Unit I Heat Transfer PDF

Under Administrative Support
Pimpri Chinchawad Education Trust (PCET)

Nutan Maharashtra Vidya Prasarak Mandal’s
Nutan Maharashtra Inst. of Engg. & Tech.
“Heat Transfer”
Nutan Maharashtra Institute of Engineering &
Technology Talegaon Dabhade
UNIT NO: 01
CREATED BY
Prof. Rohit R. Jadhao
Assistant Professor
Contents
 Introduction to Heat
Transfer
 Modes of Heat
Transfer
1. Conduction
2. Convection &
3. Radiations.
 Heat Conduction
 Laws of Heat
Transfer
Technology Talegaon Dabhade
Teaching / Examination Schemes
Teaching Scheme : 4 Lectures/Week
: 2 Practical /Week
Examination Scheme : Practical :50 Marks

Insem:30 Marks
: Theory :70 Marks
Books Recommended:
1. Ozisik 8. M M Rathore
2. Holman 9. Nag
3. Sukhatme 10. Sachdeva
4. Rajput 11. Dutta
5. De Witt 12. Thirumaleshwar
6. Cengel
7. Domkundwar Technology Talegaon Dabhade
Heat Energy & Heat Transfer
• In this lecture, we are going to study about Heat Energy & HT
• So, let us see first, What is Energy ? Energy is the capacity to do
work. Some examples of energies are mechanical energy, chemical
energy, electrical energy, nuclear energy and so on
• And, What is Heat Energy? It is a form of energy in transit, the
driving force for which, is the temp difference
• It means, whenever there is temp difference between the two
bodies, heat energy will flow. When they attain equilibrium of temp ,
heat flow will stop
• In the study of Heat Transfer:We are concerned, as to HOW and
AT WHAT RATE heat transfer takes place. HT is based on the Law of
Thermodynamics, which states that heat flows from a body at higher
temp to a body at lower temp. Conversely, heat can not flow from a
body at lower temp to a body at higher temp, unless & until some
external device, like heat pump, is employed
Nutan Maharashtra Institute of Engineering & Technology Talegaon Dabhade

Why should we study Heat
Transfer ?
• You will not find a single field of engineering , where
knowledge of Heat Transfer is not applied.
• Knowledge of HT is always required while designing an
eqpt. Let us take up some examples, branch-wise
Mech Engg: Engines, R &A/C, use of insulations,
cooling/heating of bodies for heat treatment etc
Elect Engg: Cooling of motors, transformers, current carrying
wires, etc
Chemical Engg: We have to take care of energy produced
during chemical reactions, heating or cooling of chemicals for
reactions to take place, etc
Nuclear Engg: Conversion of fission/fusion energy to
electricity, cooling of nuclear reactors etc
NMIET-HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
Importance of Heat Transfer
Electronics: Cooling of ICs, electronic devices etc
Computer Engg: Cooling of chips, electronic cct, etc
Civil Engg: Curing of cement in buildings/dams etc

Hydraulics: Generation of electricity from hydraulic energy
from dams
Bio-technology: Ripening of fruits, processing of biomaterial
Space Engg: Space applications/ cooling of space vehicles

Aircraft Engg:Aircraft applications
You name an equipment and you find that the knowledge

of heat transfer is required
PRINCIPLE ONE
 Heat ALWAYS flows
from hot to cold
when objects are in
contact or connected
by a good heat
conductor.
 The rate of heat
transfer will increase
as the difference in
temp between the
two objects increases pg.. 6 fig 2
PRINCIPLE TWO
 Cold objects have
less internal heat
than hot objects of
the same mass
 To make an object
colder, remove
heat; To make is
hotter, add heat
 The mass of the
object remains the
same regardless of
the heat content
PRINCIPLE THREE
 Everything is composed of matter
 All matter exists in one of three states: solid, liquid or vapor.
 LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION: When matter changes
from liquid to vapor or vice versa, it absorbs or releases a
relatively large amount of heat without a change in
temperature.
PRINCIPLE FOUR
 CONDENSATION When a
vapor is cooled below its
dew point, it becomes a
liquid. (boiling point in
reverse)
 When vapor condenses,

releases large amount of
heat
PRINCIPLE FIVE
 Changing the
pressure on a liquid
or a vapor changes
the boiling point.
PRINCIPLE SIX
 When a vapor is
compressed, its
temperature and
pressure will increase
even though heat has
not been added
Heat Transfer
 Heat always flows from
high temperature objects
Heat flows from
to low temperature
30Cº child into air
objects.
 Heat flow stops when 37Cº
temperatures equal.
 Various ways by which
heat may flow. -2Cº
Heat flows from

child and air into
the ice cream

Technology Talegaon Dabhade HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
Modes of Heat Transfer
 Conduction: Flow of heat energy by direct contact
& through free electrons e.g. heat flow through solids
 Convection: Transfer of heat energy by fluid flowing

over a surface e.g. heat transfer from engine surface
to surrounding atmospheric air
 Radiation: Flow of heat energy without any

intervening medium e.g. energy of sun reaching the
earth.
CONDUCTION
 Heat is transferred through  Those materials that
a solid and gets the solid conduct heat well, are called
hot. (molecules get hotter, thermal conductors, while
then they in-turn give those that conduct heat
energy to nearby molecules poorly, are known as
and they get hotter too) thermal insulators.
 Different solids conduct  Most metals are excellent
different amounts of heat in thermal conductors, while
a specific time. (copper vs. wood, glass, and most
glass) plastics are common
 Conduction is the process thermal insulators.
whereby heat is transferred  The free electrons in metals
directly through a material, are responsible for the
any bulk motion of the excellent thermal
material playing no role in conductivity of metals.
the transfer. NMIET-HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
Conduction
 Conduction is heat flow
by direct contact.
 Some materials are good
Tile floor feels colder than wood floor
thermal conductors,
others are insulators.
37º 37º
30º 30º
Wood is an Tile is a
insulator conductor

