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Fibre-Reinforced Concrete in Fib Model Code 2010 Principles, Models and Test Validation PDF
Fibre-Reinforced Concrete in Fib Model Code 2010 Principles, Models and Test Validation PDF
342 © 2013 Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin · Structural Concrete 14 (2013), No. 4
M. di Prisco/M. Colombo/D. Dozio · Fibre-reinforced concrete in fib Model Code 2010: principles, models and test validation
P P
a) δ b) δ
Fig. 1. Typical load P vs. deformation δ curve for FRC: softening (a) and
hardening (b) [fib MC2010, Fig. 5.6.2].
Material classification for FRC is based on the nomi- tic modulus in bending, corresponding to that of the criti-
nal properties of the composite material, referring to post- cal notched section (Wel = bhsp2/6 and L = 500 mm).
cracking tensile strength, determined from bending tests The classification is based on two post-cracking
on notched prisms according to EN 14651 (2004 [43], residual strengths at certain CMODs, which characterize
Fig. 3); the diagram of the applied load F vs. the deforma- the material behaviour at the serviceability limit state
tion should be produced (Fig. 4). Deformation is ex- (SLS; CMOD1 = 0.5 mm; fR1k) and at the ultimate limit
pressed in terms of crack mouth opening displacement state (ULS; CMOD3 = 2.5 mm; fR3k). The latter is not in-
(CMOD) or mid-span deflection. In order to normalize the troduced directly, but the fR3k/fR1k ratio is explicitly indi-
load F, the nominal tensile stress σN in bending is consid- cated (Fig. 5). With these assumptions, an FRC material
ered, i.e. the bending moment F * L/4 divided by the elas- can be classified by using a couple of parameters: the first
one is a number denoting the fR1k class, the second is a let-
ter denoting the ratio fR3k/fR1k. The fR1k strength values
indicating the classes are as follows:
1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 [MPa]
3 Fj l
fR, j 2
(1)
Fig. 3. Setup for a three-point bending test [EN 14651, 2004] 2 b hsp
Fig. 4. Typical load F vs. CMOD curve for plain concrete and FRC [fib MC2010, Fig. 5.6-6]
Since brittleness must be prevented in structural mem- 3.1 Kinematic model, structural characteristic length
bers, fibre reinforcement can only substitute (even partial- and ultimate crack opening
ly) rebars or welded mesh at ULS if the following relation-
ships are fulfilled: When considering softening materials, the definition of a
stress-strain law in uniaxial tension requires the introduc-
fR1k/fLk ≥ 0.4 (2) tion of a structural characteristic length lcs for the struc-
tural element. This basic concept represents a “bridge”
fR3k/fR1k ≥ 0.5 (3) (Fig. 7) to connect continuous mechanics, governed by
stress-strain (σ-ε) constitutive relationships, and fracture
where fLk is the characteristic value of the nominal mechanics, governed by a stress-crack opening (σ-w) law,
strength, corresponding to the peak strength in bending initially proposed by Hillerborg (1976, [44]). The structural
(or the highest nominal stress value in the interval characteristic length is equal to the crack spacing when
0–0.05 mm of CMOD), determined in a notched beam test multiple cracking takes place and can be considered as
(Figs. 3 and 4). equal to the beam depth when a plane section approach is
Long-term behaviour of cracked FRC under tension used in the analysis.
has to be properly taken into account for those materials When a finite element (FE) model is used, several ap-
whose long-term performance is affected by creep and/or proaches related to an internal length defined in relation
creep failure. The creep effects have not been studied to physical parameters, such as maximum aggregate size
enough up to now, even though some research is now in for non-local approaches, or element size for local ap-
progress at several universities. proaches, can be used in order to prevent a mesh depen-
dency of the results [45–47].
