FRUBNEKSCOLLECTION .

01

C;MPLIFIED u m A M M A R S
OF THE PRINCIPAL

~ a l a f I CAND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.

EDITED BY

REINHOLD ROST, U . D . , PH.D.

VlI.
TIBETAN.
 COLLECT [BRS OF THE:
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Grammars of tkc following m e i# prcpmetiu

banese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bobmian, Bulgarian, Burmese, ~m
mric and Gaelic, Danish, Finnish, Hebrew, Malay, Pali, Polish, RW
Sanskrit, Serbian, Siamese, Singhalese, Swedish, Turkish.
T R ~ B N E R& CO., LUDGATE
LONDON: HILL.
 ETAN GRAMMAR
1l-U

S E C O N D EDIT1

PRFJARED 8E'

Da. H. WENZEI,.

)ON:
. ., _ . - 5 9 , LUDGATE HILL. .
 Preface.
-
u l ~ s e n tnew edition of Mr. J;rsca~~'s
llje Tibetan
nmm sea rcely needs a word of apology. As the first
on which was lithographed at Kyelmi in 1865 in limited
I E
oer ox copies has long been out of print, Dr. R o s ~
thor to revise his grammar for the purpose of
t in &n improved form. The latter, prevented
Il-health from undertaking the task, placed the matter
in n~y bands, and had the goodness to make over to me '
his tIWI manuscript notes and additions to t h e original
)ut his personal cooperation, however, I was
Le any but a very sparing use of these, add-
ina only a few remarks from G yalrab,bs and Milmaspa, with
: further semarlrs on the local vcmculwr of Western
Indee
. -. . d, special atkention luas been paid throughout, .
it.

10 tlns dialef$ it is the one with which the author during

his 1long reaidlence at Kyelai bad become most familiar,
and with whi ch the English in India are most likely t o be
. .
brou ght into direct contact.
Besides the above mentioned additions, I have taken
L ntlmhm- -- examples from the D z d u n , to make clearer
- -- nf

SOmre of the r ules, and, with the same view, I have altered,
here and tht:re, the wording of the lithographed editibn.
VI Preface. - Abbr~Piation~.
The order of the paragraphs bas been retained throughout,
and only one (23.) has been added for completeness' sake.
The system of 'translitaration is nearly the+same as in
the Dictionmy, only for ny, A is used, and instead of _e, u
(respectively G) hhas been thought to be a clearer represen-
tation of the sound intended. For the niceties of pronun-
ciation the reader is referred t o the Dictionary, as in this
Grammax only the general rules hme been given.
Finadly 1 must express my warmest thanks to Dr. RUST,
- 1
. -- - - exertions not only the printing of this Grammar
L A
- - WnasF:
is solely due, but who also rendered me much help iu the
correctin;g of the work.
--
yence, May 1883.

Abbreviations.

am. = w i l v e . Kun. = Kunawur, province UYUGL

C or CT = Central Tibet, ssp* English probeckion.
tidy the provinces of fi and Ld. 7 La&, province.
Tsah Mil. = Mihraspa.
cf. = c o de l , C O ~ ~ ~ W B . neutr. = neuter verb.
Dsl, = Dz ahlrm. perf. or pf. = perfect.
e, g. = extmpli gratia, for in- pres. = present.
stance. B. = see.
ET = East Tibet. m.= terminative case.
fut. = futtme. Thw. = Thar - man, sc
imp. = imperatil-e. treatises.
inf. = i n f i n*.. ~ n-.v ~ v vide, see.
zed of. = vulgm expegion
I6ppen. W'J! = Western Tih
 Fhouologf.
Pam
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
jyllaoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
?id Consonants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Diphhngs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G
:ompound Consonants.
-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Prekxed Ld:tters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1
Ward; Aceent; QumKty . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
n . . . .
Puncturttio~ . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . 14
;B t g m o l . o g y .
I. A r t i c l e .
Pecnbaribes oT the 'l'ibetan Article . . . . . . . . . 17
12. Difference of the ArEicles . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
13. IThe IndeEnite ME] 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
I1. Substantive.
14. :Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .m
'IF. n--t...a&..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . 2 1
111. A d j e c t i v e .
E . . . . . . . . . . . .
the B~bdmfiire 26
&omparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
[Y. N n m e r a l s .
Cadinal n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Ordinal nu
R
--. Pa ~v t . . . . . .
Distributive nnmeral:
Adverbial nnmerds .
fractional numerals
vrrr Contents.
Pw9
V. r r o n u-u.u a . ,
r h

24. Personal pronouns . , . . , . . . . 34

25. Possessive prononns . . . . . . . . 36'
26. Beflecti~epronouns . . . . . . . . 37
27. Demonstrative pronoun . . . . . . . . . 37
28. Interrogative pronouns . . . . ,. . . . . 38
29. Rebtive pronouns. . ,.. , , . . . . %
a b.
30. Ehtrodnct.ion . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . 10
31. Inflection . . . . . . - . . - . . - . . $1
32. Infinitive. . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . 12
33. Participle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 43
34. Finite Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 45
$5. Present . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36. Preterit . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . -
. .
46
47
37. htm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
38. Imperative . . . . . . -. . . . . . - . . 1
39. Intensive. . . . . . . - . - - . . . . - 1
40. Snbstadtive 'Cerbs . . . . . . . . , . . .
41. Gerunds and Supinea . . . . . - . . . . . . . - -1
42. VXL A d v e r b . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
43. YIII'. P o s t p o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . 1
44. IX. C o n j u n c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . k
45. X. I n t e r j e c t i o n . . . . . . . - . . I

XI. D e r i v a t i o n :
46. Derivation of Snbstaati~es . . . . . . . - . 1
47. Derivstion of Adjectives . . . . - . . . . . 8
HI. S J Q ~ ~ X .
48. Arrangement of Words .
. . . . . . . . . 0
49. Use of the Gases . . .
. . . . . . . . . 14.
simple Sentartees . . . . . . . . 2
Jomponnd Sentences . . . . . . . 3
appoadlx.
Phrases . . . iG
Reading Exercis 12
Verbs . . . . 19
 Errata

Page 3, d a t in8
= 4, regpea
* 4, , which instead of whom.
* 4 undar particular.
" 4, #? imtead o f l i j i .
" 4, ,, exertion.
n 4, B L aele to.
* 5, 5 dele down.
- 9 7,
,, 7, - fi .
4 read s u c c e s s i o n insf,cad of cot
--""."-.
each intrtead of ~i+h:hpr.
, enbdlcribsd insl;ead of sul
foot for food.
aubscribad for subjoined.
L -- -
u u m u 17gms.
lsngn age.
over jn~teado f
eonso.nants.
case,
judgment.
except.
i t instead of is.
which serve t o denote.
prece ding.
a B X C I ~nation.
I
i.-,.,,riminately,
ndiar
seded.
page ZS, line 1 read motion.
26, , 15 , terminfatiofis.
26, .. .
2 4 . , precedes.

. ..
26, 27 higher than.
33,
34, , 14
6
. t o den~ta.
letter-writing.

..
36,
36, 16 .
1 , The terms mod. he.
high person speaking of himself.
,, 38,
..
11 9 ghsi.

..
39, , 14 yonmap.
a 40, 7' verbs.
a 40> 21 , anAccnsati~e.
a
.
4 0 , . 25 ,, nentre.
,, 41, 10 .form instead of shape.

a
41, .
42, , 1
22 ..
41, , 11 , forma inat;ed of shapea.
thePerfeetprefers.
perfect.

43, . .
42, , lG , recognises instead of acknowledges.
20 i d e s instead of notion.

46, . .
45, , 14 ,, with t h e exception.
6 , whielr will always be.

52, . .
46, , 10

63, , 11
16
toone.
it expresses.
found.
63, , 24 , p m s i v e s e n s e , o p p o e e d t o & c .
55, , 7 , affixes.
SS, , 12 , that it.
61,
64, . 12 , king's, -
8 intended
 Part I.
Phonology,
1. The Alphabet. The Tibetan Alphabet was adapted
m the L a i h QJ) form of the Indian letterr by pm-

mi* h (q83~F5)
minister of king & ~ o m - ~ a n -

gal: ; 4 b ~ y qabout
) the year 632 KGpp. JL (s.

61. The Indian letters out of which the single Tibetan

harltoters were formed are given in the folloming table in
ieir Ntigmi shape.
surd. aspir. sonant. - nasal.
gut T%ke FTk'a T T g a F"3Aa

dat a E'qjjcc Y T f i a
1
enta I a q q f a T q d a q q n a
~bials. . . 1. 1 pa I
3.'k$a g. r bu sl. a ma

bih
8'-l 3 i n

IU Ba
I t
3 za
*

+a

Jisnhke, Tlhetar~ Grammar.

3 1. The Alphabet;.

It is sein from this table that several signs have been

added t o express sounds that are Cnknown in Sansc~it.
The sibilants 8 & evidently were differentiated from the
palatals. But. as in transcribing Sanscxit words the Tibetans
substitule ~ e i sibilants
r for the ~alatalsof the original (as
54' for aPl),we must
N
suppose that the sibilisation of
thoso consonants, common at present among the Rindas
on the Southern slopes of the HimBlrrya (who speak i%m
for T, four etc.), was in general use with those Indians
worn whom the Tib. Alphabet was taken (cf. also the Afghan
2,and z: likewise sprung from and $)- is differentiated
from 9', which itself often is prononnced v, as shewn in
.anscribing Sanscrih, q and q both are given,
7 only. seems to be formed out of q'
to which it is related in sonnd. 3 evidently is only the
inverted E'. W corresponds with Sanscrit q. is newly
invented; for its fmctions see the following $5. - The
letters which axe peculiar to Swnscrit are exprer
trmscrjbing , in the following manner. a) The
simply by iuverting the signs of the aentau. ., 3
t.nlle

8' 3, ja' 3, T. b) The sonant aspin

rlll~g 5" under the sonnnts: thus, 91' q, 6 9.
F!
2. g.

*I A very clear exposition of the ramification of Indian dphabeta

by Di Haas i s to be found in the Publications of tho Pda,eo-
graphic.a1 Society Oriental Seriea IT,pl XLKV.
 ., Remarks. 3. vowel

2. Remarks. 1. Regarding the pronunciation of t

gle jetterr3, as given above, it is to be born in mind, ti
- ---.
ds 7 7 Y' are uttered without the least admixture of
aspiration, viz. as k, t , p are pronounced in the words
te, stale, s p a s ; the aspirates $ 19'
forcibly, rather
the s m e in Kate, tak% peer; the sonants 7
ll;ht: (I,d, i5 in gate, dale, hew. 2. The same difference

hardness is t o be observed in 5 5 F or E, 2, j (Toe-

7s in cnu~ch;C, the same without aspiration ;3 in @d$8)
* 7

& $ or ts, a, A. 3. is the soft modifies-

the s in Zeisu~~,e
a (French j in ajamak, but more
, C is the English ny in sifig, but occurs in

in the commencement of a syllable. 5. 7 ii

me nmai ?q, or the initial sound in the word new, which
?elled iiu. 6. In the dialects of Eastern or
G
jet, however, the soft consonants 4(. $4. E' 6,
mBktea occurTing as initials, are pronounced with m aspi-
ralion, aim; lar to the Hindi 8 , ' ~ y,
f , 8, or indeed so that
-- urnen scarcely
they .,?A..
differ from the common English Ic, t, p,
; also and 3 are more difficult to distinguish from
' md q-than in the Western (Exceptions s.
7. 8).
3. Vowels. 1. Since every consonant sign implies, like
, Smscrjt prototype, a following a, unless some other

#we1sign is attached to it, no particular sign is \ranted

denote this vowel, except in some cases specified in the
1"
 Syllable6

he specia1 vowel signs are 1,5, +9 - k*

pmnouriced respectivily as e, a, o, u are in German, Itdian

and mc1st other European languages, viz. 1- like ay in say,
or a in ten; 5 like i in machine, fin; like o in so, on;
like 8, pull. It ought to be specially remarked

f hat a11 vowels, i~lcluding a and o (unlike the Sanscrit vowels

from wuum LA.-.. AL--
LUVJT have taken their signs) are short, since

no long vowels ak. all o c cI~r in the Tibetan language, except

particul ar circu~ nstances, roentioned below (s. § 9. 5, 6).
O IrnL 7n vowels. mt; +:.L: U l b l a l ,
h",.
is used as their base, as is
do, e.g. wb;l'am,,motherc. 3. R, is originally
t f r o m w , as the latter denotes the opening of the
previously closed throat for pronouncing a vowel with that
slight expIosive sound which the Arabs mean by 1 (G,-1,
as the CA in the words : the lily,,an endogen, which would
be in Tibetan characters %%LT.T; on the contrary is
the mere vowel without that audible opening of the throat
(as Arabic I without s
)
, as in Lilian, %%IT'In IEastern
Tibet this difference. is strictly observed; and if ih45 vowel
c the intentional exertion. for avoiding the SI
res it resemble to mo and wu: ,the m i
rzlvvu ride W O * ~ ,37.q ,the owl' = ~ g p In . 1 W G D L C l U

Tibet tk is has Iaeen oblitemted, and is there spoken just

like m'
4. Syllables., The Tibetan language is monos,yllabic,
that is t o say alI1 its words consist of one syllabl e O ~ Y ,
..+L:A ::-a=-d - eh the
 5. Final cousonants. 5
parts cannot, in every case, be recognised in
their individuality. The mark for the end of such a syllable
is B dot, called $ fseg, put st the right side of the upper
rt of t,he closing letter, such as the syllable ka. This
q must ir1var.iabIy be put down at the end of each written
tlable, eltcept before w irad ($ lo), in which case only
i a retainIS its f w ~ .If therefore such a dot is found after
0 or mor-e consonants, this will indicate that all of them,

ue way or other, form om syllable with on17 me $owel

..- "

it: TT ka-m, TT k a ~(cf. 5. 8).

5. FinaI consonants, 1. Only tbe following ten: 7' C;'
.q. T w N' (and the four with a&cd N ,
f;' KS
5 ) occur at the end of a syllable. 2. It must be observed,
th rit. 7 7
4- as finals are never pronounced like the Eng-
lislh g, 4 6 in leg, bad, cab, but are transformed differenfly
in the different provinces. In Lad& they sound like A, t, p
* .
= sock, TT.
= got, k-
t o p 3. ~n a11 Central

7
Tibex, moreover, final and q', sometimes even nT; modi-
fy the sour:td of a preceeding vowel: a to i (similar to
tht: EngIiah a in have, man), o into _o (French m in jm),
;w.4,. -. / w
u w w rrrenoh u in mur). In most of the other provinces
4,

are uttered so indistinctly as t o be scarcely aud-

P, so that q ~77, become 88,@. In Tsang even f i n d

is scarce1y perceptible, and h d T',particularly after o,
-1 . .+
%mostd~ssolvedinto a vowel sound = tt: $nf'4* S M G
 6 6. Diphthongs

~ ~ T F Jkon-clwa.')
X~' 4. Final is sounded as s only
in Nori ,dak; el:sewhere it ckttnges into i or
dissttppctars entir ely, pro18onging, c)r even modifying at the
I 1rr
same time tne preceding vowel. lhus the following words:
qw ,barleyL, 4 ~ . ?N.
,know: ,figureG,& ,religionb, YW
,body" are pronounced in Northern Ladwk: d,ils, mk,
Zm, lk; in Lwhoul: nai, shea', rr, Zu, 20; in Lhasa, and
consequently by everyone who wishes to speak elegantly:
nu, 3 4 ri, EG, 1G. 5. In some words final V occurs as
a second closing letter ( a h ) , after 9]' C 4. q',asin

,indigoc; these are pronounced in N.Lada1~: nacks, gad, €up,

ana as, elsewhere nack (in U: na), gafi (El' g ~ v )ram.
fap, ,
6. dy b e f o r e q and a;l' is especially in ET very often pro-
nounced m, e . g . x q iirim-p,% 4. ~ 6 r n - ~ a , $ q$,-pa.
y
6. Dipthongs. 1. They occur in Tibetan writing ably
where one of the vowels i, o, u have to be added to n word
ending with an other vowel (s. $5 15.1; 33.1; 45.2). These
additional vowels are then always written C\; $,
h
5,
never @ etc. (cf. 5 3.3); and the combinations oci, oi, ui
(as in a ~ $ ,qTq, ) are pronoanoed very moch

like &. , g, so that ihe syllables @, qqt %?,e,

' - .
.- , *) This is the form in which the word, chosen by the m i s trionaries
to express the Christian ,Godu (cf. clict.), has found i t s 7way into
several nopnlar wo
 nd consonante. 7

