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Hazards of nitrogen fertilizers and ways to reduce nitrate accumulation in

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Article  in  Environmental Science and Pollution Research · March 2020

DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-08236-y

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08236-y

REVIEW ARTICLE

Hazards of nitrogen fertilizers and ways to reduce nitrate

accumulation in crop plants
Moddassir Ahmed 1,2 & Muhammad Rauf 1,3 & Muhammad Akhtar 2,4 & Zahid Mukhtar 1,2 & Nasir Ahmad Saeed 1,2

Received: 23 July 2019 / Accepted: 25 February 2020

# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
In modern agriculture, farm produce accumulates a lot of nitrates that can reach toxic levels owing to the unfair use of nitrogen
fertilizers, cultural methods, farming policies in multiple areas of the world, thereby increasing concerns about the availability of
hygienic food supply and environmental hazards. Over the past few decades, global interest in achieving greater output through
intensive fertilization has been a growing trend. The fertilizer based on urea or ammonium mainly yields ammonium, which is
then transformed to nitrate through the oxidation process that is biologically mediated. Nitrate tends to accumulate differently in
distinct crop plants and distinct components of agricultural commodities based on species, crop variety, genetic history, envi-
ronmental circumstances, harvest phase, post-harvest storage conditions, agronomic variables, nature, and fertilizer application
rate. The current article highlights various factors that could directly or indirectly contribute to the accumulation of nitrates in
different parts of crop plants and discusses strategies to minimize the accumulation of nitrates in farm produce, thus ensuring
healthy food supply and protecting the environment from the accumulation of nitrates.

Keywords Crop plants . Environment . Farm produce . Hygienic food . Nitrate accumulation

Introduction nitrate intake relative to its assimilation, it tends to accumulate

Nitrogen fertilization (N) is the primary cause of the
manufacturing of soil nitrate to satisfy crop demands. Nitrate
is the dominant form of N that is readily absorbed by most
plants to assimilate and eventually transform into biomass
production (Colla et al. 2011). However, in case of higher
Responsible editor: Gangrong Shi
* Moddassir Ahmed
cmmnibge@yahoo.co.uk
* Muhammad Rauf
rauf216@gmail.com
1
Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for
Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), P.O. Box No. 577,
Jhang Road, Faisalabad, Pakistan
2 tors (Andrews et al. 2013; Colonna et al. 2016). Post-harvest
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS),
Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan
3 impede endogenous nitrate reduction to nitrite. Genetic back-
National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development
Administration, Jeonju, South Korea
4 agronomic variables are three main causes affecting crop plant
Soil and Environmental Sciences Division, Nuclear Institute for
Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Jhang Road, Faisalabad, Pakistan
in roots, tubers, bulb, stem, leaves, fruit, and seeds. Nitrate
accumulates prominently in leafy vegetables and non-
leguminous plants (Santamaria 2006). Nitrate exposure to
humans is primarily due to the consumption of raw vegeta-
bles, seeds, drinking subterranean water, and processed food
(Rathod et al. 2016). However, although nitrate is not harmful
to human life, its decrease to nitric oxide, nitrite, and N-nitroso
compounds mediated by oral bacteria and salivary enzymes
may pose a related danger of bladder/gastric cancer and met-
hemoglobinemia syndrome (Ahmed et al. 2017; Parks et al.
2008). Direct nitrite consumption from fruits and vegetables is
relatively small because it is extremely cytotoxic to plant cells
and is continually kept to a minimum level (Riens and Heldt
1992). Nitrate accumulation in different plant crops and tis-
sues relies on the scheme of agriculture, current environmental
circumstances, species, genotype, plant range, pre-harvest var-
iables, agronomic factors, harvest phase, and post-harvest fac-
variables such as plant biomass storage setting may cause or
ground, environmental factors such as light circumstances and
nitrate accumulation (Santamaria et al. 2001).

