Definition (Relation)

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. A relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵.

A relation from 𝐴 to 𝐴 is called a relation on 𝑨.
If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, we write 𝒂𝑹𝒃 and say 𝒂 is related to 𝒃.

Definition (Equivalence Relation)

A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is called an equivalence relation
iff it is
i. Reflexive: This means that for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥𝑅𝑥.
ii. Symmetric: This means that for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴,
if 𝑥𝑅𝑦 then 𝑦𝑅𝑥.
iii.Transitive: This means that for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴,
if 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 and 𝑦 𝑅 𝑧 then 𝑥 𝑅 𝑧.
Examples
Example 1 Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
If 𝑅 = { 1,1 , 2,2 , 3, 3 , 4,4 , 5,5 , 6,6 , 1,3 , 1, 6 , 6, 1 ,
(6, 3), (3,1), (3,6), (2,4) (4,2)},
then 𝑅 is an equivalence relation on 𝐴. (Check!)

Example 2 Let 𝑅 be a relation on the set of real numbers R

defined by 𝑎 𝑅 𝑏 iff 𝑎 − 𝑏 ≤ 1.
Clearly, for any real number 𝑎, 𝑎 − 𝑎 = 0 ≤ 1.
So, 𝑎𝑅𝑎 and 𝑅 is reflexive.
If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ R and 𝑎 − 𝑏 ≤ 1, then 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 ≤ 1.
So if 𝑎 𝑅 𝑏 , then 𝑏 𝑅 𝑎. Therefore, 𝑅 is symmetric.

Now for transitivity: If 𝑎 𝑅 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑅 𝑐, 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑅𝑐?

That is , if 𝑎 − 𝑏 ≤ 1 and 𝑏 − 𝑐 ≤ 1, is 𝑎 − 𝑐 ≤ 1?
The answer is no. For example, 1 𝑅 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝑅 3 since
1 − 2 ≤ 1 and 2 − 3 ≤ 1 . However, 1 − 3 = 2 ≰ 1.
Thus, 𝑅 is not transitive.

∴ 𝑅 is not an equivalence relation.

Example 3 Let 𝑅 be a relation on 𝒁 defined by 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 iff 𝑥 + 3𝑦
is even. Show that 𝑅 is an equivalence relation on 𝑍.

Proof
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍. Since 𝑎 + 3𝑎 = 4𝑎 = 2(2𝑎), then 𝑎 + 3𝑎 is even. Thus,
𝑎 𝑅 𝑎 and 𝑅 is reflexive.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 and suppose 𝑎 𝑅 𝑏. Then 𝑎 + 3𝑏 is even. Thus,

𝑎 + 3𝑏 = 2𝑘 for some integer 𝑘. So, 𝑎 = 2𝑘 − 3𝑏.
Thus,
𝑏 + 3𝑎 = 𝑏 + 3 2𝑘 − 3𝑏 = 6𝑘 − 8𝑏 = 2(3𝑘 − 4𝑏)
Since 3𝑘 − 4𝑏 ∈ 𝒁, then 𝑏 + 3𝑎 is even.
Therefore, 𝑏 𝑅 𝑎 and 𝑅 is symmetric.

To show that 𝑅 is transitive, suppose 𝑎 𝑅 𝑏 and 𝑏 𝑅 𝐶. Then

𝑎 + 3𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 + 3𝑐 are even. Let 𝑎 + 3𝑐 = 2𝑛 and 𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 2𝑚,
where 𝑚 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝒁.
Then, (𝑎 + 3𝑐) + (𝑏 + 3𝑐) = 2𝑛 + 2𝑚 is even.
So, 𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 2𝑛 + 2𝑚
and 𝑎 + 3𝑐 = 2𝑛 + 2𝑚 − 4𝑏 = 2 𝑛 + 𝑚 − 2𝑏 .
Since 𝑛 + 𝑚 − 2𝑏 ∈ 𝑍, then 𝑎 + 3𝑐 is even.
Therefore, 𝑎 𝑅 𝑐 and 𝑅 is transitive.
 Check your Understanding
Exercise 1. Let 𝑆 be the set of all functions from 𝑍 to 𝑍,
and let 𝑅 be a relation on the set 𝑆 defined by 𝑓 𝑅 𝑔 iff
either 𝑓 0 = 𝑔(0) or 𝑓 1 = 𝑔(1). Is 𝑅 an
equivalence relation on 𝑆?
Equivalence Class
Definition (Equivalence class)
Let 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on a set 𝐴, and let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.
The set
𝑎 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ 𝑥𝑅𝑎}
consisting of all the elements of 𝐴 that are related to 𝑎 is
called an equivalence class of 𝒂.