11y in sor - dialects be distinguished horn

those mentioned in § 5.4. 2. The others m, 80, w,00, uo,
a% iu
-
(47T, 49% q q , R ~ T75,
, b
') are pronoanct ;pid conjunction, but
ither vow el is distinctly auc 1 prosody they are ge-
.. .-..
m y regarded as one syllable, out rt the verse shudd
t-bey may be corn ,wo.
mpound consonants ley axe expresset
.
mtlng by putting one below the ower, m which caae
. ,. .
:veral change their origin^11 figure.
'
Subjoined c o n s o nal1ls. 2. rhe letter y subjohed
is represented by t-he Gnre , a,nd occur
cd with the three gutturals nnd hbirds, and with
WU, bu,,
t:
41)'

3 9
W
r;T -d
4
V
3. The form,-" +Ln* I
IrLLLGG have

reserved, in mast cases, t h eir origir mciation ha7

. .
-
:the latter in ET: $h$a s- 8 n the Mong01
ronunaation of Tibetan wc lever, they nave been
into 2, E, j respect rn instance of
;he comnion prom
r eleg. k-pr
VT*?: 7 5I are
F>.9 3 -7
almost
verywhere spoken without m y diffe!reace frc
5xcept in the We: cct befor,e s and i:, where t
5 dropped. and 4 . d o n e arc! prononriced). $
poken n+ - .,. $. T occurs at the fout of the gutturals,
, - a 5

: shape c
u burnt2 parts or me c o u n q ? as in rung, w e s e uusurlma-
8 8. Compound consonanh,
I
tions are pronounced literally, like ha, Mra eta, but by
far the most general custam is to sound them like the In-
dian ccerebrals, aiz. q; $, Y
indiscriminately = #; Ig, ;
4,7 2 &;~4J, 5 . q = i g d (in CT: clh]; only in the
case af 3 the literal pronunciation jv is not uncommon.
In 4
Y
and both letters are distinctly heard; 5 sounds like
sk in s l i d , and so does 5J generally. In 0 this T is dropped
nearly in all cases: thus, $a, sa etc. 4. Six Jetkers

are often found with an rd beneath.: a 3 a 5 v;

in thesa the alone js pronounced, except in a, which
sounds da. 5. The figure 4, sometimes found at the food
of a letter is nsed in Saiscrit words to express the subjoined
q, as in FJ?' (cf. $9. 6) for wm; and is now pronounced
qQ
by Tibetans = 6: soha; in words originally Tibetan it now
exists merely as an orthographical mark, to distinguish
hornonymes in writing, as & tsa&otLand fsa ,saltc;but, $
as it is spoken, in some words at least, in Balti (e. g. $
4

rtswa ,grassc, it must be supposed that, in the primitive

form of the lauguage, it was heard. - Nok Of
such compounds, indeed, as 3'
,lotLit is difficult t o under-
-4
stand, how they can have been pronounced literally, if the
v was not, perhaps, pronounced before the y.
Superadded consonants. 6.~abovean0thercon-
sonant is written *, and 11 contonants have this sign:

"7 7 5 $ gf a a,
above it preserves 7
 7. Co~npoundconsonants. - Examples.

its le, as better adapted to the form of that lett

u, $'. I n speaking it is seldom heard except 1pravincia~ I Y ,
d in some instances in compound words after a,vowel th us,
's U ~ g $ d n , Urgyh, ancient name of the, W-U,
of
nn..n&mr

how; ,uajrai. Ladilkees often pronounce it =s:

sta ,horsec elsewhere ta. 7. Similar is the usage in those
th a superadded W (namely,: the sur ds and sonants of the
st four classes, the guttura11nasal, and q), which latter
often softIy heard in WT, h..4
U u l , d i r e l y dropped else-
nn
L .

lere, exctq t in the ease of $, whioh is spaken = nl in I

T, hut 1with a distinct aspiration = hla or bka in I3T.

~eraddedto t,he gutturds, dentals and labia&
tion of the q i r a t a e , then $ and 8'. It in
.. my crises, distincdy pronounced in Ladak, but dropped
ekiewhere*)I. 9. $ q E: with any led
letter lose the aspiration mentioned in 4 2.6 a
, 1=
- - -
91 4 6, j, 1rls. 10. often Ir)se even the inherent
t-s onnd in pronunciation and are spoken like j, S, 2;
X\ mL=- -
l be indicated in the followiw
t 1 1 1 1 ~d
--a --1 - by including
.- eawi~rp~cs
I s in pare 3 [s)koa.

yo"', you.

turds.
7 **&+I-
 :fEimo, C:?a+ W: 68
' hen. I', sand.
9~ W: Ga-Gn, c: -6i L,quick
misery. 3
TJQ tam, cabbage. ,'
,, ?j&& tax

B~N. $im(s), judgement.

W: dafi-m, C: 8- W: Gu~r-yv, C: F,
F' cold. 5@f straight.
373 cwy-p, child. 97 (Fag, d q e a q ) , rock.
. ?ran-we, w*&-nza, 5q.V i ~ d y ragged.
~ ~ ,
qTq .,,p b
,

la, wages. aq' lcE-ma, priest.

~ ( t j 2*6(-po),
? wind. VW"Zi-nao, easy.
d

. rla-eua (a. $ 11 note), 7F'r;l' kaG-pa, foot.

54 moon.

Eq' Wuuntru
: zun, C:
th .
dsgn, lie,

j u 6 - h (Ld. IF), green. t a h o (Ld. EtO), C :

w
7% *.-mo, spectacle.
$fV (s)koml thirst. a'-W: &a*), G: $a, hair.
4
q' (slgo, door. 8 da ( v u l g : ~ ~sound,
), voice.
qr;'t;T'
(slyyzi~wa,t o alter, (SIP, small hair.
turn.
b
E\
C: Gn,glue. w : (a)?o+a,
87 W:(s)@n, pa, to behav
$5 &a, Ld: ire-a, monkey. - W: ( s b ) d , C
ssode.
: (~)maw
Wai. W_--edicine.
;m,
, B4 W: * fimpa, C
pa, mad.
ence of au consonant already
 S. Prefixed lotters.

H. rrefixed letters. 1 The five letters 7'7-4-FT I

quently occur before the real, ratIical initials of other

~rds,but are seldom prono,unced, e:xcept in similar cases
c m C
7
occurs before -' *' q' 8 3 O 7 7 7
before the gutturmals and 1labids with exception
-- - -
the aspiratae; 4' before 7' 7-,t .hle palatale
-"
dentaIs and
4,

data1 sibilnnts with the same exceptJon as nn~der$, then

-
T -9
r- V ; mT before the gutturals,
.. palatals,
. dentds -

d palatal. sibilants, except,3d the suirds; q h4efore the as-

ratae andI sonants of the f i ~ classr
e 2s. In C:T., to 1)rO-
unce theui in m y case, is considered vulgar. 2. The
~ b i g u i twhich
~ would arise in case of the prefix standing
fore one of the 10 final consonants, as single- radical, the
we1 beinl5 the un-written a in the syllable 5 T
i7
iich, if $ is radic:31, has to meed d+ g, if prefi:xed
.- - . * -. . -
oided by adang an R in the latteir case: tl
ther examples are: gad (gay1 m d y77
; qq-bas ( b g , fig] and 4.54y sa; ,,
XIC' ,,
m.
,.,,,, -,and
TI'?.gdt. This t
is added, though the radiical
.. L *
uoa one of the mennonea letters; as,
.3
kc-
. . 3- -
4713, -. 7
a prefix Iand q a!s first ratiical mnul each other, so that
Ly the £0 ound is Iheard, as will be seen in the
-
eocnponnd pn I irregularities, which cannot all be
EPecified her6: (see the The custom of C.T., accoriling to
whiich t.he
+--I1 L-. .
i8 entireN ed is in this instance easier to be
 9. Word; Accent; Quantity.

is the ria sal pranimciation of the pr efixed a ounds

after a vo wel, whit:his often heard e.p ;
.%7q.q' \
unced
but eleg:.: ye-din, ,clergy'; r;l7Y(lgflm
, eleg. k, Jie 100 000 precepts' (title of a
17.. . n
Book). - ANOW. vvitn regard t o the aspiration of the soft
consonants in E T the prefixed letters have the same in-
dnencc as the superadded ones § 7.9.

Examples.
q y yay, bos gruoniens. 7~i.q kdy--PO, white.
73KpC2a (Ld: spe-fa), 7c1i.Tdd-wo, enemy.
boolc.
43~'ri:
rdriqo, good. I a~i.8 7id,1*-, sweet.
tI h6-5,eleg. ?w.?i,
.o'deseond. i 4548 ourteen.
wan,vulg.~:ail,powt?r.1
?q~,
1 'i9' u, resp. bt '

VN'B name of the Lhasa

districtv /
?gTslN' brea 3

@i4' en-pa, solitude. 1 yay-j %a,sumn

,*a, diff p.

9. Word; Accent; Quantity. I . The peculiari'cy I3f the

Tibetan mode of writing in distinctly marking the wnrrl- .,
syllsbles, bat not the words (cf. 4) composed of t
more of t-hese, so metimes renders is doubtful what is
..
regarded as one = n * A 2. There exist a great nnm
 mtiiy. 11 3
nall monosyllables, which serve jfor denoiting diffcrent
lades of notions, grammatical reIations etc., and are rost-
med to the word in question; but never altl?r its origcinal
iape, though their own initials are not seldom influeliced
y it* final cansonant (cf. § 15). 3. Such r bles
ay conveniently be regarded as termin atic ning
ne word together with the preceeding nominu L I ~verbal
root. 4. The accent is, in such cases, most naturnlty given
to the root, or, in cempounds, generally to the latter part
the oomposition, as : qT mi$, ,eyei,
CI
qqq mdg-yi, ,of
W"j lag, ,handc, WT ~b(s), ,hand-
le eye';
-".
wering, gloveL. - 5. Equally natural IS, 111 W . L . , the
nan t i ty of the vowels: accentuated vowels, when closing
le syllable, are comparatively long (though :never so .long
TT. 1 -
1 in the English words bee7 stay, or n ~ n d i tc->,
herwise short, as 8 mi ,mL, 3~
mi-ln' ~m‘,
~t b;IT m&-,,butterc.-In CT, however, ev- abbCIubuated
id closing voweIs are uttered very shortly: mi, mi-kc" etc.,
i d long ones occur there only in the case of 5 5, 4. 5. and
2., as NN I< ,work6; U.q Nreligioni;qTy ddd

rrow',; 73q z a ,planeti; and in Lhsts especially: qyq

s markedI by ran beneath the co:

int, as: ?
r
7) ,cane(1 , w ) r o t (s. f
1
.
 'unctuaiion. Far separrating the memlbers of a 1onger
- ,. .... .
p e l ~ u u ,PO vertical stroke: 1, called q? Bad (91i3, 1s used,
d i c h correspon ds at once to our comma, semicolon and
colon; af'ter the dosing of a sentence the same is doubled;
after s longer piece, e g. a chapter, four iads are put. No
marks of interrogation or exlamation exist in punctuation. -
2. In metrical compositions, the double 3ad is used for se-
parating the single verses; in that case the Iogical partition
of the sentence is not marked (cf. 5 4).
A lid of a few useful words.
14.qkd-ra, I:d-ra,
sugar.
I 77 W : "n, C: ~sn,41.
1%
PE.9 hsmiipa, hbuse. ( [4E. k u ~ hole.
,
%
W: gafi, 43: $aG,
qF' which? l'?: g ~ ,
73' w : P T , (;: UP, t d t .
9'5 9" c: g,&he?
Or

b
Eq' rial, fatigue. CqT "rJa7 C: dam-pa,

$ ?i, what? / &E: iari, bee

ZxiL-tcra, little. 1 z@ ~ m p o great.

, ,

E' W: ja, C:,ya, tea. 1 +%,fish.

I
a
'7.V %ma, sun; day. Fq ,riufi4ea, little, few*

oe.
 Useful words.

T4- fag-pa, rope. 1 f d ~ the

, p

dafi, $a&, and; with. 37qdzul-pa,&?-pa,smoke.

rC
I

7: mg-po, black. nad, ~ 2disease,

,
$ na; wealth, property. Clz;W. p d * - m w ~
n o nr.
rlmnted

'7'
Sun-pa,#&n-pa, me,
benefit.
/
I book.
~ T Ti dTu g q d n , -?.in,dove.

I' ha, Ca, cow. 1 qrzl. hal, i;al, wool,

r h,.k,son.
a. me, he.
$7m&, na$, there is not. gq &.an, how mach?

<CW' t'surimu,whole. 1 fl Eag, C : dag, day.

%oy Ad, curdled milk. ( Tv o m , wo-ma, milk.

<' od, wd', light, shine. 1 UIE. pi,also.

P.3f i - g ~letter. %- y$39).

k , am, is, are (cf.

j$y yod, yO1, am, is, are. ~qra-oug goat.

G, hill, mountain. ?q *in, price.
qq Earn, mad.

YT lug, sheep. 1 ;a, flesh, meat.

;;1~
i i ~tree,
, wood. a, earth.

ar, who? Gw sd-ma, new.

r j u ' q a-pb, (vulg.] father. a-ma (:vulg.) m
qq- (Ld:
cloth.
ras) I.$, cotton +yr(Ld: d%? 4% 3) &I
b
- (Ld:$03)
"I ins.
+ gg, doth-
44v fah(), means. -

W: Bag-p'e, C:
3qq-sm, soul. 3 28, flow.
m' fag, blood. 5 do, $6, wheat.

$4jqq. ki+p~, to arrive. qZf gadyo, dtiii'-po, old.

W: sa, C: tsa, grass. (b)be-wo, to be '-

&% rimy4 &rn-po, blue. %C rig, heart.

Twq &, bow (for shooting). 4(q $9,le
y4'T winter. gu+a- ku,
gun - ka ,
I s h a (U :g o -
fig 630, lake. , fast, qrrick.

~ 2. 4di-wa
. -2 --.
rf lWIT-wc-\ L-
4 - dilua, to ask. write
 11. Article.

Part 11.

Chapter I. The Article.

11. Peculiarities of the Tibetan article. 1. What iave
been called Articles by Csoma and Schmidt,' are a number
of little a&es: 4. 9' ;Ri-, and some similar
' ones, 'which mght perhaps be more adequately termed
den orninetors, since their principd object is undoubtedly
to represent s given root as w no un, substantive or ad-
jective, as is most clearly perceptible in the instance of the
soots of verbs, to which 4- or 9 ' impart the notion of the
Infinitive and Participle, or the nearest a;bst~actand newest,
concrete nouns that can possibly be formed from the idea
of a verb. These affixes are not, However, - except
in this case -- essential, to a noun, as many subshntives
and adjectives and most of the pronouns are never ac-
companied by them, and even those which chusuwlly appear
connected with them, will drop them upon the slightest
occasion. 2. Almost the only case in which a ayntacticwl
use of them, like that df the English definite Artide, is
perceptible, is that mentioned 4 20. 3; a formal one, that
of distinguishing the Gender, occurs in a limited number of
words, wbme %$ denotes the female, q- the masculine.

Thus: ~ 'g y d lq
yo ,kingc, @fgydl-mo
.
,queent. Or,
Jiachte, nboan Grammar 2
i8 11.-12. Article.

if the word in the masculine (or rather common) gender bas

no article, 8 is added: kq SM-ga ,lionc, kqF
,lioness4. 3. In most inetanoes, t y far, their only use is
to distinguish different meanings of homonymous roots, e.g.
y4y' (a)th-pa (t&+pa) ,teacher'; %@
(s)t6n-m ( t h -

4,,feasti; FZ[g.O ~ W (tin-~a)

K ~ ,autumni. ~ v e this
n ,

advantage, however, is given up, as soon as ra composition

takes place, and then the meaning can only be inferred
from the contea, or known from usage: (horn

VTF) ,name feast' (given an the oeessioo of naming or

christening an infant) ; @T (from Fv}, autumna1
month'. In some instances the putting or omitting of these
articles is option~l; more frequently the usage varies in
difFerent provinces. 4, The peculiar nature. of these affixes
is most cle~brly shown by the manner in which they are
connected with tbe indefite article 5 13. .
No&. The &es 9' % are 'after vowels and after
the consonanants F' T $: always pronounced wa and wo,

instead of ha and i;thus, 77y9' ka-wa ,difficult4;

- a ,hope4; y v gmi-xuo C@) ,fullC; %,'q ew+aa.
(sw-wa) ,tasayL; SJWT nya2-w~ ,hellc; Fqjowo (jib-
goo) ,lord, maaier'.
lZIDifference of the Articles among each other. I. The
usage of q 4 W i s the most general and widest of all,
 defin. Article. 19
as they occur mth all sorts of substantives mid other nouns.
used fc ng a man who ie3 in a
:cted w i t l u thin'g (something like
. -.
lIIh and ,la m ~mdustiiniand Yern:on. mr do ,&choo&

horse', 7;'4',horse
,a man from TJ',
byr, v' h I .year', ii(8) ,twcti, hence:
,a twr3 years' 130~'. If the femirkine is rec
her addet - more commonly -- used has tead
~rmer: T! woman from q; w4-@* TW
.
Yr ,- u w V nan-o'
TGUIU
r
5YI . ~ d performer
e of an action i b
.
wulG

d by Zf (or, in mnre sol

Vy'),thougo, in conversation at least, Vr49 fi;m ,.;,
red; 379.je&pa ,to do, make; d
------* UVGL, UII
I '

v with a limited aumber of nouns

n .l
vmv. wuecialy me names. or me seasons, wlta nuni~rrrls- - 1 1 - -

(T seems Qo b e
. I 3 --I

and some pronoun . a '

irmtion for T>-
The indefinite Arficle. This it;the numerd one
wived of
c.
9. viz: 3 'T,
whiclI form it a
- - - -

receding word emI s with i

 Number.