Technology Talegaon Dabhade HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
Fourier’s Law of Heat
Conduction
 Rate of heat transfer by conduction (through a solid) in a
given direction is proportional to the area normal to the
direction of heat flow and the temp gradient in that direction.
Mathematically ;
T dT
Q A Watt OR Q  kA Watt ( J / s)
x dx
where Q = heat flow rate, Watt (J/s)
A = area normal to heat flow direction,m2
k = conductivity of material (property), W/mK
dT/dx = temp gradient in x direction
ΔT = temp difference across Δx
Δx = thickness of material in heat flow direction
Conduction
Rate of heat transfer by conduction, Q through the length, L

across the cross-sectional area, A is given by the following
equation, where k is the thermal conductivity and ΔT is the
temperature difference between the two ends.
kAT
Q
L
SI Unit of Thermal Conductivity: J/(s · m · C°)
Assumptions of Fourier’s Law
1. Unidirectional heat flow (only
one direction)
2. Steady state heat flow
3. Constant temp gradient
4. Constant conductivity, k
5. Both faces isothermal
Conduction
dT
Q  kA
dx
(T1  T2 )
Q  kA
( x1  x 2 )
(T1  T2 )
Q  kA
( x2  x1 )
T
Q  kA
x
Heat Flux q=Q/A, W/m2

Temperature distribution in a solid
heat flow
Inside of
house is 298 K Outside
warm is cold
Tout  Tin
Q  kA
A A L
273 K
k = thermal conductivity
Temperature (Watts/ m K)
distribution is T = temperature (K)
linear Q/A = heat flux (Watts/m2)
L = distance (m)
Thermal Conductivity
Metals
Aluminum 240 High conductivity
Brass 110
Copper 390 High conductivity
Iron 79
Lead 35
Silver 420 High conductivity
Steel (stainless) 14
Gases
Air 0.0256
Hydrogen (H2) 0.180
Nitrogen (N2) 0.0258

Thermal Conductivities
•Metals have high
thermal
conductivity, most Substance Thermal
electrical Conductivity: k
insulators also W / (m K)
have low thermal Glass 0.84
conductivity.
•Air is a great Water 0.60
insulator, except
that large air Wood 0.10
spaces allow heat
flow by Air 0.023
convection.
Variation of Thermal Conductivity
1. It is the property of material; defined as ability of material to
conduct heat through it.
2. Thermal conductivity in decreasing order :

Metals » Non-metallic Solids » Liquids » Gases
3. Higher conductivity in metals due to free electrons in their

outer orbits
4. k depends on grain structure. When k is different in different

directions (kx , ky , kz ), material is known as anisotropic.
When k is constant in all directions, it is called Isotropic.
5. k is strongly dependent on temp; k=ko(1+αT)
Isotropic & Anisotropic Materials
• Some materials exhibit same conductivity in all
directions. These are called ISOTROPIC materials
(kx = ky = kz = k)
• While some materials have different conductivity in different

directions(kx , ky , kz ), such materials are known as
anisotropic.
• Wood exhibits directional conductivity; different
along grains
HEAT CONVECTION
 Convection is the process in which heat is carried

from place to place by the bulk movement of a fluid.
 Convection currents are set up when a pan of water is

heated.
Heat Convection
 When a fluid flows over a solid body or surface and temp of
the fluid and solid surface are different, heat transfer between
the solid surface and fluid takes place due to motion of fluid
relative to the surface.
 If the fluid motion is artificially induced, then heat transfer is

said to be by FORCED convection.
 If the fluid motion is set up by buoyancy effects resulting from

density difference caused due to temp difference in the fluid,
heat transfer is said to be by FREE or NATURAL convection
Newton’s Law of Cooling
Rate of heat transfer by convection from a surface to a fluid
or vice versa , flowing along it is equal to the product of temp
difference between surface and the free stream of the fluid, the
area of the surface normal to the direction of heat flow and a
quantity h called convective heat transfer coefficient.
Mathematically;
Q = hA(Ts - T∞); Watt Ts > T∞
h is not a property of fluid or T∞
surface, but it depends on
properties of the fluid and vital
dimensions of the surface Fluid
A h
Ts
Q = h A (Ts - T∞); Watt
Q
Convection
y Tair
Cool air flow
Q
Tplate
T
Hot Plate
h = convection coefficient Watts/m2 K
Q  hA(Tplate  Tair )
Convection
 Heat transfer in a fluid often
occurs mostly by convection.
 Buoyancy causes warm air to
rise, which carries thermal
energy directly by its motion.
Convection Oven
 Convection oven has a fan to enhance the circulation of
the air, increasing the transfer of heat.
Heat Radiation
•Energy carried by electromagnetic waves
•Light, microwaves, radio waves, x-rays
•Wavelength is related to vibrational frequency
Radiation
 Light has many different
wavelengths, most of which
are not visible to the eye.
 All light carries energy, thus
transfers heat.
Heat Lamp
Heat Radiation
 All bodies continuously emit energy if their temp is above
zero absolute (0K) and energy thus emitted is called thermal
radiation.
 Thermal radiations are electromagnetic waves and do not
require any medium for propagation.
 Thermal radiation is a surface phenomenon.
 Theories of Thermal Radiation