3 Constitutive laws in uniaxial tension The introduction of the characteristic length allows
the designer to define the strain as
The stress-crack opening relationship in uniaxial tension
can be regarded as the main reference material property
in the post-cracking range. Two simplified stress-crack
opening constitutive laws may be deduced from the bend-
ing test results: a rigid-plastic model or a linear post-crack-
ing model (hardening or softening), as shown schematical-
ly in Fig. 6, where:
wu crack opening corresponding to ULS
fFts serviceability residual strength, defined as the post-
cracking strength for a crack opening significant for
SLS
fFtu residual strength significant for ULS
Fig. 6. Simplified constitutive laws: stress-crack opening (solid and dashed
Both fFts and fFtu are calculated using the residual flexural lines refer to softening and hardening materials respectively) [fib MC2010,
strengths fR1 and fR3 identified in bending. Fig. 5.6-7]
ε = w/lcs (4)
wu = min (lcsεFu; 2.5 mm) (6) The linear model identifies two reference values: fFts and
fFtu. They can be defined by residual values of flexural
Multiple cracking occurs in hardening materials. There- strengths by using the following equations:
fore, the identification of crack openings is not necessary
because a conventional stress-strain law may be directly fFts = 0.45fR1 (9)
determined by a uniaxial tension test, typically unnotched
(like a dog-bone specimen), by dividing the relative dis- wu
fFtu fFts ( f 0.5fR3 0.2fR1) 0 (10)
placement by the gauge length. It is interesting to note CMOD3 Fts
that sometimes the same self-compacting concrete can ex-
hibit a softening and a hardening behaviour depending on where wu is the maximum crack opening accepted in
the stretching direction with reference to fibre alignment structural design.
[34]. This is one of the main reasons why standards have The two equations are introduced according to dif-
to model FRC material behaviour following a similar ap- ferent assumptions valid at SLS and ULS respectively and
proach for both hardening and softening materials. More- briefly summarized in Fig. 9. At SLS the constitutive rela-
over, every time fibres are aligned, the material cannot be tionship for FRC is assumed to be elastoplastic in uniaxial
considered isotropic, and suitable anisotropic constitutive tension and elastic in uniaxial compression. Two equa-
laws should be introduced. tions can be written to impose longitudinal and rotational
equilibrium. According to the notation used in Fig. 9, and
3.2 The σ-w curve identified from bending tests assuming
a) b)
Fig. 10. a) Definition of ka and kb coefficients, b) ka values vs. E values for the linear–softening model and lcs = h
a) b)
Fig. 11. Spurious results obtained with fFts associated with a crack opening of w = 0.5 mm and not w = 0
value at w = 0 prevents some spurious situations where a (COD), whose behaviour is dominated by matrix response.
class reduction (i.e. FRC composite changes from class b A three-point bending test exhibits a weak higher peak
to a, or c to b) could involve a better performance in bend- strength and a more brittle first post-peak slope. Of
ing (see Fig. 11) for thin-walled elements where wu is close course, there is also a significant difference in the queue
to 0.5 mm. value for a large COD, but this is due to the confinement
Finally, it is worth noting that a CMOD value of in compression obtained in three-point bending tests just
2.5 mm does not correspond to a CTOD value of 2.5 mm below the central load knife. However, this significant ef-
(see Eq. (18)), but rather to a CTOD close to 2.1 mm ac- fect becomes negligible when a fibre pull-out mechanism
cording to a rigid-body assumption. Nevertheless, the idea takes place. Several SFRC materials denoted according to
to arrest the cohesive stress at wu is in this way partially a unified system (Tables 1 and 2) have been compared by
compensated by the crack opening translation. investigating their bending behaviour according to UNI
11039 [52] and EN 14651 [43]. The designation is ex-
3.3 Three- vs. four-point bending test pressed by Mn-Fn-Vf, where Mn indicates a certain matrix
(n ranges between 1 and 8, Table 1), Fn indicates a certain
In the literature, the three-point bending test is not the on- steel fibre (n ranges between 1 and 8, Table 2) and Vf indi-
ly notched test proposed. The debate on the best test for cates the fibre volume percentage used in the composite.