. ?

4 other 4
- !
borne auwuru use o v a r b e x any terminatio~ -3:----
mul~ruuuw
I
tely. It is, of course, wlkays without accent. The ardcles
4. 4' etc, are not thrown out by the indefirlit# artid4e e.g.
@q, ,teacher, the teacher', Tdiy'q~ teachef. ,a

used even after a plurality: thus, 3 - ,

,there were some four wellsc, a
1 d even:. @T41%?
,there beiing a mdtitadd of them' (from Mil). Very often
J
, . .
it is placed after the intarrogative pronouns (v. 27), and
sometimes its original meaning is obscured so much that it
occurs even after known and definite snbjects, where one
7would expect the demonstrative (see f. i. Dzl. 25,
15. 128, 1'1).

Chapter II. The Substantive.

14. The Number. The Plural is denoted by adding the
word qqN' n m , or, morl
)r m few other words, wh
. ,
;hecommon notion of plurdty. Bus t h s mark ot the Ir
s usually omitted, when the plurality of the thing in qu6
nay be known from other circumstances, e. g. when
added: tlhw, & ,manc, hen', Q4
Q IV
three mea<.WIN!n a substantive is ?dwith ara ad-
...
ecnve, me pmrm sign is d d e d only once, via. afte .
1 1 1 .
 15. Declension.

m ~ ut l tile connected words: ~ ~ X % Z Wq; ,we

men'.
NO&?. The conversational lm 3cs the 1
76.IV etc:. seIdom, in WT scarcely ever la]1 exeeption s.
14. Ramstrks), but add, whrM necessl~ r y B, U C words
~ asI: all,
.7
many, some; two, three, seven, eight, or other suitable
(cf. $ 20, 5.).
leclension. The regular a f t h e difl'erent
partrcles or single sounds by which me cases are rormed is
che same for a11 ~OCLIIE, whether substantives or adjectives,
pronouns or participles. Only in some cases, in the Dative
md Instr~ umenhl, the noun itself is changed, when, el
In ,m YO' wel, it admits of a closer connection with t h ~
UpEu I.rtse-sign. We may reckon in Tibetan seven t
e of all the relations, for 7which catJes are usbed ip
guages, viz: nominative ar~d accuse~tive,-gen~itive,

1. The unaltered form of the nor

ons of onr Nominative and those of i
- - . .
~tive, 2. The sifp of thr:Genitiv
and VOCE

words with the fiuals f' 1 5J after

x
--
p J l d1
n . .
owels i is neans

4
thus: $, which then will form e diphthong: with
the vowel of the noun (cf. 3 6), or if, in tersifimtion two
sylldbles are required, i appears supported bg an :form-
ing a d i s h c t word. 3, The Instrumental or Agent jIS ex-
pressed t~y the PE~rtioles 9~ 3~
or a ( ~
after the re-
spective consonants as specified above; after vowels simply
1V is adtjed, OT, i
in verse, sometimr:S Qv
Note,, The ir ,a1 is, in modern ation,
.-n..-L , Northeru u m u a a ,- A..-"n,.l,
:
tabvvh r u awubr;ry discern.ul= u "9.the

I{enitive, and then:are but; few if my, even among fl xmtts,

-,who are not liablle to con4bund both cases in writin
- . . "
g.
-.-
In t h e language of common Iife, in,W T, the djffererlC
forms of the partide of the genitive and instrumental, after
consonants, 33eto, are never heard, but everywhere
the finaI consonant is doubled and the vowel i added to it,
thus: gN.,
G. lw-&(Ld.), $4 qw G. za*+ni; 735-
(gold), G. s e r e , etc. ; or, in ather wordq dl nouns ending
in consonants are formed like those ending with (see

the example 3 ~ )In. those ending with a vowel no ir-

regularity takes place.
4. The Dative adds indiscriminately the pestposition
V la, denoting the relation of space in the widest sense,
expressed by the English prepositions in, into, a$, m, to.
5. The Locative is formed by the postposition q' lza ,in&,

6. The Ablative by a! or WW la , f ~ m(the ' latier

especially with the meaning: f ~ m among), all three like- '
wise without any discrimin the endil3g bf
the noun. 7, The Termin: by the post-
30sitions or 7 after V O w ~ r o , .rwwci rrual qttl. A m
anu

' after N'

L.TT*~. f i ? 14 and the other anal consonants. all
I

16. Declension.

postpositions denote the movement to or into. 8. The Vo-

cative is not daerent from the Norni~ative(as stated above),
if not distinguished by the interjection 3oh!, and can only
be known horn the context.

a
nples of declension, As example of the declension
01 consonantal nouns we may take 1. for those in s (re-
y d, b), YN'Zw, Zg, ,bodyG;2. for dose in m (n,

lam ,wayt; 3. for those in g @), Wg( mi(l

,eye', - of that of vocalic nouns: 4. 19' b or Rams ,snowc.
Singular.
1. 2.
YV lm, la WV lam

Gen.
Tnclt

UVU. '

Abl. '

Gen. R T ~m ~ - & &-A!&;~ 4 twd

3
Inst. 3qq.f' I I' Ra; p4q h-wa

E i?a~
ka-h

.
L"L ) I21Wlbt4, m-n-x-
La-
aaa
Abl. 3q.q~. iq Ea-n TW
r,<wwa*

p's, I T F m , tar;

Plural.
h the pIurn1 signs are simply added to the nouns,
without affecting their form, we here only give examples
of declension with the two most frequent plural pwrtides.
As example for T T t h e plural of the pron. ,that' has
been chosen.
N. Acc. U ~ ~ Wlus@g-)-nam(sj
N . q y dd ~

AH. ywqqq-a
Term. WqflW?
 16. Adjective, 25

Chapter IU.
The Adjedve.
16. In the TibetanClanguage the Adjective i s not form-
d y distinguished from the Substantive, so that many nouns
may be used one or the other way just as circumstances
require.*) The declension, likewise, follows the same rules
w that of substantives Only two remarks may be added
here. I. The particles $1' % rare not very strictly
used for distingaisbi~~ the gender, since even in the case
of haman beings 4- and are not seldom found connected
with feminines, e. g.: g ' q a ; ~ ?just
.~ as well as @
4z.w ,a h e girlC. 2. The Adjective sbnds after the

Substantive to which it belongs: thus, -?b.~%q

&-fdn-
pa, G : ri-{om-PO, ,the high hill', when, of course, the ease-
-
*) But the vulgar language has a predilection for c e h i n forms
of Adjectives 1. those wiU, thsgsmndi.l particle 7,
rs: &3,

for the mcIM classical Ldji q p a m c ; these seem M be psrticdarly

in rise in !
ther by dimple roikration of the root: I' for
h
5Q'Zf ,xouna+,or changing the vowel at the same m e : ~([g?
w
q$F* sary etc often they sr Llables
26 17. Comparison.

signs are joined to the Adjecti~e: -?fl%qq,of the high

hillc, ,the high 231s' eto.
Or the Adjective 'may be put in the Gen. h e f ore the
Substantive : &j'$~qR.?., and then the 11. ter only is de-

speech both of C and WT the adjective sometimes pre-

serves, even in this position, its simple form (Nominhve).
A third way of expression, when both are joined together,
withont any artjcle, as YVWjnstesd of N . Wt h~ e dry
Iand, is rather a compound substantive, with the same
difference of meaning as ,high[andLand ,a high landL in
English.
17. Comparison. 1. Special endings, expressive of the
different degrees of comparison, as in the Aryan languages,
do not exist in Tibetan, There are two particIes, however,
corresponding to the English than: -"' after the find
consonants 4' T T' and after vo. f., after 7
7 4- W' W "I), and NW; these particles follow the word
with which mother is compared (Ihe the Hind, q) ma
this then preceeds the compared one, finally fallows the
adjective in the positive: 74N.(or nlN.1 p&4**
,horse - than dog small isC, just as in Hindastihi:
. & Hey&. But also the position us)n d in
-
me Mgcr. ~ n wood-prints,
d however, prefer, evm &r these
, the form
 :ompalisor

our European languages occurs., thus: 14'7WJ~.4q

k b

N ix . 5 4 .
,the~merit of
ueoom~nga priest is relatively higher thak mount Merui;
s . ~ ~ P - ' N ,the 1.477
' ~ kini
Sg of Tibet is
greater tlm n the other ones'. The p:article 4
2
be put, in the same manner, afte. 3. Thus, FT
q ~ q ~ ~ ~ ~ f l ,(thew
~ j eyes)
~ 9 became
~ . more
T J ~
U
ited than before'. Or, aft ives, qqy
e
4-4~4.tfN.?$r4'q4'
.
,it is better (for him) that hsyounger
3 .

-
J
brother :rhoutd go (with h im) than another' . it- n l N ' j for

self has the meaning of ,more thaa', with the negalive :

thus: ~q.q~4@wq~'3$-r\Tw
,not more: thanL,.onlyc;
~ two ounces I do not want' (cf. vdg. WT:
,more t hm qlgq
q-.;,there are not more than (only) three'); or
ing but', ,only4, ? .. ~. N . + T R I N ~ ,hf ~ ~ ~ T ~
Ire (for 1is) bnt I:luting, Ii. is our .
in Sdver.b which augment,s the no le ad-
. *

mother adverb, 2 means: ,mure m u more-, ,gra-

xic? 4 rer and nq:arerc,
r. hmntlrar
simply expressed by: ,the great -
the littlec. 5. The
Superlative is paraphrased by the same means: 'JTNN'
q q or ~ S I N T Y N ,greater
' ~ ~ than all'. Or it is
expressed in the following manner: ~9~~~~~~
~ V T ,of C ~
(among) the kings of the ooontry which
one is the greatest (prop. great)?'. Adverbs for expressing
high degrees me: qdi5 54-5
or
w
,ver~', T7q.s
w
,allL,
q~w8',quitec, ~q5 ,exceedinglyb eto.
e
'

No&. The colloquial language of WT uses SVC in-

stead of 4W or qv, and (ma, always with w strong
i3
emphasis, perhaps zt mutilated form of qE;W' ,much') or
CF instead of q ~whereas
, that of CT employs nlN'
in the former case, bnt repeats the adjective in the latter,
so that ,very largec is expressed in books by
U
%~qv,,
in speaking, in WT by md F b p o , inCT by Emp Femqo.

Chapter IV.
The. Numerals.
18. Cardinals:
1 9 s(%hg
 18. Cmdind Numerals. 29

-d&, C: -d&a, vulg: bb-d0

- . Tu 7 Y I , YY -.g,tdd$ C: -gyi?, d g : E0B-g0

30 18. Cardinal Numerals.

30 gqg sim-h

' 31 7 &J'qgg"4/% 4(.

am-hr-sa-Mg, g ~ %so-%
40 & 4 q 4 whr,
~ wlg: rib-&
41 &' 4 @ 4 ~ ~ 9ri-hr-sa-Zg,
3 $93 ie-5'9

90 1;30 774K gzi-i.y vulg: gtib-h

b

91 a7 7~4gg7as).
w
p - h ~ ~ k *T
, q 3 ~Q
(G: $d+y)
100 5'-
f
4%'(qv4-)
: Q&)
gya da6 (or
lo' F p ' 4 3 7 ~ ~ 1 %qqxs'q*
Or
E,
200 ?oo 943 .ii-gya ikb-gya
 IS.--%. Numerals. * 31

IUOOWI' ' J - ~ Sr.Y saqu

There art;, eb in Sanscrit, names for many more pc

of 10, but they are seldom used.

19, brdinals. W:dari-po, G: iiQ,the fir&, the reas

m
yYqr4-,
are simply formed byadding ?;j'to the cardinals,as:
the second etc.; the 21. is $fJr~8~'4*
,the twenty-
onethi, not, as in English, ,the twenty &stL.
20. Remarks. 1. The smaller number postponed indj-
cates, as i s seen in 18, addition, the reverse - multipli-
cation: 4gq.lWV 13, 8b.J'C30; but in the lrttter case
b
first nume~aisw e changed t o q, , Zbl.;
as the sdcond pmt of R compound after conso-

s spelletl 9'. 2. The words qflq' (after full tens

~p to .one hundred), .fggl. (after hundreds and thousands3>,

especially if the uumher count;ng t h o handreds,

 32 SF. Nnmera.1~.

(with stiU gmter numbers), &re optional but frequent

additions. 8' is common instead of 5,r ,andc, to connect
units with tens (8. 9 la), but it occurs also with hundreds
and thooeaods, and not seldom together with TC, e.gF~
' T S ~ - $ W , 1002. I t is used dso instead of qVT,as:
a
45'g ten, yyg' twenty; often it is standing alone for

$.qx,as: @$twenty
U
F, two. This latter custom may
have .caused the belief, common even amoag educated
readers in C and WT, that g' must mean t w e n t y , even
when connecting a hundred or thousand to a unit, as they
w'll usually understand the above mentioned number in the
sense of 1022 instead of 1003; but the authority of printed
,
books, wherever the exact number oan be verified from
other circun>shnccs, does not conh~mthis, which would in-
deed be a sadly ambiguous phraseology. 3. added to
m
a cardinal number means conjunction : TqN'T, the two
together, both ; qaa;T'T,the tllree together, nH three etc.
means either the same, or represents the definite article,
indicating that the number has t e e n already mentioned, e.g.
@y - - ' 45&1 ' - - , fire
\flr~q4$@ lneo were
sent . . . The five men arriving etc. 4, 4' ia used, besides

thousands etc, follows: thus,

20 OW; Bmxq ,many ten-thon~and~~.

,
\
 21.-23. Numerals. 33
forming Ordinds, to express the notion of ,containingd,e. g.
Tq
,that containing six leitersc? viz. the famous

rormua: &q'i$r~'$q
'1
on ma$" pudm hww; aqnaeKq,
'u
thirty (letters)', the T i b e b alphabet.
3. aucn earnomations as qw7Z-J~ eto. ere frequently
common life, so denote a number approxim&kly,
three OX so' (cf. 5 14 Note).

re numerals. Tbey are expressed b; 7 repe-

1: 575T each time six, six for erach eto.
k b
In composed numerals drily the last member is repeated,
thus 88~ggyw4f@
each time thirty two,

Adverbial mumeraJs. 1. Firstly, secondly etc. me

From the ordinals as e v q Adverb is from an Ad-
-1 Ziz. T-W~T
by adding the letter q, ?KT$",
etc. (8.5 Mdtiplicative adverbs, ,oncec,,twicei etc ,
are expr putting K!y,times' before the cardinal:

ith the

1 numerals are formed by aclding K

ih part' e:kc., but I

q-I
., .
. , ,one tmra ot me treasury'.
I.

Tibetan Qra 3
 24. Personal Pronoun#.