1. Wave/Maxwell’s Classical Theory : Propagation by
electromagnetic waves
2. Quantum/ Planck’s Theory: Propagation by quanta
possessing certain amount of energy
Stefan Boltzmann’s Law of
Radiation
 Thermal radiation emitted by a black body is proportional to
the Fourth Power of its absolute temp.
Mathematically;
q ∞ T4 W/m2;
Q = σAT4 W; where σ is Stefan Boltzmann’s
constant (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4 )
Q =A1Є1σ (T14 –T24)
The Stefan–Boltzmann’s Law
Of Radiation
 The rate at which an object emits radiant energy is
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature. This is known as Stefan’s law and is expressed
as follows:
Q  AT 4
where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
σ = 5.67  10-8 W/m2 K4.
The factor Є is called the emissivity, which is a number
between 0 and 1.
Perfect radiators have a value of 1 for Є.
A is the surface area and T is the temperature of the radiator
in Kelvin. NMIET-HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
Emission of Radiant Energy
 All objects radiate light;
higher the temperature, 75º
higher the frequency.
 At room temperature the
radiated light is at 98º
frequencies too low for
our eyes to see.
 Special cameras are
sensitive to this infrared Attics in this house were kept warm for
radiation. growing marijuana.
Reflection of Radiant Energy
White objects reflect light, black objects don’t.
Hole in a box with white interior

looks black because almost none
of the light entering the hole
reflects back out.
White tubes look black

inside.
Numerical Problem
Q1: Air at 20°C blows over a 50cm x 75cm hot plate at
250°C. The film heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2K. 300 W
is lost from the plate surface by radiation. Calculate heat
transfer rate and other side plate temp. Thermal conductivity
of the plate material is 43 W/mK.The plate is 2cm thick.
Q=?
Qr=300W
Air at 20°C Qc=?
Q=Qc+Qr
Qc=hA(T1 – Ta) 2cm
h=25
Q=kA(ΔT/Δx)
T1 =250°C
=kA(T2-T1)/(Δx) 50cm
k=43
T2 = ? 75cm
Q
Q=2456W; T2=253°C NMIET-HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
Electrical Analogy
Electrical Heat Energy
Energy
What flows? Electrons Heat energy through
electrons
Driving Voltage Diff, ΔV Temp Diff, ΔT
Potential
Flow Current, I Heat Transfer Rate, Q
Resistance to ρ, A, L of R, Thermal Resistance
flow conductor
Electrical Analogy
As per Ohm’s Law, I = ΔV/R
Similarly, Heat Flow Rate, Q = ΔT/R = C.ΔT;

where R is thermal resistance & 1/R=C conductance
Conductive Resistance:
T T T
Q  kA  
x x R
kA
x
Hence, Rconductive 
kA
Electrical Analogy
Convective Resistance:
T T
Q  hAT2  T   
1 R
hA
1
Hence, Rconvective 
hA
Heat Transfer In Composite
Structures Resistance In Series
Q=ΔT/R
=(T1 - T2)/R1
=(T2 - T3)/R2 k1 k2 k3
Q T1 T2 T3 T4
=(T3 - T4)/R3
R1 R2 R3
b1 b2 b3
On adding up;
T1 - T4=Q (R1+R2+R3) or Q=(T1-T4)/(R1+R2+R3)
Q=ΔT/R;
hence R=R1+R2+R3
R1=b1/k1A; R2=b2/k2A; R3=b3/k3A
Heat Transfer In Composite
Structures T T 1 2
Resistance In Parallel R1
Q1 Q1
Q1 = (T1 - T2)/R1 k1
Q2 = (T1 - T2)/R2
Q3 = (T1 - T2)/R3
R2
Q Q2 Q2 Q
On adding; k2
Q=Q1+Q2+Q3
Q3 R3 Q3
=(T1-T2)*(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3)
= ΔT*1/R; k3
Hence 1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
b
Examples of Composite Structures
• Walls of buildings
• Walls of home refrigerators
• Insulated pipe carrying steam
• Walls of a furnace
• Walls of a cold storage
• Hot case for food
Unsteady State Heat Transfer
• Whenever a heat transfer system is switched on/ started,
it takes some time to attain steady value of heat transfer rate.
Heat transfer rate under these conditions keeps varying with
passage of time. This heat transfer system is said to be
transferring heat under unsteady state / transient conditions.
Here, temperature also keeps varying at various locations
in the system with time. Hence, temp is a function of both
location as well as time.
• Similar situation occurs when a heat transfer system is
switched off / shut off, but in reverse direction
• Examples are starting/firing of a furnace, heating of a body,

switching on a heater, starting of an engine, etc
Steady State Heat Transfer
• Whenever a heat transfer system is switched on/ started,
it takes some time to stabilize the heat transfer rate when it
becomes constant and does not change with time. This heat
transfer system is said to be transferring heat under steady
state conditions. Here, temperatures attain constant values
at various locations in the system and do not vary with time.
Hence, temp is a function of only location and not of time.
• Heat transfer rate is directly proportional to temp difference.
Since temps attain constant values, temp difference also
become constant hence heat transfer rate attains steady value.
• This implies that whatever amount of heat energy is being
received by the system, at same rate it is transferring out.
• This means that under steady state, system transfers /
receives constant amount of heat energy per unit time
Q2. In a furnace, temp of hot gases is 2100°C.
Ambient temp is 40°C. Heat
flow by radiation from hot gases
to inner surface of the wall is Tg T1 T2 T∞
23kW/m2. Convective heat qc2
transfer coeff. between hot gases qc1 qcond qr2
and the inner surface of the wall is qr1
12W/m2K. Thermal conductance of h1 C h2
the wall is 58W/m K. Heat flow by
2
radiation from external surface of the wall to

surroundings is 10kW/m2. Temp of inside surface of
the wall is 900°C. For the external surface of the wall,
find surface temp and convective heat transfer
coefficient.
(Ans. T2=255.2°C; h2=127.3W/m2K
T2 ? h2 = ?
Solution:
QC1  h1 A(Tg  T1 )  12 x1(2100  900)  14.4kW / m 2
Q  QC1  Qr1  14.4  23  37.4 kW / m 2
This is the heat conducted through slab.