identifying the uniaxial tension constitutive law σ-w has The experimental comparison highlights what was already
involved many researchers and is still in progress [49, 50]. predicted in [51], showing very similar pull-out strengths,
It is interesting to observe that the difference between the with the tendency to have something more in three-point
two tests is not so large when a careful non-linear compu- bending test (Fig. 12). It is important to emphasize that
tation is carried out. According to Ferrara and di Prisco the measurement of the crack opening is not the same for
[51], for plain concrete, the main differences between the the two tests. In fact, whereas for a three-point bending
two tests are related to the peak strength and the first post- test the measured parameter is CMOD, for the four-point
peak slope of the load vs. crack opening displacement bending test the measured parameter is CTOD. If a linear
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8
Fck [MPa] 50 60 75 65 40 30 55 75
98 96 30 60 80 – – 60
Filler [kg/m3]
(calc.) (calc.) (calc.) (fly-ash) (fly-ash) (fly-ash)
Water /binder 0.40 0.39 0.41 0.34 0.46 0.50 0.4 0.34
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8
Lf [mm] 30 30 30 60 30 30 44 60
Aspect ratio 80 48 50 75 50 41 36 60
Tensile strength [MPa] 2300 1250 1192 1192 1100 390 390 390
Fig. 12. Three- vs. four-point bending tests: experimental responses for several materials
a) b)
Fig. 14. σ-w curves in uniaxial tension; comparison of constitutive law deduced according to linear–softening model (Eqs.(9) and (10)) and fixed-end direct
tensile test carried out on cylindrical specimens (b) directly core-drilled by the notched beam used to characterize the FRC composite (a) [43]
Fig. 15. Uniaxial tensile constitutive law identified from bending tests: bilinear hardening (bh); bilinear softening (bs) [51]
a) b)
Fig. 17. FE simulation of uniaxial tension tests in fixed-end condition: a) global response, b) zoom at small COD
Fig. 18. FE meshes adopted for simulating four bending tests on notched beams
a) b)
Fig. 20. FE simulation of bending test: a) trilinear constitutive law adopted, b) model reliability with reference to a notched four-point bending test
a) b)
Fig. 21. Notched four-point bending test simulation: multi-linear constitutive law adopted (a) and numerical results (b)
Fig. 22. Plane section and FE validation of the linear model proposed in fib MC2010 for several materials defined in Table 1
a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 24. Plane section model: the role of the structural characteristic length for two different materials with bilinear softening model: a), c) structural
characteristic length influence for M2-F4-0.62 and M3-F2-0.62 materials respectively; b), d) related zooms
a) b)
Fig. 25. Notched standard tests and unnotched structural specimen tests (h = 60 mm; average curves of at least 3 specimens); bending response with the
same materials: tests according to UNI 11039 [49] and UNI 11188 [58]; A and B in (b) refer to specimens tested as cast (A) or turning the specimens upside
down (B) [56]
characteristic length. In fact, this variable is not only relat- 4 The “structural” specimen
ed to the ideal condition of the plane section kinematic
constraint, but also plays a role in predicting pre-peak be- The identification of the uniaxial tension constitutive law
haviour and peak strength. By examining different choices in the post-cracking regime is severely affected by fibre dis-
of lcs and two different materials with a linear elastic mod- tribution and other parameters as observed by many re-
el in pre-peak and a bilinear softening model (le/bs) in searchers [58]. FRC is a cementitious composite and there-
post-peak, it is possible to highlight the role played by the fore, to be regarded as a homogeneous material, the
structural characteristic length. Fig. 24 clearly highlights specimens used to characterize its behaviour should have
the value of lcs = h suggested in fib Model Code 2010 as a a volume that can be representative of the FRC hetero-
reasonable choice. geneity grade. Changing casting and handling procedures
a) b)
Fig. 27. Full-scale bending test, numerical and experimental results: a) bending moment vs. curvature diagram, b) load vs. displacement curve
Fig. 28. Fibre distribution in the critical cross-section of the full-scale beams tested
Fig. 29. Crack patterns at failure for the full-scale beams tested
a) b)
Fig. 30. Size effect introduced with the structural characteristic length: a) bilinear softening model, b) linear softening model
erage curves in the identification process of the uniaxial ten- characteristic length is shown in Fig. 30, where the same
sion law and not the characteristic ones. The smaller stiff- uniaxial tension constitutive law is assumed and different
ness of the global curve (Fig. 27b) is due to the lack of local- depths are considered [50]. The structural characteristic
ization and to a softening zone assumed to be spread length is therefore able to reproduce a significant size ef-
homogeneously over the overall zone with the same maxi- fect without the need for any special coefficient as pro-
mum bending moment. FE analyses were also performed us- posed by Rilem TC 162 TDF [23].