Chapter V,
Prtrno nns.
24. Personal Pronouna First person: ??6.d)
rig'; YN das (Ld); p$ E m o , rnsse., and pf$ h-m,
fern. ; 477 dug ,selfL- ,Ic; Second p e r m : g~,%~d
&6'), L/.KyBd (&8) ,thou, youk; Third penm: &,
FCL h - ,he, she, itt.
The plural is formed by adding v,
qflN', 34fqfl&T'
or g,but rery &en, if cirenmsta~cesshow the meaningwith
sa&cient certdnty, the s i p of the plural is altoge.theromitt-
ed. The declension is the same as tbat of the substantives,
Remarks : E' is the most common and can be used
by every body; $ saerna to be preferred in e l e pot speech
e
(s. Note); E q is Tery common in modern letter wnt~ng,
at least in WT; 477 ,selfd, when spe. superior
1
persons occnrs very often in books, but ilas uIaappemeu
from common speech, except in the province of Tsan (T&C
h q o ) .s also the following; pf,TX
jF in smg con-
versation with persons of eqnd rank, or to inferiors.
, 4. parson. g~is used in books in addrelu3ing even
the highest persons, but in modern conversehon only
among eqoals or t o inferiors; is elegant p n c1 respect-
ful, especially in book^ -
 24 Personal Pronow. a:>

3. person. seldom occurs in books, ohere the de

monstr. pron. 7 (4 26) is generally used instead; FKis
-'

. comma!n to both the written and the spoken language, and

..--A
UUbU, at least in the Intter, as respectful. But it must
8

be remlarked tl]at the pronoun of the third pe,rson is

b id most cases entirely omitted, even vrhen the]re is a
t;'37' and pyq' the
-J

change of subject. - Instead of

people of I T use Qf and Eq;t h e vulgar ploral of
is vq
these pronouns may be added: W r u 6 or
r?.rlid, fii' ,selEL, and in eonversntional language

PT~C,
p ?are,~perhaps, even more frequent
than tlie simple forms, without any difference in tht
E
I jng. 9/ is mo,re prevalent in books, except the c o ~
*T 5 C ~vliich ~ d e r nspeech the usual
respect mn of ad se ,Sie"in German.
A
T ow, -lhf: predilection ot Eastern Asiatics for a
aystem of cerenloniaIs in the Iangnago is met withL also in
Tibeta]3. There is one separate class of words, whi cb: must
b

be used in reference to the honoured person, when. .spoken

to as we11 as when spoken of. To this class belcmg, be-
sides the pronoons %i;~., , F,
all the wam
onnynr tu-
r

f ul tsr:ms by w hich the body or soul, or le same,

and a11 things or persons pertaining to su $on,md
81; 24.-25. h n . - Respectful and Elegant Terms.
even his actions, must be called. The noiions, most fre-
quently occwring, have specid expressions, as 3(8)h,in-
stead of YW lm, i~ ,bodf; E/g. ai i. O. flv 90 ,head.;

dra-pa i. a. ?J$;qj J-pa,jht'-pa ,to makec and many

others. If there is no such special word, any substantive
may be rendered respectful by adding fJor qTq
v
re-
-

spectirely (so, ~2 i.0. % ,lifetietimet; qw~ ' E ~ ~ 4 . ET

b
i.o.
,angerL) any verb by adding & ~ q ,
according to 39,l.
Another clme of what might be called elogant terms are
ta be used when conversing with an honoured person (or
also by a high person himself in his own speech), such as
497 g&o, @-pa ,to do'; &5! 9. ,to be';
&~a,
875 h&du, lZ'-du i. o. 2 ~ ,for
'v
7 tho sake d,with-
o u t reference to the said pefion himself. Even aneducated
pmple know, and mike use of, most of the ,respectfuli
terns, but the merely ,elegant' ones are, at least in WT,
seldom or never heard in conversation.
25. Possessiwe pronouns, The Possessive is "---'-
 26.-27. Pronouns. 37

expressed by the Genitive of the Personal, c?, py3

etc. ,Hiisb,,her', ,its', when referring to the acting subject
5 ~ 9%3
(suus), Jmust bk expressed by or ,his own';
otherwise (ejas) by m,FCq73q.ID O, in the latter
case,E . q BT,Fy are wed.
26. Reflecfive and Reciprocal pronouns. 1. The Reflec-
tive pronoun, ,myselfb, ,yourself' etc. is expressed by T ,
R, also 477. But in the ease of the same person boing
the subject an d object of m fiction, it must be paraphrased,
so for .he precipitated himself from the rock' must be said
,he precipitated his own body eto.' 5 $ ' 9 3 ~for; ,here-
buked himself' - ,he rebuked his own soul' %[='%aq~'
- 2. TIie reciprocal pronoun ,each other' I lother'
is rendered by ,one - oneL, as $ 7 . 7 ~ ~ $- ,by
ane one was killed', ,they killed one anot

T ~ T ,to
? one one said', ,they said to aasu o~oer'.

Demonstrative pronouns. 1. "E,?

di, ,thisG; de,
am ,that' are those most frequently used, both in books
and spe rhe Plural is generally formed by 77-1
but also by 3flw and
4
5. Mere emphatim are 1 '
I~TT,
I

(ITT,just this', ,this same'; etc. .

,that saL.. - Ibevulgar dialect also uses 73 h k - d
 and v8"J
$d-gyi for ,thatL, ,yonderc, and :- &,
RZf for ,tbisCsndW. for ,thatc; ocCurs evl3n ~n
_. . of
books. - 2. It is worth remarking that the a~s~nction
1.

the nearer and remoter relation is, even in common lan-

guage, scrupulonsly observed. If reference is made to an
-,
object already mentioned, 7 is used; if to something fal-
lowing, R,?; e-g. $'qy%gqg ,that speech he said1,
,thus he said'; D , ~ ~ ~ ~ N,this ~ said ',
N ' he
. ~speech
,he said thus, spoke the following words'.
28. Inferrogafive pronouns, 'They are g' su ,who? &;

7C g a i , yA. !which?'; -.3 6.i ,what?'; t o these the indefi-

w
uite artidcFqT is often added, $ f @ ~etc. T be two former
cnn also assume the plum! termination y?, 977, 1 1s
'j7'.- In CT qC is frequently used instead of %
29. Relative pronouns. These are almost entirely w a n b
ing in the Tibetan language, and our subordinate relative
. clauses must be expressed by ParticipIes und Gerunds, or
a new independent sentence must be begun. The parti-
cipIe, in such a case, is treated quite as an adjective, being
put, either in tbc Genitive bbeore the substantive, or, in
the Nominative, after: ~T4?&4-3fl~.
,the m~rehants
who would go (with him)'; flv9[343fFl4- ,tll e cord
-.
b
~hturquoises are strung'; R & s ~ . & K rnl
?~~P
.-.?-
t

29. Relative Pronouns.

,one who gets (unto whom come) many presents'. Cf. also
33. Only those indefinite sentences which in English are
introduced by ,he who', ,who ever', ,that which', ,what' etc.
can be adequately expressed in Tibetan? by using the in-
terrogative pronouns with the participle (seldom the naked
a
root) of the verb, or adding 9'
(,if -' Q. 41, A. 4.) to the
latter. Instead of 2 in this case *Emis written more cor-
1
I T ~ U :S ~q*~~qQK~q&y'q~~
r T ,if anybody who possesses the good faith teach it
mec; ,when those of you
oiho wish to go are assembled'; ~~?@%,~
will make come down like rain whatever is wished for';
3 3 %4 ,whatever you way say
and ask of me according to that I will act, or I will grant
you whatever you askb.
Y

dR543q ,having scooped tho water of the sea with

what force 1 have'; ?@3py%$T$Tq4'iTn
4 ~ ~ ,I beg
~ ~ t o show
you % me ~ what' sort of jewel
k
you have foond (got)L; ~ C ~ W ~ ( C $ N . ~ T
,his footprints, in what plwe soever they fell
(7. lea. s. u. 14(~.),
became gold-sandi.
40 30. Petb. - lahodnction:

, But the participle is p*.e-

treated as if no relative was
ceding, thos @@RP C~.NN"W&W~,he did noi
recede h m (~eca21)t be word he had spoken before' ; vulg.,
WT, ~.~4~f@~~ ,the room where I set'.

Chapter V1.
The Verb.
30. Introductory remarks. The Tibetan verb must be
regarded as denoting, not an action, or suffering, or w n -
dition of any subject, but merely a coming to p a s s , or,
in other words, they are dl impersonal verbs, like taedet,
miwet etc. in Latin, or it mi& etc. in English. Therefore
they are destitute of what is called in OUT o m lebngurages
the active and passive voice, as well as of the discrimi-
nation of persons, mtl show nothing beyond a rather poor
capability of expressing the most indispensable distinctions
of tense and mood. Prom the same reason the acting
gnbject of a transitive verb must regularly appear in the
Instramental cme, as:the cme of the subject of a neutral
-
verb, which, in European Iangaages, is the Nominative -,
ought to be regarded, from a Tibetan point of view, as
Accusative expressing the object of an impersonwi verb,
just as ,poenitet me' is translated by ,I repentb. But it
will perhaps be easier to say: The subject of a transitive
verb, in Tibean, assumes regularly the form of t lle in- -

strumentd, of s neutral verb that of the nominative 1 which

is the same as the aeousetive. Thus, EN.FTLC
i
 31. Xnflectjbn of Verbs. 41

s beating happens, $7' regardihg you, EN.

I beat yc)u. I n common Iife the object bras often
of tbe d hilitate the comprehen-
$IOU. DUE
, Pi. modern
omen, m -11
as well ... 11 . ? _ > - : - - I
as ln cue classical
xatK
- - '

literature , the aci6ng snbject, if I;I>own:as such fro1n the

context, retains its Nominative forn1. Especially the verba
are apt to admit this slight irregularity.
nflectien 1~f verbs. This is done in three different

1 ,y changing the shape of the root. Such different

re, at most, four in number, which may be called, .
i accoralng to the tenses of our own grammar to which they
, Present-, Perfect-, Future-, sad Imperative-
correspor~ d the
roots; e. g. of the Present-root 9F4. ,to give' the P'edeot

root is F,the Future-root Y F , the

i Imperative root

b
4C; ot
A

4 8 hag,
~ .*
ym-4-,to filter, beltcrespectively: q b v ~ . t h a g ( s )
ftsog. The Presf :nt root, which .
Inration, i s also occasiond1y used .for the Imper-
feet (in 1the sense of the I~ a t i nand Greek languages) and
- -

Future tenses. Jt i s obvi ons, from the above mentioned

' n
instances, baas cae mnecuon
I L -
of the root consists aartlv< in
L 11 I?
-
4

dteratio~w of the prefixed 1etters (so I, if the P'erfeci likes the

prefixed 4 , the Future wiII ham: or retain t111"1 9 7
.. in
. - -.
pf~t.ly
.
adding a. final N' (totbe Yerfkct ar
- -. A .
ative),
-

. paray iaL cbanging the vowel (particularly 1pwa-

- -
tive). ,But also the consoamb of the root h e I L uY
 32. Infinitive.

sometimes: so the aspirates are often converted in the Perfet

and Future into their surds, besides other more irreplar
changes. Only a limited number of verbs, however, are
possessed of all the four soots, some; cannat assume more
than three, some two, and a great many have only one.
To make up in some measure for this deficiency :
b) some auxiliary verbs have been made availabIe:
far the Present tense 47, qyy', Qnls(ff and others, dl
U

of which mean ,to bei (§ 39); for the Perfect &Y, 3,

%$I ; for the Future WJT,
v
qc,and the substantive 3! . k
c) By adding various monosyllabic affixes, the Infilu- .
tive, Participles, and Gerunds are formed. These dGxes
as well as the auxiliary verbs are connected partly with the
root, partly with the Iafiniitive, resp. its terminative, partly
with the Participle.
No&. The spoken language, at least in WT, m h o w -
ledges even in four-rooted verbs seldom ban the
Perfect root.
32. The Infinitive mood. The syllables LJ' pa or, after
the f i n d consonants K fT m d vowels, 4'wa are added
to the root, whereby it wsumes dl the qaalities and powers
of a noun. In verbs of more roots than om, each of thein
cao, of course, in this way be converted into a substantive,
or, in other words, each tense has its Infinitive, except
the Imperative. From one-rooted verbs the different In-
finitives may be formed by the above mentioned auxiliaries:
-
L r
 Participle

the verb ,Y Y ~ ~ a t i ~orn &3;'4-_

, - E!F(q., ?$~'j~.q.
1

root, an41 the In£.Fut. by adding T4JTT to the Supine

a
'
(terrn~aatived the infinitive,
I. I 'rh,
rll.r
i, thus, S~TF~TRU
visurnm ease, visurn iri.
Not 4. The spolren language uses, in WT almost ex-
, a termination pronounced
?as in Turig and Balti,
Ladalr, Ee in Lahoul etc., ja in Knnawm, l e in.
1

lsan etc., the etymology of which is doubtful, as it is not

und in any printed book. Lamas in Laclak and
spell it 2 ;v.
[ h e ramiciple. 1. This i s in the written language
like the Iifinitire 94'4' ,beingc, gifr'4-,giving>
I.---:--
4K4'
'/ '
qivenc. - 2. Whether the meaning is active
.,,a,~ UU EL
nnd pas:sive, horjrrever, cm only be inferred from the con-
g 47r=~p,!pr
is of course ,the money given',
hot S
C q%,the m a n having given, or, that has
given, t g'; the Tibetan participle means nothing
t but that the achon or condition is connected in some way
with a 1 thing. But it is xlaturwl that it1 the pre-
b

sent par 5 active notion should be the more frequent

one, as well as in the plreterit the pssivt In the
instance of Inten!sive verl:3s (formed with .I) the
c
usage oi sixenslnc
w
!
'
:
A
..
!
-
. . ..- -- - amnors hm strictly connecteu Lnl: active
I I - ~

sense w ith those formed with as 37, 4/JC97

€06-)ad,
- . .
\ tmi-Tsb-'Instead af sle45'3$4-, doing d v a , giving,
44 33. Participle.

giver, and the passive tn those aikh 9, as ~p%'

topija,

~7~4~;54,
tmi 70 i. o. ,to be giskn' (dendus), F T r

c~rs@qq.Rq-
,to teach the things to be done and not
to bhe done' (Thgy). -,4. In certain cases, especially with
verbs that mean: to say, ask etc.. the Participle is used
before the words of the speech, where we should use the
Imperfect: ~ ~ . .'.
~- - ,the king said ~
Y

Notk. In the spoken language, of WT at least, the

Participle is formed by qlgq', in the active sense as well
as the passive (whereas in books this syllable occurs only
in the meaing of the performer of an action s. 12. 1.):
75,nl'4~W?J%
6.1 tmi lPmi m i (8. 15, Note) ,the
man giving the money', 4 5 ~ ; . ~ ~ 7,the
3 7money
5~
e n . ,the lama

who hrougllt a coat for sds the other dayi. $@4&i

W ~ ~ ,the girl
C who had
. shewn~the door~to ~
V
his reverencec (Mil). The future participle is represented,
just as in English, by the Inhitive (32, Note), so that
,the sheep to bc killed', (in books 7?$74~5'4Q3~
or

~ ~ $ 'is expressed,
~ ~ inyihs most
~ Western
) provioces,
by: sud Em4 ly,Lad.: &&?a-si 2~~ Lah. etc.: sdd E&:i
lug, Tss6 : 86'-dr'-i$,i lug q ~ ~ end, ' moat
~ like~
the eiassieal language, in Kun.: sdd jci lup
 34. Finite Verb. 45

The finite, verb. 1. The principal verb of a sentence,

t
which always cmes it (48.) receives in written Tibetan in
most cas313s & certain marl Jch the rmd of a period
mag be Iknown. 3Phis is, in ve sentences, the vowel o
by the g~ ns: a34'2 - ,"

ones the syllable am. Be4ore both the closi~

& L A.-*-I.

ark writt,en. The Perfect of the verbs ending in 7 Y W'?

"
1 . 1
wn~cnxormerly bad a $' as second final - ?$T--,
as-

".- 2. These additional syllables we omit&

bU wI lu sentences, b) in the latter member of
rutrc*auive

a double, question, e) when the if3 express

ready b;7 an interrogative pronoun or adverb, cE) in
.. embers of a period, with exception of the last one,
-. >

only, wh en the prindpd verb is the verb substm-

.. %ti' f kc. 140. 1.).

;o!<, n,7-3*qq come her1el6. -

(,

,,\ > r ! 4
. ., M.. M, + I . ,uu you see or not?' --
A) W ~ K W r, T~<T%T
3 1

there?', (:
rjal.494 ,id (he, you etc.) arrive?'.
.,. 3,
I I

1e8 were 1lestroyed, the men killed, the whole town

,ed'. - el' I - ~I ~ c ~ ~ I~ ~ w1 N .in . tbe
v ~~
sand of-the river is gold'.
Nohe. In cc n the o i:s general]
s 1, and
46 35. Present.

the m of the interrogative termination droppeh so that

merely the vowel a is heard, e. g. the question ~(T*ET
,do (you) seec sod the answer &@?P
,(I) see', are com-
monly spoken in WT:, f06-ria? fori.
35. Present Tenses. 1. Simple Presen This i 5
the simple root of the ,verb, which always will be found
in the dictionary; in WT, as mentioned above, of verbs
with more than one root, only tlie Perfect root is in use;
if, therefore, stress is laid on the Present signification, re-
conrse must be had B one of the following compositions,
(s. 31. and Note). Thus, W!C' ,(I, thou, he eto.) see, aeest
etc.: 7% ,(I etc.) give' through fill persons; in the end
of a sentence : I T#CF1
b1^g~Y
2. Compound Present Teoses, a) R T T (s. 4
G .
added to the mot: d(7q$'(z?~~
M
4 F 9 , ,(J)
,(I) see:
U
give'. This is common in the dialect of WT especially. -
6 ) The Participle connected nith 37, f w .(1)
see'. I:nWT this, of course, is cl
- cl, (h e of the Gerunds (41, A) with U j T or RTgJ', as
k

w ~ F ~(or%c / ~ or. or &$), R ~ T

c (1) see,
-s
am seeing'; it must, however, be remlneu b ~ aboth t
ways of expression, b) aa.ndc), are not very freqluent. -
d) 8)~qyor \
is the proper form for the coimpound
 . Preterit.

present: (I) am s

sy4l- ,(l) am writing (just now)'.

v

36. Preterit Tenses. 1. Simple Preterit, Perfect or aorlst

Tense; - le Perfect root: 45C,at the close of the
<I
sentence 1 ,gave, have given, was given'; in one-.
moted verbs it has, of cornrse, the s:&meform as the pr,@sent
:
A%~F(T)
,saw, have, or ' mas, st!en'. TItis is the usual
,- 1
narrative tense like the U ~ ~ C A L,r
~ VKI I ~ L
UI
W-*-*L
I-LCUC~U 2arfait

pound Preterit Tenses. - a) The rocrt with

,have giv,en, gave, was gilrent, qqk*
,have seen, 'saw, was see] met wit1h in book:s, but
WT. :In CT $I y ;u?i

-
in genera1 use in the conv 3f
>
. .
r used iIar way: ,the dog has bit'.-
6) The 1root with )re in books), or
.... 1
Wmmnn language), tae true Perfect as the tense 01 E

action:

- -
left. - t:) The P jq. occur,
$"**.---L .
me P ~ sense
ur;uuenr,ly 111
1 . -
L Enan otnerwise, nere,
I d l T? . .
--

common tdk of :~ei nn th ose cases where

-- 1 .
i s nave
'
ye k d l - p
n ,

vi, con& the Iehte.r h& ber

books : r, N O ~ ~ even
I, f
b td7is-pa pipd, td&-pen, ,the mtlgea e paidL i. 0.
~ w been
- d ) Gerunds in
45~4ifU7. 7 (WT) a :T) witb
q~or n3T (the same as 35.2.8); alsr
later books) the mere Perfect root with
5,W being dropped: %?kq~
,has gonei.

