
measuring can and not directly with a water hose and the whole test repeated until the slump reaches
the requirement.
Cube Test
Cube test is a test done at site to check whether the concrete used has the required strength. The
required tools for this test include a cube mould, steel tamping rod and a trowel. There are two standard
sizes of the cube mould, a 10cm cube which is applicable for concrete with a maximum aggregate size
of 20mm or less and a 15cm cube that is applicable for a maximum aggregate size up to 40mm. In
Tanzania, the 15 cm cube is the one normally used.
In this test, the cubes are checked first to be sure that the inside faces are very smooth and have no
hardened mortar or dirt of any kind. The cubes are then assembled ensuring that all the internal angles
are at right angles. The inside of the moulds must be oiled to prevent concrete from sticking to it. A
sample of concrete is filled in a cube mould in three equal layers and fully compacted by tamping
uniformly on each layer about 35 times using the steel rod. The excess concrete is cut using the corner
of a trowel and the surface is trowelled smooth. When the concrete has hardened, the mould is opened
and the cube sample is cured under water up to the testing day.
The test is carried out using a cube-testing machine. The sample is normally placed between the two
heavy compressing plates of the machine ensuring that the cube is placed such that the compression
force is applied to a pair of faces that were cast against the mould. This means that the troweled side
will not be one of the compressed faces. Cubes are normally tested after 7 days, 14 days and 28 days.
2.2 STEEL
Steel is manufactured in factories and provided in different shapes according to requirements. Steel is
normally produced according to standard specifications where all relevant properties are given. The
different types and shapes of steel are used in bridge construction according to design.
Ordinary steel is standardised in different qualities, depending on the strength and other qualities like
weldability and ductility. Tensile strength is usually given as the ultimate strength of a tensioned bar.
The standards differ from one country to another and British standards have been adopted for use in
Tanzania at present.
Steel beams are the ones mostly used as bridge elements and they consist of either rolled wide flange
beams known as H-Beams, rolled comparatively narrow flange beams known as I-Beams or
prefabricated girders (for longer spans) made up of flanges, webs and stiffeners that are welded or
riveted together.
The stages of the rolling process for producing a rolled H beam are shown in the figure below.
Fig. 2.2.1: Stages of producing rolled H beam sections.
9
Welded Girder
Riveted Girder
Fig. 2.2.2: Parts of Riveted and Welded Girders.
It is important to recognize the difference between rolled beams and prefabricated girders.
Rolled beams are easier to maintain because:
• The webs are an integral part of the flanges since the beams are rolled out of one piece of steel and
the webs are significantly thicker than prefabricated girder webs.
• The beams have smoother lines with no stiffeners to trap moisture and debris on the bottom flange.
Prefabricated girders are more vulnerable to deterioration due to the following:

• They have relatively thin webs (some as thin as 10mm) which can corrode through fairly quickly
once corrosion begins.
• The large number of stiffeners needed to stiffen the relatively thin webs trap debris and moisture
on the bottom flanges and are more difficult to paint because of the partitions.
• Riveted girders are made up many plates and angles sandwiched together and held with rivets to
form thicker flanges. Although riveted girders are no longer manufactured, many were used in
construction of old girder bridges and still have to be maintained).
• These sandwiched plates have many crevices which retain moisture and once corrosion begins, it
is very difficult to stop.
• The more modern, welded girders do not have the problems that riveted girders have, but they still
have thin webs and need to have weld details which are not prone to long-term fatigue cracking.
Prefabricated girders are however important due to their capacity to provide longer bridge spans and
thus avoid many piers in the river course which normally become expensive.
2.2.1 Quality requirements for Steel

Apart from ensuring that the selected steel corresponds to the design specifications, steel should be free
from corrosion. Rust stains are normally difficult to avoid on stored steel and therefore slight rust stains
that can be easily cleaned out should not be taken as serious issue. The steel for use in bridge works
should not have any lumps, cavities or cracks. All steel sections should have their original shapes and
size. They should have their original uniform colour and texture. Any signs of variation in colour or
texture must be carefully examined before accepting it for use. Cutting for sizing should be done
properly mostly using gas cutting but should be done in such a way that a straight surface without
lumps of overheated steel is attained.
Steel should be stored in sheds to keep it out of direct rainfall and preferably off the ground otherwise
the storage shed should have a concrete floor. The shed should be cleaned frequently in order to prevent
10
accumulation of dirt that might facilitate start of corrosion. If storage under shed is impossible for any
reason, steel should be stored about 150 mm off the ground and covered by waterproof sheets.
Fig. 2.2.3: Steel bars should be lifted off the ground by at least 150mm.
All welding works for structural steel should be done properly and always according to specifications.
When welding is done to massive steel structures sharp corners of the welding should be avoided as
these form concentration of stresses that might lead to failure of the structure. This is done by notching
the corners of the member to be welded as shown in the sketch below. In the case where welding must
have a sharp corner within one surface, a hole has to be drilled at the corner.
Notching of corners
Fig. 2.2.4: Reduction of stresses at corners in welding.
When the reinforcement has to be bent, the bending shall be done only after being completely sure that
the dimensions are correct. This is important because once the reinforcement steel is bent it shall not be
straightened again for another bend or different use since it loses most of its properties.
2.3 MASONRY
Masonry is normally used for construction of gravity elements of bridges like gravity abutments, piers,
retaining walls, wing walls, culverts headwalls etc. Based on the type of masonry units there may be
stone masonry, brick masonry or block masonry. There is also a so-called composite masonry where
different types of masonry units or masonry units with concrete are used but this is not common in
Tanzania.
2.3.1 Quality requirements for Masonry

The quality of masonry is fully dependent on the quality of its elements, binder and workmanship.
Stones
The stones to be used for stone masonry should be strong, hard, durable and free from any defects such
as cracks, splits, cavities, etc. The stones should be obtained only from approved sources and when
11
making selection, the intention should be to have stones of uniform size as much as possible.
Bricks and Blocks

Bricks and blocks for bridge works should be properly prepared and cured. They should be of uniform
dimensions and shape. Bricks or blocks should be soaked in water prior to their use in masonry works.
This is done in order to reduce the possibility of these masonry units to extract water from the joining
mortar thus affecting the strength of the joints.
Cement mortar
The cement mortar should meet the required strength that is determined by the ratio of the constituent
materials of mortar. For all masonry construction, a mortar of ratio 1:3 is recommendable. The mortar
should be well mixed to attain uniformity. Quality requirements for the cement, sand and water are the
same as those stated for these materials under concrete.
Workmanship
For masonry construction the following requirements should be born in mind:
♦ Masonry should be raised uniformly to avoid the possibility of formation of unequal distribution
of load on the foundation, which may lead to differential settlement.
♦ The masonry units should be thoroughly watered before use in order to prevent them from
absorbing water from the mortar.
♦ Formation of vertical straight joints must always be avoided.
♦ For brick and block masonry a proper bond should be maintained all the time.
♦ When it is necessary to carry out new masonry construction over an old or dry one, the surface of
the old one should be well cleaned and wetted before starting the construction.
♦ The joints should be properly pointed by first removing mortar along the joints to a minimum
depth of about 1.5 cm then applying a weathered pointing. Otherwise flush pointing is the easiest
and is the one widely used in Tanzania at present. The most common type of weathering for
bridges is square weathering as shown below.
Fig 2.3.1: Pointing
♦ When the construction is completed, the whole work should be cured for at least 1 week.
2.4 TIMBER
Timber is used for bridge decks, columns, parapets and bridge trusses. Timber is cut from trees, which
are the products of nature and time. However, serious environmental problems can be caused by the
overuse or misuse of nature's important products like timber. A balance should always be reached
between the environmental impact that may be caused by the use of timber and the expected benefit.
Timber for use in bridge works should be well selected in order to avoid use of timber with defects,
12
which may lead to higher maintenance costs. Unlike many of the other materials used in construction,
timber cannot be manufactured to a particular specification. So, the best use has to be made of the type
of timber that is available.
There are some special types of damage related to timber and the necessary precaution that is required
in order to maintain the quality of timber. The most common damage is timber decay and attack from
insects and marine borers. Timber decay can be minimised by protecting timber. In very dry areas, it
will be possible to have long service life without much protection work. It is possible to protect timber
by constructive methods or chemicals. The constructive method is achieved by designing a structure in
such a way that timber is used in a manner that can not facilitate decay.
The chemical protection can be divided into surface coating, application of liquids that have some
penetration qualities and liquids that are pressed into the timber. The surface coating is done for both
protection and aesthetic reasons. Use of pressure impregnation to timber will increase the service life
substantially. Impregnated timber is therefore very useful in timber bridges.
There are two main types of liquid used for pressure impregnation, namely; waterborne salt
impregnation and oil based, mostly creosote impregnation.
The durability of the different types of treatment differs very much. It depends on a good combination
of the construction design, how well the preservation is performed and the quantity of water from
rainfalls. The following table may be used as a guide of duration for the two types of treatment:
Treatment Duration Remarks

Without treatment 1-2 year In very dry areas it can last for many years
Treated with coating/stain 1-4 years In very dry areas it can last for many years
Pressure impregnation with CCA 20-40 In very dry areas it can last for a very long time
years
Pressure impregnation with 40-60 In very dry areas it can last for a very long time
creosote years
Fig. 2.4.1: Time duration for different types of treatments.
Constructive methods or chemicals can also be used for prevention of attack from insects and marine
borers. The chemical protection could be use of creosote pressure impregnation.
In principal it is possible to protect the timber in four different ways.
1. Timber protection by design
• Design of the construction.
• Covering.
2. Chemical protection (pressure treatment)
• Use of oil-type preservatives like creosote or coal tar and pentachlorophenol. These
preservatives protect timber efficiently against rot, insects and marine borers. They also
prevent it from absorbing water. However, it could cause skin irritations. Timber treated in
this way should not therefore be used for handrails. When working with such preservatives
or timber treated using them, gloves should be used all the time.
• Use of waterborne preservatives like CCA (Copper, Chromium, Arsenic) and CCP (Copper,
Chromium, Phosphor). They protect timber efficiently against rot. However, they do not
change the ability of the wood to absorb water.
3. Chemical wood protection by diffusion with boron.
4.Timber surface treatment
• Application of paints.
• Application of stains.
13
• Dipping.
2.4.1 Quality requirements for Timber

Timber should be free from any decay, insect attack, growth faults or any deformation and should be
well treated before use. Timber to be used should have adequate strength and other properties according
to design.
2.5 MATERIAL TESTING FOR EXISTING BRIDGES

Testing of material for the existing bridges is sometimes necessary in order to decide properly on the
appropriate maintenance solution. There are two categories of material testing for existing bridges that
are non-destructive tests and destructive tests. The common non-destructive tests include rebound
hammer test, carbonation test and electromagnetic cover measurement while destructive tests include
concrete core drilling and taking of steel samples.
2.5.1 Rebound hammer test

This is a test for surface hardness of concrete, which can be converted into concrete strength using
conversion curves. The test is carried out using a rebound hammer and the most common type is
Schmidt hammer.
The plunger of the rebound hammer is gradually pressed on the surface to be tested. When the impact
occurs, a knob near the base of the hammer is pressed in order to fix the reading. The hardness of the
surface is then recorded from a linear scale that is graduated in empirical rebound numbers.
The empirical relationship between the rebound number and the strength of concrete has been
established and put in conversion curves, which can be used to determine the concrete strength. The
rebound hammer test is however, applicable for vertical and horizontal surfaces only.
Care should be taken when carrying out this test as it does not take into account other concrete
properties. For example, for concrete with carbonation, the surface hardness may be very high giving
misleading results on the concrete strength.
2.5.2 Carbonation test

Carbonation is a reaction of Calcium Hydroxide in the concrete with Carbon dioxide from the air. The
depth of carbonation depends on the depth to which Carbon dioxide can penetrate into the concrete.
Carbonation in concrete is not desirable because it reduces alkalinity leading to a considerable
reduction of protection it provides to the reinforcement against corrosion.
Carbonation test is carried out using phenolphthalein that is sprayed on a freshly exposed concrete
surface. Concrete is carbonated if the colour of the sprayed surface does not change. A change of colour
to pink-red indicates that the concrete is not carbonated.
The carbonation test can be carried out either by taking samples of concrete by drilling cores of at least
50mm in diameter or by directly chiselling or drilling a hole on the concrete element to be tested.
Before spraying the phenolphthalein, the surface of the core or the hole must be cleaned free of any
loose particles.
The test shall be carried out immediately after taking the core sample or drilling the hole because the
concrete surface is carbonated relatively fast that if the test is delayed, it may give misleading results.
The final depth of concrete carbonation should be determined based on a mean value of several tests on
the same element. At least 3 tests have to be made on an element and should be done at the location
where maximum carbonation is expected like the soffits of beams or under the deck slabs. Surfaces that
are exposed to rains should be avoided when carrying out carbonation test.
14
2.5.3 Concrete cover measuring

Inadequate concrete cover on reinforcement may lead to easy corrosion of the reinforcement which in
turn may cause other types of damage to the concrete. Excessive concrete cover may also lead to cracks
in concrete particularly in tension zones.
Concrete cover is determined using an electromagnetic cover measuring device. The device generates a
magnetic field that is normally uniform when passed over the surface of plain concrete but can be
interfered by the reinforcement when passed over the surface of a reinforced concrete. The instrument
normally indicates the interference by a beeping sound. The beeping sound therefore, indicates the
location of reinforcement. The depth to which this instrument detects reinforcement differs but some
instruments can go as deep as 10cm.
The procedure for measuring concrete cover may slightly differ depending on the type of instrument
but is normally divided in two stages. The first stage is to detect and mark location of the
reinforcement. This is done by passing the instrument detector over the surface of concrete and marking
the spots where the instrument beeps. The exercise should be done slowly, in a straight line and in the
logical direction where the reinforcement may be crossed. Using a different colour for marking, the
exercise should also be done in the perpendicular direction in order to locate all reinforcement. The
pattern of reinforcement is obtained by rationally joining the marked spots for both directions by
straight lines.
The second stage is to determine the cover and diameter of reinforcement. This is done by placing the
detector on the lines of the marked pattern where the instrument provides readings for both cover and
diameter.
It is worth mentioning that in the case of congested reinforcement or where reinforcement is done in
several layers, the interpretation of the readings may be difficult. The cover measuring activity becomes
much easier if the diameters of the reinforcement are known in advance.
2.5.4 Concrete core drilling

Drilling of cores in concrete is done in order to take concrete samples for determination of compressive
strength, shear strength and for carbonation test. This method is applied when other non-destructive
methods can not provide reliable results.
Before the drilling exercise commences, the location of reinforcement should be determined first using
an electromagnetic cover-measuring instrument. This is done in order to avoid locations with
reinforcement when drilling. In addition, any available drawings should be studied to identify main
reinforcement. Places for taking core samples are normally selected at random but fairly in order to get
representative results. For example, for vertical structures where the strength at top is generally known
to be lower than that at the bottom, samples from both parts should be taken.
Means of fitting in place the core-drilling machine differ depending on the type of machine and
directions on the fitting procedures are given for each machine. These have to be studied carefully
before starting the fitting activity. Directions on the procedure for drilling should also be followed
precisely.
The size of cores may differ depending on the reinforcement spacing and the type of structure being
tested but the aim is normally a diameter of 100mm and a variable length depending on the type of test
required. The common length for compressive strength test, shear strength test and carbonation test is
usually 100mm.
It is important to point out and remind that core samples provide a good opportunity to see the inner
side of any concrete element. Therefore, whenever taking core samples, the opportunity should be used
for observation of any obvious damage or defect in the concrete, which should be recorded and reported
accordingly.
The drilled core samples should be properly handled, named and well stored if required.
15
3.0 MANAGEMENT OF BRIDGE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES

Maintenance activities for bridges are many and their applications differ from case to case. Apart from
the diversity of bridge maintenance activities, the number of bridges involved in each region is large.
Such being the case, without proper planning and control during execution, the ultimate goal of
restoration of the damaged bridges and up-keeping of the undamaged ones through routine, periodic
and preventive maintenance works might not be reached.
It is in this regard that this chapter is dedicated to providing proper guide on the maintenance
management that includes planning, programming and control of quality, cost and time for maintenance
activities. The maintenance activities are divided into the following types:
Bridge Major Repairs
Bridge major repairs involve major modifications and remedies that are executed in order to
change the status of the bridge or restore a damaged bridge element and raise the structural
standard of the bridge. Examples could be replacement of temporary bridges, replacement of
bridge decks, widening of bridges, strengthening of beams, etc.
Bridge Minor Repairs
Bridge minor repairs involve remedies that must be executed in order to restore a damaged
bridge element without raising the structural standard of the bridge. Examples could be
replacement of damaged elements, underpinning, etc.
Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance involves activities that are carried out in order to avoid an obvious or
predicted possible damage to the structure. These activities have two categories that include
maintenance of routine nature and periodic preventive maintenance.
Routine Maintenance
The bridge preventive maintenance of routine nature involves activities that are carried out
regularly in order to keep the structure in a good working condition. The activities include
mainly cleaning operations for bridge decks, bearings and bearing shelves, joints, drainage
systems, traffic signs etc.
Periodic Maintenance
The bridge preventive maintenance of periodic nature includes repainting of steel, cracks
filling, protection works, etc.
Emergency Maintenance
Emergency maintenance involves all remedial works to serious damage caused by unexpected
incidents like floods or other catastrophic events.
The actual management of maintenance as a whole starts with individual maintenance activities. Proper
management can therefore, be easily achieved if success is attained in planning, execution and control
of the individual maintenance activities. Proper planning, execution and control of maintenance
activities depend on the following factors:
♦ Favourable period of execution.
♦ Types and quantity of serviceable equipment available.
♦ Types and quantity of materials and labour force available.
♦ Availability of qualified contractors.
♦ The site conditions.
♦ Sequence of activities/working programme.
The above factors therefore, play an important role in the overall management of maintenance activities
16
in the regions.
3.1 Maintenance planning

Except for routine maintenance, planning is similar for all of the above types of maintenance activities.
In the case of routine maintenance, it is more economical to carry out the routine maintenance activities
for bridges along a particular road rather than by selected structures. The priority for routine
maintenance is based on the importance of the structures and the road in question. A bar chart may be
drawn showing the roads along which the routine maintenance activities will be carried out. The bar
chart should also show types of routine maintenance activities required along each listed road.
Fig. 3.1.1: A Routine Maintenance Programme
17
In the case of the other types of maintenance activities as mentioned above, they have to be treated as
individual projects. Proper planning of any bridge maintenance project including the programme of
works has to be prepared using an appropriate scheduling method. This is mainly the use of any
“Network Analysis Method” for which it is essential to have a fairly accurate estimate of duration for
each activity of the project. In bridge maintenance projects, it is more appropriate to use the “Critical
Path Method” (CPM) where all the details together with the total duration of the project can be
determined. Programmes of the individual projects will be useful when preparing the regional annual
bridge maintenance programme and long term plans. They are also useful in preparing national
maintenance plans when required.
In scheduling the works, it must be borne in mind that sometimes, the works may have to stop due to
weather conditions. One of the purposes of planning is to minimise the idle time due to such conditions.
The working schedule should show the requirement and allocation of resources at any time. Before the
schedule is approved, it is necessary to ensure that the allocated resources can be obtained when
required. In addition, it must be confirmed that the level of the allocated resources is suitable from the
technical point of view. It must be remembered that a crowd of labourers in one activity will hinder the
intended productivity due to lack of adequate working space and difficulty in control.
A maintenance plan is prepared based on the results from the bridge inspection. In the plan, bridges
with higher priority should be attended first.
In the case of contracted works, the contractor shall work out detailed plans as explained above. Such
working plans have to be approved by the Regional Manager.
The following are examples of a maintenance plan and programme of works:
Fig. 3.1.2: An example of a 3 Years Bridge Maintenance Plan
Based on the Bridge Maintenance Plan, an Annual Bridge Maintenance Programme has to be prepared.
The purpose of the bridge maintenance programme is to provide guide on the time of execution,
duration and cost for various maintenance activities to be carried out in one financial year.
The programme should show all bridges to be maintained in the current financial year including the
required maintenance activities, duration of each activity and the budget requirement for the activities.
18
Fig. 3.1.3: An example of a Bridge Maintenance Programme
3.2 Bridge Emergency Maintenance

Bridge emergency cases occur frequently countrywide. It is therefore important that a mechanism
which will assist in attending such cases is in place. This sub-chapter will focus on four major
components for planning on emergencies which are preparedness, mitigation, response and restoration.
3.2.1 Preparedness
Planning, training and coordination is necessary in order to respond to an emergency or disaster event.
When an emergency occurs, the Regional Managers Offices should carry out initial assessment of the
damage and if it is a minor damage, it can be resolved by the region. TANROADS HQ coordinates
major emergency cases.
Training has been conducted for at least one staff member from each region on attending emergency
cases in form of assembly and launching of the mostly used Mabey emergency bridges and these
members of staff can assist during minor emergency cases. In case of a major emergency event, the
neighbouring Regional Managers Offices should allow their trained staff to participate in the attending
of the emergency when requested by the Headquarters. The Regional Manager’s Office in which the
event has occurred should co-ordinate with the Police Departments if necessary for traffic management
during execution of the work.
19
3.2.2 Mitigation
It is understood that natural disasters cannot be controlled, but there are things that can be done to
minimize the damage to property. Most of the preventive maintenance activities carried out are targeted
at reducing the impact in case of emergency. The Regional Managers Offices should therefore have this
in mind when planning for bridge preventive maintenance.
3.2.3 Response
When a disaster, whether natural or technological occurs, TANROADS HQ works in an advisory and
supporting role to coordinate the response and support as appropriate the affected Regional Managers
Office. Such support includes timely provision of the required emergency resources if available. The
role of the Regional Managers Offices should be the direct execution of the works for minor events and
co-operate with the TANROADS HQ in execution of the works for major emergency cases.
3.2.4 Restoration
The emergency structures are meant for temporary use only during the period when the damaged
structures are being restored. In the restoration phase the Regional Managers Offices should plan on the
restoration means and costs involved. Based on the magnitude of the restoration costs the works can be
executed using emergency funds or included in the budget for the next financial year.
It has to be remembered that the current emergency case has been resolved because of the availability
of the emergency resources in store and as such a similar event needs to be attended using these
resources if it happens. All efforts should therefore be made to ensure that the damaged structure is
restored as soon as possible and in a maximum of a three year period.
20
3.3 MAINTENANCE EXECUTION

