Chapter 1 Measurement

Science: means organized knowledge.

It is human nature to observe things and happenings around in the nature and then to relate them. This
knowledge is organized so that it become well connected and logical. Then it is known as Science. It is a
systematic try to understand natural phenomenon and use this knowledge to predict, modify and control
phenomena.
Scientific Method:
Scientific methods are used to observe things and natural phenomena. It includes several steps :
• Observations
• Controlled experiments,
• Qualitative and quantitative reasoning,
• Mathematical modeling,
• Prediction,
• Verification or falsification of theories.
Natural Sciences can be broadly divided in three branches namely Physics, Chemistry and
biology
What is Physics?
The word physics is derived from the Latin word physica, which means "natural thing."

Definition of "Physics"
"The branch of science concerned with the nature, properties of matter, energy and their mutual relationship
between them’’.
The study of physics involves investigating such things such as the law of motion, structure of space and time,
the nature and types of forces that hold different materials together, the interaction of electromagnetic radiation
with matter and so on.
Principal thrusts in Physics
• There are two principal thrusts in Physics;
• 1.Unification 2. reduction
Unification
• Efforts are made to explain different phenomena in nature on the basis of one or minimum laws.
This is principle of Unification.
Example: Phenomena of apple falling to ground, moon revolving around earth and weightlessness in the rocket,
all these phenomena are explained with help of one Law that is, Newtons Law of Gravitation.
Reductionism
• To understand or to derive the properties of a bigger or more complex system the properties of its simpler
constituents are taken into account. This approach is called reductionism. It is supposed to be the heart of
Physics.
For example a complex thermo dynamical system can be understood by the properties of its constituent like
kinetic energy of molecules and atoms.
The scope of Physics can be divided in to two domains; Macroscopic and Microscopic.
• Macroscopic domain includes phenomena at the level of Laboratory, terrestrial and astronomical scales.
• Microscopic domain I ncludes atomic, molecular and nuclear phenomena.
• Recently third domain in between is also thought of with name Mesoscopic Physics. This deals with group of
Hundreds of atoms
• Scope of physics is very wide and exciting because it deals with objects of size as large as Universe (10 25m) and
as small as 10-14 m, the size of a nucleus.
Fundamental Forces in Nature
There is a large number of forces experienced or applied. These may be macroscopic forces like gravitation,
friction, contact forces and microscopic forces like electromagnetic and inter-atomic forces.
But all these forces arise from some basic forces called Fundamental Forces.
Fundamental Forces in Nature..
1. Gravitational force.
• It is due to Mass of the two bodies.

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 • It is always attractive.
• It operates in all objects of universe.
• Its range is infinite
It’s a weak force. 10-38 times compared to strong Nuclear force
2.Electromagnetic Forces:
• It’s due to stationery or moving Electrical charge
• It may be attractive or repulsive.
• It operates on charged particles
• Its range is infinite
• Its stronger 1036 times than gravitational force but 10-2 times of strong Nuclear force. 3. Strong
nuclear force:
• Operate between Nucleons
• It may be attractive or repulsive
• Its range is very short, within nuclear size (10-15 m).
• Its strongest force in nature
4.Weak Nuclear force:
• Operate within nucleons I.e. elementary particles like electron and neutrino.
• It appears during radioactive b decay.
• Has very short range 10-15m.
• 10-13 times than Strong nuclear force.
Conservation Laws
• In any physical phenomenon governed by different forces, several quantities do not change with time. These
special quantities are conserved quantities of nature.
1. For motion under conservative force, the total mechanical Energy of a body is constant.
2. Total energy of a system is conserved, and it is valid across all domains of nature from microscopic to
macroscopic. Total energy of the universe is believed to be constant.
3. Conservation of Mass was considered another conservation law, till advent of Einstein. Then it was converted
to law of conservation of mass plus energy. Because mass is converted into energy and vice-versa according to
equation E = mc2 The examples are annihilation and pair production.
4. Momentum is another quantity which is preserved. Similar is angular momentum of an isolated system.
5. Conservation of Electric charge is a fundamental law of nature.
6. Later there was development of law of conservation of attributes called baryon number, lepton number and so
on.
The laws of nature do not change with change of space and time. This is known as symmetry of space and time.
This and some other symmetries play a central role in modern physics. Conservation laws are connected to this.
Physical Quantity:
A quantity which can be measured and by which various physical happenings can be explained and expressed in
form of laws is called a physical quantity. For example length, mass, time, force etc.
On the other hand various happenings in life e.g., happiness, sorrow etc. are not physical quantities because
these can not be measured.
A physical quantity is represented completely by its magnitude and unit. For example, 10 metre means
a length which is ten times the unit of length 1 kg. Here 10 represents the numerical value of the given
quantity and metre represents the unit of quantity under consideration. Thus in expressing a physical
quantity we choose a unit and then find that how many times that unit is contained in the given physical
quantity, i.e
Physical quantity (Q) = Magnitude × Unit = n × u
Where, n represents the numerical value and u represents the unit.
Fundamental and Derived Quantities.
Fundamental/Base Quantities: Out of large number of physical quantities which exist in
nature, there are only few quantities which are independent of all other quantities and do not require the help of
any other physical quantity for their definition, therefore these are called absolute quantities. These quantities
are also called fundamental or base quantities, as all other quantities are based upon and can be expressed in
terms of these quantities.
System of units : A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived for all kinds of physical
quantities is called system of units. The common systems are given below –