37. Future Tenses. 1. Simple Future. The Fature-roo3

qY~('f),shall, will give, be giveni. - 2. Compound Fu-
ture. a) Tho auxiliary ~ e r b 93YT (to grow, become)
U
added to the Terminative of the Infinitive: %4T
~ k
(,shall, q
will give, be giveni, @ ~ ~ T W T (
b
,shall, will see, be seen'. This is the most common, and,
together with the Simple F u t m m d the Intensive (:39.),
.- *4qgq,tho only ono in use with the early claraieal
authors in all caseswhere aspecialFuture-root iswmted, and
even where this exists. It dissappem, however, gradually
from the literature of tbe later pehod, m d i~ replaced by
the two fobowing oompositions. - b) gqq connected
k
t
with the root: j ,shall, will seeL, $E;'TQT
,shall, will give' etc.
iog illatmial, c-8,
-
u'
(3is originally
o c c w i m ~-
. cl th8 root with
w
a substantive, mean-

Ti or
Gc,9 4 % ~,will arrive: or, i. o. the root, thc Term. Inf.,
- Both 6 ) md c)
$4.4~4~. are even now in commm,
use in U, whereas in WT: - d ) q~ connected with the
root is 3rd form
.shall. wu see . q5+Qk h w r m .&dl,sill &el. TTulT
will send go'. -

., *
.
8 . ..
books the Participle wltn 97 (35. r. b, aa. 2 0) oc-
c m sc also as Future.

*.
~mperarivemood. 1. This is uwallg the shortest
which often loses its prefmed
e form of the verb,
though in some instances a final N' is added. Ln
many verbs with the vowel a, asld in some with 8 these
vowels are changed into o, besides other alterations 'of the
GOnsonimB. Particularly often the surds or sonants of the
ense-root mged to their aspirates in the Im-
9. Thus, se!', from 7Pt~';
qqb~ d ~tos,
:
- . .
GI: @ ,look !: from ~ 9 . ; ,throw!', fmm ~ $ 4 ~ 4 . .
In one-rooted verbs it is, of course, like the Present, but
it 'can slways be sufficiently distinguished by adding the
$' (h
w
.
or @, according to 13.). This is used
,.
pmlcle

I . .
in the classical literature indiscriminately in addressihg the
and the lowest persons (or, in other words, as well
mmd, as to pray), but according to the modern
of CT only when ddressing servants and inferior
people. -
2. In forbidd ing, the Present-root is used with
the o g~ t i v epart i d e W, b~.q$c ,do not give!', Wy ,do
,. ..e, Tibetan 431 4
50 38. Imperative. - 39. Intensives.

not w ~ T ~ N,do- net thmr!( - 3. In praying

or wishing (Precaiiative or Optative) either the same forms
as under 1. are used, or the Imperatives of T F 4 ' ,to
' U
come' or K$' ,to come' (the laear, 47,d s quite diffe-
rent root) are connected with the Termin. M u . ~yr4~
~q or
,may (1, pu, he etc) see!' - 4. In
w
none of the three rt person is indicated, but it is natural
th& in commanding and forbidding the subject will be the
second, sometimes the third person; in the precative also
the first person can be understood.
No&. The mmmon language of WT, achowledging
only the Serfect-root, changw nothing but the vowel:
qk ,give !' from 45~&-; horn
,100k!~ yk;
of $,which is not much used, 47~.
(give!) is often
added to tha roots of other verbs (8. 39), thus, $7'4%
ta tols ,t&e out!' from ijSji2~.(qT4.4.).Or the Im-
perative is paraphrased by yQ@' pa (Ld). g~~gd ,mustG,
added to the mot ot the ~ e r :b ~NCTT~
;must be lillsdc.
- In CT the changing of the vowel seems to be usudly
om;tk-' I.--" he is more used. Here, also, the Per-
fect r )t so exclusively peferred.

8s. ~nrensiveverbs. 1. Very frequent in b o o ~ sw m e

 9. Intensives. - 40. Sub& Teibs. 51

oonneotlon ot tne four-rooted verb 374.(Pf, 3q,Fut. CJ'?

Imp. TzT) ,to do', 9 ~ 4(Pf.
eleg ' 43v,Fot
mp. 9 ~ 1respectfully
, ~estl'
( ~ m p .a@$?)
&

43, with
the Term.Inf. of another verb, to intensify the action of
..U" --v
~By this means not only onerooted verbs can
t h e I Rtar.
be macle to participate in the advantages of the fonr-rooted,
as qq?r;l~37
,see4, w % ~ T ~ N . NW~T
,sawc,
wiU see', qg4~3~ ,see!: but also several other

.astical p hrases me gained for speaking mcIre pre-

cisely than 0th:rwise wonld be possible. The Fnture tense
SC'C,~
-
serves, besides its proper notion of futurity, par-
ticulmly eo express
..
the English auxiliaries ,must, ought
L - -

)bas, 4j~ T R C,must J ~not be uttered, ought not

uttered', sometimes it may be translated by the Im-
perativ c mood. The spoken Iangaage, at least of WT, is
devoid of this convenience, and possesses nothing of the
kind. e!xcept the above mentioned intensive form of the
~tive,fon (6. : r;
B.,Note). - 2. .Another
3f intensjive verbsr are f ormed
~ by connectimg two
yqvqjv4'
&
synongmek, ;as I 7 t( be afraid', liter

be fea:r-frjghten.edc,' and other - sirnilar ones.

dive and Auxiliary Verbs. 1.

and respfactful speeoh WTz
r e r used in WT)is the mere means
4*
52 40. Gnbstantive Verbs.

of connecting the attribute with its subject, as: ~~TcY

fl~'@Zj' ,this man is a Ladakea', T@TWTNNW ,is

it you, Sir?'. ~heref&ethe question 837 is to beunder-

stood ,who me you' or ,who i8 heLe t ~ . ,the personal prononn
being often let to be guessed. - 87 itself is oflenamitted
in daily life inWT as well as in poetry, e.g. &FT~~T
.v 9
kS ,this load (is) very heavy' WT. Negatively: w . Q ~ ,
R$ dg. q,resp. W'flTV. - 6) qy god-pa,
yo'-pq eleg. ~ & C S ~r-pa,nsp. qq9;~'LI.
EU~(S)-~Q,O:
a~-,
L

;Etiipo, negat.: b(l'q&., R 4 q 9 means

~ ,to exist:
'w
or ,to be present', ,to be found at a placei, therefore thc
question $$$' is to be understood : ,Who is here? W L
is then?' -- qy and q
v4- are in general use, &V
LJ' is seldom heard. When connected with the native of a
substantive it replraces the English ,to have, to have got', as:
E."U.~W'@? ,I have money'; ~ 3 7 %J hare pain'.
To this cme tbe respectful term is not 799(Nq but
s1C.4. da-wa: if~W$l..8j@'~~y~~
,has not the
-u
King an indisposition?' i. e. ,is Your Majesty ill?'. - c )
q7q.T dug-pa (eleg. TTy9' is seldom heard), xesp,
b

4
w 4', ,to be present, stay, be found at a placei; negat.
b
 40. -Substantive Verbs. ' 53

q ~ r , . .Both 959'4-and qyy' can be used instead

r,thong5 not this instead of tbem. - d) %74*
,,-p, -- nzmr4, neget. w.??'in Spiti d CT, seldom
1 7 , , b

kl

in books. - s) TTY-
n a l y a , &'-pa has a somewhat em-
- phaticd sense: ,to be (something) in ZL high degreet, ,to
be (som It occurs most frequently in the
Gerund with 2
lhen it frequently has the sense of
rl I-
-,auE never mxn a negative.- f) 4' mG-uta,
I

originally ,to appear, t o be visible, extantc, negat. a ~ .

hometunes in books, md common in certain districts. -
rl

books the concluding o (34.) is, moreover, found to

it the veI.b ,to bec in all its meanings, and is capable
nt connected with words of al! classes besides verbs,
the first' -- r\~.Zffl~.
In a similumanner
a.0~ bur; url 01
at.. 7.--
v e impLies the verb ,to
~ ~ l l ~ e r a t i(38.)

fs) The Preterit root for all these verbs is sod

, -- t s beenc, and besides also ,has gone, became', which

->

is its oGginat meaning. - For the use of these verbs as

anxiliaries s. 35. sq.
2. yTJT4. y ,to be olhanged, turned jntl3 some-
'U
thing' then ,to t ;o grow', auxiliary for the Future
= , . nn
&ut*e11 1 the old class~clsllanguage, as mentioned m 34.
Since this can be considered ras the intransitive or passive
notion, opposite to qqq ,ta make, render', the connection
54 40. Snbst. Verbs. - 41. Gerunde and Supines.

of g T 4 - with the Term. Inf. of another verb mest, in

k!
many cases, be r$?ndered by the passive voice in our lwngnages.
In WT' the verl> && Fa-Ee ,to go' is used in tkhe sense
of ,to LEGULW,ba growL. The Perfect root
1 .r--
lul- L*LL
%K'
UULU is

,(went), grew, became, has become, is' (s. above), - In CT

md later books qgr4' is used instead.
b
3. ,must1 is expressed by ~qqy' ,tc be ne
(s. 38. Note). In WT this is used in a very wide s
any possible modification of the notion of necessity: ,I must,
should, want to, ought ' and even ,I will, wish, beg (for
4Z
something)' is nothing. but Cly'TTW ,to me is necessary'
which :maybe, in the last mentioned case, rendered somewhat
more p~olitelyby adding q2~ ,pmy!' E . W ' U V ' ~ ~ N . ~
-
-
, I want potatoes, pray!'
k
is as lnuch to say as ,PVill you
1-

kindly give me some potatoes'. In books nnd morei refined

language several other verbs are used in the samte sense.
viz. ?~qq
, i ~is right to' (usually with I
5L.T ,it is meet, decent', yqy' ,ta wlsh, desire', both
with the Supine; TTyCl' ,to like' with the Dat. 11of. The
TT1m
.L-
popular snbstitute of the last, especially in use in vr 1 , la
r,
of similm meaning, added to t h e root.
. Gerunds and Supines. We retain these terims, em-
ployed by former grammarians, but observe that they do
not refer to the farm, but t o the meaning, well as '

t h ~Gerund
t is not to be understood in the same signification .
 ;atin, but as the GBrondif of some French gram-
mariani3, or what Shakespeare cdls Past conjunctive parti-
ciple inI Hindi. These forms are of the greatest irnpodnce
in Tibram, being the only substitutes for most of those
inate clauses which we are accn~tomedto introduce
iunctions. They are formed by the two monosyllabic
ices (so d t e i the closing comonants 7 + W" N ;
after E. 9. and rowels snd aE.( 2 / ~
,
, 7,,.ig t o the same m l e ns a9( 13.), both of
which are added to the root, or by the terminations men-
tioned in 15. a!3 composing the declension of nouns, which
are added part ly to the root, partly t o the Infin itive or
Psrtici ple.
n. n
u e. run
.
d s.
-
All the following fome can be ~ F UA ~**-a
Gau
I

by the English Participle ending in ing, but the more ac-

curate distinctions must be expressed by various con-
junctions.
dl these t
. ,
lded to the Present-root as w w WI t h e Perfeu-AUU*.
,givingg,45r? ,having given', and stands for all
I beginning with whm, as, e h c e , after. eto. Also in
the spi Znage of WT it is used mt let frequc fitly. -
Exam1 [ @ V B T T ,the~ ~child, having b een car-
& -
;he water, died';
,the kin1;having died, thr
the throne (kings-place)'; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
k-

q4.T ,as there is a great water, we cannot goc.

v

2. 2~ (%eto.), of a similar sense, chiefly used for

smaller clauses within a large one; %yly@B@ ,when>
being displeased, he became angry', or ,growing displeased
and mgr~r'. Often it denotes two actions going on at the
same time, or two strttes of a thing existing together, and
84~87% .
then can only be translated by ,andb, thus,
g a ,without -.
~ end and bound myb; q~~&p9'nl'y.£j
4. ,to eat flesh and drink blood"). It stands also in a
causal sense: ,by doing etc.', a ~ : ~44f~'$cR,%q
,(we)
live by catching fish'. These kwo (1. and 2.) can also, like
the dosing a, as mentioned in 40.1.9, be added to every
class of words, in the sense of b d y : r?'?q]~
4.q ,as you &re high (-born), being of a great family'.
Jn conversation, k' is scarcely -ever heard.
3. Tv (from, or after, doing something) in temporal
clauses with ,after, when, as'; practically it is very much
like 7, snd often alternating with it. In moat cases, in
speaking always, it is added to the root, seldom to the i d -

*) of 34 mil often u m m e the d.Mve-

sign, cf. hnguan ,to feed on'.
 &ampk. ~ V N E N - ~ ~ N ,when
. ~ L ' the night had ,

risen (vi:z. kt d a ~ le went';

will hav9 risen, ;go!L 74 q~*qw'$

sew thai;,raising chmour, 1 wept',

4. 8j' ,in (doing soml:thing) ' again fo:r cIauses with

l P P
,stncq when, as', but in mow cases oy Iar rnr , i f b a d coon-

- .-, ,wuCjll,

@e)
7T4 ,if, or, when (I) go, or went';
a I ~ ~(he)
r has diedL,,if he is already dead';

die, should die', ,if (he) died', ,when(he) diesL;

dq'X .if., do, did'; 97 , i f . . were to do'. It is added
oot, geld.om to the infinitive, and as common in
ss in bock s .
.
. . -
is of more various use. When added to the root,

ke &,which it replaces in the o3nver-

.-I- -ro
aauunltl language of GT (where the first example ul u. would

be, ~ ~ ~ ~ but
w does
~ not~ occur
@ so )often, except
in imperative or precrntive sentences, when it is added to'
the jot of the subordil: ate verb, just like other
gerunds:
-2
rq. ,gob look!',, ,go antI look!L V'(Y'
R ,ris1e and go!'. This 1rarticle, li,kethe ab ioned,
implies Ithe verb ,to be', -%specidly
i when s
G"*" A-. .
- v c a uraoting a, personal qumcy.
I.,

and s
 :tty, being of a 4good figo nice t i I
.I -. r
1
vynen added to the Infinitive, it aenotes: a) or course, m e
real Dative, or gs of the postposition lzIc
with tb subatwntrve; tnus, , ., , TvrjTy4' ,to rejoice at

killing, be fond arly the r

. -
in English, e. g. ~~-~-4~3-~-58i*m%
M
ynln14K~nl~ I 1

49'q ,as thert: was an idol-shrine in t hle middle

-&-
1 r .
way, (she) digh~ea worn (her) chariot';
R-,. " I I
I ,

7 5 ~ ~ ~ 3,as7the king
4 went
' there daily tp
-u b

bathe'; ,an
(it) does not occur in the (whole) world, t h a t is (its) oc-
curring here, or, how is it that is occurs here?'. Findly,
in the Iianguage of commdsn life W Itother
root in order tc express the Eng

v
,

w
-0

,- ,
-- -E\
le, whilsi

(1 5., Note) i?pWT.

i
&Iea6 h ~ -(--
*
8~
il'
. ..
,whk11 meat intcI pieces,
bring you (som e) wood'
.. ..
6. qq-added only to the infinitive, literally
(the do his may mean 4 after',

rise from lying, af Ig yqq-~m=*-'-

l"B.7
w
ping been three days in
 the gra7re '(I) came out ctf the grr le', in
--L:*L
WUJGU a* 8 8 the root of thb n ,.--h
VC,
m r
IJJ-~ UO lDpcaKll,

~tof my walking i.e.when

waunng along, (I) met rltn a nrhmanL; CqTTv U
4 (the above mentioned
C w
example (s. (71') d into
translake#'- classical language); c) dso
the Engrlisb ,being about to' is, in. books, often expressed
L"" LL!-
u v burs Gerund: 3 k 2
, -~ 7,when $
(1) was
about tc enter, the door was shut'; 3rl.nl~.37qq4~
_ ,,, ,
mz* ,when 0)
. - was going to die, (I) wqs restored to life
Which of the three is the real eaniag, will in
most cases be d:ear from circumstances. This gerund i s
not usel1 in talking, at least in WT.
3 ~(.3 ~ . 3 (3 etc.) or eto.), or t mental
itnu ~--~-- ~ n i t cases
i v e of the root, mean a) ,uy uomg some-
thing' o: :', ..g. q&!.~wqt.rcome (here), ,J R e I

oecause ....,,,eswry6. ~ $ v ' ~ ~ w -=---el-.