Execution of any maintenance activity includes preparatory activities like procurement and
mobilisation, actual works, finishing works including cleaning and demobilisation. Various resources
including labour, material, tools and equipment are used at different stages of any maintenance activity.
Proper control of these resources is therefore essential in order to accomplish the activity within the
required time and cost and reaching the required quality. Material, labour, tools and equipment should
be made available where, when and in the quantity required.
The first exercise during execution of a maintenance activity is to plan the site by locating space for site
offices, storage areas and other services like living camp, toilets including power and water supply.
Security arrangements should also be planned in advance. Working drawings should be completed at
this phase and any diversion or method of traffic control shall also be prepared.
The required material should be procured according to specifications and quantity and they should be
stored in a proper way to avoid damage. The storage should also favour easy flow and handling to the
point of final use. In particular, cement should be procured in quantities that can be utilised within a
reasonable time frame to avoid possible spoilage or loss of quality. Storage of cement at site should
preferably be a maximum of six weeks but should never exceed three months. A schedule of material
requirement shall be prepared showing when a given amount of each material shall be delivered to the
site.
Labour or work-force shall be deployed to the site when all other preparations are completed. The type
and number of work-force will be determined on the basis of planned operations. A schedule of labour
requirement should be prepared showing when each type and number will be required for each
operation. The recruitment of skilled labour should be done based on their background and experience
and if necessary, they should be given on the job training in order to improve working efficiency.
A site organisation chart or working programme schedule showing the working relationship shall be
prepared and each worker has to know to whom he/she shall report. It is important that each worker
knows his/her daily tasks and responsibilities in order to avoid confusion and enhance working
efficiency. The site supervisor shall plan the site activities in advance on a daily basis and all major or
important working instructions shall be in writing.
Normal working tools shall be kept on site for the whole duration of maintenance execution.
Specialised equipment, which is in most cases hired, shall be brought to the site only when required. An
equipment utilization schedule should therefore be prepared based on the maintenance execution
programme.
21
3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

Bridge maintenance activities will be carried out with due consideration of environmental protection.
The national laws related with environmental management should be adhered to when undertaking
bridge maintenance activities. The environmental assessment and environmental permit may be
required in case of serious environmental impacts like disturbing streams, waterways and wetlands or
pollution of water and air during execution of bridge works like bridge painting, concrete shotcreting
etc. There should be a control on the use and disposal of materials and wastes when accomplishing
bridge maintenance works.
The TANROADS Road safety and Environment Section will advise on the applicable environmental
permit and mitigation measures to control the impacts arising form bridge maintenance activities.
22
4.0 GUIDE FOR MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES

The first step in any bridge maintenance procedure is to determine the extent of deterioration which is
performed during bridge inspection.
Bridge maintenance can be defined as the work required to be carried out so as to preserve the initial
level of service and the intended load carrying capacity in order to ensure serviceability and safety of
the road users. Bridge condition starts to deteriorate after few years of service and if maintenance is not
carried out the condition gets worse and worse until it can no longer serve the purpose for which it was
built. Timely maintenance will, therefore, minimize costs and ensure reliable serviceability throughout
the life span of the bridge while delayed maintenance will be expensive and may lead to replacement of
bridge elements or total reconstruction.
Due to limited resources it is not possible to attend to all damage and maintain all bridges at the same
time. This is why an optimum time for maintenance of bridges has to be planned based on available
resources and priorities.
For old narrow bridges, which were designed for smaller loads and low traffic flow, the maintenance
cost shall be compared to total replacement bearing in mind the present loading conditions. If the
maintenance cost is more than 50% of the replacement cost then both alternatives shall be considered.
In most cases replacement will be more cost effective since widening will be necessary.
The Handbook for Bridge Inspection has given a checklist of different types of bridge damage
including recommended actions. In this chapter the solutions to bridge damage will be explained in
more details and they will be referred to as maintenance activities or repairs to remedy the damage.
For each bridge maintenance activity, this chapter gives, in a very simplified way, its description,
application or what type of damage it can solve, its working procedure or how to do it and finally its
measurements and payment. Major emphasis has been put on the working procedure where general
guidance is given including quality and specific requirement where necessary. However, it should be
emphasized here that the given working procedures are just guidelines and they should not be taken as
strict rules applicable for each bridge or any similar damage. Since each bridge has its own unique
condition, different site condition and environment with different types of construction material, the
Bridge Engineer shall prepare more detailed working methods for each bridge based on these
guidelines. In addition, the Bridge Engineer shall prepare detailed working drawings, quantities and
material specifications, list of the required tools, equipment and labour for any maintenance activity.
It has been observed that for some of the bridge repair works, it might be necessary to carry out
structural calculations and design by the engineer. Such design works are beyond the scope of this
handbook. Special attention shall be given to replacement of truss members where different alternatives
shall be worked out and justified by proper structural calculations covering all stages of working steps.
In addition care shall be exercised to maintain the original static assumptions in order to avoid
unfavourable stresses.
One more important thing is to find out and to rectify the cause of the damage in addition to rectifying
the damage itself. This is important for crack filling for instance, which can be caused by several
factors.
23
4.1 MAINTENANCE OF RIVER COURSE

For a bridge to perform adequately it must be founded on a stable foundation. The bridge is, therefore,
only as stable as the foundation that it rests on. To the contrary, many rivers are naturally prone to
scouring and considerable efforts are required to maintain the river course in a condition that does not
accelerate the tendency to scour and undermine the bridge foundations. Alluvial rivers are particularly
prone to shifting their alignments, which often results in considerable scouring and washing out of
approach embankments. If deforestation and abuse of river banks by removal of vegetation is not
combated, the river course can become more exposed to erosion and possible wash out. Any activities
near the river course close to the structure must be considered very carefully to avoid damage to the
foundation. Also partial or total blockage of the waterway by debris, can lead to consequential damage
of the superstructure and substructure of a bridge including total wash out when the blockage breaks
open Although other types of structural damage are more apparent and spectacular, damage and
subsequent maintenance of river courses is equally or even more important due to the severe impact
such type of damage may have on the entire structure.
Determination of an effective solution to a river course damage is difficult. Settlement of foundations,
riverbed scouring, bank erosion, insufficient discharge capacity and shifting of alignment are complex
problems and can not always be solved by only one prescribed method. A detailed study of a river
damage is, therefore, necessary before any appropriate solutions are recommended. It should be noted
here that in some cases, certain remedial works, if not properly done, could actually be harmful to the
bridge.
In this chapter, common maintenance or remedial activities for common river course damage are
highlighted. The most common activities are river cleaning, under-pining, river training, rip rap, stone
pitching, gabions, piled walls and sand bags. River bed and bank protection may include the use of rip
rap, stone pitching, gabions, piled walls and sand bags. Though these are construction materials, they
have been treated separately as different maintenance activities because of their different working
methods. In some cases it may be necessary to combine two or more of these activities to solve one
type of damage.
Damage of the river course may occur and change very fast. For this reason it may be necessary to re-
visit the site and re-inspect the river course in order to determine if there is further damage since the last
inspection. This inspection shall form the basis for the design of the protection works.
Sometimes it may be necessary to carry out subsoil investigation in order to determine soil parameters
for the design of protection works. This is important for activities like under-pining, retaining and piled
walls.
24
4.1.1 River cleaning

Description
River cleaning involves removal of debris, logs, unwanted trees, islands and any other obstructions
from the river course in order to allow free flow of water.
Application
Obstruction of river flow can lead to serious damage like river bed scouring or silting up, bank erosion,
change of river course, reduction of discharge capacity that can lead to overflow and washout of
approaches. River cleaning is, therefore, an important maintenance activity that is carried out to prevent
the mentioned types of damage. This activity shall preferably be carried out before every rain season.
Working procedure
Debris shall normally be picked out by hands while logs and trees may need to be cut into smaller
pieces to ease lifting them out of the river.
Tall grass shall be cut to at least 10 cm above the river bed in order not to impose erosion of river
banks. Unless otherwise directed by the Engineer, no vegetation shall be cut or removed from the river
banks since they protect and stabilize the banks.
Trees in the river bed shall be cut with care to ensure that no scouring will result from this action.
All material removed from the river shall be disposed to at least 10 m away from the river banks to
prevent them from being washed back into the river. Preferably they should be deposited on the
downstream side of the bridge.
Since each river is unique, it is not easy to assign strict rules regarding the length of the river course
that shall be cleaned. Basically, the length to be maintained shall be long enough to ensure that no
turbulence is created at least within 50 m on both sides of the bridge. The length shall also be adequate
to ensure that water currents are not deflected towards the banks such that the river could be diverted
behind the bridge or overflow the approach roads.
Special attention shall be paid to pipe and box culverts, which are particularly exposed to blockage by
debris. Multi-cell culverts are generally more exposed to blockage from debris than single-cell culverts.
For big culverts with more than 2 m diameter, cleaning can be done by entering inside and removing
out the debris using any suitable tools. For smaller culverts, cleaning can be effected by pulling a cable
or rope through it to which a bucket is attached.
Fig. 4.1.1: Cleaning of small culvert
Measurements and Payment
The unit measurement for river cleaning shall be in square metres from the length multiplied by the
average width of the cleaned area.
Cost for removal of trees and logs shall be measured as a lump sum.
The payment shall include costs for all labour and tools necessary for satisfactory cleaning of the river
course or removal of trees and logs.
25
4.1.2 Underpinning
Description
Underpinning a bridge is the introduction of additional support under the foundation in order to fill an
under-scoured area and ensure sufficient bearing capacity.
Fig. 4.1.2: A section through an under-pin
Application
Underpinning is a maintenance activity used to solve the problem caused by under-scoring.
Working procedure
Underpinning of a bridge foundation can be achieved by excavating below the foundation and filling
the gap with concrete or any other suitable material.
Where soil conditions are not known, subsoil investigation shall be carried out in order to determine a
firm stratum for the under-pinning foundation. This shall be followed by working drawings, detailed
working method statements and preparation of all required resources.
As preparatory works, the river bed shall be properly cleaned in order to reveal the extent of
underscoring and to provide a neat working space. Traffic speed shall be reduced by introducing speed
humps at least 20m on both sides of the bridge in order to minimize impact on the bridge. Appropriate
warning signs shall then be erected to warn the traffic.
Simple gauges may be installed to monitor any movement especially during the excavation. Both
horizontal and vertical movements must be checked and recorded by using levelling instrument. The
reference point in case of levelling must be out of the bridge on a stable point like rock etc.
26
Fig. 4.1.3: A sketch showing sequence of under-pinning
The actual underpinning shall be done in strips whose number and width depends on the extent of
under-scoring, the likelihood of foundation movements and the possibility of finishing the strip in a
single day.
It is recommended to underpin and complete one strip at a time before proceeding to the next. The
sequence shall start by alternating between the extreme strips followed by alternating among the centre
strips. Before the next strip is excavated, a minimum of three days intervals shall be maintained in order
to allow for curing of the preceding strip.
Excavation shall be done manually in order to minimize vibrations and the excavated area shall be
concreted or filled on the same day for safety reasons. In order to fulfil this requirement, proper
planning of the works must be done well in advance and this shall include provision of suitable means
of diverting or removing water from the excavated strip in order to facilitate smooth operation.
Concrete shall be poured and properly vibrated to at least 30 cm above the soffit of the bridge
foundation slab in order to ensure a sufficient contact between the underpin and the bridge foundation.
This can easily be achieved by proper form-working or sometimes by casting through holes drilled on
the foundation and spaced at intervals of about 1.5 m. In order to achieve a good contact between the
under-pinning concrete and the foundation soffit, the concrete must have a good workability.
Fig. 4.1.4: Methods of concrete casting.
In order to protect the underpinning from underscouring, it is recommended to combine the

underpinning with river bed protection.
27
A channel for diverting water over the underpinning area. Excavation of the first outer strip
Underpinning Works
The unit measurement for underpinning works shall be in cubic metres of the finished fill material. The
payment shall include costs for all material, labour, tools and any other incidentals necessary for
satisfactory completion of the underpinning in accordance with the drawings.
28
4.1.3 River training

Description
River training is a maintenance activity that is performed to keep the river on its path. Normally it
involves more than one protection works like riverbed and bank protection using different material like
rip-rap, stone pitching, gabions and piled walls. Re-alignment and re-excavation of the river course are
other common associated activities.
Application
The purpose of river training is to stabilise the river channel along a certain alignment with a
predetermined cross-section. River training is, therefore, applied to solve the damage related to
changing of the river course in combination with river bank erosion and river bed scouring.
Working procedure
Execution of river training works depends on the site conditions and availability of materials. Erosion
on steep bank, for instance, might need gabion box retaining wall rather than gabion mattress, which is
more suitable for flatter and gentle slopes. For this reason each bridge shall be considered on its merit.
Preparatory works include reassessment of the damage in order to reveal any further deterioration since
last inspection, if necessary design should be carried out followed by working drawings.
Since river training involves more than one protection activity, it is important to plan them in such a
way that all can be performed simultaneously except when re-excavation is necessary. Otherwise the
working procedure for river and bank protection shall depend on the material used and, therefore, the
procedure shall be as explained under relevant chapters.
River training by gabions and concrete apron. Re-excavation of river course
River protection
Measurement and Payment

The unit measurement for River Training shall be determined depending on the different activities
involved and the payment shall include costs for all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for
satisfactory completion of the works.
29
4.1.4 Cut-off walls

Description
Cut off walls are edge protection walls that are provided to prevent under-scouring of stone pitching,
aprons and gabion mattress.
Fig 4.1.5: Masonry cut-off wall
Application
Cut off walls are provided at the edge of a river bed or bank protection to prevent scouring of stone
pitching, aprons and gabion mattress.
Working procedure
The portion to be repaired shall be properly cleaned to reveal the damaged area. This shall be followed
working drawing, quantities and costing.
After deciding on the size of the cut off wall, a trench for the same shall be excavated including
widening for working space. The cut off wall shall then be constructed as explained on relevant chapter
depending on the material to be used. The trench shall be back filled and compacted in layers not
exceeding 30 cm. The depth of the cut off wall shall in any case be not less than 1 m below the existing
river bed. The downstream side of the cut off wall shall be protected by appropriate material to avoid
further scouring.
For steep river beds where continued scouring is expected the cut off wall shall be modified to cater for
future extension of the wall.
Fig. 4.1.6: Cut off wall on steep river beds
30
Once the cut off wall is completed the damaged river protection facility shall be repaired.

The unit measurement for Cut off wall shall be in cubic metres and the payment shall include costs for
all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for completion of the works.
31
4.1.5 Rip-rap
Description
Rip rap is a layer of loose stone and boulders used to protect river beds from scouring and banks from
erosion.
Application of rip-rap as riverbed protection at the outlet of a culvert.
Application
Rip rap is an economical and effective remedy to river bed scouring and river bank erosion
Fig. 4.1.7: Graph for determination of rip-rap stone size Fig. 4.1.8: Typical Floating Object
Working procedure
The first and most important task is to estimate the right size of stones or boulders. They should be
heavy enough to prevent them from being washed away by high speed water during floods. The bridge
engineer shall first determine the flooding level and maximum average velocity of the water. This may
be done by measuring and marking a distance of at least four times the river width on a straight and
uniform section and noting the time taken by a floating object to travel between the two marks.
The speed in metres per second is determined by dividing the distance in metres by the time taken in
seconds. The average speed shall be based on not less than five observations.
Tailor made tables and graphs are available and can be used to determine the nominal diameter of
stones in metres when the river velocity is known.
For flow velocity of 3 m/s, the nominal stone diameter shall be 0.3 m based on fig. 4.1.7. Assuming a
32
specific gravity of 2.4, and using graph on fig. 4.1.9, the stone weight shall be 35 kg. For flow velocity
of up to 4 m/s, the minimum stone size shall be 180 kg or nominal diameter of 0.5 m and the maximum
size shall be 700 kg.
The stone shall be hard, angular, quarry stone that shall not disintegrate on exposure to water or
weathering.
Fig 4.1.9: Graph for determination of Rip rap stone weight
After deciding on the size, quality and quantity of stone and boulders, all localised depressions shall
then be filled out so that the area to be protected is fairly even. The stones shall then be dumped and
levelled so as to form the cross sections as shown on the working drawings.
For river beds with fine materials, it is necessary to introduce a filter layer in order to avoid the fines
from being washed out through the rip rap.
Fig 4.1.10: Rip-rap with and without a filter layer
The filter layer will act as a blanket over the erodable river bed material and thus prevent it from been
eroded from the gaps around the rip rap stone. The filter layer consists of sand, aggregates, stones and
boulders. The size and thickness of each layer shall depend on the river speed as shown below.
33
Speed Filter Material Thickness of

(m/s) Material Size (mm) Filter Layer (mm)
Sand 0.2 - 2 100
2.0 Aggregate 2.0 - 20 150
Stone 30 - 100 350
0.7 Sand 0.2 - 2 100

Aggregate 2.0 - 20 150
0.2 Sand 0.2 - 2 100
0.1 Filter layer not required
Fig.4.1.11: Table for design of filter layer
As an alternative to stone filter layer, geo-textiles may be utilised.

The unit measurement for Rip rap shall be in cubic metres of the stone in place. The payment shall
include costs for provision and placing of all materials, all labour, equipment and tools necessary to
complete the work. In case of any excavation, this shall be paid separately as explained under
earthworks.
34
4.1.6 Stone pitching

Description
Stone pitching consists of single layer of stones set in cement mortar or concrete to cover and protect
slopes especially around and in front of abutments.
Application
Stone pitching is used to protect slopes against erosion. They are also used as aprons to protect river
beds against scouring.
Working procedure
The stones to be used shall be carefully selected in order to secure fairly large; flat surfaced stones that
can be laid up with a true and even surface and with minimum voids. At least 50 percent shall be broad
flat stones each with a minimum and maximum volume of 0.01 and 0.015 cubic metres respectively.
One dimension of the stone shall be at least 25 cm.
First, all soft material shall be removed followed by filling and compaction of all depressions. The
whole area shall then be filled with well compacted material. For slope protection the slope shall not be
steeper than the natural angle of repose of its material.
When mortar is used for binding, the larger stones shall be placed first and roughly arranged in close
contact. The largest stones shall be placed near the base of the slope for slope protection. After all the
larger stones are in place, all the spaces between them shall be filled with mortar of mix 1:4 and the
smaller stones shall then be placed by shoving them into position. The shoving operation forces out the
excess mortar to the surface and thus ensuring that each stone is carefully and firmly bedded laterally.
Any excess mortar forced up shall finally be spread uniformly to completely fill all surface voids.
For protection of a river bed, concrete mix 1:3:6 shall preferably be used to bind the stones.
Cut off wall shall first be constructed followed by manual placing of the stones.
Fig. 4.1.12: Stone pitching and cut-off wall
The stone shall be laid with care to ensure smooth and even surfaces and with minimum and maximum
joints measuring 50 and 100 mm respectively. The gaps shall then be filled with concrete, which shall
be carefully vibrated.
35
Preparation of stone pitching before concreting
The unit measurement for Stone Pitching shall be in square metres or cubic metres and the payment
shall be full compensation for providing all materials, labour, equipment and tools necessary to
complete the work.
36
4.1.7 Gabions
Description
Gabions are rectangular cages made from hexagonal double-twisted wire mesh filled with stones. The
wires for gabions are made from soft steel, annealed and coated with zinc to prevent corrosion. The size
of the mesh depends on the thickness of the cage but the most common sizes are 80 x 100 mm and 100
x 120 mm. The common sizes for gabion boxes are 2 x 1 x 1 m and 2 x 1 x 0.5 m while for gabion
mattress the common sizes are 5 x 2 x 0.3 m and 3 x 2 x 0.3 m. The mesh wire shall have a metric
gauge of 17 or equivalent of 3.05mm. while gauge 19 or 3.76mm. and gauge 15 or 2.5 mm. shall be
used for edge and tying wires respectively.
Application
Gabion boxes are used for retaining walls and are, therefore, suitable for river bank protection while
gabion mattresses are suitable for slope and river bed protection.
Working procedure
Foundation should be excavated, levelled and compacted as for any other structure. Any unsuitable
material shall be removed and replaced with good compacted soil, stone or gravel.
Gabion works starts by assembling the cage.
Fig.4.1.13: Assembling of gabion box cage
The edges of the cages shall be woven by a 3 mm binding wire, which shall be double looped at 150
mm intervals. The wire shall always be kept tight by using pliers.
Fig.4.1.14: Weaving of box edges
Before filling, the baskets shall be stretched to achieve a truly rectangular shape.
37
Fig. 4.1.15: Stretching the cages
Stone filling shall be done by hand using hard stones not larger than 250 mm and not smaller than the
size of the mesh. The stones shall be tightly packed with minimum of voids.
Filling of stones in a gabion box
Boxes of 1 m height shall be filled to one third height where horizontal bracing wires shall be fitted and
tensioned to ensure vertical faces and to avoid bulging. More bracing shall be fitted at two thirds
height.
Fig 4.1.16: Intermediate bracing
Boxes with 0.5 m height shall be braced once at the mid-height while mattresses do not require any
bracing. Tensioning of the bracing wire is achieved by using a windlass.
Fig.4.1.17. Windlass bracing
38
Lids are then fitted and stretched using crowbars if necessary and shall then be securely woven in the
same way as the vertical edges.
Fig. 4.1.18. Closing and securing lid
For stability reasons individual gabion units shall be securely connected along the entire length of all
contact edges. In case of a wall the vertical joints shall be staggered and overlapped.
Fig.4.1.19: Staggering and overlapping of joints
For gabion box walls higher than 2 m, they should be inclined at a slope of about 1:10.
Fig. 4.1.20: Inclined gabion wall
Otherwise they should be stepped by not less than 15 cm.
39
Fig. 4.1.21: Stepped gabion wall
Stepped gabion wall
Filled gabions shall have a minimum unit weight of 1360 kg per cum. Voids shall be evenly distributed
and they shall not exceed 40%. Gabions should not protrude by more than 150 - 300 mm above the
river bed level, otherwise scouring will result at the downstream end.
Apart from intermediate bracing, construction of gabion mattress is quite similar to that of gabion
boxes.
Other important issues to be considered are provision of anchorage for both gabion boxes and mattress,
and static calculation for gabion retaining walls of more than three metres high.