ing the same constitutive relationship and quadrilateral ele- The same constitutive relationships were also used to
ments. In this case average and characteristic curves fit the model the bending behaviour of prefabricated FRC roof
structural behaviour quite well, even if the pre-peak response elements, where only prestressed longitudinal reinforce-
simulated by the FE analysis is not able to take into account ment remained – all the transverse reinforcement was sub-
the defect distributions adequately as well as inhomoge- stituted by different types of steel fibre. Further details for
neous shrinkage effects in the cross section, thus exhibiting a these cases can be found in [65, 66].
stiffer behaviour. In order to favour the localization in the Several research projects are in progress to check the
critical section detected experimentally, an initial geometric global behaviour of R/C structures where an FRC compos-
defect was introduced by assigning a local width reduction ite is adopted. In section 7.7, the models discussed to re-
< 10 % in the proximity of the main crack propagation. produce the uniaxial tension behaviour are used coupled
To conclude the modelling of unreinforced concrete with conventional reinforcement. The bending moment
structures, an example of the role played by the structural resistance at ULS with longitudinal reinforcement, which
Fig. 31. ULS for bending moment and axial force: use of simplified stress-strain relationship [fib MC2010, Fig. 7.7-3]
represents the usual case, can be investigated by means of – the representativeness of the specimens used to charac-
the addition of a fibre contribution as clearly shown in terize the mechanical response of the material, in rela-
Fig. 31. The bending failure stage is supposed to be tion to the structure considered
reached when one of the following conditions applies: – the number of specimens for mechanical characteriza-
– attainment of the ultimate compressive strain in the tion
FRC, εcu – the stress redistribution capacity of the structure under
– attainment of the ultimate tensile strain in the steel (if consideration
present), εsu – the fracture volume involved in the failure mechanism
– attainment of the ultimate tensile strain in the FRC, εFu
Besides the safety factor indicated in Table 3, suitable co-
It is important to emphasize that in this case the structur- efficients K, which take into account the representative-
al characteristic length usually depends on the crack dis- ness of the specimen used for the identification in relation
tance and therefore on the reinforcement ratio and bar to the structure and the casting procedure adopted, are al-
diameters used. Furthermore, fibres help to increase the so introduced. In general, an isotropic fibre distribution is
ductility of the plastic hinge by increasing the passive con- assumed so that the fibre orientation factor K is equal to 1.
finement in the compression zone, but this effect is not For favourable effects, an orientation factor K < 1.0 may be
taken into account. applied if verified experimentally. For unfavourable ef-
Several investigations are in progress to check the ef- fects, an orientation factor K > 1.0 must be verified experi-
fectiveness of fibres in reducing crack distance and open- mentally and applied. The values fFtsd and fFtud should
ings as suggested in fib Model Code 2010, with suitable re- then be modified to
lationships in agreement with conventional reinforced
concrete [36, 37, 38]. fFtsd,mod = fFtsd/K (19)
For ultimate limit states, recommended values of partial A careful analysis of the role played by the safety factor
safety factors γF are shown in Table 3. For serviceability when a non-linear mechanical analysis is carried out ac-
limit states, the partial factors should be taken as 1.0. cording to fib Model Code 2010 is described by Cervenka
However, some special observations have to be made. et al. [67].
FRC is scantly homogeneous and isotropic because fibres
location is random and mainly depends on casting proce- 7 Basic aspects for design
dure, formwork geometry and mix consistency affected by
flowability, viscosity and filling ability. Therefore, the scat- Fibre reinforcement is suitable for structures where dif-
tering of its response mainly depends on numbers of fibres fused stresses are present. In structures with both local-
in the cracked section, their location and their orientation. ized and diffused stresses, which is the usual case, it is bet-
On the basis of the previous considerations, the choice of ter to base the reinforcement on a combination of rebars
the safety factors should take into account the following: and fibre reinforcement.