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 (1) CGS system : The system is also called Gaussian system of units. In it length, mass and time have
been chosen as the fundamental quantities and corresponding fundamental units are centimetre (cm), gram (g)
and second (s) respectively.
(2) MKS system : The system is also called Giorgi system. In this system also length, mass and time
have been taken as fundamental quantities, and the corresponding fundamental units are metre, kilogram and
second.
(3) FPS system : In this system foot, pound and second are used respectively for measurements of
length, mass and time. In this system force is a derived quantity with unit poundal.
S. I. system : It is known as International system of units, and is infact extended system of units applied
to whole physics. There are seven fundamental quantities in this system. These quantities and their units are
given in the following table

Quantity Name of Unit Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electric Current ampere A

Temperature Kelvin K

Amount of Substance mole mol

Luminous Intensity candela cd

Supplementry Unit
The SI unit which are not included either in base unit or drive unitsare called supplementry units.These are two
in number
S.No Physical quantity SI Unit Symbol
1 Plan Angle Radian Rad
2 Solid Angle Steradian Sr

Radian:The angle substanded at centre of circule where arc length is equal to radius of circule called radian (fig a)

radian = length of Arc/radius

S
θ= eq(1) S = rθ eq(2)
r
Angle in radian = S/r = meter/meter = 1rad
Angle in radian = θ = 1rad

Steradian: The steradian is solid the angle (Three Dimensional angle) substanded at a centre of a sphere by an area of
its surface equal to the square of radius of the sphere (fig b)

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 steradian = area of cross-section/(radius^2)
Solid Angle = surface Area/ (radius of the sphere)2
Solid angle = A/r2 whern A = r2
then solid angle = r2/r2 = 1Strd
Derived quantities : All other physical quantities can be derived by suitable multiplication or
division of different powers of fundamental quantities. These are therefore called derived quantities.If length is
defined as a fundamental quantity then area and volume are derived from length and are expressed in term of
length with power 2 and 3 over the term of length.
S.
Quantity Unit Dimension
N.
(1) Velocity or speed (v) m/s [M0L1T –1]
(2) Acceleration (a) m/s2 [M0LT –2]
(3) Momentum (P) kg-m/s [M1L1T –1]
(4) Impulse (I) Newton-sec or kg-m/s [M1L1T –1]
(5) Force (F) Newton [M1L1T –2]
(6) Pressure (P) Pascal [M1L–1T –2]
(7) Kinetic energy (EK) Joule [M1L2T –2]
(8) Power (P) Watt or Joule/s [M1L2T –3]
S.I. Prefixes:
In physics we have to deal from very small (micro) to very large (macro) magnitudes as one side we talk about
the atom while on the other side of universe, e.g., the mass of an electron is 9.1 10–31 kg while that of the sun
is 2 1030 kg. To express such large or small magnitudes simultaneously we use the following prefixes
Power of
Prefix Symbol
10
1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo K
102 hecto H
101 deca Da
10–1 deci D
10–1 centi C
10–3 milli M
10–6 micro 