~ . " IW@,F
N-~L
nce I am resolved to help you, do not be depressed!'
... .
A
-31
isyB, function of the Jnst~umental.o n ]* ~ .bht
~ L O .~ r l p ~ l l t l ~ 2

j n later t,imes th e other (:ases alscI m e use!d in this mean-

ng. - 6 ) more freqnently they are nsedI adversa~tively,
. - ..- - .. - - .
.I r
Ily when
c . *
:d with
26--
F 47- [W. 1-,el,

a~qq oagh (you) did

60 41. A. Gerunds. 8. 9. - B. Supines.

say so, by what shall (I) believe (it)?' In other cases

it mrty be left untranslated when the next sentence will
commence with ,bat' : w . ~ ~ c ~ T % ~ N ' ~ N .~
q%wXi; ,not liking delicate food, he ate vulgar foodCor
,he did not like d. f., b u t preferred v. f.L. This Gerund is
scarcely used in talking, at least in WT.
8. YW (4W), the Instrumental of the Idnitive, ,by
(doing something)' is, of course, the proper expression for
,becaused,but also very often used indiscriminately for
5
only for the sake of varying the mode of speaking:
4 f Q ~ ~ R , ' @ ~ Z / ,because
~ it is very d i f 6 d t C ; yq'
4 q ,when (he) looked'.
9. Also q~the proper use of which has bean shewn
above (35.2. d.) must be mentioned once more as it occurs
in a similar fieme to a ~ ~, 4 ~
,walk on praying (preces faiendo) !'; qrq~r;'% 5-
-,
beat in^ (her own) breast and weepingi.
S upi n e s. They are expressed simply by the Ter-
mlnstlvs Case of the Infinitive or of the Root, &$47

or ~ C T,to
' see'. In many instances the use of either is
b
optional, in .others one is preferred. Their use is: with
E6 like the Latin Erupine in a, e.g. 1

,-----2
...
TO learn-; w ~ t hverbs expressing ,to go, to send'etc.,
d s o ,to pray' etc. like tbr : $TZ%~~F
,gotofetch',

q q % v,(I) beg
b
(You) to permit, - for permissionb.
Tn these cases the root is most common, but the Inf. 4a4-
YT, or IT may E ed. 2. AJ
use of tl rjth verb: ation ant1, less
frequent1.y, with tllose of declaration, where we use sentences
with ,thlat' or tht: ParticilIle or Infinitive: 1.%'4?.bV~
,setGng (his) mother coming' (instead of which, how-
ever, ?(-4.
i may be said as well); '' *~$TWWW.~~.
- .u

1 ~ 4,knowii
~ 'ng that the time of . . .in$; bad arrived'

(lit: ,tha ,t it had wme down ,to the time'),!; i gWbTR!

Z
/

\W,remembering him to bt:the kilyys son' 01 ,that b

..'.- 6) in m adverbial sense, when we s:aY ,so

u t l m r .1 ,-"
",
capeciaUy in negative sentenc~~, +L
A" nt'mn+(
,,ithout
urmu uvu
m

. . .ins', q ~ . 3 ~ * ~ * &,so' 4 r nobody may (did) per-

that
ceive it', or ,withoot anybody perceiving it.'

I . The modern language of WT uses in the first

flak
instance (B. 1.) either the s i m ~ l eInfinitive, 4~9'k!'(q~1'
2 i ~ q ) - o r t h e same with W,a f l ~ 2 ~ . ~ . p m
1- nr mi& EJq (for the y*
22-. ".,
ot the books S. 7.2.), 4Sjq

'p@;in the 81:cond either the same forms, or

.
Particular one. -wL:u*lLc u Vonsists in repeating the h a 1 con-
sonant of the mat with the vowel a, to which d s o W may
be added : tlrus, $74'$!,E'~E.W~~( Y

,(I) have come to meet you'; in the third, the direct Im-
Qerative adding for the sake of civility, ~ T L W
U k
,pray permit!"
In the case of B. 2., insteed of ml.Z$~45'ml*q~';

the expression in common use will be ~ 4 .orq ~ ~

4T, eitherthesame
instead of ~ N . ~ C ' X I . &
~5$r~';
form, W ~ T T , or the Gerund, bl.gy5.- In CT those
examples would respectively, stand thus, qy4.7 or 4a4-
k

a' or 484.4qy~5~777q
ldh-tu,
V
ldb-ba (sounding al-
most E-wa), ldb-pa (pla-h kag-po; in the third i n s t m c c
a pecnliar word, ,rogL, is nsed, which is said to be origi-
nally the same as T ~ (%'
w) ,Ciend,assistanLntL ,and ser-

ves now as t h e respectful substitute of a~ le of the

Imperative, TF~T' ,pray ', 9iij r give!'

Instead of ml.gqqetc. the most usual form in CT will
be the simple Participle, xl.4~9..
Note 2. All the forn'IS, of cotm e , where 4' or 4' are
met with might in certaiin cases belong t o the Participle,
and not to the Infinitive
Note 3. The reader . any r n d ~
tensee of the elass of P~u~e-~.rer;r; I L L -A-
 41. B. Supinea, Notes.

indeed, there exists no form of the kind, and they car1 only
be reade:red by a Gerund, e.g, q-:
@T%~4w'qnl'%T
,when (1~ e )had v e letter, 'fie) sent (it) offb; Qq
T, GT: J

e) shaIl have written the 1etter, (he!) will

kJ
sent (it) offc. Neither have the Conditional or Subjuncti~e
any spet:id form. T ~ U S , eg., JI
-..
we &d not do that, we could not live (;.en we cannot earn
our suste'nanosinanyothermanner); $ ~ ~ T ' T?%
~ ~ ~ ~
I
R F
79 -
1
.
>W" y should net I hear (grant) what you say (your

wish)?'; ~ ~ V ~ @ ~ ~ ~ V MW S
.n, .
,U \you) had not explained it, and (we) had not seen the
signs, w8
e mould not hare understood itb; WW&$V
rn
W n d ' 9 4' . ~ ~not find it, I must
~ a ~man~ would
,as

emmation'; vulg., WT,

L R - x T T sjf~the~dishuue
k
~ ~ was
' not so great,
uld come t o me (visit me)'. Here may be added,
the intention of, er attempt at, doing something
ressed by the simpIe verb: thus, 477'9~4~
3~ ,though I did tr:r to hind(?r him, I could
yt'; ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w c ~ $ 1 ' g~@q-
~ ~ w c
4~Fn,~q%~-qqq-~~@$
b -
,as he saw his own disoipli
64 A Survey of the p h i p a l form&of t h e E t e Verb.

on the point of springing into the water (and that he had

sprung oft' the bank), he held him back bjr the force of bis
magic, so that he did not touch the water' (3. 41. B . 2. b.).
m.
Especially the gerunds in n T q (41. A. 6.) nave .I'L
onen this
meaning: 477 . & ~ . ~ L ' ~ W T W N ' @ ~ ~ ~
,when I was about to be p&ed from life, he saved itL;

-w
,the snake, having become angry, though she in t en te d (or:
had at &+st ink) to let out her poison, reflected thus'. As
ivill be seen from these examples, the action, in such cases,
is &ought to have begun in fact.

A Survey of the principal forms of the Finite Verb.

Present:

'JI~, W 45CRJ" give

W$q@4'& j j ~ ~ p ( ~ ?1jsee
~f intens. ~!t.4~37
c fl%-q-q? (or q.1
w .r*q4.;7T k q.);
c w*;il.q~
I am seeing
Perfect:
W ~ $ ~ g w r . , h a l
wqr C q'iicss
w
saw, w
went went
n, inten IygW'
~ g.~Q m
4 5 ~ ~ 4has' 4been
 42. The Adverb. 65

Future:.

l5" w T ~ Tshall, will give

jQF.4 c
b7 ~ ~ R i ~ ainjt ens. ~ ~ @ I T T
SW, see
@@f~,$ q 4 q q ~will arrive

Imperative:
K w @ f ~give! 4 5 4 i taka out! qwi/7qq kill!
w'B* see! intens. w ~ ~ T
.
o n o t X1
* do not give! N%@~Tv$
M.Y

Chapter VIII.
The Adverb.
42. We mag
d i s t i o e h three classes of adverbs:
. Primitive adverbs. 2. Adverbs formed from Adjectives.
Adverbs formed from Substantives or Pronouns.
1 w
,ry few Primitive Adverbs occur; the most usual
low', F,v ,whenc, NC (books and GT) or T?
I'l* a I -r.n and a few similar ones;
rnorro~~, UTf' ,againL',
nd the tt
- - ~n
ves
. plvrrrr~luvo sentences,
8 and F.T', the Iatter of which is
and with a pmt tense, as
t gi~e',%c;' ,(shall
I) not give', bat:
a no e L j ~ 4 7 ,do
q ~ ((WT: ~ not
)
66 42. Adverb.

give!' The verbs % nlTW, fl&, $7 have alwaye

4' instead of 3 before them (40.). Another particle of
this kind, of a merely formal value, is T, which is added
to any word or gmap of words in order to single it out
and distinctiy separate it from everything that follows. It
i s , therefore, often very useful in lessening the great in-
distinchess of the langnage, especially so when separating
the subject from the attribute: 8q?kjnl.57sl~.q.ry"~ ,that
man is a Ladakee'. (There is scarcely an adequate word
t o be found in our modern languages, but the Greek ys,
or PEW-ds--, are very similar.) fn hlking it is seldom
F.
E\

heard, and, when used, in WT pronounced: I

2. Adverbs may be formed from any Adjective by

putting it in the Terminatire m e . 4 3 ~ $,good: 43c-Y~
,wellb; q4- ,principal <, q4.5' ,principal, very ';
k
3 59'
,violentL, or ~ S (,violen~y6.
S
3. Nearly all the local Adverbs axe formed from
Substwntives or Pronouns with some, loeal Postposition:
Tf ,the place (space) above, upper pad: T v ,above4,
TSJ,upwards4,TE;'~v ,from above (downwards)'; ~y
,this', T ~ ?in
T this, ~ 7 5TTT
here', , ,hither, here'
(cf. l5.), @t3iqr ,hencet; 7 ,that4, $4 ,theret, ?S,<T
$hither, there: q q ~,fmm
. there. deoce, then. sRer that'.
 43. Poetposition. 67

f6. In taking the simple adjective is used, mostly,

instead of its adverb (2. class): C ~ ~ I N for
. ~ S -
>qniekIy, soon'.

Cbapter VII11.
rn
The Postyo sition.
There are two kinds of Postpositions: I. Simple
rostpositions. These are the same that we h o w already
sxs forming the cases (15). 2. Compound Postpositions,
rormed in the manner of local Adverbs (42. 3), with which
they are, indeed, with n few exceptions, identical.
S i m p l e P o s t p o s i t i o n s . These are: W(tbeaffix
Dative), 3,'(Locative), 5iW and WN' (Ablative),

-
or m e

g,7,s(Terminative). --
eir use will be best seen in tbe following examples:

1
-- -l-'hy5'
IT V- II
~ of4@v 38,
WT, 3 ~ ~ 3 (inst
~te)CT ,pot the degchi on the fire!'.
- , vulg: T , '~CTWW
T ~ R ~ Tsang:
v
?$"IN. ,the ass rolls himself on the ground'.
b

TwR?(or sq-)Cq
,l ,having mounted on the horse (he)
go he) goes on horseback'.

ba
 sl%;nl.q')qW.vynl.sg5.nW; GT: gqwqy-
b

nf~azi* R 5 T ,the bird flies in the sky7.

fl&j W&$T WT, FjTnl'9qfJ%~
CT ,(we) shall set
V
out at nighttA
?~.?j~?v$
CT), T ~ s ~ F T c % ,
(books and
W T ,being very glad at thisb.
QajWvWzj' ,skilful in medicinec.
~nl"$.~s% , $!~
vnlg: i;
,invit6d ' to beer'.
him
S@Tm~slq. WT, flTTTsly CT i s (there) ache in
-w
(your) head', ,have you head-ache?'

11 4'. 5 '". 11
@!'T 3 %?,vdg: T4Krlrlnl' (or 5 )q~ ,(he) is
(OT

in the 1 OUW, at home'.

B~5qr,vulg : (or W) gt ,,go into the house,
home!'.
~ q qv.u ~~
b
,
g ~3 : ,at a certain^ time, oncec.

~qq9'4977(books) ,fmm t h d in~ (&) seven days'.

b
srvqqcsqyT; WT : W . ~ ~ V ~ ~ ~ C W ~ S ~ T
V

~ d ; l 4 ~ ' ~ 4 r ',the
~~ ~ ~ carried
mother % $ the~ ,son
-
a
'
in (he;) armsc.
3?5~$$,n l g : TTW k!
,at that time'.

$4573 (books, for TI&. st38 Compound adv.) for seven

 48. 1. Simple Postpositions. 69

~ s~K~N~' ~, ,W:
% + J N . V Y (or vri:~m
,(they) made (or selected, raised) that man to (he) king'.
4 : ~mgy(or KnlT) PWW
437' ,(they) made (their) luggage into ~1 pillow, used
it as a pillowL.
7C.T (or 7.5)TT, WT: 75ST4' (8.35.2.3 q~
v
o d t k d , ' 40. 1. a), CT : 4'p!"(@q~@j*
(4. or YN.,
incia1 irregularities 85.2. c) ,where are (you) going?'
(0. PT'NTW)
q g v
~ c(rulg.)
U
i ~ ,I~am~going
'in0 (or K'oksar)'.

34-43qN' ,after eight months'.