Agronomic measures to optimize nitrate
accumulation
Since the beginning of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture, re-
searchers are attempting to devise different approaches to re-
duce the availability of nitrate content in soil for plant uptake.
These policies include (1) the substitution of nitrate-based
fertilizer with ammonium-based fertilizer (Borgognone et al.
2013); (2) the adoption of nitrate-free liquid fertilizers (Marsic
and Osvald 2002); (3) the selection of genotypes with low
nitrate accumulation capacity (Burns et al. 2011); (4) the pro-
vision of nitrate starvation up to 5 days before harvest
(Borgognone et al. 2016); (5) replacing chloride nitrate, e.g.,
calcium nitrate Ca(NO 3 ) 2 with calcium oxide (CaO)
(Borgognone et al. 2016); 6) optimizing the use of light spec-
tral fluxes to boost nitrate reduction in crop manufacturing
(Gaudreau et al. 1995).
The present article clarifies multiple environmental, agro-
nomic, and genetic factors to mitigate the accumulation of ni-
trate in multiple plant crops and tissues such as tuber, root, stem,
fruit, and seed. In cultivars of the same species and/or distinct
crop species, however, variation in nitrate concentration has
been observed (Anjana et al. 2007). Nitrates collected from
plant roots are transferred through xylem vessels via the tran-
spiration stream. The absorption of nutrients from the root sur-
face may be passive where a nutrient enters root with the
absorbed water, e.g., nitrate entry into the root; whereas an
active process requires another molecule or ion called the car-
rier (Epstein 1956). In the vacuole, plant tissues with big lam-
inae tend to accumulate greater nitrate than plant tissue with
compact laminae such as stem, petiole, fruit, and hypogeal stor-
age bodies (Chen et al. 2004). Nitrate content in plant tissues
occurs in the following order: petiole > leaf > stem > root >
inflorescence > tuber > fruit > seeds (Santamaria et al. 1999).
The accumulation of nitrate in plant tissue, however, also relies
on the era of the plant or tissue type. It has been noted that less
nitrate is accumulated by younger or freshly growing leaves
than by mature leaves (Konstantopoulo et al. 2010).
Similarly, tissues collected at the later level of vegetation
have an elevated concentration of nitrate than those harvested
at the younger level (Anjana and Iqbal 2007). Some plant fam-
ilies (Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Apiaceae, and Brassicaceae)
are nitrate hyper-accumulators, while other species such as
Lamiaceae are known to be lower accumulators (Santamaria
2006). Among farm produce, fruits are found to possess less
nitrate, i.e., <15 mg kg−1 FW (Susin et al. 2006).
Effect of plant genetic variability and nutritional
aspects of nitrate accumulation
Plant nitrate uptake and its accumulation depends upon field
management (leveling, irrigation, etc.), agricultural practices
(dose, mode, and type of N fertilizer), environmental
Environ Sci Pollut Res
(photoperiod, temperature irradiance) factors, genetic variabil-
ity, availability of other nutrients, and use and type of
chemicals (micro or macronutrients or pesticides) applied in
the field. However, light intensity, nitrogen fertilizer applica-
tion, and genetic variability are the key aspects influencing
nitrate uptake and its successive accumulation in different
plant species, especially in vegetables (Santamaria 2006).
The level of nitrate uptake and accumulation varies in differ-
ent plant species (Razgallah et al. 2017), genotypes diverse
ploidy level (Harada et al. 2003) and even in cultivars of the
same plant species (M’hamdi et al. 2016). Genetic variation in
nitrate uptake exists among modern crop varieties
(Barraclough et al. 2014; Cormier et al. 2013) but the much
wider range of these variation found in varieties which has
diverse germplasm base (Monostori et al. 2017). However,
total N uptake and high biomass/yield potential at low N
availability are found to be a useful indicator for efficient N
uptake genotypes (Hawkesford and Griffiths 2019).
Although, dwarfing genes improve harvest index and decrease
susceptibility to lodging at higher N fertilizer doses in cereals
(Gooding et al. 2012) but negative consequences of these
genes appeared in the form of pleiotropic effects and de-
creased root proliferation in dwarf genotypes (Bai et al.
2013; Gooding et al. 2012). Variation in root proliferation,
architecture, and function found to contribute nitrate uptake
efficiency (Allard et al. 2013). Higher nitrate accumulation
demonstrates enhanced expression of nitrate transporter genes
(Harrison et al. 2004). Low-nitrate cultivars have an effective
method of N transformation than crop species accumulating
elevated nitrate. To preserve plant nitrate homeostasis, a fa-
vorable linear connection occurs between plant nitrate and
water content (Qiu et al. 2014). Low nitrate accumulating
cultivars have been found to have lower transcripts of the
nitrate transporter gene (LsNRT) than high accumulators of
nitrate. Variation of plants in nitrate accumulation is guided
by variations in nitrate absorption and assimilation through a
method of chemical decrease (Luo et al. 2006). Nitrate from
the rhizosphere gets entered the plant roots through absorption
mediated by high and low-affinity nitrate transport channels
(Fan et al. 2017). The influx of nitrate is further increased by
mobilization of absorbed nitrates to different plant tissues
through xylem vessels by plant transpiration streaming pro-
cess due to hydrostatic pressure gradient in the xylem vessels
caused by transpiration at leaf surface (Tyree 2003). Excessive
use of N fertilizer results in greater absorption of nitrate, lead-
ing to the accumulation of nitrate in different plant tissues
(Soleymani and Shahrajabian 2012). Injudicious use of nitro-
gen fertilizer improves manufacturing costs, leads crop nitrate
levels to rise and water quality to deteriorate when nitrate is
leached to groundwater (Ahmed et al. 2017). As the plant
grows towards maturity, demand for nitrogen declines, lead-
ing to nitrate accumulation due to excessive fertilization at the
subsequent growth point. Hence, an efficient approach to
Environ Sci Pollut Res