The unit measurement for gabion works shall be in cubic metres comprising the volume of the rock
filled cages in place and the payment shall include full compensation for supplying materials including
stones (rock fill), wire mesh cages, tying and connecting wires, labour, equipment and tools.
Excavation, levelling and compaction shall be measured and paid separately.
40
4.1.8 Piled walls

Description
Piled walls are made from timber or steel hammered into the river bed at the bottom of a slope to
prevent erosion of riverbank. Sometimes the site condition may dictate the use of pled walls.
Application
Piled walls are used to prevent erosion of river banks.
Fig. 4.1.22: Bank protection by piled walls
Working procedure
Generally soil conditions will dictate the size of piles to be used and how deep they should be driven.
Nevertheless, timber piles shall have a minimum length of 2 m, average thickness of 100 mm and shall
be sharpened on the thinner end to facilitate easy penetration. Hammering shall be done by a suitable
tool with a mass not less than that of the pile. Such a tool could be a log supported on scaffoldings.
Local piling technique
Spacing of the piles shall not exceed 300 mm centres for normal river flowing. For fast flowing rivers, a
continuous line of piles is recommended.
Piled walls can also be used as cut-off wall for river bed protection.
41
Fig. 4.1.23: Cut-off wall for river bed protection

The unit measurement for piled walls shall be in linear metres and the payment shall include costs for
all materials, labour and tools necessary for satisfactory completion of the work.
42
4.1.9 Sand bags

Description
Sand bags protection consists of gunny bags or polysacks filled with sandy soil and it is used for
emergence and temporary protection works.
Sandy bags used for emergence bank protection
Application
Sandy bags are used to protect banks in form of protection wall or as an apron for river bed protection.
Sometimes cement is added to make it stronger.
Sand bags are particularly used for river training during emergency cases especially during floods.
Working procedure
The bags shall be filled to three quarters of their volumes in order to facilitate close packing. After
filling they shall be securely tied by sawing to retain the filled material.
Fig. 4.1.24: Proper method of tying gunny bags
For retaining walls the bags shall be packed in such a way that they are staggered and the vertical joints
are overlapped to provide stability. Walls higher than 1.5 m shall be inclined or stepped.

The unit measurement for sand bags shall be in cubic metres of the completed wall and the payment
shall include costs for the bags, labour and tools necessary for satisfactory completion of the work.
43
4.1.10 De-silting
Description
De-silting is the removal of sand or other silted-up material from the river bed.
Application
De-silting is a maintenance activity used to rectify the problem of silting-up and insufficient discharge
capacity of the bridge.
Working procedure
Serious silting-up normally occur on flat terrain where de-silting is not easy. In some cases it may occur
on sloped terrain due to blockage of small openings.
The first task shall, therefore, be to find out the cause of silting-up. If it is due to blockage, then all
obstructions shall be removed and a pilot channel excavated in order to flush out the silting-up material.
When the silting material is taken out, it shall be carefully disposed off well away from the banks to
avoid them from being washed back into the river.
For culverts, de-silting shall be done by pulling a cable or rope through, to which a bucket or other
suitable tool is attached.

The unit measurement for de-silting shall be in cubic metres of the excavated and well disposed
material. The payment shall include costs for all labour, tools and equipment necessary for satisfactory
completion of the work.
44
4.2 MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS

The most common types of damage for concrete include honeycombs, insufficient concrete cover,
spalling, delamination and corrosion of reinforcement, the last usually being the most critical. A
combination of different types of damage can sometimes occur simultaneously. The damaged concrete
often has a high porosity and the damage can be observed as loose concrete, cracks and exposed
corroded reinforcement. The seriousness of the damage varies from case to case and thereby also the
required repair work. Sometimes, strengthening is necessary and existing reinforcement might need to
be replaced. At worst, part of or the whole bridge element might need to be replaced. Generally,
concrete repair may involve some or all of the following activities:
• Erection of the necessary scaffolding.
• Marking of the area to be repaired
• Removal of concrete
• Cleaning of corroded reinforcement and concrete surfaces
• Placing of new reinforcement
• Pre-watering
• Form-work
• Casting
• Curing
For any concrete repair work, it is important that the choice of materials fulfils the design requirements,
has sufficient durability and that the interaction between the new and existing part is satisfactory.
Usually, type and strength of the new material will be the same as the existing material. For repair work
required in order to restore the carrying capacity, it is often necessary to perform static calculations in
addition to the investigations at site.
When the load carrying capacity has not been affected, the repair is done as a consequence of the
concrete having lost its ability to protect the reinforcements against corrosion. In this case, corrosion
products must be removed and the damaged concrete replaced. This category also includes cases when
the reinforcement is not affected but the concrete cover has started to deteriorate, which later can give
access to penetration of damaging substances.
Generally, shotcreting can be applied as an alternative method to the ordinary concrete regardless of
whether the carrying capacity has been affected or not.
For certain types of work like shotcreting and at times for removal of concrete, a reference area is
required. Such area should be representative of the area to be treated. During execution, the reference
area shall be used to ascertain the quality of work.
Generally, in order to achieve the required quality of the maintenance work, the cause of the damage
must be known in advance. Rectifying the cause of damage will minimize or sometimes eliminate the
possibility of reappearance of the same damage at that location.
45
4.2.1 Preparatory works

Repair of concrete elements depends on the type and extent of the damage although finally the actual
repair involves a similar activity of casting new concrete. What differs in the repair of concrete
elements is the preparatory works before the actual casting. The most important preparatory works
include: surface cleaning, surface roughening, removal of concrete, cleaning of reinforcements and
replacement of reinforcements.
Surface cleaning
Surface cleaning is necessary for facilitating a good bonding between the new and the existing concrete
and is usually the last activity before the new concrete is cast. However, when applying surface
treatment, this is often the only preparatory work done in advance.
For cleaning of concrete surfaces, the following methods can be applied:
• Sandblasting
• High pressure water
• High pressure air
Generally, all cleaning shall be done from top to bottom. Each method has been described in more
details in the following paragraphs:
Sandblasting
Sandblasting is executed by blowing dry sand through a nozzle using either high pressure air or high
pressure water from a container. In the nozzle, the sand grains accelerate to a high speed thereby giving
a very high impact energy, which removes impurities and weak or loose concrete material from the
surface. The efficiency of the equipment is optimised through regulations of air or water pressure,
amount of sand and dimensions of hose and nozzle. Sandblasting is a very suitable method for surface
cleaning since it does not damage the treated area in form of cracks and at the same time it gives a
rough surface which facilitates good bonding to the new applied concrete or surface treatment.
The compressor shall contain no water and oil.
After the sandblasting, all sand and loose particles shall be removed with high pressure air containing
no water or oil, possibly supplemented with brushing of the surface. The sandblasted area shall be
inspected and approved by the Engineer before the subsequent activities are executed.
Sandblasting works
46

The quantity shall be measured in square metres of the cleaned area and the payment shall include costs
for all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for satisfactory completion of the work.
High pressure water
High pressure water cleaning is executed by water passing through a nozzle with a pressure that can
vary between 400 and 1,500 bar depending on the surface condition and the amount of water being
applied.
Since the equipment has poor precision, it must be calibrated by applying it on a reference area. This
includes regulation of amount of water, water pressure, nozzle orifice, movement pattern, etc.
Calibration must also be done in cases when concrete must be removed to a specific depth. The
reference area shall be approved before the chiselling works can take place.
For just surface cleaning and removal of loose concrete, the air pressure and amount of water shall be
adjusted accordingly.
Attention should be given to the recoil force that can be present depending on the type of equipment.
Chisel equipment operated by hand shall be recoilless and equipped with a dead mans control for
safety.
When removal of concrete is carried out, the surface shall be free from sediments and the aggregates
shall be partly exposed thereby giving a good bonding to the new concrete.
By changing the type of nozzle, the equipment can also be used for cutting concrete.
High pressure air
This is a cleaning method, which involves blowing of compressed air onto the concrete surface. The air
must be free from water and oil. The method is mostly applied when cleaning surfaces that have been
treated with sandblasting or chiselling.
Surface Roughening
In order to achieve a good bonding between the old and the new concrete, the surface should be made
sufficiently rough. This can be achieved by one of the following methods:
• Sandblasting
• Diamond hammering
47
Lugono Bridge
Sandblasting
The method is already described on page 44. Adjustment of equipment must be done according to the
condition of the concrete surface.
Diamond hammering:
The method is often used in combination with sandblasting as a final preparation before filling with
new concrete. Since diamond hammering produces dust, it requires that the surface is washed free from
dust before adding the new concrete.
for all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for satisfactory completion of the activity.
High pressure water
The method is already described. For this application, it should not be necessary to remove more
concrete than just loose material in the surface. The equipment must be adjusted thereafter.
Removal of Concrete
Economics criteria will usually govern the choice of method of removing concrete. The time consumed
and therefore the costs per m3 of removed concrete is influenced by: the extent of damage, accessibility
to the damaged area, thickness of concrete element, whether the damaged area is vertical or horizontal,
the time of erecting scaffolding for each working operation, weight of equipment with regard to ease of
handling and the required skill and experience of the operator.
Generally, the following methods are mostly applied:
• Chiselling
Chiselling:
By chiselling, manual or mechanical blows are applied on a chisel either using electrical or air driven
tools. The method is most suitable on horizontal surfaces, giving least strain to the operator. Heavy
equipment is not suitable for this type of work since it can break out more concrete than required. It is,
therefore, recommended to use small and light hand equipment not weighing more than 10 kilogram. It
is assumed that the concrete has a certain minimum strength, making it possible to break loose the
damaged concrete. If the concrete is too loose, this method is not very efficient since the concrete will
just crumble away.
48
Light chiselling equipment.
The method is advantageous in the way that the assembly is small, has little weight and easy to move
around. Also, it does not require much training to operate. The main disadvantage of the method is poor
precision, often resulting in more removal of concrete than required. Sometimes, the treated surface has
small cracks due to the blows from the chisel. At worst, this can weaken the bonding strength between
the existing and the new concrete. The method also creates much dust, noise and vibrations for the
operator.
When more than 50% of the circumference of a reinforcing bar is exposed in the working area, the
whole bar shall be exposed. In order to secure good casting, the distance between the exposed bar and
the concrete surface shall be a minimum of 20 mm.
Fig4.2.1: Removal of concrete
However, if the concrete is to be removed from the compression zone of the concrete member, severe
damage and even failure can be caused due to reduction of the area of the concrete resisting
compression stresses. Also in the tension zone, this operation can result in damage or serious reduction
of the anchoring capacity of the reinforcement. It is, therefore, necessary to carry out static calculations
before removing any concrete on such locations. Based on the calculations, it may be necessary to
introduce temporary supports before removing the concrete. Alternatively if by removing the required
concrete or anchorage to a damaged reinforcement, the load carrying capacity is reduced beyond
allowable limits, it may be necessary to carry out the repair in steps. This means that a certain width or
area is repaired before further removal and casting of concrete is carried out. If the load carrying
capacity would still be a problem, the repair must be limited to cleaning of reinforcement and creating a
good bond to the existing concrete surface before the new concrete is placed.
All concrete surfaces facing the new concrete must be shaped in such a way that a good result is
achieved. By removal of concrete, the edge surfaces shall form an angle of 45 with the concrete surface
as shown in figure 4.2.1. This is independent of the method being applied. The concrete must be
removed without damaging the remaining concrete or the reinforcement. Chiselling directly on the
reinforcement is not allowed.
49
The corroded reinforcement shall be exposed by approximately 50 mm longitudinally beyond the point
at which corrosion has occurred, thus exposing the non-corroded portion of the reinforcement. When
the reinforcement bars cross cracks that are wider than 0.3 mm, the reinforcements shall be checked for
corrosion.
Where the reinforcement is found in a carbonated concrete, the concrete shall be removed to a depth of
20 mm beyond the reinforcement. The bars shall be exposed to 50 mm longitudinally beyond the point
at which the carbonated concrete ends.
Where the reinforcement is found in a concrete with chloride content higher than the critical value, the
concrete shall be removed to a depth of 30 mm under the reinforcement. The critical value is normally
set equal to 0.4 % of the cement weight. In this case, the bars shall be exposed longitudinally to 100
mm beyond the point where the concrete with chloride content higher than the critical value ends.
Fig 4.2.2: Removal of concrete from chloride contaminated concrete.
Where the reinforcement is found in a concrete that is both carbonated and chloride contaminated, the
criteria for removal of concrete shall be as specified for chloride contaminated concrete.
All chiselled surfaces will require after-treatment in order to achieve a good bonding strength. This is
mostly done by sand blasting. Finally, the surface must be washed using clean water.
The quantity shall be measured in cubic metres of the removed concrete and the payment shall include
costs for full compensation for material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for satisfactory
completion of the activity.
High pressure water
When removing concrete applying high pressure water sometimes known as water chiselling,
calibration of the equipment must be done in order to remove concrete to the specified depth. The
equipment shall be adjusted on a reference section. This includes the amount of water to be used, water
pressure, nozzle opening, movement pattern, etc. The equipment shall be adjusted according to the
specified penetration depth. The reference section shall be approved before removal of concrete by high
pressure water begins.
Regarding the extent of concrete to be removed, the same requirements apply here as those under
chiselling.
The quantity is measured in cubic metres of the removed concrete and the payment shall include costs
for labour, tools and equipment necessary for completion of the activity.
Cleaning of Reinforcements
For cleaning of corroded reinforcements, the following methods can be applied:
• Sandblasting
50
• Wire brushing
Corrosion protection shall normally be applied on the cleaned reinforcement on the same day when the
cleaning is done. The most common type of protection material is epoxy or cement paste. Epoxy is
sometimes combined with sand. The corrosion protection shall cover the whole surface, including the
rear side of the bars. With surroundings containing high levels of chloride, corrosion protection shall be
applied immediately after cleaning. If not otherwise specified, corrosion protection of reinforcement is
omitted for cases where shotcreting is carried out.
Sandblasting:
This method is already described on page 44. Adjustment of equipment must be done according to the
condition of the reinforcement.
Cleaned reinforcement shall, if not otherwise specified, satisfy the cleaning requirements that all mill
scale, rust and foreign particles including dust shall be removed. The reinforcement surface shall have a
greyish colour after cleaning.
The quantity is measured in linear metres of the cleaned reinforcement and the payment shall include
costs for material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for satisfactory completion of the work.
Wire brushing:
This is a manual method, which is applied in cases with minor corrosion. The treated reinforcement
must be free of any loose material.
The quantity is measured in linear metres of the cleaned reinforcement and the payment shall include
Replacement of Reinforcement
Worn-out reinforcement shall be replaced by new reinforcement. When a reinforcement bar can not be
properly cleaned due to severe deterioration or any other reason, it is recommended to remove and
replace it to avoid later damage like spalling. However, the removal of reinforcements is not permitted
without the approval of the engineer.
If there is no different specification given, the new reinforcement shall be placed with the same
diameter and location as the original reinforcement. The anchoring length of the new reinforcement
shall be 40 x bar diameter. Otherwise the length shall be determined by calculations. The diameter of
the grouting hole shall not be less than the diameter of the bar plus 10 mm. The grout shall consist of
cement and sand and shall have the proper expansion usually achieved by adding admixture. The sand
grains shall not exceed 2 mm in diameter. The drilled hole shall be filled with sufficient amount of
mortar before inserting the bar thereby ensuring that the bar is completely surrounded by mortar.
Grouted reinforcement should be able to reach the yielding limit without fracture occurring to the
grouting. If grouted reinforcement is important for the load carrying capacity, the bars shall be load
tested.
The diameter of the grouting hole shall be minimum of bar diameter plus 10 mm. The grouting mortar
shall contain cement and sand.
The quantity is measured in linear metres of the replaced reinforcement and the payment shall include
51
4.2.2 Shotcreting
Description
Shotcreting is a means of casting concrete. As for all other concrete casting methods, the quality
depends on the water/cement ratio. The water arrives in a nozzle by means of high pressure air where it
mixes with a ready mixed dry mortar. This process is called dry shotcreting. An alternative method
called wet shotcreting is to have all components ready mixed in advance and then the mortar is pumped
to the nozzle where air is added in order to fling the mortar to the concrete surface. The equipment
needed for carrying out shotcreting is mixing equipment, pumps, compressor, hoses and nozzles.
Shotcreting equipment.
Application
Shotcreting is often applied when carrying out repair work like casting on areas with exposed
reinforcement, at the soffits of bridge decks and in increasing the concrete cover.
Working procedure
Before shotcreting, the bond strength of the base course surface shall be determined by using a pull off
test. The instrument to be used shall have a minimum diameter of 50 mm. A testing series of three tests
shall be taken for each 50 square metres and the average value shall be more than 1.2 Mpa. No single
value shall be less than 1.0 Mpa.
For all shotcreting works, the equipment, scaffolding and operator must be approved prior to start of the
work. The circumference of shotcreting surfaces shall form an angle of about 45 degrees with the
concrete surface.
Before starting the actual shotcreting, it shall be necessary to adjust the equipment and the mixing
ratios. This can be done by shotcreting against a test wooden surface or something similar until it can
visually be confirmed that proper dosage of water is achieved. On vertical or inclined surfaces, the
shotcreting operation should start from below and continue upwards. Effort must be made to limit dust
from settling on the cleaned surface. The scaffolding shall be erected in such a way that proper distance
from the nozzle to the surface is obtained. When shotcreting, the nozzle shall be inclined to the surface.
The shotcrete shall be well compacted and without any stratification, sand pockets or porous areas. Any
defective portion shall be removed by chiselling and replaced with proper material. The finished
surface shall be as even as possible and if desired it might be plastered manually with mortar.
When applying shotcreting, exposed reinforcement shall be well anchored to avoid possible damage
52
due to vibrations. When shotcreting behind the reinforcement, the distance from the nozzle to the
surface shall be reduced in order to avoid sand pockets and to ensure that all bars are completely
surrounded by the new concrete. During shotcreting, care should also be taken to avoid concrete being
attached on the bars. If necessary, the shotcreting shall be carried out in layers to avoid sagging or
loosening from the treated surface.
Testing of bond and compressive strengths shall be carried out, the number of samples would depend
on the size of the area being shotcreted.
For successful testing, the minimum bond strength shall be 1.2 Mpa or break in the concrete substrate
shall be ensured. The check shall be carried out 14-18 days after execution.
When shotcreting, the concrete is very exposed to dehydration. Use of a very light shower would be the
most efficient way of reducing dehydration. Duration of curing shall be minimum of 7 days.

The unit measurement for shotcreting shall be in cubic metres and the payment shall include full
compensation for all material, labour, equipment and tools.
53
4.2.3 Ordinary Concrete Casting

Description
Ordinary casting of concrete involves pouring of new concrete over existing concrete element after
carrying out the necessary preparatory works. The preparatory works differ depending on the type and
extent of damage, otherwise the actual concrete casting is similar for all cases involving form-working,
wetting, casting, vibrating and curing.
Application
Ordinary concrete casting is used to remedy damage related to insufficient cover, spalling, corrosion of
reinforcement and abrasion
Working procedure
Preparatory works shall be carried out depending on the type of damage and as explained in chapter
4.2.1. In addition, it may be necessary to carry out static calculations in order to determine safe removal
of defective concrete without affecting the stability of the structure or element in question.
Generally, casting of new concrete shall be carried out as soon as possible after completion of the
preparatory work and preferably not later than 2 days after. The new concrete shall have the same
properties as those of the existing element and in particular it shall have as little shrinkage as possible.
Before casting, a pull out test shall be carried out to determine the bond strength in order to indicate
whether sufficient or acceptable cleaning and roughening of the surface of the existing element has
been achieved. The instrument to be used in this case should have a minimum diameter of 50 mm. A
testing series shall be taken per 50 m2 surface. One testing series consists of 3 tests and the average
value shall be more than 1.2 Mpa and no single value shall be less than 1.0 Mpa.
Form-work shall be fixed to hold the new concrete depending on how the new concrete will be poured.
The base shall be pre-watered for at least 24 hours before casting. However, when casting, the existing
concrete surface shall be dry but moist. The excess water can be removed by using compressed air.
Pouring or casting of concrete depends on the member and location of the damage. For vertical
members like piers, the concrete shall be poured from the top but the fall shall not exceed one metre.
Fig. 4.2.3: Concrete casting in vertical elements
For horizontal elements like deck slabs, it might be necessary to pour concrete from the top through
holes drilled in the slab.
54
Fig 4.2.4: Concrete casting in horizontal elements
Casting in beam soffits and edges is difficult but this can be solved by filling in through a recess made
on the side as shown on fig. 4.2.5 below.
Fig. 4.2.5: Concrete casting in beams.
During concrete casting, vibration shall be done carefully by hammering or vibrating the form-work.
Continuous curing of the new concrete shall be ensured by wetting gunny bags fixed on the surface.
Duration of the curing shall be a minimum of seven days.
The quality of the finished work can be checked by hammering the surface, which will give a hollow
sound on weak portions. Pull off test may additionally be carried out. For successful testing, any
breakage shall either occur in the old or new concrete and not on the joint.