$om (after) the eighth monthL.
r~flq~
(books and DT), WT: @WY ,from tho
beginning'.
11 "N'T
I
~~~~~~
'

,from the window, through the window'.

~ ~ ~ < . w N d' g~: ~ ~4 T , 4 ,to deliver

from the circulation (transmigration)'. .

s,y-" l ~ ~ 4 ' 3 WT
~ 4: qN.,
. , Tssng: q%q~a U

JO build a house out of brick (Ts: a houae of b~rick)'.

f i - q ~,from
. the siltra Zamatog'.
70 43. 1. Simple Postpoaitiona:

* v ~ T ~ Q T L *) ~,one
w ofT ~
(from among) the pupils'.
34qvsrpw4 (books and CT), WT:A ~ ~ $ N c T N .
4. ,wiser than $1, the wisest, most skilful of dl'.
$$P+~W~;T'~W%
,more ihnn two are not left'.
C ~ N . ~ Q Y,more
~ ( than
. myself are not'.
k
Besides these TL*,withLis to be mentioned as Simple
Postposition: thus, S , F~id-7~
@ ~ ' ~ c ~ ~ NWT:
,speaking (oonrersing) with the youth'; C T ,with
me: or, in f d e r form, c ~ c ; C7r4W3
- ~ ~ ~
b

vulg: C : ' / C ~,together

Y ~with me'. In WT it is even
u sed for the instrnmental when the real instrument '(tool)
o anfN =ti on is meant, e. g. 23@$kT'&TVT9~*487
so in books, but WT: W@~E.~JNS
,the king killedthe
minister with the sword'. It is, moreoPer, added to many
Adjectives and Verbs, when- we use the Accusative or Dsr
tive or ether Prepositions, e.g. Tr/t~54',like (with)
that, similar to thatc. Witb an Infinitive it denotes the
synchroni:sm of the action with another one,
E ir ,with
the sun rising, at sunrise4; E~]%%$F~-?C
,with
(on) their going to sleep, when they went to sleep4;
& ~ & I ~ . ~ c ~,(with) v ~ saying
$$K so he went home6
or d s a ,he said SO, and went home'. Often it is found with
 43. 2. Compound Postpomnons. 71

n Imperative, without any perceptible signi if it

13 not to be regarded as a substitute fox % Bo,: 7 A?
low eat!'. For its use L ~ Sw conjunction see the next chapter.

ompound Postpositions. These memy con-

v be grouped in two classes: a) Local Compound
Eostposl~ions, which are virtually the same as the Local
'7
pecified in 42.3. : thus, qE' ,in (tlha midst of)',
t' also ,inc, Fv*,from, 01 ~tof'. T'he most 1~suaI
n e s will ' be seen in the following examples:
$ q - q*~( a r s ) F N . ~ Y ' / . ~bathe
W
. ,to in a pond'.

qg(w ,he entered into the waterr (both in books

U

: o m o n talk).
$FTT?F'~: ,the iora among

+i.q~q~*qq(or Rv~ E ?~ ~ 1 s . nes (emer.ges)

out 0f the house'.

RT ~7 J 7, (or o r q),above the door' (books and

, but more usual in WT: g ~ CT' ,y e ) :
d-

,w 1 : 4 *0 )
v
CT
also 7 % ,he
~ died before his fatherL
*-.* .
g., in

WT: T ,to sit on a

lotus-
 ~ ~W, or q? (books and talk) ,beside,nesr
% 8 , 7 3 , (or
b
the doorb.
4 ii1'5K-7.d g .
k b
: M T V , ,
w
gy ,under a tree
UiteralEy: ,in front, by the side, of a tree').

qsl.aQ~3(srr~~)
k
y a ~ r,~ 'take
3 k k
before t h e
judge'.
YTEcNWT
~ T ~ ~ ~ CT, ~'N,&er .eight months'.

a4'4(3@~7~
(or p5j'W) mlg. ,before two months,
v
two months ago'.
@ ~ ~ ~ ~ ' books ~ CT,
j ~ and ~ WT:
l ; r

*Tarn ,to hide a treasure below the ground'.

~?49'9W~c;'4'
CT, WT: ,to
emerge, come out, from below the ground'.
& books and CT, in CT &o :

WT: 5 , q~rqq.
,beyond the water, river'.
&flfr7 books and CT, WT : t & F,on~thia side
of the water4.

qyw-5(or qN.)4r5q4-Tfpj9747933i'3f:>
GI-: v

~l'Xnt'y$j~%~,
WT: q q
-u
< ~ 3 ~,in~ (after)
~ 4
three days he will arrive beyond this plain, will have
crossed it'.
F C C T ~ T T,inVthe~four
@regions
~ of the house,
ronndwbout '.
 43. 2. Compound Postpositions. 73

{ ,go in the direction 4

~ ~towards, that ~
village'.
F474'34~7, W T : 6 ~ 4,for.
DT : *477q9'(~1.), ''
b v -u v
seven years'.
SqwqErr;~5;.7, l ' ~R
CT: ~ T q ~ % - q 4WT:
b
, ~WW
k
6 7 ,from
~ this to thai'.
w ~ ~ ~ ~ & . WT,
& ,ti1
~ I~ go. t o ~ u l \ u ' .
b

6) General Compound Postpositions, expressive of the

meral relations of things and persons. They are farmed
JI the same manner as the Local ones, from substantives,
sdjsctives, and even verbs. Their use may be learned from
the folIowing examples:
E @ T ( ~ ) or q~books
k
and CT, WT: ~qpr4.
,for
me, in my beha14 for my sake, on my accountL.

' ,for what reason has that illoess came? what

- -

is the cause- of etc.?'.

Nwyr RN'T 335 ,in behalf of all living beingsb.

stead of woodL.
4 % ~,according to, like, as' - ~ ~ ~ q ~
v ,doing according to the word of the king'; 7
4&3 ,according to that, like that, thus, soc; ~ a l . 4 M ~
it the dialect of WY
,as formerly, ae before'; instead of
uses qcf$'T;',
generally with the Genitive, thua the laat
example there would be: ~ ~ w ~ ~ ~
yq ,likec, Tyy ,like a hill'; R,Tyq, ~ Y T$like I

this, like ihat, thua, so, ~ Y T CT:

, 9(CyT. ,like what?
bow? in what manner?'.
In the dialect of WT w ~ T F J ' or ~@$YN.$is used

baoh with the same meaning): thus, ,like

s hill'; TT* T F ~ ~,thusc;
N ' or (properly
d ~ )&ST,
, WsT ,thusL, T'EjT ,how?'.

Chapter IX.
The Gonjanotion.
44. The written language possesses very few, the
spoken still fewer, Conjunctions, most of which are coordi-
native. The common word for ,and' is Trwhich we have
seen above in the sense of ,withi, 9 (3~~ ~1
75WYE.1
3y~.~'q7;14.4*
,gold and silver and iron and collection
(i, e. and so on)', though the position of the. 2nd (ld.) after
the word TF shows that it is dwayys considered as.belong-
ing to the preceding member of the sentence, simiIm, in
 44. Conjunction. 75

\ i s respect, to the Latin ,¶net; nor can it in m y case

?gina sentence. Very seldom, and only in later literatnre,
appears as combining two verbs, if not, indeed, the root
~ghtto be regarded there as abbreviation for the infini-
re. Further: YF ,also, toob. W h e n belonging to a single
ord or notion it is put nfter it in an en~litica~l
way like
uoqueCin Latin. It is changed according to the termi-
tio on uf the receding word, into 3E' after 7 5'
4-
w*),into often after vowels (cf. 6). Thus: 3%
gcB 7 ;taking also a son (with him)'. When repeated,
it has the signification of Latin ,eta et-: N . Y C ~9.,
\
IC*!~ ,both mother and son died'. Often, especially
h
negative sentences, it means ,evenL,~ 3 ~ ~ ~ b
ven one (they) did not find - not even one'. This is tLe
~1gmeans for prpressiog ,none, no, nothingc, %s (or

C) VCV?$N. (resp. ~ G W ,,nobody

) came'; T7dl.a.
C(
I 8 ~or,ac) $7 ,there is nothing' (ef. 29). When
combined with verbs, 4 b ~ y ~ searching
,wen ~ $ ~
(they) did not 5ndL, it serves a9 another expression for
loughi or also ,butG(s.41.A. 7.6): thus, ,though they search-

-1, they etc.' or ,they searched, bat they etc.'. Standing

') This is not verg cmefnlly observed even in good mscr. and
prints, where qC;" will occur sometimsa after7' etc., and Tc' ,
 76 44. Conjunction. - 45. Tnterjection.
for itself (not leaning on the preceding word) it mems
,agnin, once moreC (when it is to be regarded as adverb),
$ . T ~ ~ E ' T ~ N,there
' ~ N(I)
. fainting once more eta.'.
I n the beginning of a sentence it is ,and, again, moreover',
, and may occasionally be rendered by ,however, butc.
WT, ,or'; repeated, *' - w$.
,either-or-'.
- ,OrL is expressed also by the interrogative affix of the
finite verb (34, I.), TW etc., 4 @ ~ % n l % i ~ 1 13EN.
?gb.~'F,a bottle of gold, silvel; or copperc. - ?kiF
eless, but', volg: @,'F
occurs moch less fre-
,,,,y in Tibetan ~ h a nin the European languages.
The only Subordinate Conjunctions arc: 1. 7 ~ 7
,if ', introducing coaditiond sentences ending in (40.1.
A. 4 ). But, as the conditional farce really rests on the closing
7, the initial 4lnl.Y may be put or omitted at pleasure; 2.
39 ,but if 7wij.qbq..
j ?if I can .. .', % ? 3 q ~ . ~
m.
v b
,but if not . . .'; ttiis last is found only in books.

Chapter X.
The Interjection.

45. Tha most common Interjection is 3, repeat-

or,

ed, 33,oh!, alaslL used also befork the Vocative. The

language of common life uses instead: wa, or @ w;.
 46. Derivation. 77 +

Chapter XI.
Derivation.
46. Derivation of Substantives. As most of what belongs
der this head has already been mentioned in 11. and 12.
ly the formation of ahstract nouns remains to be spoken

of. 1. The unaltered adjective may be used as an abstract

m, especially with the article 9, as: ~ 4 . ~ 4
aq ,the cold is changed into warmth'. - To this may
;dded the pronoun %
(gK"4.5,ipaum frigidurn');
t this is used scarcely mywhere else than in rnetaphy-
a1 treatises, from whence a few expressions, such a s
y4.R ,the vacuum, the ahsolute rest in deliverance
fro m existence "have become more gonerall y known. -
2. In the case of two correlative ideas existing, frequently
the: ~omponodof both is used, esp. in common talk, 2 6 ~
,sip:ab(lit. ,large and small'), TwEJ ,thicknessL(,thick and
tbi!d), kg. ~ g ~ ~ ~
,the L~e as fmuchl as ~
a b ~
b

mmtard-seedL.- 3. pL/.,differencec (or, sometimes, dy7

x~,measureG)is added, a;l@'~ ,heightL,mBT ,wedh,
bes4. - 4. ~ e n ' t aqualities
l
M
are in most cases paraphrased
G'qW, or 3 with a genitive, 434434~
,mind
endoring, i e. patience', ,wise
--,,,,urn, &illt; TTqiq&~
,mind of rejoicing,
 joy' (vulg : 77"4?&~ ,mind of belief
$~6$~yyq),
(also ,a believing mind'), faith'. - 5. Diminuti vt$ 8 are
formed by adding the termination GJ', often with arI alk-
ration of the preceding vowel: $ ,horse4, ,little horse,
R
foal'; M' ,manL, Qs ,little man, dwarfb;
,stoneb, &
,small stone, calculusi. If a word ends with a cons
only zc is added, and a new syllable formed: y? ,s

+
47. Derivation of Adjecfives. 1. Possessive' adjectives
are regularly expressed by adding the syllable y,or the
phnse YCq4'4', abridged FFi to any substantive, @f
ing a b e d b ; $ w T,having
~ the head of s manb;

having hair, (long-) hired'; , $.q'

y&*TT(q ,possessing knowledge, learned, wise'; SrYT
y' is never heard in common talk hi W,T. - 2. Adjectives
of appurtenance me generally expressed by the geniti~eof
the substantive, 7 3 ~ ,of3 gold, goldenc; -@$T ythe
eye of flf?sh, the carnal, bodily eye: oppos. ~ ( N . T @ W ~
:

,the eyt of knowledge, spiritual eye 4 . - :3. Negative, or

r l ~ v ~adjectives
mw:m.-,t:~
~ e are formed innseveral ways: a) by the
simple negative %, 84~4.
,unworthy'; R ~ K F,un-
1
.~.
st'; %f*q ,unheaxd of'. 4) by adding 37 ,withoat'
 47. Derivation. 79

737 ,headless'; 8 9 7 ,faultlessc. o) by adding the

b gW(4") ,separated from', aVTF'5Jnl'a',gVgW
m-ated from t h e body, bodiless'. - 4. The English
adjiectives in -able, -ale are expressed by sc4' ,to befit',
addled to the Sopine, or to the simple Root, 7%5'3r9',
-u
E'sF',fit for drinking, drinkable', vulgo: 9 F f l
v
 48, Arrangement of words.

Part 111,
Syntax.
48. Arrangement of wards. 1. The invariable rule is this:
in simple sentence aH other words must precede the verb;
in a compound one a11 the subordinate verbs in the form
of gerunds or supinea, and all the coordinate verbs in the
form of the root, each closing its own respective clause,
must precede the governing verb (examples s. below). -
2. The order in which the different cases of substa,ntives
belonging to a ver h are to be arranged, is rather optional,
so that c.g. the agent may either precede or follow its ob-
ject. Local and temporal adverbs or adverbial phrases are,
-
if possible, put at the head of the sentence. 3. The order
of words belonging to a substantive is this: 1 The Geni-
tive, 2. the governing Stibstantive, 3. the Adjective (unless
this is itself put, in the g~nitive,before; 16), 4. the Pronouu,
o. the Numeral, 6. the indefinite Article: thus, KF$~&K*
,this my little daughter'; aiq-'iq~.q~-
,a red

or yqq 9 TW,the red goan ';

.-+%
gown' ; Tq*yb;l.~'q
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .,these~ three
$ great
~ kingdoms'.
~ ~ ~
Adverbs precede the word they belong to: ~TT%@
v
,very great'; %u~ & I ~ T N ' very
,come ~ Tquicklyc.--
T~
 the Casea

mltltive sentences (:cf. 29) tlhe Relitive precedes

:: the stratise: ~F~T~'T%@T ,what there is,
g;. give whatever you have', and in comparative '

- -- mt.rrr;va bfie thing with which another is compared, or-

wrily precedes tbis (cf. 17).

49. Use of the cases. As the necessary observations
)at the iiistrumental have been made in 30, ahout the
.er oases and postpositions partly in 15, partly in 43, it
.-I-
b u r . Accusative, that requires a few words more, - -
J u r LL I

s very often used absolutely (as in Greek). a) AI

&?% ,at night'; ~ $ ,dud $
~~~~
:

(his etc.) lifetime'; $qz,q y ,at that time';

b
,, 484.pd'qq
.- ,having studied for one day, after one day's
st~, r) Ace. modalis: 5343
the amr;. 7% M'wypY,
~ u ~ n d ~ ; , ~wding ,

rth, eight, cubits' (cf la); p ' ~ ~ ~ ,re-

~ ~ ~
. k
m
,A:--
-r *-I,
UVIOU~, being like smoke' (cf. 50, 1, a); 5EJFN'
th regard ta @is) birth, equal". e ,of equal
m - ++-e (42. 1) is very often employed: 73~.
c. Nearly in all cases, however, pastpositions
y De add in talkirm we preferred to the
sim r; 54'; 734~
'T
 50. Simple Sentences. .ve sent ences.
- a) tlie attribt~ t being
e a UUUU, the verbI: to Be, 8

vsmaain etc.: 8(:

p p p v * ~ ,this
Q~ 1138m is wise
? & ~ + jil [Tlq4',this is a wise man.. *=I1
5~
11
e verb
nen m
is 93Tg' (to become), ' (to remain) ete. the wt-
v
tdbote mast be put in the Terminative: $~~TT-~T V

,(his) hair became whitec; q N '

1g: 4% qq~'4.qq
,t he king remained stead-
his vow '; In some sped:a1 cases this may take
pafie, G V
:c~ the verb is ~ i m p l l,tn ha' : PJwql7mXr
2
uU

qI EVTRV~T
"~v'14(1'$7 k
l

vlrrauapt! was like a man", his foot only was p+

b) the attribate being any other verb: 3
f 8?Wnl'
4 c
43 q 2 w ~ M q ~ 3 ~- 5. R ~ 3 7 ~I 75
4 '37
2q-=@F"e4"aqm
,a ancient king of C i ,t a very
I--.--
all in the north oi that country'.

Interrogative r es. - a) s i m p l o : 579

house?'; $ 5 ~
'
vho i s there?'; %' what do you corn e for?',
,

rC ,A+

do you v
' much (is) the 1
... .
R ,es~desthe athx am the later merature m a the con-
 50. Simprde Sent. -- 51. Compound Swlt.
languag(eofCThras the accentuated interrog:ttive
-
$' i.", $mutediwtely before tlI,verb:
article I# q4q@q7
rb L
! y;' ,is there my means .. . .?' ,; WV+&C+~V
w
i dijP d ,can you do this work?'.
A$

The form of a question is also used to express uncertain

oppositions (likely t o oecome realized),
I ,
W: $~y'37~~
s forgetting possible?' for ,he may possitdy have forgotten
L; y ~ ~ ,won't die?'; f~
~ he T ~ ~4 7 ~~ ~ 9 4 ' 4 ~ , t h
U
I) is not the devil, 1 Lope?'.
boble: FT~$'T~;T'$+T ,is @e) within or not?';

I T T W & ~ ~ ~ ; ' C & ~ C ,is it agreeable (to you i. e. do

w
ou consent) to give me (yoor son) or not?'; E.~CWY'$
3 ,are you sorry at my arrival, or what
else) i s the matter (with you - hecause yon weep)?<.
3. 1mperat.ive and Optative or Pseeative sentences do
ot require any additionaI remarks besides wbat is said
i 38

ompound Sentences. After having examined in 41

ue clinerent gerunds as the &nstitusnt parts of compound
B few e will suffice for il'lustration
)mpoiind sentencesI, for the 3most part coordino
m . 3 1 . -
L ~ G ~ LWUI*
+ dake' esp, ,institute,
. t ~

6%
 51. Compound Senteneeg. 85

%BYTI)
J ~ T T J % ~ ~ ~ ,There being certain two women
k
larrelling about one boy, the king (being) wise of under-
anding having examined (the case) thos ordered: You
qo, Laving seized from each (side) a h ~ n dof the boy,
111 and who gets him, (she) may m r y him off. -- When
? had so spoken, she who was not the boy's mother, be-

luse she had no compassion for the boy, not fearing (she
ight) hurt (him), pulled with what force she hid. She
ho (in truth) mas the boy's mother, because she had
rmpassion with the boy, fearing (she might) hurt (him),
,ough she was able by force, did not pull hard. The king
lid to her who had pulled hard: Because this, not being
)ur son, is the sther woman's son, say (it) outright'.
Then he had so spoken, as he had turned out to be the sou
' the gentle puller, (she) carried off the boy'.

