SAYA U HEIN HTET NAING (UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE 2, YANGON)

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CHAPTER-7

THE ELECTRIC FIELD

General notes

- There are two kinds of electric charges, positive charge and negative charge.
- Like charges repel one another.
- Unlike charges attract each other.
- Electric charge is a scalar quantity.
- The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb. (C)
- A proton has a positive charge.
- An electron has a negative charge.
- A neutron has no charge.
- A nucleus contains protons and neutrons. A nucleus has a positive charge.
- An electron and a proton has an equal magnitude of electric charge.
- Electrons closer to the nucleus or the inner electrons are called bound electrons.
- Electrons further away from the nucleus or the outer electrons are called free
electrons.
- Materials containing plenty of free electrons are conductors.
- Metals such as gold, silver, copper, iron, etc are conductors.
- Materials containing no or very few free electrons are called insulators.
- Non-metals such as glass, wax, wood, plastics, etc are insulators.

1. Four fundamental forces

There are four fundamental forces. They are

1. Gravitational force
2. Weak interaction
3. Electromagnetic force
4. Nuclear force.
- Nuclear force is the strongest force.
- Gravitational force is the weakest force.
- Gravitational force and electromagnetic force are long-ranged forces.
- Weak interaction and nuclear forces are short-ranged forces.
- Coulomb’s force or electromagnetic force is the second strongest force.
- Elastic force and frictional force are not fundamental forces.

2. Coulomb’s law

The electric force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
K Q 1 Q2
In symbols, F =
r2
F = electric force between two charges

K= constant

Q1, Q2 = electric charges

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r= distance between two charges

In air or vacuum,

In other medium,

Coulomb’s law in vector form is

- The value of K depends on the nature of the medium in which the charges are
located.
- The constant K also depends on the units of force, charge and distance.

3. Similarities and differences between Coulomb’s law and Newton’s gravitational law

Similarities
1. Both are universal laws.
2. Both are inverse-square laws.
3. Both laws deal with fundamental forces.
4. Both laws deal with long-ranged forces.

Differences

(a) Coulomb’s law gives the electric force between two charges. This force can
be attractive or repulsive.
Newton’s law gives the gravitational force between two masses. This force is
attractive.
(b) Coulomb’s force depends on the medium in which the charges are located.
Newton’s force does not depend on the medium in which the masses are
located.
(c) Coulomb’s force is second strongest force. Newton’s force is the weakest
force.

4. Electric field
An electric field is defined as a region where electrical forces act.

- There is no electric field around a neutron.

- Any charge gives rise to an electric field in its vicinity.
- There is an electric field around positive and negative charges.
- An electric filed is an infinitely large.

5. Electric field intensity

The electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is the electric force acting
upon a unit positive charge placed at that point.
In symbols, E = F/ q
E = electric field intensity
F = electric force
Q= electric charge

- Electric force and electric field intensity are vector quantities.

- The SI unit of electric force is newton(N).
- The SI unit of electric field intensity is newton per coulomb. (NC -1)

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6. Electric lines of force

An electric line of force is a path, such that the tangent, drawn at any point on it,
indicates the direction of electric field intensity at that point.

Concepts of electric lines of force and the charge distribution in a

conductor

- The concept of electric lines of force is to visualize an electric field.

- Electric lines of force are perpendicular to the surface of the charged body.
- Electric lines of force do not really exist. They are imaginary lines.
- Electric lines of force do not intersect each other. If they intersect, the electric field
intensity at the point of intersection will have two directions. The electric field
intensity at a point has only one direction. SO they do not intersect.
- Electric lines of force are continuous lines.
- They start from a positive charge and end on a negative charge.
- The pattern of electric lines of force around a point charge (+q) is identical with that
around a metal sphere carrying a positive charge (+q).
- When a charge is given to a conducting object of any shape, the charges are
distributed only on the outer surface of the object.
- When a charge is given to a hollow metal sphere, the charges are uniformly
distributed only on the outer surface of the sphere.
- The more curved parts of the object have the greater concentration of charge than
the less curved parts.
- The greatest concentration of charge appears at the pointed portion of the object.
- The electric fields due to the individual charges on the surface of the charged
conducting object all cancel out inside the object. Therefore, the electric field is zero
everywhere inside a charged conducting object of any shape.

7. Uniform electric field

If, in a certain region of space, the electric field intensity at every point is the same
in magnitude and direction, the electric field in that region of space is called the
uniform electric field.
E.g. the electric field between two parallel metal plates with same magnitude of
charge and opposite signs

8. Non-uniform electric field

If the electric field intensity varies from point to point, such an electric field is called
the non-uniform electric field.
E.g. the electric field around a single negative or positive charge

- Electric lines of force which represent a uniform electric field are parallel. They have
same direction. They are equally spaced and they have the same length.
- Electric lines of force which represent a non-uniform electric field are not parallel.
They have different directions.

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9. Lightning conductor
A lightning conductor is a metal rod which is used to prevent the buildings from the
lightning damage. Copper rods are used as lightning conductors because copper has
higher thermal conductivity.
- A thunder cloud may contain both negative and positive charges.

Q. Describe the use of a lightning conductor with a diagram.

- A lightning conductor is fixed to the outside wall of a building, with its pointed end above
the highest part of the building.

- The lower end is connected to the copper plate buried in the earth.