T1  T2 
Hence Q  C (T1  T2 ) 
1
C
(900  T2 )
  T2  255.2C
1
58
Q  QC 2  Qr 2  37400  QC 2  10000
Hence QC 2  27400  h2 A(T2  T )
 h2  127.3W / m 2 K
General Heat Conduction
Equation In Cartesian
z
Coordinates
• Consider a small rectangular δz
volume of sides δx, δy & δz g
dQx dQx+δx
parallel to the three axes T
in medium, in which temp
is varying with loc & time. δy x
• Let T denote the temp at centre δx
y
of this elemental volume.
• Also, let there be internal heat generation at the rate
of g Watt per unit volume (W/m3 ) due to heat source
• Let the material be anisotropic implying that thermal
conductivities have values kx , ky & kz in x, y & z directions
respectively
Equation
• Consider heat entering and leaving this volume through its six
faces.
• Let heat entering the elemental volume per unit time normal
to the area/face δyδz at x be dQx and heat leaving the volume
in the direction normal to the
area δyδz at x+δx be dQx+δx.
• As per Fourier’s Law, heat entering dQx= - kx(δyδz)∂T/∂x
• Similarly, heat leaving, dQx+δx =dQx+ ∂/∂x(dQx)δx
Equation
So, net heat flow into the element in x-direction/time;

dQx  dQx  dx   dQx x
x
  T 
    k xyz. x
x  x 
  T 
 kx xyz
x  x 
General Heat Conduction Equation
Similarly, net heat flow into the element per unit time
in y & z directions respectively are;
  T 
dQ y  dQ y y   k y xyz and
y  y 
  T 
dQz  dQz z  kz xyz
z  z 
Thus, net heat flow in to the element from all directions
by conduction in certain time δt will be:
   T    T    T 
 kx    k y    k z xyzt
 x  x  y  y  z  z 
Now, internal heat generation in time δt=g.δxδyδzδt
Heat gain by the element from above, will result in

energy storage and will increase its temp.
Let δT be the rise in temp in time δt, the net heat
storage in the element in time δt ;
(mCp ΔT) = ρVCp δT
= ρCp δT δxδyδz
Energy Balance Equation:
Net heat conducted in to the element from all
Directions +Heat generated within the element
= Energy stored in the element
   T    T    T 
 kx    k y    k z xyzt
 x  x  y  y  z  z 
 g.xyzt  C p T .xyz
Dividing the Equation by δxδyδzδt, we get;
  T    T    T  T
kx    k y    k z   g  C p
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
This is three dimensional heat conduction equation
in Cartesian Coordinates for anisotropic material for
Unsteady state conditions.
For isotropic material, kx=ky=kz=k constant

 2T  2T  2T g 1 T
   
x 2
y 2
z 2
k  t
k
Where  is thermal diffusivit y  2
m /s
C p
 T  T  T 1 T
2 2 2
Fourier’s Equation:   
x 2 y 2
z 2
 t
 2T  2T  2T g
Poisson’s Equation:  2  2  0
x y z k
2
 2T  2T  2T
Laplace Equation:  2  2 0
x y z
2
Steady State, One Dimensional Equation w/o g:
d 2T
2
o
dx
Types of Problems In Heat Transfer
1. Plate/Slab/Wall
2. Tube/Pipe/Cylinder
3. Sphere
• To increase Heat Transfer Rate
• To decrease Heat Transfer Rate
In Cylindrical Coordinates
By substituting x=r.cosθ; y=r.sinθ and z=z, we get
General Heat Conduction Equation in Polar/
Cylindrical Coordinates:
 T 1 T 1  T  T g 1 T
2 2 2
    
r 2 r r r  2 2
z 2
k  t
 For isotropic material with k  constt
Poisson’s Equation: 1 d  dT  g
r    0
r dr  dr  k
1 d  dT 
Radial heat conduction w/o g: r   0
r dr  dr 
In Spherical Coordinates
Similarly, by substituting x=r.sinθ.cosФ; y= r.sinθsinФ
and z=r.sinθ, we get heat conduction equation in
Spherical Coordinates:
1   2 T  1   T  1  2T g 1 T
r  2  sin    2 2  
r r  r  r sin   
2
  r sin   k  t
2
For isotropic material with k  constt

1 d  2 dT  g
Poisson’s Equation: r  0
r dr  dr  k
2
1 d  2 dT 
Radial heat conduction w/o g: r 0
r dr 
2
dr 
Thermal Diffusivity
•Thermal Diffusivity is the ratio of thermal conductivity to heat
storage capacity of the material.
k
Denoted by  , it is defined as :   m2 / s
C p
•Larger the value of α, faster shall be the heat diffusion
through the material.
Steady state heat conduction does not contain α,

hence temp distribution through material is determined by
k only, where as in unsteady state heat conduction,
temp distribution is determined by α. (Both by k & ρCp )
Example: Cooking steel utensils having copper bottom