The unit measurement for Ordinary Concrete Casting shall be in cubic metres of the repaired area and
the payment shall include costs for all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for satisfactory
55
4.2.4 Crack filling

Description
Repair of cracks in concrete elements is sealing or filling of cracks to prevent seepage of water and
detrimental substances since this can cause corrosion of reinforcements or steel beams underneath. In
some cases it is necessary to fill cracks to sustain the load carrying capacity of the bridge.
Application
It is often difficult to decide when a crack has to be repaired. As a rule of thumb, cracks wider than 0.5
mm should be repaired. It is also dependent on the possibility for water to penetrate the cracks.
Working procedure
Before any crack is repaired, its cause must be determined and rectified if necessary. It is common to
make a distinction between dead cracks, live cracks and infected cracks. Dead cracks can have been
caused by for example settlement, but having resolved the cause, the crack is at rest. Live cracks will all
the time open and close due to temperature movements and external loading like traffic. This type of
cracks is often very difficult to repair and it is impractical to use crack filling method for repair of live
cracks. Other more complicated methods like external pre-stressing may be necessary for repair of this
type of cracks. Infected cracks are cracks where an active chemical or physical activity is going on like
for example corrosion. When repairing infected cracks, breaking up of concrete is necessary in order to
remove poor concrete and corrosion products. The caused damage is thereafter filled with appropriate
mortar.
The most common methods applied for repair of cracks are sealing and injection.
Crack Sealing:
If only preventing water from penetrating into the crack is necessary, this can be done by sealing as
shown on the figure 4.2.6. Sealing is mostly used when repairing dead cracks on horizontal surfaces.
The crack must be cleaned using compressed air. Sometimes it is necessary to widen the top part of the
crack using a grinder. The crack is filled using a low viscous, deep penetrating epoxy. The filling must
be repeated until the epoxy can no longer penetrate into the crack. The two component epoxy
consisting of a base and hardener shall be mixed according to the specifications given by the
manufacturer. Attention must be given to the pot life of the epoxy or the time available between mixing
and placing before the epoxy hardens. The cracks should be filled using a plastic bottle with a small
spout. If the cracks are 6-10 mm wide at the top, the epoxy should be mixed with some fine sand in this
area.
Products containing alkali silicate can also be applied to the surface. When penetrating into the concrete
and coming in contact with the high alkaline pore water, it crystallises and thus seals the crack.
If the cracks have small movements, the epoxy must be elastic.
Fig. 4.2.6: Sealing of cracks
Injection:
56
Another method to fill cracks is by injection. Injection is mostly applied when repairing dead cracks.
Live cracks will most probably crack again after injection is carried out. Epoxy is usually applied as the
injection material, which must have low viscosity, thereby being able to penetrate and seal the cracks.
However, with cracks wider than 4-5 mm, cement mortar should be used.
Before injection, the concrete close to the crack shall be cleaned by suitable means like wire brushing.
The cracks shall then be sealed on top using a special type of epoxy. If the crack is through, both sides
of the cross section must be sealed.
When filling cracks with injection, special equipment is required like injection pump, thin plastic tubes,
nipples and drill. The injection material is pumped in the cracks through nipples fixed in drilled holes.
The injection holes should if possible, be drilled sloping such that they can intersect the cracks. The
holes should be drilled alternately from both sides of the crack. The drilling must follow a pattern such
that the holes will intersect the crack at different depths. The distance between the holes is usually 200-
500 mm. The nipples must not be installed at such a depth that they will block the crack.
The injection starts by pumping the material into the nipple that will reach the maximum depth as
shown on figure 4.2.7. When the injection material appears in the neighbouring nipple, the nipple used
for preceding injection must then be closed and the point for next injection moved to the neighbouring
nipple and so on. In this way, it should be possible to fill the whole crack. The injection pressure shall
be enough to fill the crack without causing damage to the structure.
After the injection work is finished, all nipples shall be removed.
As a quality control, concrete cores may be drilled out through the crack to inspect the finished
injection.
Special trained and skilled workers shall do the injection work. The workers shall wear safety glasses
and precautions shall be taken to prevent skin contact.
Fig. 4.2.7: Injection of cracks

The unit measurement for crack filling is running metres of crack that has been filled and the payment
shall include full compensation for all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for satisfactory
57
4.2.5 Surface treatment

Description
Surface treatment is a preventive maintenance activity that is carried out using different types of
coatings in order to stop carbonation and penetration of chlorides or other chemical attack to the
concrete.
Application
Surface treatment is applied as a remedy to protect the concrete surface in cases with damage caused by
leaching, insufficient concrete cover or a porous concrete sensitive to penetration of detrimental
substances.
Working procedure
If found necessary, prior to surface treatment, the concrete shall be repaired using ordinary repair
methods like concrete casting and plastering. Sometimes it may be necessary to fill out surface pores
before carrying out surface treatment.
Materials shall be chosen considering their reactive characteristics and interaction with the concrete
substrate. Information shall be given for bond strength, water vapour diffusion coefficient, resistance to
Carbon Dioxide, alkali-resistance, water repellent properties, resistance to chloride penetration,
elasticity/crack covering qualities specified as membrane thickness or crack width, water tightness,
adhesiveness, chemical resistance, resistance to ageing, Elastic Modulus, temperature expansion
coefficient, curing/hardening time, resistance to Ultraviolet-rays and service life. The most common
materials are cement based coatings. Materials shall be stored and marked to prevent accidental mix up.
As a preparatory work, the concrete surface must be cleaned to provide the required bond strength. The
common methods are sandblasting, blastring and high pressure washing. The minimum bond strength
of the concrete surface shall be 1.0 Mpa.
It is important that the moisture content of the substrate is as specified for the chosen surface treatment
in order to achieve maximum penetration depth. Repaired surfaces shall be sufficiently cured and dried
before surface treatment.
The manufacturer's specifications shall be followed regarding field of application, temperature,
humidity and means of application.
A reference section shall be established at the start of work. The size and location of the reference
section shall be specified.
Impregnation materials shall be applied from the bottom and up to avoid excess impregnation fluid
running over un-impregnated surfaces and thereby causing discolouration. The material shall be applied
in even thickness according to the specifications.
The bond strength between each layer shall be minimum 1.0 Mpa or result in a break in the in situ
substrate.

The unit measurement for surface treatment shall be in square metres of the treated area and the
payment shall include full compensation for all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for
satisfactory completion of the work.
58
4.2.6 Strengthening
Description
Strengthening is a remedy that will increase the carrying capacity of a bridge or a bridge element,
whether damaged or not damaged.
Application
Strengthening is carried out in cases where it is necessary to increase the load carrying capacity. The
work can be limited to certain elements but can also involve both the superstructure and the
substructure. The extent of strengthening must be based on the condition of the bridge and will
therefore require investigations and measurements at site before static calculations are performed. If
dimensions of certain elements are changed, it is important to check that the corresponding change in
stresses does not exceed the carrying capacity at any other immediate section of the bridge, including
both the superstructure and the substructure. The increase of column dimensions without a monolithic
connection to the superstructure will affect only the substructure. On the other hand, increase of
dimensions of a column with monolithic connection to the superstructure will affect the whole bridge.
Fig. 4.2.8: The effects of changing column dimensions
Working procedure
Sometimes strengthening is done by increasing the dimensions of bridge elements like foundations and
columns as shown on fig. 4.2.9. In this case, it is important that a good bond is achieved between the
existing structure and the new parts. Removal of poor concrete, roughening of concrete surfaces and
anchoring of new reinforcement in existing structure is therefore required.
Fig. 4.2.9: Strengthening of column
For the superstructure, strengthening by gluing steel plates is often done as shown on figure 4.3.5. This
requires that the steel plates are protected against corrosion. An alternative to steel plates is application
of carbon fibre plates, using much the same technique. In both cases the concrete surfaces shall be
treated according to the manufactures' recommendations.
59
Fig. 4.2.10: Strengthening of superstructure by steel plates gluing.
Sometimes gluing is combined with bolting as shown on the photo below.
Steel gluing combined with bolting
At times, the use of external prestressed cables will solve many problems. There are different methods
of anchoring the prestressing cables depending on site conditions and accessibility as shown on the
photo below. The pre-stressing cables will resolve the cracking problem and increase both the shear and
moment capacity. Also, an uplift will take place, which is often desirable.
Strengthening of superstructure using external prestressing cables for Lugono Bridge

The unit measurement for strengthening shall be in lump sum and payment of the lump sum shall
include all costs incurred for strengthening the bridge.
60
4.2.7 Plastering
Description
Plastering is casting of cement mortar by hand and usually several layers of thickness maximum 4-
5 mm is applied.
Application
Plastering by hand is mostly applied when there is limited extent of damage.
Working method
Depending on the required thickness, plastering should be done in layers not exceeding 10mm.
Generally, it is important that the layers are cast continuously without any halt. The reason for not
casting the whole layer in one operation is to avoid later delamination of the new cover. The work must
be executed in such manner that a high level of bonding is achieved between the layers.
At least 24 hours before the mortar is placed, the damaged area shall be well pre-watered to make the
surface slightly absorbent. Before filling with mortar, all excess water shall be removed using
compressed air.
In case the carrying capacity has been affected, a bonding agent shall be used if not otherwise specified
in order to achieve a satisfactory bond to the substrate. The requirement is bond strength to the
substrate greater than 1.2Mpa; otherwise the substrate shall break first. This means that when testing,
breaks shall either occur in the concrete substrate or in the mortar but not at the joint. The bonding layer
shall be brushed well into the substrate. A check must be made that the bonding agent also covers the
exposed concrete under the reinforcement. The bonding layer must not dry or harden before the mortar
is applied, since the repair mortar shall be applied wet to wet with the bonding agent. The minimum
required concrete cover must be achieved. The mortar shall be packed and formed to ensure a complete
casting around the reinforcement and that the entire damaged area is filled with mortar.
The repaired surfaces shall be protected against drying immediately after casting. Use of clean water in
the form of a very light shower would be an efficient way. Duration of the curing should be a minimum
of 7 days.

The unit measurement for plastering shall be in square metres of the repaired area and the payment shall
include costs for all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for satisfactory completion of the
activity.
61
4.3 MAINTENANCE OF STEEL ELEMENTS

Steel elements are prone to several types of damage like damaged surface treatment, corrosion, and
loose connections.
This chapter will explain how to maintain and repair steel elements.
The rate of deterioration for corrosion depends on the climate where the bridge is located. In dry places
the corrosion will develop much slower than in wet and coastal climates. The rate is normally faster in
the coastal climate. Local factors like debris on the structure that keeps the surface wet also increase the
rate of deterioration. It is always important to keep the structure as clean as possible.
The most common failures to steel members are corrosion and deformation due to traffic impact or
settlement of the foundation. The initial operation in the rectification of deformation caused by
settlement may be lifting the bridge into correct position using hydraulic jacks. However, in this case,
the cause of settlement should also be established and rectified.
Except for damage on the surface treatment, most repairs of steel members have to be designed. When
removing damaged parts of the steel structure, calculations have to be made to check if the remaining
structure has the necessary capacity to carry its own weight or whether temporary supports will be
necessary. There is no clear distinction between replacement and strengthening of steel members, and
in some cases strengthening is done in form of replacement and vice versa.
Before starting repair, any additional stresses that may have been caused by the damage must be
considered. If the steel is heavily corroded, new stresses must be calculated using the properties of the
remaining steel section.
Repairs for steel elements in expansion joints, bearings and parapets will not be given in this chapter as
these are described in other chapters.
62
4.3.1 Repainting
Description
Repainting of steel elements is a supplementary application of paint in order to prevent corrosion or
restore the original coats of painting.
Application
Bridge repainting is an periodic preventive maintenance activity that can be used to repair damage of
surface treatment and prevent further corrosion on steel members.
When ageing and wear have just caused abrasion of the finishing coat, it is appropriate to brush the
surface up and renew the coating system for the bridge. Renewing of the coat at this time would be
simple, and would require only one layer of finishing coat.
Very often the deterioration of the coating system is extensive, and if corrosion has started it can be
necessary to carry out a total replacement of the coating system.
Working procedure
Repainting of steel involves preparatory works and the actual application of paint.
The method used for repainting depends on the condition of the existing paint. If there is only small
isolated local failures, a steel wire brush may be used for cleaning the surface and the damaged portion
is repainted.
If the adhesion of the existing coating is generally sound, it will, after cleaning, be best to have a local
build up of undercoat and then an overall coating of the whole structure. In this case, the undercoat and
the finish coat should be similar to that of the previous coatings.
Washing
Washing is a cleaning method, which is applied to remove dirt and other pollution from the surface.
This may be done using brushes, water or alkaline detergent. All remains of alkaline detergent must be
washed away using fresh water. When there is oil or grease on the steel surface, a solvent-cleaning
compound has to be used. Best result is obtained by using a high-pressure washing unit at 150 kg/cm2
and water temperature of 60 - 70°C.
Steel Wire Brushing.
Wire brush can be used when only small isolated parts of the steel surface need cleaning.
The brush can be used by hand or power tool. Prior to wire brushing, any heavy layers of rust shall be
removed by chipping-hammer. A properly wire brushed surface shall be free from visible oil, grease,
dirt, poorly adhering mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matters. The photo below shows the
appearance of a surface properly cleaned by wire brushing.
Clean wire brushed steel surface
When power wire brushing is used, the surface may be polished leading to poor adhesion of the
coating, and hidden stains of rust can be covered under the polished surface. A better result may be
63
obtained using a fibre abrasive wheel, designed for removing rust.

Sandblasting
Blast cleaning is a common term applied for methods where grains of varying shape and type are
blasted at the surface. Sandblasting is a good method of cleaning steel giving it a proper roughness.
Hard surfaces like cutting edges on steel plates have to be grinded before sandblasting.
This method can be used in the case of a general failure of the coating system, with disruption of the
undercoats and primers, widespread corrosion varying from heavy rusting of the substrate to spot
rusting on the surface of the paint work.
Each sandblasting unit requires a compressor that discharges at least 7 m3 /minute of compressed air
and using a nozzle size up to 8 mm. The air pressure must be 7 bar as minimum. Adequate separators or
traps should be used in order to avoid water or oil in the compressed air.
The most common sandblasting unit is shown below.
Fig. 4.3.1: Sandblasting unit
The normal size is 120 litre of sand. The sand discharged from the nozzle must be adjusted accurately.
For safety reasons the operator must have a dead man's control, fresh air mask and protective clothing.
The sand should be of an approved quality and type. The grain size shall be between 0.5 and 1.1 mm
and it must be sharp-edged. The sand should not contain any pollution and must be stored in a dry and
clean place.
It is important to have the correct distance to the steel surface when sandblasting. A normal distance is
between 20 - 40 cm depending on the condition of the surface. Removal of thick and tough coatings
requires a shorter distance than that for corroded steel. The nozzle is to be moved slowly and firmly
while inclined at an angle between 60 - 80° relative to the surface.
A properly sandblasted surface has a blast cleaning pattern that has a metallic outlook, as shown below.
The cleaned surface profile must be free from mill scale rust and foreign matter when viewed by normal
vision.
64
Cleaned sandblasted steel surface.
All dust from the sandblasting must be carefully removed from the steel surface. The surface shall be
virtually free from embedded abrasive particles when viewed through a X10 illuminated magnifying
glass. When using compressed air for cleaning it must not contain any water or oil.
Some old trusses are designed in a way that can cause difficulties in getting a proper result. In some
cases the profiles are attached to each other with a small clearance between the surfaces, or some times
even forming a hollow box.
Hollow box in a truss
If it is not highly corroded, it might be a better solution not to sandblast the surface, having in mind that
it is almost impossible to achieve a proper result. If it is heavily corroded, one must try the best to
sandblast the surfaces and apply a lot of paint using a flat brush with a long stick.
In the case where only parts of the coated surfaces are sandblasted, the remaining coating should be
protected from being destroyed by sand, or recoil from sand. The transition between the blasted area
and the area that is not blasted shall be smoothened using sandpaper or a scraper.
The blasted areas have to be painted almost immediately in order to prevent possible occurrence of
corrosion. The length of the period between blasting and painting must be determined individually
depending on the environmental conditions like humidity, temperature, etc.
Covering of the work site should be considered in order to avoid dust pollution of the neighbourhood.
When deciding the type of scaffolding system, it must be understood that sand from sandblasting can be
rather heavy.
In some cases the old paint may contain toxic ingredients such as red-lead. A waste trapping facility
may be necessary in order to collect the paint removed using the sandblasting method. Such toxic waste
shall be disposed according to current environmental regulations.
Ultra-High Pressure Water Cleaning
This is a system using an extremely high pressure to clean the surface. The water pressure is up to
2,000 kg/cm2. The surface roughness will not be improved and it is most likely that flash rust may
65
occur. Specially formulated types of painting for such surfaces should be applied. The cost of using this
method will most likely be high. The problems with toxic waste are still present, but in this case it is
easier to collect and remove the toxic waste.
Flame cleaning
The method consists of applying a flame with a determined speed across the steel surface. During
heating, rust and the remaining parts of mill scales expand more than the steel and the tension generated
makes the mill scales crack and loosen. The temperature of the steel can approach 1500C. This
treatment does not remove all rust and shall therefore be accomplished using a wire brush. Flame
cleaning can be applied for both horizontal and vertical surfaces.
Repainting
The recommended coating for painting of clean steel involves one coat of red-oxide primer with a
minimum of 15-25 microns dry film thickness, followed by two coats of undercoat of approved quality
and one finishing coat of aluminium paint each with minimum thickness of 40 microns dry film.
If the painting involves only renewing the finishing coat with no need for cleaning of the exposed steel,
only one coat of finishing coating shall be applied.
During the painting operation, the relative humidity in the air shall be lower than 85%. The temperature
of the steel shall be at least 3°C above the dew point. It shall be measured at least right before
application starts and at the finish of application every day.
All paint-containers shall remain unopened until when required for use. All ingredients shall be
thoroughly mixed before application and shall be disturbed often enough during use to keep the
pigments in suspension.
No thinner shall be added to the paint unless necessary for proper application. In no case shall more
than 10% be added unless the paint is specially formulated for greater thinning. The type of thinner
shall comply with the paint specifications.
The primer should be applied with a brush or high-pressure spraying unit known as airless spray. It is
not allowed to use a roller painter for the primer.
When using a brush it is important that the brush is of such quality that it provides a smooth and
constant coating with no deep or harmful traces from the brush. If the right thickness can not be
achieved in one coat, more coats have to be applied.
Before each coat after the primer an extra coat must be added to sharp corners, bolts, nuts, and places
with difficult accessibility.
The interval between each coat shall be according to the producer’s specification.
If a new coating is applied on top of the old one, it must be checked that the two are compatible,
ensuring that the new one does not dissolve into the old coating.
Precautions given in the producer’s data sheet shall be carefully read and followed.
Measurements and payment

The unit measurement for cleaning of exposed steel and repainting shall be in square metres of treated
steel surface.
Renewing the finishing coat is measured in square metres of treated steel surface.
Payment for both operations shall include full compensation for labour, equipment, tools and materials
for each operation.
66
4.3.2 Corrosion protection of corrugated steel culverts

Description
Corrosion protection of corrugated steel culverts involves prevention or delaying the corrosion process.
Fig. 4.3.2: Painting of corrugated steel culvert Corrugated steel culvert with concrete lining at the bottom.
Application
Corrugated steel culverts will corrode if the protective galvanising or coating is damaged. The bottom
periphery of the steel culvert is particular vulnerable to this type of damage.
It is difficult to investigate if the steel culvert is corroding at the outside face to the back-fill. If the steel
is heavily corroded it may be necessary to drill a hole, and measure the remaining steel thickness. There
is special equipment that can measure the thickness of the steel plate from the inside.
When corrosion is evident inside the culvert protection must be done as soon as possible, because the
damage can develop very fast.
Working procedure
The best time for this work is during the dry season when there is no water in the culvert. The first
operation is removal of all debris and proper cleaning of the steel surface. All rust shall be removed
from the steel sections as far as possible using steel wire brushes or any other suitable tool, depending
on the extent. The repair can be carried out using either bitumen paint or concrete lining.
Concrete lining
The extent of concrete lining along the inside walls of the culvert must be marked.
Concrete with mixing ratio 1:2:4 of a maximum thickness of 10 cm is poured along the full length of
the bottom of the culvert, following the marking. The concrete surface shall be troweled smooth
following the curvature of the culvert as shown on figure. Normally there is no need for any
reinforcement.
The levels of the inlet shall be adjusted if necessary.
In some cases shotcreting may be used instead of concrete casting. In this case, it may be a good
solution to have mesh reinforcement in the shotcrete, depending on the extent.
Painting with bitumen
Bitumen for use in this activity must be heated in a bitumen heater until it is pourable, but preferably
not to be heated to more than 100°C.
A thick coat of 3-4mm bitumen is applied along the lower half of the culvert. The bitumen shall be
poured and brushed well into the surface, trying to achieve as smooth surface as possible.
67
Excess bitumen should not be left on the bottom, since this might allow accumulation of water.
Care must be taken when heating and handling the bitumen. Protective gloves and clothing should be
worn.