10–9 nano N
10–12 pico P
10–15 femto f
10–18 atto a

Rounding Off Number

While rounding off measurements, we use the following rules by convention:
(1) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
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 Example : x 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again x 3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.
(2) If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example : x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9, again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8.
(3) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example : x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8.
(4) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then preceding digit is left unchanged, if it is even.
Example : x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off, again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding off.
(5) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one, if it is odd.
Example : x = 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8, again x = 16.150 is rounded off to 16.2.
Significant Figures: In any measurment, all the accurately Known and first doubtful digit is called
significant figure
OR
All the certian and first uncertain digit is called significant figure
Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is the
accuracy of the measurement.
The following rules are observed in counting the number of significant figures in a given measured quantity.
(1) All non-zero digits are significant.
Example : 42.3 has three significant figures.
243.4 has four significant figures.
24.123 has five significant figures.
(2) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears between to non-zero digits.
Example : 5.03 has three significant figures.
5.604 has four significant figures.
4.004 has four significant figures.
(3) Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are never significant.
Example : 0.543 has three significant figures.
0.045 has two significant figures.
0.006 has one significant figures.
(4) Zeros to the right of significant number may or may not be significant.
(a)For decimal fraction:Zeros right of a significant figure are significant.
Example : 4.330 has four significant figures.
433.00 has five significant figures.
343.000 has six significant figures.
(b)For integers such as 8000kg, the number of significant zeros determine by least count of measuring
instrument. If least count of measuring instrument is 1kg than there are four significant figure . If least count is
10kg than no of significant figure will be three and so on.
(5) In exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number of significant figures and power of ten
portion are not significant figure.
Example:1.32 10–2 has three significant figures.
1.32 104 has three significant figures.
(6)In addition, substraction, divsion and multiplication numbers keep a number of significant figures in result
equal to factore containing the least no of significant figures .
For example
(i) Addition 33.3  (has only three significant figure), 3.11, 0.313
33.3 +3.11+ 0.313=36.723 (answer should be reported to three significant figure)
So Answer will be equal to 36.7
(ii) Substraction
62.831 (has 3 decimal places), 24.5492
62.831-24.5492=38.2818 (answer should be reported 5 significant figure after rounding off) So Answer will
be equal to 38.282
(iii) Multiplaction
0.23 (two significant figures)and 142.06
0.23 ( 142.06)= 32.6738  (answer should have two significant figures
So Answer will be equal to 33

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 Errors of Measurement:
The measured value of a quantity is always somewhat different from its actual value, or true value. The
difference between the true value and measured value of a quantity is called error or absolute error.
(2) Mean absolute error : It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all the
measurements of the quantity. It is represented by a. Thus
¿1∨¿ 2∨.....∨n
a=
n
Hence the final result of measurement may be written as a am a
(3) Relative error or Fractional error : The relative error or fractional error of measurement is
defined as the ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured. Thus

mean absolute error a

Relative error or Fractional error= x= = x=
mean value am

(4) Percentage error: When the relative/fractional error is expressed in percentage, we call it percentage
error. Thus
a
Percentage error= ×100%
am
Dimension of Physical Quantity:
The powers of fundamental/base quantities in order to express the given physical quantity are called its
dimensions.
mass velocity mass length/time
Force = mass × acceleration¿  
time time
= mass × length × (time)–2 .... (i)
Thus, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and – 2 in time.
Thus equation (i) can be written as [force] = [MLT–2]
Every basic measurable physical quantity represented by specific symbol written in sequre bracket is called
dimension
Mechanics

S.
Quantity Unit Dimension
N.
(1) Velocity or speed (v) m/s [M0L1T –1]
(2) Acceleration (a) m/s2 [M0LT –2]
(3) Momentum (P) kg-m/s [M1L1T –1]
(4) Impulse (I) Newton-sec or kg-m/s [M1L1T –1]
(5) Force (F) Newton [M1L1T –2]
(6) Pressure (P) Pascal [M1L–1T –2]
(7) Kinetic energy (EK) Joule [M1L2T –2]
(8) Power (P) Watt or Joule/s [M1L2T –3]
(9) Density (d) kg/m3 [M1L– 3T 0]
(10
Coefficient of viscosity () kg/m-s [M1L– 1T – 1]
)
(11) Stress N/m2 [M1L– 1T – 2]
(12
Time period (T) Second [M0L0T1]
)
(13
Frequency (n) Hz [M0L0T –1]
)