Definition (A modulo R)
The set 𝐴Τ𝑅 = 𝑥 : 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 is called the set 𝑨 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒐 𝑹.
 Examples
Example 4 Consider the equivalence relation
𝑅 = { 1,1 , 2,2 , 3, 3 , 4,4 , 5,5 , 6,6 , 1,3 , 1, 6 , 6, 1 ,
(6, 3), (3,1), (3,6), (2,4) (4,2)}
on the set 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. What are the equivalence
classes?

Solution
1 = { 1, 3, 6} 2 = {2, 4} 3 = {1, 3, 6}
4 = {2, 4} 5 = {5} 6 = 1, 3, 6
Since 1 = 3 = 6 and 2 = [4], then there are only
three distinct equivalence classes, namely, 1 , 2 and [5].
Hence 𝐴Τ𝑅 = 1 , 2 , 5 .
 Example 5 Consider the equivalence relation 𝑅 on 𝒁
defined by 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 iff 𝑥 + 3𝑦 is even.
Determine the elements of 𝒁Τ𝑅 .

Solution
First, let us consider the equivalence class [0].
0 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝒁: 𝑥 + 3 0 is even
= {𝑥 ∈ 𝒁: 𝑥 is even}

If 𝑎 is any even integer, then, if 𝑎 = 2𝑘 for some integer 𝑘.

𝑎 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑥 + 3 𝑎 is even
= {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑥 + 6𝑘 is even}
= {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑥 is even}
On the other hand, consider the equivalence class [1].
1 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝒁: 𝑥 + 3 1 is even
= {𝑥 ∈ 𝒁: 𝑥 is odd}
In fact, if 𝑎 is any odd integer, say 𝑎 = 2𝑘 + 1 for some integer 𝑘
𝑎 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑥 + 3 𝑎 is even
= {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑥 + 6𝑘 + 3 is even}
= {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑥 is odd}
So, if 𝑎 and 𝑏 are both even, then 𝑎 = [𝑏] is the set of all
even integers.
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are both odd, then 𝑎 = [𝑏] is the set of all
odd integers. Hence there are only two distinct
equivalence classes, namely, [0] and [1].
∴ 𝒁Τ𝑅 = 0 , 1 .
Check your Understanding

Exercise 2 Define the relation R on the set of integers 𝒁 as follows:

𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 if 3𝑥 − 7𝑦 is even
Show that 𝑅 is an equivalence relation. Determine the set 𝒁Τ𝑅.
In Examples 4 and 5, notice that any two equivalence
classes are either equal or disjoint.

Theorem Let 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on a

nonempty set 𝐴. For all 𝑥, 𝑦 in 𝐴,
(a) 𝑥 ∈ [𝑥]. Thus, every equivalence class is a
nonempty subset of 𝐴.
(b) 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 iff 𝑥 = 𝑦 . Thus, elements of 𝐴 are related
iff their equivalence classes are equal.
(c) 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 iff 𝑥 ∩ 𝑦 = ∅. Thus, elements of 𝐴
are unrelated iff their equivalence classes are disjoint.
Proof
(a) Since 𝑅 is an equivalence relation on 𝐴, then it is reflexive.
Thus, 𝑥 𝑅 𝑥, and so 𝑥 ∈ 𝑥 .

(b) (⇒) Suppose 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 . To show: 𝑥 = 𝑦.

First, suppose 𝑢 ∈ 𝑥 . Then 𝑢 𝑅 𝑥
Since 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 by assumption, then by transitivity, 𝑢 𝑅 𝑦.
Thus 𝑢 ∈ 𝑦 . This shows that 𝑥 ⊆ [𝑦].
The proof that 𝑦 ⊆ 𝑥 can be done in a similar manner.
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑦.

(⇐) Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑦 . To show: 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦

By (a), 𝑥 ∈ [𝑥]. Since 𝑥 = 𝑦 , it follows that 𝑥 ∈ [𝑦].
Therefore, 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 .
(c) (⇒) Suppose 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 . To show: 𝑥 ∩ 𝑦 = ∅.
We will prove the contrapositive. Suppose 𝑥 ∩ 𝑦 ≠ ∅.
Let 𝑤 ∈ 𝑥 ∩ 𝑦 . Then, 𝑤 𝑅 𝑥 and 𝑤 𝑅 𝑦.
Since 𝑅 is symmetric, then 𝑥 𝑅 𝑤 and 𝑤 𝑅 𝑦.
Since 𝑅 is transitive, then 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦.

(⇐) Suppose 𝑥 ∩ 𝑦 = ∅.
From (a), 𝑥 ∈ 𝑥 . Thus, 𝑥 ∉ 𝑦 .
∴ 𝑥𝑅𝑦