The unit measurement for corrosion protection of corrugated steel culvert shall be in square metres of
the treated steel surface not taking into consideration the extra area due to corrugations of the culvert.
Payment for this maintenance activity shall include full compensation for all materials, labour,
equipment and tools for completion of the work.
68
4.3.3 Strengthening and bracing

Description
Strengthening is the activity that is carried out in order to sustain the load carrying capacity of a
damaged steel element or to increase the load carrying capacity of a steel element or the whole
structure.
Application
Steel elements with abnormal deformation or insufficient load carrying capacity need strengthening.
Weakened steel members in compression or those affected by warping need strengthening by bracing to
prevent buckling and further distortion.
Working procedure
Generally, any proposal for strengthening of steel elements and bridges has to be designed with
corresponding specifications for the work to be carried out. Such design shall consider all stages of
execution.
In some cases the deformed member can be straightened using jacks or heating. Heating of a steel
member can only be performed when absolutely necessary and has to be done by qualified personnel
under close supervision of an engineer.
Strengthening of steel bridge members can be achieved by introducing additional steel by bolting or
welding. Some of the more common methods are shown in the following figures.
Fig. 4.3.3: Strengthening of H-beam using bolted connection Fig. 4.3.4: Strengthening of H-beam using angles
Fig. 4.3.5: Strengthening of H-beam using welding
A slab on girders bridge superstructure can be effectively strengthened by changing it to a composite

superstructure. This can be done by introducing shear connectors on the top flanges of the girders
69
where the concrete deck will then be used as a compression flange. Size and spacing of the shear
connectors must be calculated according to approved standards. This can be done when the deck has to
be replaced.
Photo of a bridge strengthened using shear connectors.
By unloading the deck from the steel beams before strengthening, the resulting capacity will increase
since the steel beams will be strengthened with less deflection and would therefore carry both the dead
load from the deck as well as the live load. Temporary supports and hydraulic jacks may be used when
unloading the bridge.
All steel parts on the new and the effected parts on the existing steel elements must be coated. At
connections with friction bolts, an area extending 15mm from the edges of the surface shall be coated
with only a primer with a maximum thickness of 20 microns.
Before sending the new steel to site it must be checked that everything is in accordance with the
specifications.
In some cases the bridge may be strengthened by introducing additional supports. The photo below
shows a single span bridge that has been modified to a strut frame bridge. One problem that can arise is
the possibility of getting a negative reaction at the supports. However there are several ways of solving
this problem.
Bridge rebuilt to a strut frame bridge

The unit measurement for strengthening and bracing of steel members shall be in tonne of new steel.
Payment for this maintenance activity should include full compensation for all materials, labour,
equipment, and tools for completion of the work.
70
4.3.4 Replacement
Description
Replacement of steel elements involves removal of the old damaged elements or their parts and
substitution with new ones.
The new steel elements can be attached to the existing structure using bolts and nuts or welding.
Application
Replacement of steel elements is a maintenance activity used to rectify damage related to extensively
deformed element and heavily corroded element. Missing bolts and nuts are also rectified by this
action.
When replacing elements strengthening should also be considered.
Working procedure
The first step in the replacement of any damaged bridge steel element is to ensure that its removal will
not jeopardize the integrity of the structure. If there is any possibility that the removal of any element
could cause the failure or distress to the structure or any of its components, temporary supports must be
provided. In many cases, such temporary supports are designed as if they were to become a permanent
part of the structure.
Before starting replacement of a steel element or part of it, design calculations shall be done for every
stage of the operation. Temporary supports and unloading actions might in addition be introduced and
verified by statical calculations.
Missing bolts
If a bolt or rivet is missing or loose, it must be replaced or tightened. A loose rivet is removed by
drilling. The rivet can be replaced using a friction bolt of grade 8.8. If it is not possible to find a bolt
with the right diameter the hole must be widened, provided that the remaining steel area is sufficient.
If a more specific procedure is not given for installing a friction bolt, the following procedure can be
followed:
A washer is put underneath both the bolt head and the nut, making sure that the correct side of the
washer is facing the steel and that the quality of bolt and nut is correct. The nut is first fastened snug-
tight before it is turned an additional 150° as shown in the figure below.
Fig. 4.3.6: Tightening up a friction bolt.
The diameter of the bolt shall be 1-2 mm smaller than the hole. Galvanised bolts must always be used
unless completely unavailable.
Corroded steel
Corroded steel can be replaced by cutting out the destroyed part of the steel and welding in a new plate.
In some cases it is better to do patching of new steel plates to the elements. The photo below shows
new steel plates welded to the lower part of a corroded steel beam.
71
Replacement of corroded steel in a cross beam.
Removing corroded steel parts of an element can be dangerous without temporary supports. In many
cases it is advisable to put a new web parallel to the existing one. For better stability, some stiffeners
may be required at the end of the new plates.
The welding seam should be grinded. If there is a hole in the web, the new steel plate should be
fastened using double-bevel butt joint.
Prior to welding, the existing steel must be examined to establish the proper welding procedure. If for
some reasons the existing steel is not weldable, bolted connections have to be considered.
Steel Members in Trusses
Before any member is removed from a truss bridge, statical calculations shall be done for each stage of
operation. In the case of replacement, it is most likely that either a diagonal or vertical strut is to be
replaced. External supports must be provided before starting the replacement exercise. An example is
shown in the sketch below.
Fig. 4.3.7: External support of a truss and static calculations.
72
There may be excessive stresses in the remaining members when some of them have been removed or
severely damaged. It is therefore important to be very careful when removing the destroyed members.
Deformation of steel members may cause additional stresses that are often difficult to calculate.
Cracks
If a crack is discovered a small hole may be drilled at the end of the crack as a first aid measure.
Investigation has to be made to reveal the cause of the crack before deciding whether replacement is
necessary.

The unit measurement for replacement of steel shall be in tonne of the new steel.
Payment for replacement of steel members shall include full compensation for all materials, labour,
equipment and tools for completion of the work.
73
4.4 MAINTENANCE OF MASONRY ELEMENTS

Masonry bridge elements are normally massive and heavy. Since they are made of many units joined
together, their repairs have to avoid as much as possible any requirement for lifting or jacking up as
such an operation may damage the element further. Masonry bridge elements are prone to such damage
as cracking, bulging, wearing of pointing and weathering.
In the case of cracking, it is important to make a distinction between cracks that run nearly diagonally
following the mortar joints and those passing straight down either through the vertical joints and
masonry units or through the masonry units only.
The cracks that run along the joints are repaired by crack filling while those that cross the masonry
units will require replacement of the cracked masonry units (stones, bricks or blocks). Replacement of
masonry units is also applied in the case of bulging and excessive wearing of pointing where the
masonry units have become loose. In the case of wearing of pointing where the masonry units are still
stable in place, re-pointing is the appropriate maintenance activity.
For the case of weathering, the best maintenance activity is plastering.
The above mentioned different types of maintenance activities for bridge elements made of masonry
will be explained in this chapter.
74
4.4.1 Crack filling

Description
Crack filling is an activity for rectifying cracks in masonry bridge elements by filling them with mortar.
Application
Crack filling is applied for repair of cracks along joints for all types of masonry bridge elements.
Working procedure
For proper repair of cracks in masonry, the cause for the crack has to be established and rectified first.
It is worth remembering that unless the cause is treated, the repair will only be temporary. Crack filling
alone for cracks caused by differential settlement or excessive earth thrust behind abutments will not be
effective without taking care of the cause. For differential settlement, underpinning might be necessary
before crack filling. For excessive thrust behind the abutments or retaining walls, relief of the surcharge
load behind them by replacing the back-filling material and improving the drainage system behind the
structure would be necessary.
For whichever repair approach, the crack filling must start with a clean surface for proper bonding. The
cracked mortar has to be removed thereby widening the crack to facilitate proper filling. Loose
materials should be removed with a masonry chisel or wire brush. The crack is then cleaned by using
compressed air in order to remove all loose particles and blow dust out of the crack. As a safety
measure, goggles and a dust masks should be worn during this operation. Before filling, the cracks shall
be moistened in order to exclude the possibility of rapid drying out of the mortar after filling.
A cement mortar of mix ratio 1:4 shall be used for crack filling. The amount of mortar to be prepared
should not be more than that which can be used within 20 minutes. If the crack is less than 10mm wide,
the mortar to be used should be able to flow easily to ensure complete filling of the crack. For cracks
that are more than 10mm wide, the mortar should be stiffer and a trowel has to be used to press the
material into the crack in layers not exceeding 10mm. It is important to note that the material shrinks as
it dries, and if too much is applied at a time it will crack. Each layer should be allowed to dry for at
least a few hours before applying the next. When the patch is flush with the surface, a trowel should be
used to flatten and blend the mortar into the surrounding surface.
Fig. 4.4.1: Use of a trowel to flatten and blend the mortar at joints.
After the filling of the cracks, any accidentally spilled mortar has to be cleaned.
If the cracks are deep, injection method can be used. The injection material will then be expanding
cement grouting.

The unit measurement for crack filling shall be in linear metres of filled cracks and the payment shall
include full compensation for all materials, labour, equipment and tools necessary for completion of the
work.
75
4.4.2 Re-pointing
Description
Re-pointing is a supplementary application of a decorative finish to the joints of a masonry bridge
element after wearing out of the original pointing. Common pointing types are flush and outer or inner
weathered pointing.
Fig. 4.4.2: General types of pointing

Application
Re-pointing is applicable to the joints where the original pointing is worn out. Sometimes, it can also be
used as a decorative finish in form of weathered pointing even when the pointing is not worn out.
Working procedure
Before re-pointing, it is advisable to ensure that there is no any other damage to the masonry apart from
wearing out of the original pointing. The masonry units may become loose as a result of excessive
wearing out of pointing and the rectification might not be re-pointing alone but might also include
replacement of the units.
The damaged pointing in joints shall be chiselled out and cleaned so that they are free of all the old
weak mortar. This is done to a depth where the old mortar is strong and is not easily removable. If the
old mortar is weak up to a depth where the masonry units can become loose or fall down if the mortar is
removed, then, other solutions have to be considered.
After cleaning, the joints have to be moistened as preparation for application of fresh mortar. A fresh
cement mortar of ratio 1:4 is then applied in the joints ensuring proper filling of all opening in the
joints. The new mortar should be thoroughly pressed into the joints using a trowel to ensure that there
are no voids in the joints.
The required pointing shall be introduced. Generally, the new pointing shall be finished as the original
one unless there are strong reasons for changing it. Introduction of a new pointing style would
necessitate re-pointing of the whole bridge element and other similar elements of the same bridge for
uniformity.
It has to be noted that the quantity of mortar to be mixed with water should not exceed the amount that
can be used in half an hour. If it exceeds, the initial setting will start before the mixed mortar is used.
76
Flush pointing
Outer weathered pointing
The masonry surface and the working area shall be properly cleaned.
The pointing has to be cured for at least three days after completion of works.

The unit measurement for re-pointing shall be in linear metres of the re-pointed joints.
The payment shall include full compensation for all material, labour, tools and equipment necessary for
77
4.4.3 Plastering
Description
Plastering is the application of a thin layer of cement mortar over the surface of a masonry bridge
element in order to protect the surface against further damage and also to provide a pleasant
appearance.
Application
Plastering is applied to a surface of a masonry bridge element that has been damaged by weathering.
Working procedure
The main aspects that govern quality of a plaster are the proper mixing of the plastering mortar and
timely use of the mortar before initial setting.
All masonry joints should be raked to a depth of about 2 cm for stone and block masonry and 1.5 cm
for brick masonry in order to provide a key to the plaster. The surface of the masonry units that have
been affected by weathering should be chipped free of the weakened outer layer using a chipping
hammer.
The surface should then be cleaned free of all dirt and any loose particles, washed with clean water and
kept damp before plastering work starts.
Normally, plaster is applied in two layers. But if the total thickness of the plaster exceeds 25 mm then,
it has to be done in more than two layers.
One way to achieve a uniform thickness of the plaster is by applying reference marks of about 15 cm x
15 cm in size on the surface to be plastered at suitable intervals.
Fig. 4.4.3: Plastering procedure.
78
The first layer of cement mortar is applied on the surface using the reference marks as a guide for
uniform thickness. Before hardening of the first layer, the surface is scratched to provide key for the
finishing coat. The first coat is then cured for at least three days and left to dry.
A finishing coat of about 2 to 3 mm is applied after evenly moistening the dry surface. The finishing
coat must be applied with an even amount of material and pressure to avoid an irregular or wavy final
surface.
The finished plaster should then be cured for at least three days.

The unit measurement for plastering shall be in square metres of the repaired area and the payment shall
include full compensation for all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for completion of the
work.
79
4.4.4 Replacement of masonry units

Description
This maintenance activity involves substitution of loose or damaged stones, bricks or blocks of a
masonry bridge element. It also involves replacement of the damaged masonry units by concrete or any
other better material. It is worthwhile to mention that the cause of the damage has to be identified and
rectified first.
Application
This maintenance activity is applicable when there is such damage as bulging, extreme wearing of
pointing and extensive localised cracking or cracks that pass through the masonry units.
Working procedure
Replacement of masonry units is an activity that requires great care and keenness when carrying it out.
It is always necessary to calculate in advance the capacity of the bridge element during every stage of
the replacement process.
There are three distinctive cases of this activity. The first is the one that involves a retaining wall or
wing wall where the damaged units are found above the surface of the back-filling. In this case only the
dead load above the damaged units has to be considered.
Since in such cases, the depths concerned are relatively small, it might be more economical and easier
to replace the damaged units where the units above the damaged ones are also removed and replaced.
The damaged units are chopped out by chipping through the joints including the units above. The
removal of units above the damaged ones should be done diagonally upwards following the joints as
shown in fig.4.4.4. Removal of the units has to be carried out with care in order to minimise
disturbance that might cause other damage to the bridge element. Normally, one unit is removed at a
time. After removing the old units the surface is cleaned free of the old mortar then moistened and a
new mortar is laid followed by the new units of the same or nearly the same size as the removed ones.
Fig. 4.4.4: Replacement of damaged masonry units in free walls
The second case is when the damaged units are located below the surface of the back-fill behind the
wing walls or retaining walls. In this case, the earth pressure behind the bridge element has to be
considered in addition to the dead load.
The back-filling material behind the walls is normally excavated to relieve the earth pressure before
starting the replacement operation. Replacement of the masonry units as done above might not be cost
effective in this case. The damaged units can instead be chopped out and replaced by concrete. Such a
80
solution however, will not be appreciable aesthetically.

The third case involves load-carrying elements like abutments and piers where the load coming on top
requires attention. In this case, static calculations are inevitable for determining all the loads involved
and carrying out design of temporary supports to the superstructure. For abutments, excavation will
also be necessary to relieve the earth pressure behind them.
The capacity of the bridge element with damaged masonry units has to be checked before deciding on
the replacement method. It is sometimes better to cast concrete after removal of the damaged units
rather than replacing them with new units. This again is not in favour of aesthetics. The following
figure shows an example of the means of concrete casting instead of replacement of the masonry units.
Fig. 4.4.5: Replacement of masonry units by concrete.
The new masonry construction has to be cured for at least three days then it is left to dry and back
filling may be performed after seven days followed by general cleaning of the surroundings and
removal of all debris.

The unit measurement for replacement of masonry units shall be in cubic metres of completed work.
The payment shall include full compensation for all material, labour, equipment and tools necessary for
81
4.5 MAINTENANCE OF TIMBER ELEMENTS

Timber is an organic material. That means it differs in the behaviour compared to non organic material
as concrete or steel. Timber is a hygroscopic material that absorbs moisture in humid environment and
loses moisture in dry environments. Therefore, the moisture content of wood depends on the relative
humidity and temperature of the surrounding air. The expansion and shrinkage varies in different
directions compared to the grain direction. The moisture content at which the cell walls are saturated
with water, but at which virtually no free water exists in the cell cavities, is called the fibre saturation
point. Wood is dimensionally stable when the moisture content is above the fibre saturation point.
Below the fibre saturation point, wood shrinks when moisture is lost and swells when moisture is
gained.
A common negative impact on timber is the decay or insect attack. When the relative humidity of the
surrounding air is about 90 %, the moisture content in the wood is about 20 %. With lower rate of
moisture content in the wood, the level of decay will be dramatically reduced. The timber is absorbing
about 20 times more water through the end grain compared to the lateral face of the timber. That is an
important issue when protecting timber against water.
The decay is mostly a question of trapped moisture in the wood. The main rule must be that water has
to be directed away from timber elements as much as possible and permit the timber elements to dry out
as fast as possible. Also to protect the timber elements against rainfall is positive with regard to the life
expectancy of the element. The protection could be either constructive and / or chemical protection.
The constructive protection is done by proper design work and involve construction of shelters that
prevent water access to the timber and at the same time give the members of the structure good
ventilation to let them exsiccate as soon as possible.
Proper design practice and construction which protects the timber from rainfall is recommended since
this will minimise the maintenance cost in the long run. Typical examples of such design are shown in
the figure below:
Running board
Asphalt felt covering
Deck planks
Log/beam
Shelter
Timber post
Fig.4.5.1: Protection of timber elements
When it is possible without incurring very high investments it is recommendable to protect the timber
from water by constructive protection. Also this constructive shelter has to be maintained. In the case
where the surface is treated by application of a protective coating, the surface treatment has to be
maintained.
82
Earth is a very good supplier of moisture. Therefore timber should not be in connection with earth.
When earth or debris occurs on timber it has to be cleaned as soon as possible to keep the element as
dry as possible.
When using poles they should have been pressure impregnated with appropriate preservatives or should
remain continuously under water. If the poles sometimes appear above water level, damming the water
level downstream to re-establish the original water level is recommended. When timber poles are in
connection with salt water marine borer can attack the poles. Creosote impregnation will protect the
pole against this attack.
Furthermore, the timber ends are the easiest access for insects when they attack timber and should
consequently be subject for special attention.
83
4.5.1 Treatment of the surface

Description
Timber treatment involves application of preservatives to timber. The preservatives can be applied to
the timber by using brush, sprayed on or pressed into the timber in a specific process known as pressure
impregnation. Wood preservatives are broadly classified as oil-type or waterborne preservatives. These
classifications are based on the chemical composition of the preservative and type of solvent or carrier
employed in treating. Oil-type preservatives are generally used in petroleum solutions ranging from
heavy oils liquefied petroleum gas. Waterborne preservatives are water soluble and are applied in
solutions with water. To adequately protect wood, conventional preservatives must be toxic to the
intended targets, be they fungi, insects or animal. Unfortunately, the same characteristics that make a
preservative effective can, at higher levels, render it unsafe for humans.
Application
Timber protective coating or other preservatives are applied to timber that has shown signs of minor
damage or wearing of the existing surface treatment.
For timber elements with big to critical damage, surface treatment is normally not effective and
replacement may be considered.
Working procedure
When pressure impregnated timber has lost its protective ability, a superficial preservative coating
should be applied with a paint brush.
The preservative coat should be applied, ensuring that the whole surface is covered. Special attention
should be paid to the end grain where application has to be repeated several times. Care has to be taken
when applying the coating to ensure that the preservative coat penetrates into all pores, fissures and
cracks. No part should be left untreated as water can easily find an access to the wood and lead to
formation of fungi within the timber.
The instructions from the producer regarding preparatory works, the number of layers and the time
interval between applications of two successive layers of paint have to be followed. Generally, the first
coat must be allowed to dry before application of the next layer. It is important to choose preservatives
for the intended targets.
The most common types of preservatives for bridges today are the oil-type preservatives and the
waterborne preservatives, where oil-type preservatives are more recommended. The three oil-type
preservatives used in bridge applications are coal tar creosote (creosote), pentachlorophenol (penta),
and copper naphthenate. The characteristics of these preservatives vary significantly depending on the
specific type of preservative and the carrier or solvent in which they are mixed. For bridge applications,
oil-type preservatives are used almost exclusively for treating such structural components as beams and
decks. When the surface of treated wood has been damaged, for instance by drilling holes or by sawing
etc., the wood preservative should be applied again before using it. It should be noted that many of the
mentioned preservatives above are restricted- use pesticides and can be obtained and used only by
licensed applicators. Before using any preservative, a check must always be made with the deliverer
about the environmental issues of the liquid.

The unit measurement for surface treatment of timber is in square metres of the treated timber
Payment for timber treatment should include all costs for labour, tools or any equipment and materials
for completion of the activity including preparatory works, rigging and removal of the rig after the
works.
84
4.5.2 Replacement
Description
Replacement of timber elements is the removal of the damaged elements followed by substitution with
new ones. It also involves placing of new element where the original ones are missing
Application
Replacement of timber element is a maintenance activity, which is applied to damaged or missing
elements.
Working procedure
Timber for replacement must be of a good quality. Untreated soft wood is not recommended for use in
bridges. For deck planks, rectangular and log beams, treated timber should be used when available.
All fastening elements such as nails, bolts with washers or coach screws should be galvanised when
treated timber or hardwood is used.
Running Boards
The activity involves removal of defective boards including extraction of all nails and cleaning the deck
area at contact surfaces.
New boards must be of the same dimensions as the existing ones, and must be well seasoned. Normally
it is not necessary to use wood preservative. The boards have to be fixed in position by using staggered
joints.
Boards shall be firmly attached to the deck to avoid any movement when exposed to traffic. The boards
shall be properly nailed to the deck-planks by at least two nails in every deck-plank. Screws are more
preferable and are recommended whenever possible. The length of the nails should be at least two and a
half times the thickness of the running board. Three nails have to be used for the end of the boards.
Nails should not be driven too close to the edge of the boards, otherwise holes have to be drilled first.
All nails must be flush or lowered below the surface of the boards and they should be alternately
inclined as shown on figure 4.5.2. For better and longer performance it is recommended to use bolts or
screws.
Fig 4.5.2: Fixing of running boards
Deck Planks
For access to the deck planks, the nails should be extracted to ease removal of the running boards. The
running boards are lifted off and the deck planks are removed carefully so as not to damage the timber
beams below.
Apart from the damaged deck planks that have been earmarked for replacement, the top surface of the
remaining exposed planks and beams should also be examined for decay or any other damage. Decayed
beams and any additional decayed deck planks have to be replaced as well.
Before replacement of the deck planks the top of beams should be covered with a bituminous felt to
protect it from direct access of water from the top. The new properly seasoned and well-treated planks
are then placed on the felt in the transverse direction of the bridge and nailed or bolted in position. It is
recommendable to use pressure impregnated timber if possible. Ventilation spacing of 40 - 50 mm
85
between deck planks should be maintained.
Fig. 4.5.3: Fixing of deck planks
When the new deck is in position, the old running boards may be used if they are in a good condition.
Otherwise they should be replaced with new, properly seasoned ones.
Beams
All running boards and deck planks have to be removed.
Beams should be protected from water and moisture by covering their top side with a bituminous felt.
The ends of the beams are particularly prone to damage, as they are in contact with earth and moisture
can easily penetrate into timber through these parts.
It is vital to mention that timber absorbs about 20 times more water through the end grain compared to
the lateral face of the timber and soil is a very good supplier of moisture. Furthermore, the timber ends
are the easiest access for insects when they attack timber.
It is therefore recommended to provide a ventilation space at the ends of the logs and the soil whenever
possible. This can be achieved by means of a metal cover plate, a board or a space.
Air space outside
the end grain
Asphalt felt covering
Road surface
Gravel
Log beam
Board or something
else that could
maintain the air space
Fig. 4.5.4: Fixing of timber beams
The position of the beams underneath the running boards should be along the passage of vehicle tyres
where the concentration of traffic loads is situated. The sketch below shows the desirable placing of the
logs.
Running board
Nail
Log Asphalt felt covering

Stringer
Fig 4.5.5: Placing of logs on a log bridge.