decrease nitrate content in field produce is to give the crop a

few days/weeks before harvest, which helps to deprive nitrate
content.

Consequences of different kind of fertilizers in nitrate

accumulation

The type of N-fertilizer in the edible components of the plants

is immediately linked to nitrate accumulation (Pavlou et al.
2007). Nitrogen exists as ammonium, nitrate, urea, or as or-
ganic compounds. Using ammonium-based nitrogen fertil-
izers reduces nitrate content in crop plants while applying
nitrate-based fertilizer increases nitrate absorption (Wang
and Li 2004) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Thus, selective application Fig. 2 Nitrogen application by crop (source: with permission from
of fertilizer may lead to the accumulation of nitrate in edible YARA Fertilizer Industry Hand Book 2017)
components of plants (Zhou et al. 2000). The nitrate accumu-
lation in petioles exists in the order: urea > ammonium nitrate
acidic soils, hydraulic conductivity, and filtration rate
> ammonium sulfate > ammonium carbonate (Renseigné et al.
(Purbajanti et al. 2019). Hence, the integrated approach of
2007). The release of N from inorganic fertilizer is much faster
organic fertilizers with the limited and slow release of inor-
than that from natural sources because it occurs through min-
ganic fertilizer application may prove to be a sustainable
eralization of organic matter in the later one slow release
method for efficient nutrient utilization, less nitrate accumula-
(Herencia et al. 2011). In the organic fields, scientists noted
tion and to restore important soil properties (Schoebitz and
considerably less nitrate content than conventionally grown
Vidal 2016). Organic manure will improve the physio-
plant crops applied with inorganic fertilization (Nunez de
chemical and biological properties of the soil; whereas, the
Gonzalez et al. 2015). Plants not only take essential nutrients
slow release of inorganic material will help to meet the needs
from the soil, but also change the physico-chemical and bio-
of crop plants instantly (Prasetyo et al. 2013).
logical properties of the soil as well, e.g., pH, soil texture,
The use of conventional inorganic fertilizers is not suitable
electrical conductivity, and organic matter, the capacity of
to sustain crop productivity due to higher inefficiency, delivery,
cation exchange, activity, and quantity of soil microbes (Bell
utilization, the input of water, energy, and greater impact of
and Dell 2008). Inorganic N fertilizer input is provided for
negative environmental implications. The goal of global and
sustainable crop production, but their higher doses are affect-
safer food security can be achieved by modifying agricultural
ing soil properties and consequently reducing crop yields over
practices to combat negative pressure aroused from increasing
time (Hepperly et al. 2009). However, organic fertilizers help
population, climate change, and decreasing the area of arable
in maintaining the soil properties such as reducing soil bulk
land. Many nano-enabled fertilizers and engineered
density, improving soil structure (Mahmoodabadi et al. 2010),
nanomaterials (ENMs) are reported to potentially enhance plant
increasing water holding capacity of the soil, rising pH in
growth and increase crop productivity (Adisa et al. 2019).
However, the knowledge of basic mechanistic processes in-
volved in the functioning of nanofertilizers is lacking now.
Nanofertilizers are engineered nanomaterials that enhance the
availability, uptake, performance, and utilization of convention-
al fertilizers upon application (Liu and Lal 2015). In many
studies, nanofertilizers have been shown to improve food safety
and enhance plant yield by foliar and soil applications (Dimkpa
and Bindraban 2017; Chhipa 2017). For the last few decades,
the nutrient use efficiency of most of the crop plants remained
stagnant between 18 and 40% (Subramanian et al. 2015) due to
inefficient nutrient delivery and plant’s inherent ability to up-
take, consequently leading environmental contamination by
surface run-off, emission, and leaching. Several reports indicat-
ed the potential of nano-enabled fertilizers to enhance nutrient
Fig. 1 Outcome of nitrogen fertilizer application and risk of nitrate
leaching (source: with permission from YARA Fertilizer Industry Hand delivery, decrease nutrient immobilization, increase uptake ef-
Book 2017) ficiencies by plants, decreasing agricultural waste, and reducing