Electricity
S.
Quantity Unit Dimension
N.
(1) Electric charge (q) Coulomb [M0L0T1A1]
(2) Electric current (I) Ampere [M0L0T0A1]
[M–1L–
(3) Capacitance (C) Coulomb/volt or Farad
2T4A2]
(4) Electric potential (V) Joule/coulomb M1L2T–3A
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 Application of Dimensional Analysis.
(1) To find the unit of a physical quantity in a given system of units : Writing the formula for the
physical quantity we find its dimensions. Now in the dimensional formula replacing M, L and T by the
fundamental units of the required system we get the unit of physical quantity.
e.g., Work = Force Displacement So W= [MLT–2] [L] = [ML2T–2]
(2) To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation : This is based on the ‘principle
of homogeneity’. According to this principle the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation must be
the same.
e.g.
s vt (1 / 2)at 2
By substituting dimension of the physical quantities in the above relation
[L] = [LT–1][T] – [LT–2][T2]
[L] = [L] –1/2 [L]
[L] = [L](1-1/2)
[L] = [L](3/2) so 3/2 are constant so [L] = [L]
As in the above equation dimensions of each term on both sides are same, so this equation is dimensionally
correct.
(3) As a research tool to derive new relations :
Example : (i) Time period of a simple pendulum.
Let time period of a simple pendulum is a function of mass of the bob (m), length of string (l), acceleration due
to gravity (g) then assuming the function to be product of power function of m, l and g
i.e., T Kmalbgc; where K = dimensionless constant
If the above relation is dimensionally correct then by substituting the dimensions of quantities –
[T] = [M]a [L]b [LT] –2c
or [M0L0T1] = [MaLy+zT–2z]
Equating the exponents of similar quantities a = 0, b = 1/2 and c = – 1/2
So the required physical relation becomes
T Km0l1/2 g– 1/2
Kl 1/2
T¿
g – 1/2
The value of dimensionless constant is found (2) through experiments so
T =2 √l /¿ ¿g
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis.
Although dimensional analysis is very useful it cannot lead us too far as,
(1) If dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique as many physical quantities have same
dimensions. For example if the dimensional formula of a physical quantity is [ML2T 2 ] it may be work or
energy or torque.
(2) Numerical constant having no dimensions [K] such as (1/2), 1 or 2etc. cannot be deduced by the methods
of dimensions.
Short Answers and Questions
I. Define the number π and show that 2π radian = 360 ͦ.
Ans. The number π is defined as the ratio of the circumferance of circle to the diameter of same circle
circumferance 2 πr
= =π
diameter of same ¿¿ 2 r
˚
The length of arc is given by
S=rθ ----------(1)
In one revolution the length of arc s = 2πr putting in eq. (1)
S=rθ
2πr = rθ so θ=¿2πr/r
And θ = 2π radian
But one revolution = 360 ͦ
2π radian = 360 ͦ
II. Define term error, uncertainty,precision and accurecy in measurment.