- A thunder cloud contains both positive and negative charges of particles of water. When
the thunder cloud passes over the building, it induces an opposite charge in the lightning
conductor. The charge is concentrated at the pointed end and it leaks off gradually and
neutralizes the charge in the cloud. In this way, lightning discharge can be prevented. If
lightning occurs, the electric discharge passes to the earth through the lightning conductor
harmlessly. Therefore, lightning does not strike the building.

Study Questions

1. How many kinds of fundamental forces are there? Classify long ranged forces and short-
ranged forces. Which one is strongest? Which one is weakest?
2. Express Coulomb’s law in vector form. Why is this law also called inverse-square law?
3. State the similarities and differences between Newton’s gravitational law and Coulomb’s
law.
4. Do electric lines of force really exist? Do they intersect each other? Why?
5. Explain why electric field is zero everywhere inside the charged conductor of any shape.
6. What are the differences between electric lines of force which represent a uniform
electric field and those which represent a non-uniform electric field?
7. What is a lightning conductor? Give two reasons why copper rods are used as lightning
conductors than iron rods.

8. When a plastic comb is run through dry hair for a long time, the comb becomes a
charged body and attaches small pieces of paper, although the plastic comb is
negatively charged, the pieces of paper are initially uncharged. Explain why the comb
can attract the pieces of paper.

When the negatively charged plastic comb is placed near the pieces of paper, it
induces the positive charges in them. Therefore, it can attach the small pieces of paper.

CHAPTER-8

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

1. Electric potential energy

The electric potential energy of a charge at a point in an electric field is the work done in
bringing that charge from infinity to that point against the electric force.

2. Electric potential

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The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point against the electric force.
V=W/Q
V= electric potential
W=work done, Q= electric charge
3. Electric potential difference
The electric potential difference between two points in an electric field is the work done
in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to another against the electric force.
VAB= VA- VB
VAB= electric potential difference between A and B
VA =electric potential at A
VB= electric potential at B

Specific notes

- A body with zero charge has zero electric potential. (Q=0, V=0)
- A body with a positive charge has a positive electric potential. (+Q,+V)
- A body with a negative charge has a negative electric potential. (-Q,-V)
- A positive charge moves from a point of higher potential to a point of lower
potential.
- A negative charge moves from a point of lower potential to a point of higher
potential.

4. One volt (electric potential)

If the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a point in an electric
field against the electric force is one joule in one second, the electric potential at that
point is one volt or one coulomb per second.

5. One Volt (electric potential difference)

If the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to another in an
electric field is one joule in one second, the electric potential difference between these
two points is one volt.

6. Equipotential surface
A surface drawn through the points at the same potential is called the equipotential
surface.

- Equipotential surfaces around a charge +Q are spherical surfaces centred about +Q.
- Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the electric lines of force.
- The surface of a charged conducting sphere is an equipotential surface.
- This is because the charges uniformly distributed on its surfaces are stationary.
- Charged conductors may have any shape, but their surfaces are equipotential
surfaces.
- No work is done in moving a charge from one point to another on an equipotential
surface.
- The electric potential at infinity from a charge is zero. At infinity, V=0
- The work done in moving a charge does not depend on the path taken by the
charge. It depends only on the electric potentials at the end points.

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Q. Explain why the electric potential of the earth is taken as zero. (*****)
- The earth is a good conductor. The number of electrons gained or lost by the earth
is very small compared to the size of the earth. The net charge of the earth does not
change and its electric potential does not change. Therefore, the electric potential of
the earth is taken as zero.

Q. The electric potential of a conductor becomes zero when it is connected to the

earth. Explain this.
- A conductor which has a negative charge has a negative electric potential. The earth
has a zero electric potential. When the conductor is connected to the earth, all the
electrons will flow from the conductor to the earth through the wire. Therefore, the
electric potential of the conductor becomes zero.

- A conductor which has a positive charge has a positive electric potential. When the
conductor is connected to the earth, the electrons will flow from the earth to the
conductor through the wire. The charges will cancel out the conductor. Therefore,
the electric potential of the conductor becomes zero.

Parallel metal plates

- Two parallel metal plates have the opposite charges of the same magnitude. There is
an electric field between them.

Potential difference between two parallel charged plates

V= Ed
V= F d
V= electric potential difference between two parallel metal plates
E= electric field intensity between the plates
d= distance between the two plates

Questions and answers

1. Can electrons themselves move from a point of lower potential to a point of higher
potential?
Yes

2. Why is electric potential a scalar quantity?

Electric potential is work done. Since work done is a scalar, electric potential is a
scalar.

3. Explain how work is done in carrying a unit positive charge from a point of higher
electric potential to a point of lower electric potential and how work is done in
carrying a unit positive charge from a point of lower electric potential to a point of
higher electric potential.
Work is done by the electric field in carrying a unit positive charge from a point
of higher electric potential to a point of lower electric potential.

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Work is done against the electric field in carrying a unit positive charge from a
point of lower electric potential to a point of higher electric potential.

4. Draw the equipotential surfaces between two parallel metal plates having charges of
equal magnitude and opposite signs.

5. Why can the earth be regarded as a body having zero electric potential?
The earth is a good conductor. The number of electrons gained or lost by the earth
is very small compared to the size of the earth. The net charge of the earth does not
change and its electric potential does not change. Therefore, the electric potential of
the earth is taken as zero.

6. If the electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is zero, is the electric
potential at that point necessarily equal to zero?
No, the electric field intensity at a point midway between two equal charges is zero.
But the electric potential at that point is not zero.

7. Write down the units of electric potential energy and electric potential.
The unit of electric potential energy is joule.
The unit of electric potential is volt.