One Dimensional Steady State
Heat Conduction through
Slab/Plane Wall K
Consider a plane wall of thickness Δx of T1
material having conductivity k with its T
faces maintained at temp T1 & T2 T2
Steady state, one dimensional
Heat conduction eqn will be: 2 Δx
d T
2
0 X=0 X=Δx
dx
Integratin g this equation twice ;
dT
We have  C1..........(1) Slope of Temp Profile
dx
and T  C1 x  C2 .........(2) Temp Profile
Slab/Plane Wall
Boundary Conditions: K
(T=C1.x+C2)….(2) T1
1) At x=0; T=T1
2) At x=Δx; T=T2 T2
Applying BC 1), we get T1=C1.0+C2
Hence C2=T1 Δx
Applying BC 2), we get T2  T1 X=0 X=Δx
T2=C1.Δx+C2  C1 
Or T2=C1.Δx+T1 x
Substituti ng C1 and C 2 in Eqn..(2)
T2  T1
We get T  .x  T1 ...........Temp Distributi on
x
Slab/Plane Wall
K
dT
Heat Flow Rate Q  kA T1
dx
dT T2  T1 T2
From Eqn..(1);  C1 
dx x Δx
X=0 X=Δx
T1  T2  T T
Hence Q  kA  
x x R
kA
x
Hence Rcond  ..... for Slab
kA NMIET-HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
One Dimensional (Radial)
Steady State Heat
Conduction through Hollow
Cylinder L
r1 K
r2
Consider a hollow cylinder of inner
T1
radius r1 and outer r2 of length L T1>T2
Q
of a material having conductivity k. T2
Inner surface of cylinder is at

temp T1 and outer at T2
Conduction Equation for one dimensional (radial)

Heat flow (without g) will be:
1 d  dT 
r 0
r dr  dr 
One Dimensional Steady State Heat
Conduction through Hollow Cylinder
Integrating Equation: 1 d  dT 
r 0
r dr  dr  L
r1 K
d  dT  r2
We have   r 0 T1
dr  dr  T1>T2
Q T2
dT dT C1
r  C1 or  .......(1)
dr dr r
On further Integration;
We have T  C1 ln r  C 2 .......(2)
Hollow Cylinder L
Boundary Conditions:
Eqn (2) T=C1.lnr+C2
r1 K
r2
1) At r=r1; T=T1 T1
2) At r=r2; T=T2 T1>T2
Q T2
Substituting in Eqn ….(2); We have
T1=C1.lnr1+C2 …..(3)
T2=C1.lnr2+C2 ….(4)
Subtracting eqn (4) from (3) and further substitution;
T2  T1 T2  T1
C1  and C 2  T1  . ln r1
r2 r2
ln ln
r1 r1
Heat Conduction through Hollow
Cylinder T=C1.lnr+C2 …….(2)
L
T2  T1 T2  T1
C1  and C 2  T1  . ln r1
r2 r2
ln ln r2 r1 K
r1 r1 T1
T1>T2
Substituting values of C1 & C2 Q T2
in Eqn ….(2); We have
r r
ln ln
r1 T  T1 r1
T  T2  T1   T1 OR 
r2 T2  T1 r2
ln ln
r1 r1
Hollow Cylinder L
Heat Flow Rate: T2  T1
C1 
dT r2
Q  kA ln
dr
r1 r2 r1 K
dT C1 T1
 .... from Eqn....(1) T1>T2
dr r Q T2
C1
Therefore, Q  k.2rL.  2kLC1
r
Substituti ng C1 ;
T2  T1  T1  T2 
Q  2kL.  2kL.
r2 r2
ln ln
r1 r1
Cylinder L
Heat Flow Rate: T2  T1 
Q  2kL.
r2
ln r1 K
r1 r2
T1
T1  T2  T T1>T2
Q   Q T2
r2 R
ln
r1
2kL
r2
ln
r1
Hence RCond  for Cylinder
2kL
Hollow Cylinder L
In case of cylinder, in Q expression,

Q= -k A (dT/dr);
r1 K
area transferring heat A=2 л r L r2
changes with r, unlike in case of slab. T1
T1>T2
Therefore, it is convenient to work out Q T2
Mean Area Am for use in analogous
formula Logarithmic Mean Area (LMA)
for slab Q=k A (ΔT/Δx).
2kL.T T
If we write Q   k . Am .
r2 r2  r1
ln
r1
Then Am is mean area which can be utilized
in formula for slab
Cylinder Logarithmic Mean Area (LMA)
To obtain value of LMA i, e. Am ;
We multiply & divide Q exp ression by r2  r1  as;
2kL.T r2  r1  k .2Lr2  r1 . T
Q . 
ln
r2 r2  r1 
ln
r2 r2  r1 
r1 r1
T
Comparing with Q  k . Am . ;
r2  r1
2Lr2  r1  Ao  Ai
We have Am  
r2 Ao
ln ln
r1 Ai
One Dimensional (Radial) Steady
State Heat Conduction
through Hollow Sphere T >T 1 2
• Consider a hollow sphere of inner r2 r1

K
radius r1 and outer r2 of a material
having conductivity k. T1
Q
• Inner surface of sphere is at temp T1 and
T2
outer at T2
• Conduction Equation for one dimensional
(radial)
Heat flow (without g) will be:
1 d  2 dT  d  2 dT 
 r   0   r   0
r 2 dr  dr  dr  dr 
State Heat Conduction T >T 1 2
through Hollow Sphere

r2 r1
d  2 dT  K
Integratin g Eqn ...  r 0
dr  dr  T1
Q
2 dT dT C1
We have r  C1 or  2 ...(1) T2
dr dr r
On further Integratio n, we have