The unit measurement for surface replacement of timber members shall be in cubic metres of the
replaced timber.
Payment of replacement of timber members shall include full compensation for labour, tools,
equipment and materials for completion of the works including preparatory works, rigging and removal
of the rig after the works.
86
4.6 MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGE APPROACHES AND WEARING

COURSE
Maintenance of bridge approaches is as important as any other element of a bridge because of their
importance in facilitating safe traffic entrance and exit from the bridge. Similarly, maintenance of the
wearing course should never be underrated as it protects the deck from being penetrated by any
destructive substances and from direct contact with traffic.
The common types of damage for the bridge approaches are potholes, different types of cracks, kinks,
erosion, excessive or missing vegetation, defective or missing signs, defective drainage system and loss
of camber for gravel surfaces. For the wearing course, there are potholes, different types of cracks, ruts,
corrugations, depressions and abrasion.
Some of the maintenance activities for rectification of damage to the bridge approaches and those for
the wearing course are similar. However, other activities are specific for the bridge approaches.
The maintenance activities that are common for both the approaches and the wearing course are
patching of potholes, crack filling and resealing of the surface. The maintenance activities like
regravelling, back-filling of eroded approach and installation of bridge signs are specific for bridge
approaches.
Vegetation control is another common activity for the approach roads. There are two methods of
vegetation control depending on the prevailing situation. The first, which is done on routine basis, is
grass cutting when there is excessive vegetation. The second one involves grass planting when there is
no vegetation at all on the approaches.
All the mentioned above maintenance activities have been explained in this chapter. However, it is
important to point out that when carrying out resealing works, the additional dead load to the surface of
the wearing course on the bridge must be calculated in order to check whether the additional load can
safely be carried by the structure. If not, then, the old layer of the wearing course must be scarified first
before application of the new layer.
The working procedures for crack filling that have been explained in this chapter are those for bitumen
surfaces. For concrete decks with no additional layer of wearing course, the crack filling procedure
given in chapter 4.2.4 Crack filling for concrete elements shall be used.
87
4.6.1 Patching of potholes

Description
Patching of potholes is an activity for filling the potholes with a suitable material in order to bring the
surface of the road or bridge wearing course to its original condition.
Application
This maintenance activity is applied for rectifying surfaces of wearing course or bridge approaches that
have potholes. The surface may be made of bitumen or gravel.
Working procedure
Before the patching process, it is important to locate and mark the extent of the damaged area around
the pothole. This can be done by bouncing the end of a heavy steel rod around the pothole where the
end of the hollow sound will indicate the end of the damaged portion.
For paved surfaces, the potholes shall be cut to a rectangular or square shape. The cuts should extend
beyond the marked area by 10 to 15 cm to a sound surface and the cuts must be vertical and straight.
Fig: 4.6.1: Pothole marking and cutting.
Any loose material and dust in the cut pothole has to be removed using compressed air.
If the depth of the pothole exceeds the thickness of the asphalt concrete, the different underlying layers
should be replaced with the same materials as the existing ones.
Fig: 4.6.2:.A cross-section of a patched pothole.
A layer of tack coat is then applied into the potholes including the vertical surface of the cuts. The
potholes are then filled with a dense grade of hot asphalt and well compacted to an elevation slightly
higher than the surrounding surface by about 2 cm to allow for subsequent consolidation by traffic.
88
Cutting to a rectangular shape. Cleaning by compressed air. Placing asphalt material in the pothole.
Compaction. Completed asphalt patch.

Sequence of pothole patching using asphalt.
For gravel surface of an approach road, the prepared potholes shall be wetted and filled with well
selected gravel in layers not exceeding 150 mm with a thorough compaction after each layer. The
surface of the finished work should be elevated by about 2 - 4 cm above the surrounding surface for
further consolidation by traffic.

The unit measurement for pothole patching shall be in square metres of completed work.
The payment shall include full compensation for all material, labour, material, tools and equipment
necessary for completion of the works.
89
4.6.2 Crack filling

Description
Crack filling is an activity for rectifying cracks on the bridge wearing course and bridge approaches. It
involves a professional placing of materials into cracks to substantially reduce the intrusion of
incompressible material and infiltration of water while also reinforcing the adjacent pavement. The
cracks are normally filled using bitumen.
Application
Crack filling is applied for rectification of minor to big cracks on the paved wearing course.
For critical cracks, this method is not effective but rather resealing shall be considered.
Working procedure
The cracks should be thoroughly cleaned with stiff-bristled brooms followed by compressed air. After
ensuring that the cracks are clean and free from any loose particles, they are filled with bitumen
emulsion mixed with sand avoiding overfilling.
The surface is then sealed with liquid asphalt and sprinkled with sawdust or dry sand to protect the
treatment from being damaged by traffic.

The unit measurement for crack filling shall be in linear metres of filled cracks.
completion of the works.
90
4.6.3 Resealing of the surface

Description
Resealing is re-application of the surface finishing on top of a bridge approach or wearing course.
Application
This activity is applied for rectifying severely damaged surfaces where other treatments like crack
filling, pothole patching etc. alone are not adequate for proper functioning of the surface. Resealing is
also applicable for rectifying kinks and ruts. In addition, resealing helps to improve the surface texture
where abrasion has taken place.
Working procedure
Prior to beginning the resealing work, any damage to the existing surface like excessive cracks,
potholes or any surface disintegration should be rectified in order to get a sound background for proper
resealing. The surface shall then be properly cleaned by compressed air.
Materials for resealing works shall be properly selected and proportioned. Resealing should be done
under dry weather conditions.
There are two common methods of resealing. The cheapest is surface dressing, which can be either
single surface dressing or double surface dressing. This method involves sprinkling of a bituminous
adhesive coat on the surface followed by spreading of carefully selected stone chippings.
In this method, the cutback bitumen or bitumen emulsion is evenly sprinkled on the surface and left for
a few hours in order to attain enough penetration. The chippings should be spread to a uniform dense
layer and compacted immediately by a roller with rubber tyres. This is called single surface dressing.
When a double surface dressing is required, a second layer of bitumen followed by chippings is applied
and compacted.
Single surface dressing Double surface dressing
Fig: 4.6.3: Types of surface dressing.
The following table shows recommended ranges of application of the binder and chippings for normal
type of surface:
BINDER CHIPPINGS
BITUMEN (Litres/m2) SIZE RATE
CUTBACK EMULSION (mm) (Kg/m2)
1.1 1.3 6 6–8
1.1 1.3 10 9 – 12
1.0 1.2 14 12 – 15
Fig: 4.6.4: Rates of material application for surface dressing.
The above table gives only guidance while the Standard Specifications for Road Works 2000 shall be
used for more details on the procedures and standards for carrying out surface dressing.
Installation of warning signs and speed restrictions must be enforced to avoid risk of damage to both
the new surface and the traffic.
The second method involves application of an asphalt concrete layer on top of the existing surface.
91
In order to facilitate good bonding between the existing surface and the new layer, a layer of tack coat
shall be applied.
The premix material shall be delivered and spread while hot. Uniform spreading shall be done using
appropriate tools followed by proper compaction.

The unit measurement for resealing of surface shall be in square metres of completed work.
92
4.6.4 Regravelling of the surface

Description
Regravelling involves application of a new layer of gravel on the surface of a gravel bridge approach to
a specified thickness, width and slope.
Application
This maintenance activity is applicable when there is a big loss of camber on the bridge approaches. It
is also necessary when the level of the approach road has become significantly lower than that of the
surrounding ground.
Working procedure
The regravelling operation starts with reshaping of the existing surface of the road to the original cross
section. This can be done manually through labour based operations or by grading with aid of a grader.
Under the reshaping operation, the drain ditches and mitre drains are also opened if blocked. Any
material from the drain ditches except debris may be used on the road surface when reshaping
The surface is then watered and compacted ensuring that the right camber is maintained using a camber
board.
After reshaping of the surface to a right camber which is normally a slope of 5%, the thickness of the
new gravel layer is determined based on the level of the bridge deck.
The thickness and gradient of the new gravel layer is controlled using timber pegs on which the final
level of the finished gravel surface is marked.
The gravel is placed in heaps along the approach road at intervals to be specified by the supervising
engineer according to the required thickness of the gravel layer.
The gravel is then spread either manually or by a grader. The spreading should be done following the
93
marks on the pegs but exceeding the marks by about 1/5th of the thickness of the gravel layer to allow
for compaction. The spread material shall then be compacted using appropriate tools and if too dry, it
shall be moistened.
The camber has to be checked by the camber board along the whole of the finished surface.

The unit measurement for regravelling of the surface shall be in cubic metres of the placed and
compacted gravel to the specified thickness and width of completed works.
The payment shall include full compensation for material excavation, hauling, spreading, compaction,
watering, labour, tools and equipment necessary for completion of the work.
94
4.6.5 Back-filling of eroded approach

Description
Back-filling of an eroded approach is a maintenance activity involving replacement of the portion of the
bridge approach road that has been washed out by erosion to the original or more improved cross
section.
Back-filling of an eroded bridge approach
Application
This activity is applicable to the bridge approaches that have been damaged by erosion.
Working procedure
The first step towards back-filling of any erosion on the approach road is to determine the volume of
the required back-filling material. Normally, the volume of the required material is the actual volume of
the erosion plus 20% that takes care of compaction.
Before commencing the work, the nearest source of back-filling material should be identified. A
reliable source of water should also be identified in the case of a seasonal river that is dry at the time of
this operation.
The back-filling operation is done in layers of thickness 15 - 20 cm with thorough compaction after
each layer. The compaction may be done using hand rammers or vibrating plate compactors for the
lower layers while rollers may be used for the final layers. Before compaction each layer has to be
sprayed with water to facilitate proper compaction.
The back-filled portion should be protected against erosion after completion or during the works.
Working procedures for protection facilities are as given in chapters 4.1.4 to 4.1.8.
The layers of the pavement should be replaced to the original sizes and similar material may be used for
each layer up to the wearing course.
A well-graded filter layer of stones has to be provided behind abutments.

The unit measurement for back-filling of eroded approach shall be in cubic metres of fill material while
the surface finishing is determined in square metres of the finished surface.
The Payment shall include full compensation for all material, labour, tools and equipment necessary for
completion of the works.
95
4.6.6 Grass cutting

Description
This is a routine maintenance activity involving control of excessive vegetation like grass and bushes
by means of cutting.
Clear vision due to proper grass cutting on bridge approaches
Application
This activity is applicable when there is excessive vegetation along the approaches to the bridge.
Working procedure
Depending on weather conditions, this activity may be carried out once or several times in a year. The
frequency of this operation has to be determined based on the rate of vegetation growth.
There are two methods of carrying out this activity. The most common one is trimming the vegetation
by hand where slashers, bush knives, axes and where available scythes are used.
The second method, which is faster but expensive and sometimes hazardous due to great care, required
when carrying out the activity is the use of a hand-guided mowing machine. Although this method is
faster, it does not fully accomplish the activity as it can not take care of thick bushes or trees
obstructing vision to the traffic nor can it be operated at extensive slopes. It is therefore useful for only
few selected bridge sites.
The procedure for grass cutting is as follows:
Grass cutting has to be done immediately after the grass, bushes and trees have started blocking vision
and therefore reducing sight distance for the drivers.
Only the grass or bushes that block the traffic vision have to be cut and no need of exceeding that limit
unnecessarily as this might have other negative influence to the environment.
The grass has to be cut down to a height of about 10 cm from the ground level. For bushes, they should
be cut to a maximum height of 60 cm from the ground level.
Dead or leaning towards the bridge approaches trees should be felled and/or cut to pieces and disposed.
For huge trees or massive branches leaning towards the bridge approaches, free falling may cause
damage to the road structure. Ropes have to be used for lowering the cut branch or for directing the
falling tree away from the road. If there are no experienced labourers, additional supervision from
experts may be used.
Drain ditches and mitre drains on the approaches should be cleared of all unnecessary vegetation. Any
vegetation that is obstructing the traffic signs should be trimmed even if the sight distance is not
affected.
96
The cut down vegetation should not be burned as this may be hazardous to traffic and the surrounding
vegetation.
The vegetation should never be controlled by burning because apart from being hazardous to the traffic,
the fire could spread and destroy other things around the place including the bridge itself. Moreover,
grass grows much faster after burning and thus increasing the frequency of grass cutting.

The unit measurement for grass cutting shall be in square metres of completed work.
The payment shall include full compensation for labour, tools and equipment necessary for completion
of the work
97
4.6.7 Grass planting

Description
This is a routine maintenance activity involving ensuring presence of vegetation on the bridge
approaches by means of planting.
Application
This activity is applicable when there is no vegetation at all along the approaches to the bridge.
However, this method is not applicable to rocky bridge approaches.
Working procedure
The first operation in this activity is to prepare the area for a successful grass planting. Preparation
involves clearing of the area and softening it by a hoe.
There are two ways of carrying out grass planting. The first is using grass turfs where grass is
excavated from another place preferably nearby and transferred to the bridge approaches. The second
way is by using seeds where after preparing the surface, seeds are spread on the surface watered for
some days and left to grow. The first way is however the best as the result is seen immediately. For the
second method, it is often difficult to get the seeds.
In the first way, the suitable grass has to be selected favourably from the neighbourhood. The grass for
this purpose should be strong, fast growing and the type that provides a good coverage of the area
The size of the grass turfs should always be bigger than 20 cm x 20 cm x the depth to which the roots
extend. Holes of the same size as the turfs may be made on the approach slopes where the turfs are
inserted and watered. Sometimes, timber pegs may be required in order to secure them particularly on
steep embankments.

The unit measurement for grass planting shall be in square metres of completed work.
The payment shall include full compensation for labour, tools and equipment necessary for completion
of the work.
98
4.6.8 Installation of bridge signs

Description
Installation of bridge signs constitutes placement or replacement of permanent traffic signs that are
located on the bridge approaches.
Application
This activity is applicable to any damaged, missing or improperly installed permanent traffic signs
located within the approaches to the bridge.
Working procedure
For installation or replacement of signs the following procedure may be followed:
The damaged or improperly placed signs have to be removed first. During removal, the posts for the
signs have to be supported properly. The location for the new sign shall be as close as possible to the
old one and at the same orientation as much as possible.
The foundation for the new sign is excavated making sure that the sides of the foundation are trimmed
vertical. The foundation for a single post standard sign may be at least 30 cm x 30 cm wide and 50 cm
deep if a concrete back-fill is used. The foundation should be at least 90 cm deep for soil back-fill.
The new traffic sign is assembled on the new post(s), properly tightening all bolts, nuts and screws. For
concrete back-fill a mix 1:3:6 is prepared adding only enough water for good workability. The new
post(s) is then erected in the middle of the foundation using temporary struts to support the post(s)
vertically and at the correct alignment and orientation. The orientation should always be in a position
turned slightly away from the road so that the direct reflection from the reflective paint is avoided
during the night.
The concrete is then poured into the foundation and compacted using a hand rammer. For soil back-
filling, the soil is placed and compacted in layers of about 15 cm.
The concrete surface has to be made smooth and slightly sloped downwards from the post(s) to the
edge(s) of the foundation(s).
Depending on the condition of the old sign it can either be kept for possible future use or disposed if it
is damaged beyond any possible repair and use. Any surplus soil, concrete and all debris and any
remains of the old sign should be removed from the site. The area of the old sign should be reinstated to
the original surface.

The unit measurement for installation of bridge signs shall be in a number of installed signs.
99
4.7 MAINTENANCE OF BEARINGS

Maintenance of bearings is required whenever the normal function of the bearings has been affected.
The improper function of bearings may be caused by corrosion, being out of position, loose or absence
of bolts, insufficient cleaning etc.. It can also be caused by material default of the bearing, traffic loads
exceeding the design values and movement in the superstructure or substructure leading to deformation
that exceeds the limitations of the bearings.
Maintenance of bearings is required whenever the normal function of the bearings has been affected.
The improper function of bearings may be caused by corrosion and loosening or absence of bolts. It can
also be caused by material default of the bearing, traffic loads exceeding the design values and
movement in the superstructure or substructure leading to deformations that exceed the design values or
bearings being out of position.
Before starting the repair work, the causes of the damage must be determined and rectified in order to
prevent the same damage to occur in the future. The main cause of corrosion is the presence of debris or
seepage of water through joints to the bearings. Debris clogging the joints can also cause damage to
bearings since movements and rotations in the superstructure are no longer being taken up as designed.
In addition proper drainage shall be provided to avoid ponding of water around the bearing seats.
For rubber bearings, the most common type of damage is excessive shearing, rotation and rusting of the
exposed steel parts. The condition of bearing and to which extent the design values have been exceeded
will be decisive with regard to type of action to be taken.
For steel bearings, the most common damage is corrosion, which must be treated according to
guidelines given in the chapter for repair of steel elements. Also fracture of one or several bearing parts
are common for steel bearings, especially on roller bearings with steering pins.
During adjustment, replacement and repair of bearings, it is necessary to lift the superstructure by
jacking it up. Calculations shall be done to determine the required number and size of jacks and safe
jacking position in order to avoid excessive stresses and punching shear in slabs. For most bridges,
jacking up may be done from the bearing shelves in case accessibility is possible. Otherwise it may be
necessary to chisel out recess for jacks or building up supports for the jacks adjacent to the abutment
wall. For stability and safety reasons, it is highly recommended to jack up only one side of the bridge at
a time. The number of jacks shall not be less than three, and it is important to note that they should lift
the structure simultaneously. If possible, a distribution beam can be used to facilitate uniform lifting
and thus avoiding torsion in the superstructure. However, it is important to remember to centre the jacks
to the beam and check that the beam can take the pressure from the jacks.
100
4.7.1 Cleaning of bearings

Description
Cleaning of bearings is a routine maintenance activity that involves removal and disposal of soils, dirt,
gravel and debris of any kind from the bearings and at the bearing shelf.
Application
This activity is applicable where there is debris on or around the bearings and within the bearing shelf.
Cleaning of bearings shall be combined with cleaning of deck, deck underside, joints and drainage
system.
Working procedure
Loose debris or any other dirt can be easily wiped away by using a brush or in combination with water.
For consolidated debris, the activity may include careful use of spades and sometimes pickaxes in order
to accomplish the cleaning.
Fig. 4.7.1: Cleaning of bearing shelf by brush
At times the bearings may easily be accessible particularly for shallow rivers. For deep rivers it is
necessary to use ladders or scaffolding. Effort shall be made to have scaffolding, which can be
supported from the superstructure; otherwise it has to be supported from the riverbed.
A platform supported from the superstructure
101
Bearing shelves with accumulated debris make comfortable homes for insects and reptiles including
poisonous snakes. It is therefore necessary to take extra care when working at these places including
wearing of gloves.
After removing the debris from the bearing shelf, the bearings shall be cleaned free of any other hidden
dirt that might hinder proper functioning of the bearings. This shall be done by using water or
compressed air.
The cause of the accumulation of debris has to be established and rectified in order to reduce the
frequency of this activity.

The unit measurement for cleaning of bearing shall be in number of bearing shelves cleaned as a lump
sum per shelf.
The payment shall include full compensation for material, labour, tools and equipment necessary for
102
4.7.2 Replacement of bearings

Description
Replacement of bearings involves removal of the existing damaged bearings followed by installation of
the new ones. If necessary, bearing seats must be re-established in the process.
Application
Replacement of bearings is applied for unsatisfactorily working or damaged bearings, especially due to
corrosion and to any bearing which can not be adjusted to restore its proper functioning due to damage
other than corrosion.
Working procedure
The first activity shall be to determine the most appropriate and feasible way of accessing the bearings
and jacking up the superstructure. In this case the existing condition, terrain around the abutment or
pier and the depth of the riverbed level shall be taken into consideration.
For accessible bearings shelves with sufficient room for jacks, scaffolding shall be erected either from
the riverbed for shallow rivers, or from the superstructure for deep rivers.
Accessible bearings
When jacks can not be supported on the bearing shelf or scaffolding erected from the river bed, two
options are proposed. The first option is to chisel out recesses in the bearing shelves in order to
accommodate the jacks and act as the jacking platform. This is achieved after erecting a working
platform from the superstructure. If access for distribution beam is difficult, the recesses shall be made
for each beam on the bridge and all jacks shall be operated simultaneously and equally during jacking
up.
Fig. 4.7.2: Jacking up from recess holes on bearing shelf
103
The second option is to fabricate a jacking platform, which can be anchored below the bearing shelf by
anchor bolts. The configuration, supports and size of members for the jacking platform shall be based
on proper calculations. As for the first option a working platform shall be necessary. The second option
is more economical since it can be used for all bridges with concrete bearing shelves. For masonry
abutment it will be difficult to fix the anchor bolts.
Fig. 4.7.3: Jacking from a pre-fabricated anchored platform.
The jacking up operation shall be done uniformly to avoid torsion on the superstructure. After jacking
up to the required level, the superstructure shall be supported on timber or steel brackets placed on the
bearing shelf. The damaged bearing shall then be removed and replaced with new ones.

The unit measurement for replacement of bearing shall be in a number of bearings satisfactorily
replaced.
The payment shall include full compensation for all material, equipment, scaffolding, tools, and labour
for completion of the work.
104
4.7.3 Adjustment of bearings

Description
Adjustment of bearings is the action of bringing them back to normal or acceptable position by
realignment.
Application
Adjustment of bearings is applicable to damage like excessive shearing of rubber bearings and
excessive movement of bearing plates or other types of movable bearings.
Working Procedure
When deformations like horizontal or vertical movement or rotation in the bearings have exceeded the
acceptable limits, jacking is applied to the superstructure in order to be able to make the necessary
adjustments in the bearings. During this operation, the bearings must be checked to make sure that no
fracture or damage has occurred to them. In the case where the bearings have been so severely damaged
that no adjustments can be properly worked out, decision of replacing the bearings should be made by
an Engineer.
Access and jacking platform shall be prepared followed by jacking up of the superstructure as
explained in chapter 4.7.2. This shall then be followed by the required adjustment.