17) 4~ ,&her4, h o s t always with the in-

:bn. article; 13. fin. - 18) q' is- somet.imes pleonastically

IN' (4q3, to strengthen its meaning. 191 43.2.

I\ **-. perf. p, imp. @. 21) w4* , 3T.
perf.
k
l b
1s he has come to bec.
A cotIection of phrases from daily life, in the Imodern dim
romanized.

W T #yod gd* p a , Where do yon come from?

CT Ry6' gd-y y&.
W Jcjlod C Ey6' s. 3. Who are yoo?
su pifi,
W @od (C &') $1) ~ n . * ) Whose (man ;) are
you?
W ?&od r d d i mi6 Ei zer, What is your name?
c 1&'-rEyi mih-la 4an z&- (rule 34. 2. e is not t
ga' yi;'-$am. observed)
W kjtdd-di &$&-pa gci-na Where is yo
YO^,
c KyC'-iy h i - p a gili -nu
yii'(-pa).
W Qod ?d-la yoli, Wh: come?
'
I

C IEyii' g'ari- b y&. ( yon wanit?)

Why
- -
W & h ldug- ~ ale: y u u here?

W da r).ruk-i% dad. I sit here to watch.

W di g%&Ea' m i k & i
zer, m.e- of this
What is the n a - -- >

a ,I$& z&- vi
sa.

*) The numbers refer t o the notes at t h e end of the collec~on,

~ S are most disfigured
exhibiting the spelling of some of the W O ~ that
in pronunciation.
**' - d ~ m 41, NoL- '
 P h m ee. 87

z 3sl-wa2) %g Have you anp errand ,(bn-.

Y&, siness)?
1 4 6 ' la dgm hi9 yZ'-dm.
? tari m d ; Ed=-EayoG(g), Not m y ; I h a ~ ecome t o no
3 >a6 d ; &n - m d ' - l a purpose.
yoJon.
V du fug pa fud-Eela h6- Then go home to eat (drink)
pa-la-&. yonr soup.
W yod: BEi-Ea 7113m.3) &ig Yes: please give me some
s aZ4), medicine.
C yF': 6d-ka mars. 2ig na&-5)
sog.
v sid-la zag" yod, Ts sug I am ill (I have got, am
D~~~)-YG befallen with, an illness)
b d - l a n d - f s a &fig)-@
dw.
vFT zCr-mo rug, C - -dug. X feel pain.
V gci-na, C 'Wbere?
v d d+a9)-la, C $6'-pa-la. In the stomach.
VV yd-la z q rag, C - - -yT. I have heagache.
W La-2a ya&-pa-la Fa-&-la Weshould have takeh a walk,
fia%.-te rag. but it is too hot.
VG di len. Take this!
V di f i g e ~ ,C: di RUT sod. Take this w i t h (yon)!
dk k'yot, C di RUT Bog. Bring this!
-z@g 80-Ee, C di How shdl 1 d
- agio) y' tmi (or
wl @fi ( ~ m - ~ d .
di-zug Eo nas' goa ($of, Yon must not do it in this
Say.
 :ases.

I wanti some ITlore milk

..I $ tag-mo t o , d di ldg-

?*
n da+i pul Wash it with sand!
b je-ma f@.
W d a - b iF.u Eud zad (C a$) me som
2 ig nalii'J) &$ (C Sg). se!
W Zciq-pa bdg-mo ydd-da, n r e {your) u m u a wezsll
C E ~ Y - W A O (la-mo,
m i - w a ) .4 yG'.
< Vlr o-ma fsag-~ij-Ea fs#g Filter we m u curoutru WE

filtering cl
C - - - €sag iog.
7% f a 0 ~%-se di Eog-la h-Put the little s t u v t : cuere!
hi,4 6y @d)-
la kt
Wp'dm-ctm~ sa-la ~0614) Putthepot(&t-11uu~non
{@~b-i the ground !
' C: sa9i15) b-iig.

I As s130n 8 8 sets,
, ligb.t a fire!
g-la - -a

: 808. fetch tble china!

h -
a iw. uome to take away - - -
 Phrases. ,39

nao18) da& t i - ~ z a If you ws s h with cold water,

I C ~ T - ~ ~ mi
E ~ ~d ) q (or the china does not become
karyol tq-mo nai za- clean; wash it well with
yin); fadn-te %igIrt&- some h o t (water)!
i
% gyaFZa $08 ( g ~ ) ,
, . C; & ddn t g nu karydl
mi dug; f8'scErn-mo dig
g u i g (79-pa- t.3 309.
lds (If)-ka dali-ma &ar- Unless all the work is done,
na wadn-na ma za, don't go! (or) you must
I - - mgm-pa doa) mi not go.
.zag.
aoZ-EdsZ1) tuitbdigz) 20-a, Shall I make the tableready?
- - - - jd' gyec yin-na(m). .
a-nci; Eoy-tdn tirin) to$, Yks; l a p ( s p r e a d ) t.he
yuya;
. . tog-tdn ttik-%. cloth !
fib-ril Zi-na6aa& m d i - Is tbere much wder in the
po ydd-da G z i r i - t i ~~ d d , t e n p i t , or IittIe?
- - grJa-ma&-na & ma'&
po y6'-$urn riicd-6~y6'.
GG6 &u &q y ~ d{a-f ~ i g (But) a little.
mas-na mnd),
;&Pi ?iu &g 36'.
L kariQd)-teBy&, F i l l the teapot with water,
k d 4 - n ~EUT Jog. and bring it!
tfb-ml d z a g day. The kettle 1e st k s.
kdr-$a251 dari jwx) go8 It must be soldered (fastened
(qd, with pewter).
k d r - y a (aria-kar-g$i)
7-
Y) aaraa) @.m, Take it,to the b l t h's .
 30 Phrases.

W Bet-kor gas (9:) SOP& The tumbler (glass-

C 382-$or gG s~k. has got a (!rw.k.
BidmaIESym& Unless I tell yon, dl3 not
.z.er-~aa
-
r-na - LyaP). bring woo4a!
vv sao mPI- na @06 yh, When master G U U I L U ~,ma m

C sa-hib sud")-na AyuEgp I shall brin

$n.
W sab gd-zuy mol, C sa- What did YOU niu y , arx
hib ,4uri suli wa yin. the gentlemm say)?
W ma$a63I); h d n a a & ~ ) , Don't cast it away! Do not
C ma FOT-wa YJ'; 8C' ma let it slip!
Cug.
WC %-pa dim33), W La- Take care! Cautiously!
Eo.
d a ~
w n d n ~ ) - ? eman, Yon must not press!
C atin gp min.
W ddsS5]-Sa (@-d) Ecig-ma Put by the remainder of the
ti%)-te bop, rice!
C dG-X:tj&@-ma fs ag jrg.
W Zag - m a mi dug, Eari ma There is no remainder,

W
C
lus (la).
0-ml& Zud ma
wo-ma Eii' ma L\US.
*, nothing is left.
Do not let the milk run over!

FV3n-pa37) ma .tei.P8) te - Not cutting t:he liver, bring

adn-te @a&, it as w wh101e !
C - - --- fsdfi-ma (or
-
gii~ wb 0 ) Kur-309.
. W a-lu tub tMi, Peel the potatoes, and cut
0 kyd-u (or do-ma39] Su- them in pieces!
!ub-%.
o6 (or p n &+no) Don't tarry much!
gor.
 Phrases. 91

yyog-.pa (C gpg-po, g j d - Come soon!

PO) soy.
m a led@), I. Do not forget! 2. (I)did
mu jg'. not forget.
yid-la,zuna4~)fub-bta, Canyourememberit(bear
ssm-la ria fub-Ba. i t i n mind]?
@-la .zUJm90s (~fi), Yournntlt bear i t i n m i n d , +

pi f-p a ii' go. (make it certain].

mati-du 806; nafi-dw Bog. Go in! Come in!
m&du @od42), Go (or come) in, sir!
m n - d w @b.
do@), C d2. Sit down!
h y 9. Please sit down, sir!

1, qq 21 gnlq. 3) qdi' 4) y l - 51 s/a\C. 6)

y-8 1 ~ 59
9)101g(.qv ll)TB
s
kJ
wqqr
4m' 14) 939~4.
iprv. 15) 3CN. 16) 8fV
7 p T T T ~ S20)
18) T J c ~ 19) ~3
.I?$%%
22) ?qfW,% 20) 4 3 prf
~ of 97~4-
q c prf. of T ~ E W I I . 25) 77i;4lW9* 26) 87
of g ~ r ~ 'fls(~44
27) 28) gT 29) 48W pd. of
T 30) Tw 31) TqE* ipra. of (734'4-32) 45T
of 'Ieq*4. 33) qqv 34) 744' 35) V W 7%
36)
q q 4. 38) q5T prf. of R44.q 39) YT 40) $7
b
gsli.o.43Cfrom R442)g~4 3 ) q 14)qqqV
~
b
92 Reading Exerci!

Reading Exercise.
%he btory of Yugya-?an the Brahmnn

-
From tL
3) 15,s. - 4) , g ~ht., 3, 11
~ S V perf. 1 make,

do' in some eases: ,to say, call', @ 9.4. called,

nqy is a translation of the S;anscrit
53 40. 1. c. - 6) 41.A. jI, - 7) 4Kl. 1. h
S

name -

--3
anu A-
YI. a. V. - 8) 34. 1. and 40. 1. "B. - u, a\ 1 K 5. -

I perf. of ,to give; to send, Ilet goL.

- 12) Q Lj
1 -
 Reading Exescisa. ' 03

14) 41. A. 7. - 15) imp. of BT~ ,to give', #q*'

- 16) 37. 2. - 17) 77~4's. 11); ,don't let
; oo. E . - 18) p e d of 474.,take, seize'. - 19) perf.

;o throw, dingL.- 20) perf. of 7; 10

) S. 14).- 221 43. 2. - 23) perf. dq J'

,to I~Tepare,1>urposeL. ule 30,is ,ys strictly
0bserved. -
94 Reading Exercise.

25) 43.2. - 26) perf. of yC9. ,to fall'.

v
- 27) perf.
of q'2:44' ,to seizeL.- 28) 43. 2. b. - 29) 41.6. b; $FJ.
- 30) 49. - 31) ,from the inner (i.e. other)
7
== ~~~~~~.

side t o thisi, ,across4. - 32) carpenter (lit. ,Z~k.wnlri',cf.

12. 1,). x r f . of q$4* ,to ask'. - 34) 40.I . g. -
351 41. LL.u. - 361 aerf. o f YY4' ,to throw down'. -
 29). - 38) ,set down'. -- 39) if the verb is in
he subject is usually put in the-ttccus., when me
le the genitive. - 40) ,returning it so that the owner
1. 3. 2. b. - 41) ,I did not return it with the
by saying anythingc. - 42) ,because (41. A. 8)
did not say it (via: I give beck)'. -- 43) 41. B.
1) 41. A. 5. - 45) ped. of @TWT ,to tie,

46) i m p , of @ ~ y ,to
' take ant, pull out' eto.
stlp6, Iess frequent and somewhat different from
-, ,iui!3. - 48) ,myE (241. -
 49) ,secondly'. - 50) 17. 1. - 51) ,it is better that
Y. should be the winner, t h that besides having heen
robbed of my ox, I should lose my eyes.into the bargain.
- 52) ,mother mid: 0 god! e t a C (W used in addressing a
7'

* has perf. TV;an e l e g a n t word (24,

~ ~ q,toqdieL
k -w
Note;. - 54) perf. of 95Tq ,to enter'.- 55) ~ 2 .
p e d q& ,to go, walk4; eleg. ,m say'. - 56) 41.8.
5. b. - 57) Nomin. for Instrum.. s. 30 fin. -
 Reading Exercise. 97

58) perf. of W F ' T ,to be much, many; to become mc.

- 59) partic., ,that a man was concealed (behind ity. -
iO) 41.A, 5. - 61) 27. 1. - 62) imper. of 447rlme1eg.
b

or 374*;,go and rn ske the husband of this same (woman)'.

- an that he should be (my)husbandL.- 64) 9.57).
- rtic., ,the axe which 1 held from (i. e. with) my
monthb.- 66) 40. 3 ,whatever things be carried, it being
amy them 0x1 the shedder'. - 67) fo* $v#V
'ibetan Gram
 68) .'%f@ ,different, sewral, '' qN. - ,separately,
each for himself'. -
 i list of the mor ent verbs 3.
-
a) F o u r - r o o t e d verbs.
PerP. Fut. Impem. WT

(6jqq TT lade, put on . . . kal-.?e

q
15~ 49- T5Tg %snt. i?ad-&
imprv. L'5d
\%KT 43~57' h. tie, bind.
to-b
. and imp. Eos
destroy.

45C % give. imp. taG-de

twi
qyV 4r @' look. (&Ma-&

"1 They are here mranged according t o the number of ths roota,
lough these me in many instancee, not so strictly observed, even
1 plinted books, as they ongbt to be. I t should espeoidy be re-
larked that the mute v iia the perf. and imp. i e in moat cases
,r omitted very arbit
78
 Pres. Perf. Fut. Imperv. WT
939~"' 437 777~.97' . tag-&
lift; weigh. imp. tog

~ 7 4 ~ 4974-
. s/?T q. throw. imp.
tab-&?

qyyvs. 45qN. s/?TN. YTV tie, bind* imp. tog,

ta,q,?c

fay t a ~
9.4- q
k 4177 get, drive, out. towda
dways for @4'~
TEN. yq,Ejc. V!k throw, hurt,. $a~-?-b

PYq gq 5 3~do, make, for it ho-h

~ 3 4 ~ qq q. 74q k' bring, let, down. #d-&

4 & %<q),$? take. h h , lali-Ec

gqq.434(q)-4 a ' gq learn; teach. kd-ie

b) T h r e e - r o o t e d v e r b s .
Perf. Fnt. Imperv. WT
carry. &Y-;#
k
&oi-2~
 Verbs. - * 1 CI

Pre~. Perf. Fut. Impei-v. WT

gyab-te
iFm'd'
". $4. throw, cast. imp. gyob
for 934~s.
9sl(NjV ZT
b
run* ypg-tL?
?up&,
IT &y break. imp. Eog
4 4 q tell, explain. h&?s

4- hold. te?+?e
4 to lead: 9-an-i.e
T"';1' SE' TEN'
T to remove: defi-~e
4
q.q 44(W). 44(5l)' descend.
TLT' g(W)' YFT blow (act.). $q~-Ee

7 37 pnt off, drop (act.). $ d - i

q.4 gr Twf-'
take, pull, oat. $n-n-Ee

$e- Ee,
imp. $e(s).

c) T w o - r o o t e d verbs.
res. Perf. Imperv. WT
7. 3~ be 'born. sky-Gc
bear, beget.
787. skye-l.c!
 Pres. Perf. Imperv. WT
wT4'
-v
3
-u
heacme. gpr-i.e

q~ VC Kr go; become. l?o-ke

[only in certain sentences.
gT,y q 45jy
k
gyur-Ee

c.q
-a 5w weep. ?iu-;e
92-4- % die. di4e

92%-9' TT Bee. ~or-.-~e

9&74' -0
qTW'
-u
enter. 2q-Ee

4 ~ 7 j$y sit; stay. dad-&

imp, dod
q%ll.4* 9qq increase (neutr.). $eE&

W74' blow Cnentr.). $u-~e

9%;4- 4N. -#
qV calt So-&,
imp. bos (boi, b.0,).
SgE;'T ZK- appear, originate, jmi-ie
-u 'y

5~4' 9E. enjoy. Gmi-Ce

@T 9a~.
437~. build up. ?e
i%&~-

q.4. e-V qV ask. , k - 2 ~

% 'U U (ju-re)
$W 4 $ 4 ~ arrive. let-&
 Verbs. 103

d) O n e - r o o t e d verb.
WT
ghd, t o like. Ld. ya-te, W besides D,qTq
lr-1-4-fall, drop. dit-;a, dso C$W(~')
k4-,&&kvq
leap, jump. EoGEB

4 lie down. %al-i.e

'4. meet,. fag-Ee

'V be able. fd-Ee

'q find, get. £oh-te

r9' hear. @or-t)
i$ sea. €06-88

be glad, to like. fad-L'e, nearIy always for

V y T find qyi.~
came out, go out. f o n - i ' ~ ,usud for LqE'T
b
5-4 wish, like, desire. rare.

e able. S. q4.Y'
w
I Tstay, dwell, remain. fins -
( m i , a?) i.e, hut
usually: dad-b
' burn. Bar-&?
.-. erceive. fsw-Ee, and usual for
qw4.
o, make (resp.) . dzadEe, imp. dmd.
104 Verbs.
WT
2qj.r.s' ,.say. zw-2.4, usual fox
Ef9
remain, be left. ba-&
x ~ qturn back, r e t u r n Q-i.e

5 q ~ qknow. des (&>-2e

(4j)T-q.understand. hd-go-te

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