In structural elements where fibres aim to replace
conventional reinforcement (even partially), some restric-
Table 3. Partial safety factors for FRC
tions on the minimum residual strength are applied (Eqs.
(2) and (3)). This residual strength becomes significant in
Material γF structures characterized by a high degree of redundancy,
where a remarkable stress redistribution occurs. For this
FRC in compression as for plain concrete
reason, in structures without rebars, where fibres com-
FRC in tension (limit of linearity) as for plain concrete
pletely replace conventional reinforcement, a minimum
FRC in tension (residual strength) 1.5
redundancy level is required for the structural member.
Material Specimen No. fIf,av (std %) [MPa] feq1,av (std %) [MPa] feq2,av (std %) [MPa]
Material Specimen No. fctfl,av (std %) [MPa] fR1,av (std %) [MPa] fR3,av (std %) [MPa]
On the contrary, in structures with rebars, where fibres aimed at increasing the load bearing capacity of the struc-
constitute additional reinforcement, ductility is generally ture, is introduced [54].
provided by conventional reinforcement that makes a ma- Section 7.7, after a rough classification, also intro-
jor contribution to the tensile strength. For hardening duces semi-empirical equations for designing FRC struc-
FRCs (in uniaxial tension), fibres can be used as the only tural elements when subjected to shear according to the
reinforcement (without rebars), also in statically determi- multi-level approach [68], punching [69] and torsion.
nate structural elements. The heterogeneity of the me- There are even suitable equations for slabs and walls as
chanical behaviour in the post-cracking regime is often well as specific equations to compute crack distance and
significantly penalized due to the high scattering mainly crack opening taking into account fibre contribution,
related to fibre distribution and orientation. When a sig- which thus allows us to design new FRC structures ac-
nificant redundancy is guaranteed for the structure by its cording to these principles.
geometry and its boundary conditions, and a large volume
of the structure is involved in the failure process, the ex- 8 Concluding remarks
perimental investigation has highlighted that the average
mechanical behaviour – rather than the characteristic one The implementation of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) in
– takes place. For this reason, a suitable coefficient KRd, the fib Model Code 2010 is a very important milestone. In
the near future it will probably lead to the development of 2. Naaman, A. E., Reinhardt, H. W. (eds.): High performance
structural rules for FRC elements in Eurocodes and na- Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites – HPFRCC4, RILEM
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France, 2003.
This paper has carefully discussed the simplified
3. Reinhardt, H. W., Naaman, A. E. (eds.): High Performance
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Fiber Cement Composites – HPFRCC5, PRO53, RILEM
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ual strength, mainly given by fibre pull-out. Their reliabili- 4. Parra-Montesinos, G. J., Reinhardt, H. W., Naaman, A. E.:
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to several FRC materials, characterized by different ma- RILEM book series, vol. 2, 2012.
trixes, different steel fibres and different fibre contents. 5. Rossi, P., Chanvillard, G. (eds.): 5th RILEM Symp. on Fiber
The design rules are derived from a unified classification Reinforced Concretes. BEFIB 2000, RILEM Proc. PRO15,
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ready accepted as a European standard. 6. di Prisco, M., Felicetti, R., Plizzari, G. (eds.): Fiber-Rein-
The identification of the constitutive law is also forced Concrete. BEFIB RILEM Proc. PRO39, RILEM Pub-
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fits the experimental tests reasonably well, thus showing Opportunities. BEFIB 2012, RILEM International Symp.,
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Acknowledgements sion, vol. 102, No. ST8, 1976, pp. 1537–1548.
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A special vote of thanks goes to professors L. Vandewalle and Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete. ACI Journal, Proc.,
and G. Plizzari for the excellent cooperation to Prof. J. vol. 73, No. 1, 1976, pp. 50–53.
Walraven for the fruitful discussions and to Prof. H. 19. Patent Nos. 3,429,094 (1969) & 3,500,728 (1970), Battelle
Falkner, who shared with us his considerable design Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio; Patent No. 3,650,785
experience. The authors are also indebted to all the mem- (1972), U.S. Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
United States Patent Office, Washington, D.C.
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constructive discussions during the several meetings,
Reinforced Concrete, ACI 544.4R-88. American Concrete In-
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