The unit measurement for adjustment of bearings shall be in a number of adjusted bearings.
The payment shall include full compensation for all material, equipment, scaffolding, tools, and labour
for completion of the work.
105
4.7.4 Repair of bearing seats

Description
Repair of bearing seats involves repair of damaged concrete, which supports the bearing.
Application
Repair of bearing seats is applied to damaged concrete below the bearings. The damage may be broken
or spalled concrete.
Working Procedure
Seats and the neighbouring areas are often exposed to breaking off when traffic loads exceed the design
values. Sometimes spalling may occur due to corrosion of reinforcement. In both cases, traditional
repair of concrete like removal of damaged concrete, cleaning of reinforcement, anchoring of possible
new reinforcement and casting of new concrete must be carried out as explained in chapter 4.2. Before
start of repair work, unloading the bearing is usually required by jacking up the superstructure. Also, all
possible repair works in order to overcome the actual cause of the damage must be done in advance.
Causes can be like unexpected forces imposed to the bearings such as limitation of the movements to
the superstructure, movement of substructure, blockage of expansion gaps etc.
The necessary drainage of water away from the bearings should be provided in order to reduce the
possibility of formation of water ponds around the bearings. This also minimises the easy accumulation
of debris around the bearings.

The unit measurement for repair of bearing seats shall be in a number of repaired bearing seats.
The payment shall include full compensation for all material, equipment, scaffolding, tools, materials
and labour as lump sum per bearing seat.
106
4.8 MAINTENANCE OF JOINTS

On bridges, there are normally two main types of joints, named open and closed joints respectively.
Many types of damage are similar, but they can differ significantly in types of maintenance. Open
joints are prone to damage like blockage and ripping while closed joints may have such damage as
loose cover plates and breaking of sealant.
Timely maintenance of joints is always necessary because of the consequence that might result if the
required maintenance is not carried out in time. Blocked joints exert enormous pressures to the
superstructure and bearings thus causing damage to both the superstructure and substructure. In this
case the joints have to be cleaned. Open joints that allow easy penetration of debris can be covered by
fixing cover plates.
Loose cover plates lead to undesirable traffic impact to the structure. These have to be fastened or
replaced if damaged.
Ripping of concrete from the edges of joints can also lead to traffic impact to the structure. Such joints
have to be armoured.
Resealing is necessary for joints that have their original sealant broken.
This chapter will provide explanation of the way of carrying out the above mentioned types of
maintenance activities for the joints.
107
4.8.1 Cleaning of joints

Description
This activity involves removal of dirt, any debris or sand from the bridge joints.
Application
Cleaning of joints is applicable for bridge joints that have been blocked or covered by debris, sand or
any dirt. A joint can be exposed to both longitudinal movement as the bridge extends and elongate
according to the temperature change, but also movement from rotation of the superstructure caused by
deflection from traffic. The latter is normally a smaller movement than the first one and should
preferably receive more attention with regards to cleaning frequencies.
Working procedure
It is normally quite easy to clean the joints particularly when dirt, debris or sand is not consolidated in
the joint.
This is normally cleaned by a broom along the whole joint and assess whether that alone is adequate. If
not, a piece of wood may be used to remove any stack dirt in the joint.
If the dirt is consolidated in the joint, a piece of steel rod may be used to un-block the joint. Sometimes
it might become necessary to use a hammer to force the steel rod through the consolidated material but
care must be taken to ensure that by doing so the joint is not damaged.
The cleaning of joints should be done together with cleaning of the deck to ensure a lasting cleanliness,
but if inspection shows that the joint is totally or partly blocked by debris, it must be opened
independent of the cleanliness of the deck. After removal of all dirt, the joints shall be cleaned by
water.
Generally, it is advisable to combine the cleaning activities so that when cleaning the joints the deck
and bearing shelves are also freed of any debris at the same time.

The unit measurement for cleaning of joint shall be in a number of cleaned joints.
completion of the work as lump sum per bridge.
108
4.8.2 Fixing of cover plates

Description
Fixing of cover plates is an activity involving installation, replacement or repairing of a plate over a
joint in order to cover the gap and thus prevent penetration of debris into the joint.
Application
This activity is applicable for replacement or fastening of the existing loose cover plates. It is also
applicable for installation of a plate to an open joint that is susceptible to penetration of debris and
traffic impact. Normally the plate shall be fastened at the deck side of the gap.
Working procedure
In the case where there is an existing loose cover plate, it has to be assessed regarding its condition. If it
is still in good condition then the same plate may be re-installed or fastened.
If the concrete has been broken out along the joint, part of the concrete has to be removed and replaced
with new concrete and in this case the joint edge shall be armoured.
In the case where the cover plate has been damaged and can not be re-installed, a new cover plate has to
be replaced using the following procedure:
The concrete along the joint on the side where the plate was originally fixed is broken for about 20 cm
along the whole joint exposing the deck reinforcements. Care should be taken to ensure that the
reinforcements are not damaged.
Fig. 4.8.1: Breaking of concrete for fixing cover plates.
A steel plate is cut to the same dimensions as the original one. Steel studs or steel anchor bars are then
welded to one side of the plate at intervals of 30 or 40 cm depending on the spacing of the deck
reinforcements.
Form work is placed and fixed in place by wedges for easy removal of the formwork.
The steel cover plate is then fixed to place and the studs are anchored to the deck reinforcements using
binding wires. The angle seat is replaced in a similar way if replacement is necessary.
After ensuring proper alignment of the cover plate and the angle seat, concrete is then poured and
properly vibrated. Curing should be continued for at least three days.
109
Placing of formwork and steel plate
Fig. 4.8.2: Fixing of cover plates.
In order to avoid vibrations on the new concrete, the casting shall be done on one lane at a time
otherwise for a single lane bridge it shall be necessary to introduce a ramp over the new concrete as
shown in Fig.4.8.3. Traffic speed for both cases should be reduced to 10 km/h.
Fig. 4.8.3: A ramp over new concrete at a joint.

The unit measurement for fixing cover plates shall be in linear metres of repaired joints.
110
4.8.3 Armouring of the joints

Description
Armouring of joints is installation of steel angles at the edges of the joint in order to prevent them from
breaking off.
Application
This is applicable to un-armoured joints that have started ripping out.
Working procedure
The deck concrete at the joints has to be broken to about 20 cm to both sides ensuring that the
reinforcements are exposed but not damaged.
The steel angles are prepared for placing by welding anchoring facilities according to design. They may
be in form of steel plate anchors, steel anchor bars or studs. The steel anchor plates have to be spaced so
that they don’t interfere with the deck reinforcements. In the case of steel anchor bars or studs, they
have to be spaced to suit the arrangement of the deck reinforcement, normally doubling the spacing of
the deck reinforcement bars.
Fig. 4.8.4: Placing of formwork and steel angles.
The armouring angles are then positioned in place fixing the steel anchor bars to the deck reinforcement
using binding wires. No anchorage to the deck reinforcement is necessary when the anchor plates are
used as these are prepared to anchor themselves.
The form work is placed and concrete is poured and well vibrated. Wooden wedges shall be placed
between the armouring angles in order to separate them in a uniform spacing.
111
Fig.4.8.5: The armoured joint.
The concrete has to be cured for at least three days and the site has to be cleaned after accomplishing
the work. After the concrete cures, the formwork should be removed and the joint cleaned of any loose
material.

The unit measurement for armouring of the joints shall be in linear metres of the armoured joints.
112
4.8.4 Resealing of the joints

Description
Resealing of joints is re-application of sealant to the joint.
Application
This activity is applicable to joints where there has been a breaking of sealant.
Working procedure
The damaged joint sealant is removed and if there is any ripping of the concrete at edges of the joint, it
has to be repaired. If the extent of the ripping is small, the edges may be replaced to the original square
shape using strong concrete. If the ripping is extensive, the joint has to be armoured before resealing.
The joint sealer should not be removed unless it is deteriorated.
A new joint sealant of the same or similar type is installed and the joint is covered to the original shape.
If the original type of sealant material is not available, then, normal bitumen can be used.
All the deteriorated sealant is removed from the joint faces by using a wire brush. The joint is then
thoroughly cleaned of all debris and dirt by blowing with an air compressor. A foam material similar to
the one used for mattresses is inserted into the joint to a depth of approximately 20 mm below the
surface of the deck to retain the hot bitumen, which shall be poured along the joint. Alternatively,
rubber tube is used instead of the foam material. The foam material or rubber tube should be
approximately 3mm wider than the joint. Sisal fibres may also be used as a suitable alternative but care
shall be taken to avoid clogging of the joint.
The sealant is then poured into the joint followed by replacement of the wearing course.
Fig. 4.8.6: Resealing of the joints.

The unit measurement for resealing of the joints shall be in linear metres of resealed joints.
113
4.9 MAINTENANCE OF THE DECK AND DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Maintenance of the deck and drainage system is a routine activity, which prevents the deck material
from deterioration. It involves removal of soil, debris, vegetation and any other obstructions from the
deck top and soffit, drain pipes and weep holes and the drainage ditches of the approach roads.
Good drainage is necessary for proper maintenance of bridges. Poor drainage leads to traffic hazard and
also may contribute to extensive deterioration of the deck and approach roads. Poor drainage is usually
due to accumulation of dirt and debris, which block the system. The debris may also lead to corrosion
of steel pipes, clogging of joints and damage to the bearings. Blocked side ditches may lead to erosion
of the approach embankment and damage to the approach road. Other damage to the drainage system
include short and defective drain pipes.
This chapter illustrates remedial measures for the above mentioned damage. They include cleaning,
replacement and elongation of the drain pipes. Cleaning of deck and drainage ditches of the approach
roads are also explained in this chapter.
It should be emphasised here that cleaning of bridge underside, bearings, joints, deck, drain pipes and
drainage ditches of the approach roads are complementary routine activities, which shall always be
executed simultaneously.
114
4.9.1 Cleaning of the drainage system

Description
Cleaning of the drainage system is a routine activity which involves removal of soil, debris, vegetation
and any other obstructions from the drain pipes, weep holes and the drainage ditches of the approach
roads.
Application
Cleaning of drainage system is applied to remedy blockage of drain pipes, open drains, and drainage
ditches of the approach roads.
Working procedure
Before cleaning the drainage system, the whole deck shall be cleaned using brooms and the dirt, soil
and debris shall be piled away from the drainage pipes. The same shall be disposed away from the
bridge after cleaning the drainage system.
Fig. 4.9.1: Cleaning of deck
The blocked drain pipes may be easily cleaned using the handle of a broom but if the blockage is
consolidated in the pipes, a steel rod or anything equivalent may be used to un-block the pipes.
If necessary water shall be used to clean the pipes and the deck.
Fig.4.9.2: Cleaning of timber deck
115
Fig. 4.9.3: Cleaning of drainage pipe
The drainage ditches and mitre drains are prone to vegetation growth, siltation and sometimes blockage
by fallen trees. All these shall be removed from the drainage system and disposed away.
It is important to ensure that the mitre drains drain water away from the approach roads, but at the same
time the diverted water shall not be directed close to the abutments or to steep embankments as this
might result into serious erosion.
If it is necessary to divert water close to the abutments or on steep embankments, the ditches must be
paved or otherwise protected against erosion.
Fig. 4.9.4: Drainage ditch on high embankment
Since the objective of clearing the drainage system is to make it function properly, any other
maintenance activities related to the drainage system like any repair works to the system have to be
carried out together with the clearing or immediately after it.

Since cleaning of the drainage system includes cleaning of the loose material from the deck, the unit
measurement shall be in square metres of the area of the cleaned deck and the payment shall include all
labour, and tools necessary for satisfactory completion of the activity.
116
4.9.2 Cleaning of the deck

Description
This activity involves taking out and disposal of all soils, dirt, debris and any other unwanted material
from the top or bottom of the bridge deck.
Application
This maintenance activity is applicable for decks with soils, dirt, debris and any other unwanted
material both on top and below. This activity shall be carried out together with the cleaning of the
drainage system.
Working procedure
When the debris on the deck is loose, the operation is carried out using brooms and shovels. In such a
case, the debris or any other type of dirt is piled at the area of the approach road near the abutments of
the bridge where they can easily be collected for disposal. When the debris has been piled, they should
be collected and disposed immediately before they get scattered.
When the debris is consolidated on the deck, a broom alone will not be enough. In this case, shovels
and sometimes pick axes might be needed for removal of the debris. When using pickaxes, care should
be taken in order not to exert much impact to the superstructure.
If the exercise seems to be difficult even when using such tools, water may be used to moisten the
consolidated debris. The shovels can then be used with the pickaxes if necessary.
For timber decks of Bailey bridges, the job is simple as the spaces between the planks do not allow for
heavy consolidation of debris and mostly a broom alone is adequate for cleaning the deck. The debris
between sleepers may be easily removed using the handle of the broom by turning it up side down. For
steel decks of Bailey bridges the broom is generally ideal but if there is any consolidated dirt on the
deck, then water with hard-bristled broom may be used for cleaning.
Normally, debris under the deck is in a form of bird nests, wasp colonies and spider networks. Great
care must be taken when dealing with wasps colonies as they are defensive and extremely aggressive
particularly during hot day time. The best time of operation for this activity is therefore, the early
morning where fire torches may be used to destroy the colonies. In this situation, care in fire handling is
extremely important. The remains of the colonies may be fully cleaned out later.

The unit measurement for cleaning of the deck shall be in square metres of the cleaned deck.
117
4.9.3 Replacement of drain pipes

Description
Replacement of a drain pipe is the removal of the damaged pipe followed by installation of a new one.
Application
Replacement of a drain pipe is applied for defective or excessively corroded pipes.
Working procedure
Proper replacement of drain pipes is difficult. If not properly done it may lead to leakage of water
through the new surrounding concrete or mortar which can lead to deterioration of the superstructure
and bearings. This activity shall, therefore, be performed only when it is necessary and it shall be
supervised closely by the Bridge Engineer.
The concrete surrounding the pipe shall carefully be removed by small hand tools such as masonry
chisels or hand drilling machines. Compressor operated breaking and drilling hammers shall be avoided
since they can cause cracking of concrete and damage to reinforcement. Concrete removal shall extend
75 mm all around from the pipes and the exposed surface shall be made rough for good bonding to the
new concrete. The top of the handmade hole shall be recessed by additional 50 mm around it and 50
mm depth in order to avoid through joint between the old and the new concrete. To avoid leakage
between the pipe-mouth and the concrete, it is recommended to use a sealer (elastic) as shown in figure
4.9.5.
Fig.4.9.5: Replacement of drain pipe
The new pipe shall be hold in position by supporting it at the entrance and by fixing it to the formwork
at the soffit with tight joint around the pipe. Just before filling the whole with concrete, a type of epoxy
glue recommended for such purpose shall be applied to the pipe using a brush. Fresh concrete is then
filled around the pipe except at the start of the slope to the pipe. This part shall be filled with a joint
118
sealer for the purpose to avoid leakage between the pipe and the concrete.
The top of the new pipe shall be set at 25 mm below the top of the deck in order to provide a sloping
entrance to it.

The unit measurement for replacement of drain pipes shall be in number of replaced drain pipes.
The payment shall include full compensation for all material including concrete, labour and tools
necessary as a lump sum to replace the drain pipe.
119
4.9.4 Extension of drain pipes

Description
Extension of drain pipe is a repair activity which is carried out to prolong the existing short pipe in
order to avoid spilling of water on beams or any other element of the bridge.
Pipes extended below steel girders Extended pipes below a truss bridge
Pipes extended further below to minimize splashing of water on steel girders
Application
Short drain pipes splash water onto structural elements such as beams, slabs and bearings which lead to
deterioration of the same. In order to eliminate this damage, it is necessary to extend the pipes.
Working procedure
The necessary scaffolding shall be erected to provide access to the pipes. This shall be followed by
proper cleaning of the pipes using appropriate tools depending on the situation. If the pipes are flush to
the deck soffit it may be difficult to weld the extension pipe. For this reason it shall be necessary to
carefully chisel out the concrete around the pipes using hand tools. The extension can also be made by
entering a pipe outside the existing one and glue them together with for instance epoxy glue for the
purpose. Similarly a piece of pipe with slightly bigger diameter can be used to join the extension pipe
with the existing one in a similar way as shown in the last photo above.
A new steel pipe of the same quality and with the same diameter as the existing pipes shall then be spot
welded to the existing pipes and adjusted to achieve the required inclination. Thereafter, the two pipes
shall be tightly welded to avoid any leakage through the joint. The new pipe shall extend at least 100
mm below the soffit of the lowest element of the superstructure if not otherwise instructed. Possibility
of floating objects hitting the extended pipes shall be duly taken into consideration before deciding on
the extension length to avoid them from breaking out.
120
The unit measurement for extension of drain pipes shall be by the number of properly extended pipes
and the payment shall include full compensation for all material, labour and tools necessary for
121
4.10 MAINTENANCE OF PARAPETS

Parapets are prone to many types of damage. The most common is deformation or rupture, due to traffic
impact. These wills in many cases led to destroy attachment to the bridge. Repair of damaged shall be
executed as described in maintenance of concrete.
For a steel parapet it might happen that bolts or other parts of the parapet is either loose or missing.
Handrails in form of tubes are is vulnerable for theft. To prevent this it might be a solution to fasten the
tubes to the post by welding.
In the case where all of the parapets are missing, proper design of parapets should be made. When
designing new parapets for existing bridges the capacity of the existing kerb and the current traffic
passing over the bridge must be taken into consideration.
Corroded parapets are treated as described for repainting in chapter 4.3 Maintenance of steel. It can be
difficult to sandblast and repaint a heavily corroded steel parapet, and it can be more economical to
replace the old parapet.
If a vehicle hits the end of a parapet, for safety reasons the end of the flex-beams shall be attached
properly to the end posts and should slope down into the ground.
122
4.10.1 Steel parapets

Description
Repairs of steel parapets involve straightening or replacement of damaged or missing parts, or
installation of new ones where the parapet s are missing or in poor condition.
Application
This maintenance activity is applicable when parts, or the entire parapet is deformed, corroded,
ruptured or is missing.
Working procedure
If only some small parts have been slightly deformed it is recommendable to look for a possibility of
straightening. When the deformation is big (> 15 cm out of alignment), corrosion at the foot-point is
severe and in the case of missing parts they must be replaced.
When the deformed parts are being replaced, accurate measurements to establish the size of the new
member must be taken in order to maintain uniform size of the members. All parapets that have to be
replaced must be designed according to the force they are intended to accommodate from the traffic.
In all cases, a list of required quantities of materials should be prepared. Before sending the new steel to
site all parts should be checked to ensure that they are in accordance with the list. The new steel
members should be galvanised.
If the flex beam is only slightly deformed it can be straightened. In the case of sharp bends or
substantial distortion, the damaged flex beams should be replaced.
When replacing a post, it is common to fasten the new one using either a foot plate and grouted bolts
where the parapets are fitted on the kerb/deck or by fixing the posts at the sides of the kerb by bolts and
nuts leaving the top of the kerb free.
New holes 10mm wider than the bolts and approximately 200mm deep are drilled in the concrete on top
of the kerb. Sometimes the best solution is to drill through the kerb/deck. If reinforcement is hit, a core
drill may be used or the post may be moved a couple of centimetres along the bridge and the same
exercise is repeated. The bolts are tightened to the foot plate by using a counter nut underneath and one
nut on top of the plate. It has to be made possible to adjust the alignment of the post The bolts are
grouted using a special mortar for the purpose. The gap underneath the footplate can be filled with
expanding mortar with dmax 2mm..The mortar may be compacted by knocking with a hammer on the
bed plate. The flex-beams and handrails are then connected to the posts.
It should be noted that if grouted bolts are used, the capacity of each bolt (80% of fy) should always be
tested. About every 50th bolt must be controlled with regards to the capacity. The minimum diameter
and quality of the bolts shall be respectively; Ø 20 mm and grade 8.8 (fy = 640 N/mm2)
Fig.4.10.1: New post on the kerb.
123
The photo below shows a replacement of a parapet.
New posts at the edge
The overlap of flex-beams should be in the direction of the traffic.

Repairing posts fastened on the outside of the kerbs may require a scaffolding system. It is more
difficult to grout a horizontal bolt. A thin plastic tube and a funnel may be used to place the grouting
mortar into the hole
If an impact has resulted in cracks in the kerb, all loose and damaged concrete must be removed by
chipping. It is recommendable to sandblast the chiselled surface for best results. If necessary, a casting
frame may be made.

The unit measurement for repair of parapets shall be in linear metres of repaired parapet.
The payment shall include full compensation for labour, equipment, scaffolding, tools and materials for
124
4.10.2 Concrete Parapets

Description
Repairs of concrete parapets involve restoration or replacement of damaged or missing parts,
replacement part or the entire parapet if completely damaged or installing new parapets where parapets
are missing.
Application
This maintenance activity is applicable when part or all of the parapets is deformed, ruptured,
disintegrated or is missing.
Working procedure
All loose and damaged concrete must be removed using a chisel hammer. If the reinforcement is
twisted or bent new reinforcement bars must be replaced having the required anchorage and
overlapping distances. Unless the parapet has to be totally replaced, the new part shall match the
existing. For more detailed information on repairing concrete see chapter 4.3 Repair of Concrete.