C1
T   C 2 .............(2)
r
State Heat Conduction
T >T
through Hollow Sphere 1 2
Boundary Conditions: r2 r1
K
1) At r=r1 ; T=T1 T1
Q
2) At r=r2 ; T=T2
T2
Substituting in Eqn C1
T    C 2 ...(2)
r
T1  T2 .r1 r2
We have C1 
r1  r2
T1  T2 .r2
And C 2  T1 
r1  r2
One Dimensional (Radial)
Steady State Heat Conduction
through Hollow Sphere
C1
Substituti ng C1 & C 2 in Eqn T    C 2
r
r1 r2  r r2 r  r1
T . .T1  . .T2
r r2  r1 r r2  r1
This is the Temp Profile across the thickness
of sphere
State Heat Conduction through
Hollow Sphere
dT dT
Heat Flow Rate Q  kA  k .4r 2 .
dr dr
dT C1 2 C1
Substituti ng   Q  k.4r . 2  4kC1
dr r r
Substituti ng C1 ;
T1  T2 T1  T2
Q  4k .r2 r1 . 
r2  r1 r2  r1
4k .r2 r1
r2  r1
Therefore Rcond  and Am  4r1 r2
4kr2 r1
Conductive Resistances
x
For Slab: R 
kA
r2
ln
For Hollow Cylinder: r1
R
2kL
r2  r1
For Sphere:
R
4kr2 r1
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Heat Flow Rate can also be given as Q=UAΔT;
where U is called as overall heat transfer coefficient
For plane wall:
T T
Q  UAT  
1 1 x 1
 
UA h1 A kA h2 A
1 1 x 1
hence   
UA h1 A kA h2 A
1 1 x 1
Therefore,   
U h1 k h2
 where U is Overall Heat Transfer Coeff
For Cylinder: Uo
Ao
Q  U i Ai Ti  To   U o Ao Ti  To 
r2
Ai r1 r3
T  T
Ti
   Ui hi
1 1 r
ln r2 ln 3 k1
1 r1 r2 1
U i Ai U o Ao    k2 ho
hi Ai 2k1 L 2k 2 L ho Ao To
r3
ln r2 ln
1 1 1 r1 r2 1
    
U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai 2k1 L 2k 2 L ho Ao
where U i is Overall heat transfer coeff based on inner surface area Ai
and U o is Overall heat transfer coeff based on outer surface area Ao
Ai  2r1 L and Ao  2r3 L
For Sphere:
Q  U i Ai Ti  To   U o Ao Ti  To 
T  T
  
1 1 1 r2  r1 r3  r2 1
  
U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai 4k1 r2 r1 4k 2 r3 r2 ho Ao
1 1 1 r2  r1 r3  r2 1
    
U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai 4k1r2 r1 4k 2 r3 r2 ho Ao
where U i is Overall heat transfer coeff based on inner surface area Ai
and U o is Overall heat transfer coeff based on outer surface area Ao
Ai  4r1 Ao  4r3
2 2
and NMIET-HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
Q3. A steel tube with 8cm OD,
6cm ID and k=15W/mK, T∞
is covered with an insulation r2
covering of thickness 2cm
and k=0.2W/mK.A hot gas r1
at 300°C with hg=400W/m2K Tg hg
r3
flows inside the tube. The ks ki
outer surface of insulation is
exposed to cool air at 30°C ha
with ha=50W/m2K. Calculate
over all heat transfer coeff. Uo=?
Uo based on outer surface of
6.76W/m2K
insulation and heat loss from
the tube for its 25m length. Q=?
19.19kW
Solution:
Q=UoAoΔT=UiAi T∞
ΔT r2
r3 r2 r1
ln ln hi
1 1 r2 r1 1 r3 Tg
   
U o Ao ho Ao 2K i L 2k s L hi Ai ks ki
ho
Ao  2r3 L  9.42m ; Ai  2r1 L
2
 U o Ao  63.67  U o  6.759W / m 2 K
Q  UoAoT
 63.67(300  30)
 17.19 kW
Q4. An insulating powder is Insulating Powder
densely packed in the annular
space between two concentric r2
spheres with radii 75mm and Heater
50mm. The inner sphere is r1
Ti
uniformly heated with electric To
power input of 30 W. Steady state
K=?
temp attained by the inner sphere
is 120°C and that by outer surface is
30°C.
Neglecting the thermal resistance offered k=?=0.177W/mK
by
the spheres: Analogous cct ?
a) Draw analogous electrical cct diagram
b) Calculate thermal conductivity of the
powder
Solution:
Insulating Powder
Analogous cct ?
Q r2
Q To Heater
Ti Rins
Ti r1
k=? To
Ti  To K=?
Q  30 W
r2  r1
4k ins r1 r2
120  30
 30  k ins  0.1768W / mK
0.075  0.05
4 kx0.075 x0.05
Q5. The insulation boards for
air-conditioning purposes are
made of three layers, the middle T =45°C
1 T2=20°C
being of packed grass 10cm thick
kp kg kp
(kg=0.02 W/mK) and the sides
are made of plywood , each of
2cm 10cm 2cm
2cm thickness (kp=0.12 W/mK).
They are glued with each other.
Qa=? Qb=?
a) Determine heat flow rate if one surface is at 45°C
and the other at 20°C. Neglect resistance of the glue.
b) Instead of glue, if these three boards are bolted by
4 steel bolts (ks=40 W/mK) of 1cm dia each at the
corners per m2 area of the board, then find whether
heat flow rate is going to increase or decrease and
by what percent ?
Solution:
R1 R2 R3
T1 T2
T1  T2 45  20
Q   4.69 W/m 2
 p  g  p 0.02 0.1 0.02
   