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 Ans. Error:
The difference between the true value and measured value of a quantity is called error or absolute error. The
error may be positive, negative and zero.The error may occur due to
1. Negligence of person
2. The faulty apparatus
3. In appropratiate method
4. The sudden environment change
Uncertainty:
An error arising due to negligence of a person, faulty apparatus and sudden environment changes which estimate the
possible range of error is called uncertainty.
Precision:
How close the repeated observation from each other is called precision.
Accuracy:
How close the result from the true/actual value
OR
An accurate measurement is one which has least error.
The accuracy gives the correctness of measurement
III. Explain several repetitive phenomenon occurring in nature which can serve as reasonable time standards.
Ans: Any natural phenomenon that repeats itself after exactly same time interval can be used as time standard. The
following natural phenomenon can be used as time standard.
1. The rotation of earth around the sun and about its own axis
2. During the day time the change of shadow of an object can serve as measure of time.
3. Atomic vibrations in solids
4. The oscillation of bob of simple pendulum
IV. Why do we find it useful to have two units for the amount of substance, the kilogram and the
mole?
Ans. Both units, the kilogram and mole, are useful in different cases describe below
The unit kilogram is useful when we want to describe the macroscopic behavior of an object without considering the
number of atoms, molecules or ions present in it.
The unit mole is useful when we want to consider a particular number of atoms of a system. It is used to determine the
microscopic behavior of any object.
V. Shows that the famous ‘‘Einstein equation’’ E=mc2 is dimensionally consistent.
Ans: E=mc2
Dimensions of energy = [ML2T-2]
Dimensions of mass =[M]
Dimensions of velocity =[LT-1]
Putting in equation E=mc2
[ML2T-2] = [M] [LT-1]2
[ML2T-2] = [M] [L2T-2]
[ML2T-2] = [ML2T-2]
Dimension L.H.S = Dimension Of R.H.S Gm1m2 r2
Hence the famous Einstein equation is dimensionally consistent.
VI. Deduce the dimensions of gravitational constant.
Gm1 m2
Ans. The gravitational force is F=
r2
Fr 2
G= (1)
m1 m2
Dimensions of force F = [MLT-2]
Dimensions of mass m =[M]
Dimensions of length =[L]2
Putting in equation (1)
Dimensions of G = ¿ ¿
[ MLT −2 ] [ L]2
Dimensions of G =
[ M ]2

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 Dimensions of G = [MLT-2] [L]2[M]-2
Dimensions of G = [M-1L3T-2]
VII. Find the dimensions of kinetic energy
The kinetic energy is given by KE = 1/2mv2 (1)
Dimensions of mass = [M]
Dimensions of velocity v = [LT-1]
Putting in equation (1)
Dimensions of KE = [M] [LT-1]2
Dimensions of KE = [M] [L2T-2]
Dimensions of KE = [M L2T-2]
VIII. Give the drawbacks to use the time period of a pendulum as a time standard.
Ans. The drawbacks to use the time period of a pendulum as a time standard are
The value of ‘g’ changes at different places
The variation in the length of simple pendulum due to change in temperature in different seasons
Air resistance may affect the time period of simple pendulum
IX. Are radians and steradians the base units of SI?.Justify your
No, they are not base units. The radian is a planar angular measure equal to the length of an arc of a circle
divided by its radius. The steradian is a solid angle equal to the area of a portion of a sphere divided by the
radius squared. They are the SI units for angle and solid angle. They are both supplementary units and have
no dimensions.
X. What does the word micro signify in the words micro wave oven?
Ans. The prefix micro in the words microwave oven means that elector-magnetic waves produced in
mcro wave oven have wave lengths of the order of 10-6m i.e. micrometer.
XI. Density of air is 1.2kgm-3. Change it into gm cm-3.
Ans. Density of air = 1.2 kg m-3
1kg = 1000g
1m = 100 cm
Density of air = 1kg/m3
1.2 ×1 000 gm
Density of air =
100× 10 0× 1 00 cm3
1.2
Density of air = = 1.2 × 10-3gm cm-3
1000
Hence 1.2 kg m-3 = 1.2 × 10-3 gm cm-3
XII. An old saying is that “a chain is only as strong as its weakest link” what
analogous statement can you, make regarding experimental data in a
calculation
Ans. An old saying is that “a chain is only as strong as its weakest link” the analogous statement
regarding experimental data used in calculation is as follows:
A result obtained by mathematical calculation of experimental data is only as much accurate as
its least accurate reading in the experimental data.
It means the accuracy of final answer can be no greater than least accurate measurement for
example
1.235cm + 3.6cm = 4.8 cm
XIII. Differentiate between the fallowing.
(a) Light Year
(b) Year
Ans (a) Light year is unit of distance
The distance which the light covers in one year is called light year
One light year = 9.5× 1015m
(b) Year is the unit of time in which the earth complete one revolution around the sun.
One year = 365.25 day
One year = 3 × 107 second

Written by Muhammad Shoukat Lecturer Physics

Written by Muhammad Shoukat Lecturer Physics