The unit measurement for repair of parapets shall be in linear meters of repaired parapet.
The payment shall include full compensation for labour, equipment, tools and materials for completion
of the work.
125
5.0 BRIDGE PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Bridge preventive maintenance can be defined as the act of keeping a structure in its as-built condition
and/or protecting it from deterioration due to environment, traffic impact and normal wearing out.
Bridge preventive maintenance is essential for ensuring longer lives for bridges or at least in ensuring
that bridges reach their design lives and maintain their designed level of service. It is always more cost-
effective in the long run to perform preventive maintenance activities than to allow a known condition
get progressively worse until the entire member or structure has to be replaced.
Bridge preventive maintenance works have two categories; routine maintenance and periodic
maintenance activities.
5.1 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

Routine maintenance of bridges is important and the routine maintenance activities form a major part of
bridge preventive maintenance. It involves small-scale operations that need to be carried out once or
several times in a year. Lack of sufficient routine maintenance may substantially reduce the service life
of a bridge.
Lack of routine maintenance may lead to more expensive repairs. A simple example is lack of removal
of debris and cleaning of steel parts, which can lead to serious corrosion and subsequent wearing of
steel elements thus necessitating expensive repairs or replacement. Due to the inadequacy of funds for
repair of bridges, the routine maintenance will keep up the condition, emphasis being protection and
prevention rather than cure and this will mainly be attained through routine maintenance.
Routine maintenance activities include such activities as vegetation control and all types of cleaning
activities. Cleaning activities involve those works for maintaining cleanliness of different bridge
elements with the aim of reducing the possibility of the dirt or debris to cause damage or accelerate the
rate of deterioration of the existing damage. Cleaning activities also include those works related to
opening way for different blockages on the bridge elements in order to bring back the proper
functioning of the blocked elements.
The cleaning activities include cleaning of joints, cleaning of the deck, cleaning of the bearings and
bearing shelves and removal of blockage of any type from the drainage system where drain pipes, weep
holes including drain ditches and mitre drains located on the approaches to the bridge are involved.
Grass cutting is another type of routine activity for ensuring good use of the vegetation along the bridge
approaches to the benefit of the bridge and traffic. Vegetation is important for erosion control at the
approaches but excessive vegetation may block the sight distance and thus threatening traffic safety. It
is for this reason that grass cutting is among the most common and frequently carried out routine
maintenance activities.
During execution of routine maintenance works, it is advisable to combine several bridges located
along a particular road under one contract package or road link based on the results of bridge general
inspection and the identified types of damage for each bridge.
5.2 PERIODIC MAINTENANCE

Periodic maintenance of a bridge is carried out in specific periods in order to keep the structure and
river in a good structural condition. When the activities for periodic maintenance have been carried out,
it takes long intervals of time for the same damage to reappear and thus for it to be attended again.
The common activities under the periodic maintenance include; repainting of steel structures,
strengthening of the truss and beams, underpinning, river training, construction of gabion boxes for
protection works, riprap, stone pitching, shotcreting, plastering, re-pointing, replacement of timber
elements, resealing of surface, patching of pothole, regravelling, backfilling of eroded approach,
replacement and adjustment of bearings, etc.
126
The work methodologies of the activities are well described in this handbook under chapter 4. The
activities for periodic maintenance of bridges have to be identified through bridge general inspection or
special inspection which will reveal the types of damage to be attended. In most cases, after
identification of the types of damage, there will be a need to do some designing work that may include
structural calculations and detailed engineering drawings for the proposed remedial measures.
Periodic maintenance works can be executed by the contractor or force account depending on the
magnitude of the works. It is advisable to plan the work properly before execution and also to attend
all types of damage to that bridge within one contract package or force account including the preventive
maintenance works of routine nature.
127
6.0 REPORTS
Reports are important part of maintenance and repair works. Reporting completed bridge maintenance
activities permits the accumulation of detailed bridge maintenance accomplishments and establishes a
Bridge Management bridge maintenance history, which will identify specific activities carried out, their
frequency and costs. This leads to more realistic forecasts during preparation of long-term budgets.
During execution of bridgeworks, daily diary, monthly and quarterly reports shall be compiled to
indicate physical progress and financial expenditure. Such progress reports form important
communication tool among all the concerned parties at different levels of responsibilities as far as the
project is concerned.
The contents of the daily diary shall be used to compile monthly reports which shall indicate the
progress of the on-going activities as compared to what had been planned. The monthly reports are
gathered at the Regional Managers’ Offices and are used to compile quarterly reports. The Regional
Manager shall send quarterly reports to TANROADS HQ for following up of the progress and for
assessing further requirement of funds for the following quarter.
On completion of the maintenance work, a final completion report shall be prepared and submitted to
TANROADS HQ. The final report and the updated inventory form shall be kept in the bridge archive in
order to keep the life history of the bridge.
6.1 Report forms

A specially made form, known as BMST 03, has been prepared for easier reporting at the different
stages of implementation and it can be used for discussions during site and management meetings.
This specially designed form can be used to give various reports including a yearly maintenance
programme in form of a bar chart, monthly and quarterly progress reports. For the progress reports,
both planed and actual schedules, quantities and costs can be shown on the same form. Additionally,
the percentage of cumulative physical progress of each working activity can be shown while
cumulative actual costs can also be indicated. The planned schedules shall be indicated by a thick
continuous line while the actual schedule shall be indicated by a shaded rectangle. Respectively, blue
and red ink can be used as an alternative.
For the purpose of filling the forms, each maintenance activity as explained in the guide for
maintenance of bridges, shall be split into a number of easily identifiable components called the
working activities. The working activities define the working procedure in a summary form and when
considered in total, they form the maintenance activity. Taking an example of repainting as a
maintenance activity, the corresponding working activities will include: mobilisation, erection of
scaffolds, fixing of waste collector, sandblasting, application of primer coat, application of an under-
coat, application of finishing coat and demobilisation.
Each form shall be used for one maintenance activity for a particular bridge. However, for bridges with
more than one maintenance activity, different forms shall be used and each shall be numbered as a page
out of the total number of pages for that particular bridge. The sample form is as seen in the next page.
128
129
6.2 Daily site diary

For the purpose of recording daily activities the site supervisor shall keep a site diary in which all site
events shall be recorded daily before the closing of work. The most important events shall include daily
job assignments, issues of material, equipment and tools, labour disposition and achieved quantities for
each activity; taking of samples; weather condition; delivery of materials, tools, equipment and other
items from outside the site; incidences like breakdown or servicing of equipment, accidents, theft,
encountered technical problem and the way it was solved.
All pages of the diary shall be numbered and no page or any paper shall be taken out of it. At the end of
the maintenance work, the diary shall be returned to the office to form part of the bridge archive.
The contents of the daily diary shall be used by the project supervisor to prepare monthly reports.
6.3 Monthly report

A monthly report is a summary of all working activities performed during the month for each
maintenance activity of a particular bridge. Working activities are those which define the working
procedure. This is extracted and summarised from the site diary by the site supervisor. The report is
filled in form BMST 03 and the words "Quarterly" and "Programme" are over-stroke.
The bridge identification data shall be filled in the provided spaces and the dates for which the report
refers shall be indicated.
The actual cost of each working activity shall include the cost of all resources which have been utilised
in the reporting period. As well, a cumulative cost and percentage of cumulative physical progress shall
also be indicated.
Monthly report forms shall be sent to the Regional Manager at the end of every month and they shall be
used to prepare the quarterly reports.
6.4 Quarterly Report

A quarterly report is a summary of all activities executed within the three months of the quarter. Since
it is similar to the monthly report in all respects, it shall be filled in the same way. The actual schedule
shall reflect the actual execution since the beginning of the financial year up to the end of the quarter
being reported.
The report is filled in form BMST 03 and the words "Monthly" and "Programme" are over-stroke.
The quarterly report shall be prepared by the Bridge Engineer based on the monthly reports and it shall
be submitted to the TANROADS Headquarters at the end each quarter.
6.5 Final Report

The final report shall include a short description of the maintenance activity including the working
procedure. The total actual maintenance cost and the actual unit cost of the maintenance activity shall
be given. The actual unit cost shall be used for future project costing. The report shall also discuss
encountered technical problems and how they were solved.
As built drawing shall be prepared and shall include all the performed works including final dimensions
and levels. Things like existing soil strata and the river bed levels shall be indicated.
The inventory form shall then be updated to include the designer of the maintenance works, the
contractor and year of this modification. Any geometrical and structural data change shall be updated.
6.6 Computer system

The Tan-Bridgeman software of the Bridge Management System under the Maintenance Module
provides opportunity to print out several reports including maintenance plans, planned maintenance
130
costs, and planned work activities for each maintenance activity of a particular bridge including records
of the executed works. The actual cost for the maintenance activity and actual unit rate shall also be
given.
131
7.0 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Safety precautions that are unique for a working operation are described under working procedure for
that specific task. Safety precautions necessary for all kinds of works are described in this chapter.
It is the responsibility of the Site Engineer, Supervision Engineer and the Contractor undertaking the
works on a bridge to ensure traffic management plans are adequately provided for the safety of road
users and workers. However, the ultimate responsibility for this lies with the bridge owner who in this
case is the respective Regional Manager’s Office.
The Regional Manager’s Office is responsible for undertaking or authorising construction or
maintenance on or bridges and shall ensure that reasonable care is taken to:
• minimise the risk or injury to all road users or the damage to their property as a result of such
operations;
• warn the public of the prevailing conditions;
• guard and delineate and where necessary illuminate, works which may pose a hazard; and
• avoid unnecessary long delays or detours which could inconvenience the public.
The Supervisory personnel from the Regional Manager’s Office and the Contractor carrying out the
maintenance works need to observe the following principles:
• be mindful of their employer’s and own personal responsibilities to provide safe and
convenient travelling conditions for all road users and safe working conditions for workers and
plant if any under their control;
• they and the workers under their control must at all times be courteous to and considerate of the
needs of the travelling public;
• ensure that the workers under their control have a safe and appropriately managed work
environment;
• maintain an up-to-date practical knowledge of the requirements of work site traffic
management; and
• be prepared to seek expert assistance in planning the management of major bridgeworks that
are likely to be outside of their expertise.
All employees have an obligation to ensure that the workplace is safe. In relation to the management of
work sites, workers:
• need to be mindful of their employer’s and their own personal responsibilities to provide safe
and convenient travelling conditions for all road users and safe working conditions for
personnel and plant under their control;
• must at all times be courteous to and considerate of the needs of the travelling public;
• when assigned to place, maintain and remove signs and devices, need to be aware of and meet
their responsibilities;
• must maintain an up-to-date practical knowledge of the requirements of work site traffic
control; and
• should also be prepared to seek expert assistance for the application of the management of any
works that are likely to be outside of their expertise.
7.1 Plan for workers health and safety precautions

Before starting a maintenance activity a plan showing how to take care of the health and safety for the
workers shall be made. It is especially important to pick out a person responsible for the activity. In
most cases it will be the engineer who is responsible for the safety of the workers.
It is also an obligation of the agencies and its contractors to provide a working environment and a
system of work that is safe for its employees.
132
7.2 Traffic Control

Before starting the actual work at site, traffic warning signs must be erected on both approaches of the
bridge. All traffic control mechanisms must be carefully planned and approved by the Regional
Manager before work begins. Where necessary, traffic should be stopped during erection and removal
of temporary signs.
It is a requirement that all signs used at any road work sites are to have retro reflective material. The
following are several types of signs necessary to be used when carrying out bridge maintenance works.
"Workers Ahead"
This sign was in previous years known as “Men at Work” but due to the gender balance, it is now
known as "Workers Ahead". This sign must be used to warn of the presence of working staff on the
road. This sign must only be displayed when personnel are actually working or are visible to traffic and
must be removed when workers have left the work area or there is no visible work activity.
Fig. 7.2.1: The "Workers Ahead" warning signs.
"Prepare to Stop"
This sign must only be used where traffic may be required to stop in compliance with a portable or
temporary fixed traffic signal or a direction by a traffic controller. When portable signals are not being
used, or traffic controllers are not controlling traffic, the signs must be removed.
Fig. 7.2.2: The "Prepare to Stop" warning sign.
"Traffic Hazard Ahead"

This sign can be used for EMERGENCY SITUATIONS ONLY when an unexpected event causes a
hazard. It is to be replaced with more appropriate signs, generally within 24 hours.
Fig. 7.2.3: The "Traffic Hazard Ahead" warning sign.
133
"Road Closed"
This sign can be used when major repair works are going on for the bridge, severe wash-out of the
approaches has occurred or the bridge has been severely damaged that it can no longer afford to support
traffic loads. The sign should be removed when the situation has been restored.
Fig. 7.2.4: The "Road Closed" warning sign.
"Diversion"
This sign can be used when the bridge or approach has been severely damaged that it is no longer safe
for traffic to use it or when major repair works are going on for the bridge and thus a diversion has been
prepared. This sign is normally placed near to the sign for “Road Closed” or sometimes both signs may
be put on one support. The signs shown in the photo below show the two signs placed near to each
other. However, the two signs on the right are too low for the road users to notice them on time. The
road signs should always be adequately raised for them to be noticed easily and in time as the sign on
the left.
"Diversion" signs.
"Speed Limit"
Reduced speed limits can be applied to a work site only while the conditions requiring changed driving
speeds exist. They must be removed immediately when this need no longer exists. The speed limits
must reflect the level of activity, reduced road space and proximity of potential hazards. They must be
consistent with driver expectations and must not be unrealistic to the extent that a significant number of
motorists do not comply. In situations where speed limits have been created during short-term works,
the speed limit signs are to be covered or removed after working hours. The use of 40 km/h limits
should be avoided as much as possible, but where this is not possible, they must be kept to the
minimum length sufficient to allow a safe working area. The use of 30km/h signs is not appropriate for
road and bridge works as these are meant for School zones.
134
Fig. 7.2.5: The "Speed Limit" warning sign.
Guide to Selection of Appropriate Work Site Speed Limit

Speed
Criteria
Limit
Used where the normal speed limit is 60 or 70 km/h and where:
• traffic is required to mingle with operating plant, or
40 km/h • workers are within 1.2 metres of the trafficable area and no physical barrier exists
and
• MINIMUM LENGTH OF ZONE MUST BE 200 METRES.
Used where the normal speed limit is 80 km/h, and where:

• workers on foot or plant are operating within 3 metres but not less than 1.2 metres
of the trafficable area, and no physical barrier exists, or
60 km/h • a traffic controller is being used, or
• a traffic hazard exists, e.g. unsealed approach road section of a sealed road, fresh
bituminous seal has just been laid or the road width has been reduced and
• MINIMUM LENGTH OF ZONE MUST BE 300 METRES.
Barricades
Barricades are devices, which guide traffic such as cones or barrels. These should be highly visible and
spaced relatively close together, so drivers will not deviate from an assigned traffic flow. All such
barriers should be made of material that will cause little or no damage if a vehicle contacts it.
Road cone
Flaggers
All staff employed as flaggers should be properly trained in controlling traffic and the use of the traffic
control tools like flags and sign paddles and should prove their understanding before they are allowed
to start work.
135
The flaggers must wear high-visibility orange or day-glow vests. When working at night, the vest
should have light-reflective strips. Bridge maintenance and construction sites must have at least one
individual assigned to traffic control. A highly visible flag or sign paddle should be used during
daylight hours. The flagger should have two flags with two different colours i.e. red and green. The
flags should be big enough to be easily seen by the drivers from far. The paddle should be octagonal in
shape, at least 450 mm across, and have letters at least 150 mm high that say STOP on one side and
SLOW on the other. When the site conditions do not provide a possibility for the flaggers to see each
other, they should have two-way communication facilities like radio-calls.
“Road humps”
When absolutely necessary, traffic speed may be reduced by introducing road humps at least 20m on
both sides of the bridge. The size and spacing of speed humps should follow the existing standards.
Proper warning signs on the presence of speed humps should be provided.
It should however be noted that, road humps have fewer advantages as compared to the disadvantages.
The main advantages of road humps are:
• Considered an effective way of reducing speed.
• Can be adapted to form convenient pedestrian crossing points.
• Ramp gradients are easily adjusted for individual site requirements.
• Can be constructed in materials that are sympathetic to the surroundings.
The main disadvantages are:

• Costly to install.
• The design capacity of a highway is drastically reduced.
• Often cause damage to the approach roads due to heavy vehicles breaking before the humps
and bumping after the humps.
• Cannot be used in isolation. Humps must be preceded by different other forms of speed
reducing features like road signs, rumble strips etc.
• Can result in problems of both noise and vibrations.
• Can delay emergency services.
• Often considered unattractive.
Provision of road humps is therefore not always a recommendable solution in trying to reduce speed or
eliminate accidents and hence should be avoided as much as possible.
Other traffic safety measures
All plant and vehicles should be parked off the carriageway or behind protective barriers or signs, when
not in use.
No materials shall be left in dangerous location. Keep the road adjacent to the worksite clean and swept
of any debris arising from the maintenance work.
If the work on the carriageway remains incomplete overnight, proper warning lights have to be
arranged and if necessary protected.
7.3 Construction Site

The construction site shall have adequate space for all necessary facilities like the equipment, tools,
materials and all essential office and storage services.
The construction site shall be kept nice and tidy. The temporary entry (path) roads shall be secured with
handrails when necessary.
136
A first-aid box shall be provided on every working site. The required content may differ depending on
the work to be carried out.
All ladders or scaffolding to be used must be securely fixed. Ladders shall be in good condition.
Ladders shall not be painted in a manner that facilitates hiding corrosion and defects. When working
higher than 3 metres above ground level, a second worker should secure the base of the ladder or, it
should be securely lashed.
When people are working in different levels, precautions must be taken to prevent objects falling down.
This can be achieved using a scaffolding system with a floor with only small openings not allowing
objects wider than 15 mm falling through, and a base board.
When using a scaffolding system, which is more than 2m above the ground, handrails have to be
installed.
All excavation works have to be protected for the benefit of all road users, equipment and workers.
The work site should be left tidy and cleared of all debris when the work is complete.
7.4 Personal Protective Equipment

Helmet, high visibility waistcoat, safety glasses, safety shoes, ear protection, life-jacket, protective
mask, special gloves, fresh air mask and safety harness must be worn in appropriate circumstances.
All members of the team should wear high visibility reflective fluorescent safety jackets or vests and
safety helmets.
Reflective vests: Safety helmets:
Boots: Gloves:
Protective goggles:
137
7.4.1 Labour
All operators should be trained on operating their equipment. It is advisable to have the new operators
tested for their skills before they are left to operate the equipment independently. If an operator is found
to lack certain knowledge, the necessary training must be arranged. The labourers must be informed of
the potential risks and working procedures for the actual work to be carried out.
7.4.2 Chemical Products

On site various types of chemical products might be used.
In bridge maintenance, paint and solvents are frequently in use. Inhalation of vapour from these
materials may damage the brain. Skin contact with the same materials may also be harmful. Suitable
rubber gloves and a gas mask with a filter should be used when handling paint and solvents.
At every site, all data sheets containing information of the content, toxicity, special precautions
necessary using the product etc. shall be stored at easily accessible locations for emergency in case of
an accident.
Take the necessary precautions when handling hot bitumen.
The chemical products should be stored in a safe place for persons not concerned.
7.5 Emergency Plan

The foreman shall work out an emergency plan for more substantial works. A sketch shall be made,
showing the nearest telephone, and how to contact nearest medical institution, in case of an accident.
The sketch should also show different roads and paths within the construction site including the
evacuation exits in case of emergency.
138
REFERENCES:
Book Title: Author:
1. Highway Maintenance Handbook Edited by Ken Atkinson.
2. AASHTO Manual for Bridge Maintenance {1976} AASHTO.
3. Roadwork theory and Practice Arthur Wignall, Peter S. Kendrick,
Roy Ancill.
4. Highway Construction and Maintenance John Watson
5. Handbook for Bridge Inspection Tanzania National Roads Agency
(TANROADS), Tanzania.
6. Technical Manual for Minor Roads Programme Vol.1 Ministry of Public Works, Kenya.
7. Overseas Road Note 9, Design Manual for Small Bridges TRRL.
8. International Road Maintenance Handbook, Vol. I - IV TRL.
9. Standard Specifications for Highway Construction Ministry of Works, Tanzania.
10. Bridge Inspection Manual Swedish National Road
Administration.
11. Construction Materials Edited by J. M. Illston.
12. Civil Engineering Materials Edited by N. Jackson.
13. Properties of concrete A. M. Neville.
14. Concrete Technology Ministry of Works, Tanzania.
15. Building Materials H. Sipple.
16. Bridge Maintenance Manual Dennis M. O’Shea & George R.
Deering.
17. Standard Specifications for Road Works, 2000 Ministry of Works, Tanzania.
139

Maintenance Handbook03-2007

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Maintenance Handbook03-2007

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

MINISTRY OF INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR TANZANIA

Engineering Division 2007

TANROADS Norwegian Public

Second Edition, 2007

1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................1

2.1.1 Quality requirements for Concrete

types will be subject to approval of the Engineer.

Fig. 2.1.1: Example of Sieve Analysis given in tabular form.

Fig. 2.1.2: Example of Aggregates Grading Curve

Fig. 2.1.3: Two shapes of the Batching Box.

Fig. 2.1.4: Proportioning of aggregates using a batching box.

Table 2.1.1: Concrete grades, ratios, use and proportioning.

Mixing and handling

Placing and Compacting

Fig 2.1.7: Vibration of concrete cast in more than one layer.

Slump cone Steel plate

True Shear Collapse

Fig. 2.1.7: Types of slumps

Fig. 2.1.8: Measuring the slump

Fig. 2.2.1: Stages of producing rolled H beam sections.

Prefabricated girders are more vulnerable to deterioration due to the following:

2.2.1 Quality requirements for Steel

2.3.1 Quality requirements for Masonry

Bricks and Blocks

Fig 2.3.1: Pointing

Treatment Duration Remarks

2.4.1 Quality requirements for Timber

2.5 MATERIAL TESTING FOR EXISTING BRIDGES

2.5.1 Rebound hammer test

2.5.2 Carbonation test

2.5.3 Concrete cover measuring

2.5.4 Concrete core drilling

3.0 MANAGEMENT OF BRIDGE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES

3.1 Maintenance planning

Fig. 3.1.1: A Routine Maintenance Programme

Fig. 3.1.2: An example of a 3 Years Bridge Maintenance Plan

Fig. 3.1.3: An example of a Bridge Maintenance Programme

3.2 Bridge Emergency Maintenance

3.3 MAINTENANCE EXECUTION

3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

4.0 GUIDE FOR MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES

4.1 MAINTENANCE OF RIVER COURSE

4.1.1 River cleaning

Fig. 4.1.1: Cleaning of small culvert

Measurements and Payment

Fig. 4.1.2: A section through an under-pin

Fig. 4.1.3: A sketch showing sequence of under-pinning

Fig. 4.1.4: Methods of concrete casting.

In order to protect the underpinning from underscouring, it is recommended to combine the

Measurements and Payment

4.1.3 River training

River training by gabions and concrete apron. Re-excavation of river course

Measurement and Payment

4.1.4 Cut-off walls

Fig 4.1.5: Masonry cut-off wall

Fig. 4.1.6: Cut off wall on steep river beds

Measurement and Payment

Application of rip-rap as riverbed protection at the outlet of a culvert.

Fig 4.1.9: Graph for determination of Rip rap stone weight

Fig 4.1.10: Rip-rap with and without a filter layer