k p . A k g . A k p . A 0.12 x1 0.02 x1 0.12 x1
With Bolts:
T1 T2
R1 R2 R3
R4
 45  20
Ab  x0.01 x 4  3.14 x10 m ;Qnew 
2 4 2
 6.9W / m 2
4 3.61
 2  10  210 2 6.9  4.69
R4   Increase  x100
k s A 40 x3.14 x10 4 4.69
Rt  3.61  47.7 0 0
Q6: A wall 30cm thick of size 5mX3m made of red brick
(kb=0.35W/mK). It is covered on both sides by layers
of plaster 2cm thick (kp=0.6W/mK). The wall has a
window of size 1mX2m. The door of window made up
of 12mm thick glass has a conductivity kg=1.2 W/mK.
Inner and outer
air temp are
10 & 40°C.
2cm 2cm
Take h on both 30cm
sides as 15 W/m2K. h=15
Q
Estimate the rate
of heat flow 2m To=40°C
5m
through the
Kb=0.35
wall. Ti=10°C
Solution:
To  Ti 40  10
Q 
R R
Rci Rp1 Rb Rp2 Rco

10°C 40°C
Rw
2cm 2cm
30cm
h=15
Q
2m Rp1 Rb Rp2
5m
Rco
Kb=0.35 To=40°C
Ti=10°C
h=15
Solution: 1 1
Rci    4.44 x10 3  Rco
hA 15 x5 x3
X 0.02
R p1    2.56 x10 3  R p 2
k p A 0.6 x13
0.3 0.012 3
Rb   65.9 x10 3
R w   5 x10
0.35x13 1.2 x2 x1
2cm 2cm
30cm
h=15
Q
Rt=13.54x10-3
2m Rp1 Rb Rp2
5m
Ti=10°C Rco
Kb=0.35 To=40°C
h=15
40  10
Q 3
 2215.66W Ans.
13.54 x10 NMIET-HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
Insulating Materials
• Materials which are used to reduce the heat transfer rate
from / to the system, are known as INSULATOTRS
• Examples are glass wool, plastics, wood, brick, cement,
asbestos, rubber, grass, saw dust, cork, glass, clay, etc
• Insulators have low conductivity (generally k <2 W/mK)
• Insulating materials should be cheaper, able to withstand
higher temp and humidity, should remain in applied shape
and have long life, odorless, non-reactive,
• Practical applications are in refrigerators & air conditioners,
buildings, conduits carrying high temp fluids like steam/
chemicals, plastic handles of kitchen utensils, furnaces, cold
storages, offices etc
Conductivities of some Insulating
Materials
Materials Conductivity k (W/mK)
Wood 1.2 – 0.8
Brick 0.9 – 1.3
Concrete 0.8 – 0.9
Glass 0.7 – 0.8
Asbestos 0.2 – 0.4
Glass fiber 0.04
Cork 0.03
Plastics 0.9 – 0.04
Air 0.02
Clay 1.02
Gypsum 0.3
Saw Dust 0.07
Thermal Contact Resistance
When heat flows through T1
two solids in contact, temp
Q
profile experiences a sudden T2
drop across the interface of
the solids. This temp drop
T1
occurs due to thermal contact ΔT
resistance.
T2
Due to rough surfaces at contact, direct contact is

made at few points only and voids get filled with air or
surrounding fluid, whose conductivity is much lower
than solids in contact. Therefore, interface acts as
high resistance to heat flow causing sudden temp drop.
This resistance is called Thermal Contact Resistance.
Q2: A plane composite
slab with unit cross sectional A B
area is made up of material ‘A’ TA=300°C TB=50°C
(thickness=100mm, Tc1 Tc2
kA=60W/mK) and material ‘B’ Q
(thickness=10mm, kB=2W/mK).
Thermal contact resistance at kB=2
kA=60
their interface is 0.003m2K/W.
100mm 10mm
The temp of open side of slab ‘A’

is 300°C and that of open side Rc=0.003
of slab ‘B’ is 50°C.
Calculate:
a) The rate of heat flow through the slab (Q)
(25862W)
b) Temp on both sides of the interface (Tc1 &Tc2) (257;179C)
Solution:
A B
TA=300°C
T A  TB TB=50°C
Q Tc2
R A  Rc  RB Tc1
300  50 Q
  25862W
0.1 0.01 kB=2
 0.003  kA=60
60 x1 2 x1 100mm 10mm
T A  TC1 TC 2  TB
Q  Rc=0.003
RA RB
300  TC1 TC 2  50
Hence 3
 4
 25862
1.667 x10 50 x10
TC1  256.89C & TC 2  179.3C

Variable Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity of materials is strongly dependent
on temperature.
Metals: k is inversely proportional to temp

In general, k = ko (1 + aT + bT2 +……)
= ko (1 ± aT); where –ve for metals
& +ve for non-metals
Non-metallic Solids: k is directly proportional to temp
Liquids: k is inversely proportional to temp (except Water)
Gases: k is directly proportional to temp. k = f (T, Pr,

Humidity)
Q3: A plane wall of isothermal faces of temps T1 at x=0
and T2 at x=b has a thermal conductivity k=k0(1+aT).
A is the area of faces. Show that heat conducted
through wall is given by Q=k0.A/b[1+a/2(T1+T2)](T1-T2)
From Fourier’s Law
dT
Q  kA T1
k
dx
Q
BCs: 1) At x=0; T=T1 A
2) At x=b; T=T2
T2
b
Separating Variables X=0 X=b
Q
We have .dx  kdT
A
Substituti ng value of k  k 0 (1  aT ) and Integratin g

b T2
. dx  k 0  1  aT  dT
Q
We have
A 0 T1
T2
 a 2
.x 0  k 0 T  .T 
Q b
or
A  2  T1
Or
Q 
 2 
.b  k 0 T2  T1   . T2  T1 
a 2

A  2 
A  a 
 Q  k 0 . .T1  T2 1  .T1  T2  Hence proved
b   2 
Plotting Temp Distribution Across Thickness of
Slab with Variable Conductivity
dT
Q  kA
dx
Under steady state conditions, Heat Flow Rate Q remains const.
Since k changes with temp T, for the
LHS of the eqn, i,e. Q to remain const, something on the RHS
must change accordingly in opposite direction. As area A is
const, it is dT/dx, which should change.
1. For a=0;
k=k0 from expression k=k0(1+aT)
Therefore, for Q to remain const, since k is not
changing, dT/dx=const; hence const slope of temp
profile across thickness of the wall
Plotting Temp Distribution Across Thickness of
Slab with Variable Conductivity
2. For a>0:
We have k proportional to T
Since temp decreases in +ve x-dir; k also decreases;

So dT/dx must increase to keep RHS const
3. For a<0:
T1 a>0
We have k inversely proportional to T.
As T decreases in +ve x-dir; k will a=0
increase. Therefore, to keep Q const, a<0 T2
dT/dx must decrease
Q4.Variation of thermal conductivity of a wall material
is given by:

k  k 0 1  T  T 2 
If the thickness of the wall is L and its two surfaces
are maintained at temp T1 and T2, find the expression
for heat flow through the wall.
Solution: K
dT T1
As per Fourier 's Law Q  kA
dx
Q
dT
Substituti ng Q  k 0 (1  T  T ) 2
T2
dx
L
Separating Variables , we have

Q
A

.dx  k 0 1  T  T .dT
2
 NMIET-HT-Prof. R.R.Jadhao
Example:Variable Conductivity (Contd)
Integratin g both sides;
 
L T2
Q
. dx  k 0  1  T  T .dT
2
A 0 T1
T2
Q  T T 
2 3
 .L  k 0 .T   .  . 
A  2 3 T
1
On substituti on & simplifica tion , we get ;

A   2

Q  k 0 . .1  .T1  T2   T1  T2  T1T2
L  2 3
2


.T1  T2 
End of Unit - I
THANK YOU !

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Pimpri Chinchawad Education Trust (PCET)

Prof. Rohit R. Jadhao

Examination Scheme : Practical :50 Marks

Nutan Maharashtra Institute of Engineering & Technology Talegaon Dabhade

Civil Engg: Curing of cement in buildings/dams etc

Space Engg: Space applications/ cooling of space vehicles

You name an equipment and you find that the knowledge

 When vapor condenses,

Heat flows from

Nutan Maharashtra Institute of Engineering &

 Convection: Transfer of heat energy by fluid flowing

 Radiation: Flow of heat energy without any

Nutan Maharashtra Institute of Engineering &

Rate of heat transfer by conduction, Q through the length, L

2. Steady state heat flow

3. Constant temp gradient

5. Both faces isothermal

Heat Flux q=Q/A, W/m2

Aluminum 240 High conductivity

Silver 420 High conductivity

Hydrogen (H2) 0.180

Nitrogen (N2) 0.0258

2. Thermal conductivity in decreasing order :

3. Higher conductivity in metals due to free electrons in their

4. k depends on grain structure. When k is different in different

• While some materials have different conductivity in different

 Convection is the process in which heat is carried

 Convection currents are set up when a pan of water is

 If the fluid motion is artificially induced, then heat transfer is

 If the fluid motion is set up by buoyancy effects resulting from

Cool air flow

h = convection coefficient Watts/m2 K

 Thermal radiation is a surface phenomenon.

 Theories of Thermal Radiation

Q =A1Є1σ (T14 –T24)

Hole in a box with white interior

White tubes look black

Similarly, Heat Flow Rate, Q = ΔT/R = C.ΔT;

• Walls of home refrigerators

• Insulated pipe carrying steam

• Walls of a cold storage

• Hot case for food

• Examples are starting/firing of a furnace, heating of a body,

radiation from external surface of the wall to

Q  QC1  Qr1  14.4  23  37.4 kW / m 2

This is the heat conducted through slab.

• As per Fourier’s Law, heat entering dQx= - kx(δyδz)∂T/∂x

• Similarly, heat leaving, dQx+δx =dQx+ ∂/∂x(dQx)δx

Now, internal heat generation in time δt=g.δxδyδzδt

Heat gain by the element from above, will result in

(mCp ΔT) = ρVCp δT

For isotropic material, kx=ky=kz=k constant

Steady State, One Dimensional Equation w/o g:

• To increase Heat Transfer Rate

• To decrease Heat Transfer Rate

For isotropic material with k  constt

Steady state heat conduction does not contain α,

Example: Cooking steel utensils having copper bottom

Inner surface of cylinder is at

Conduction Equation for one dimensional (radial)

In case of cylinder, in Q expression,