Fig. 3 Nitrogen fertilizer application by region and crop (source: International Fertilizer Association 2010/2011)
nutrients run-off through volatilization and leaching (Liu and
Lal 2015; Chhipa 2017). The use of nanofertilizer potential
could have dramatic environmental and economic impacts
(Subramanian et al. 2015).
The supply of other nutrients such as phosphorus (P), cal-
cium (Ca), sulfur (S), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), mo-
lybdenum (Mo), and iron (Fe) may influence the accumula-
tion of nitrate in plant crops as well as nitrogen. The plant’s
absorption of nitrate is positively related to the supply of P in
soil (Buwalda and Warmenhoven 1999) while negative to the
supply of sulfate in soil (Blom-Zandstra and Lampe 1983). On
the other side, in the plant, K encourages nitrate absorption,
remobilization, and assimilation (Ahmed et al. 2000). The role
of Ca in root growth is well-documented and nitrate uptake
may be affected by its deficiency. Mg is generally needed for
the growth of chloroplast and metabolic processes (Kessler
1964), but there is no proof of its role in nitrate accumulation.
Chloride and nitrate in soil have shown antagonism in osmo-
regulation; therefore, the supply of chloride in high-nitrate
cultivars may assist to decrease nitrate content (Borgognone
et al. 2016). Mo has a specified position in the activity of
nitrate reductase which in its assimilation process converts
nitrate to nitrite. In crops cultivated on soil with Mo deficien-
cy, high nitrate content accumulates (Hewitt and Smith 1975).
Role of environmental factors in nitrate accumulation
Several environmental factors influence nitrate accumulation
in plants, for example, the interaction of available nitrogen,
temperature, and light intensity has been revealed to manip-
ulate nitrate accumulation in certain plant species. Enhanced
N fertilizer supply to plants under high light intensity
Environ Sci Pollut Res
increases the temperature which in turn promotes nitrate ac-
cumulation (Santamaria et al. 2001). Otherwise, diurnal
changes in light intensity are inversely related to plant nitrate
accumulation, as light intensity is involved in photosynthesis,
plant nitrate uptake, reduction, and translocation of nitrate.
By selecting suitable harvest time, the diurnal variation in
nitrate accumulation can be held to a minimum level
(Anjana et al. 2007). Weather conditions affect the plant ni-
trate content more drastically than by the source (organic or
inorganic) and the rate of nitrogen fertilizer (Custic et al.
2003). Less nitrate content was observed in the year with high
rainfall (Grzebelus and Baranski 2001). Conversely, drought
stress stimulates root nitrate uptake and shoot mobilization
(Talouizite and Champigny 1988). Higher plant nitrate accu-
mulation was observed in autumn-winter as compared with
the spring season (Santamaria et al. 1999). Nitrate/chloride
ions, however, are interchangeable in osmoregulation under
salt stress; therefore, mild saline stress helps to prevent soil or
soil-free nitrate accumulation. Nitrate is involved in the
plant’s high and low-affinity transport scheme because this
method needs biochemical power (Bose and Srivastava
2001). Consequently, the concentration of carbon dioxide,
light intensity, and temperature of air impact the accumulation
of nitrate in plant crops (Santamaria 2006). Nitrate assimila-
tion in the plant causes a photosynthesis process that offers
carbon skeleton essential for ammonium inclusion (from ni-
trate decrease) and electrons release, which is discovered to
be vital for nitrate conversion to nitrite (Cavaiuolo and
Ferrante 2014). Intensive N application and low light inten-
sity result in greater accumulation of nitrate (Fu et al. 2017),
while elevated light spectrum decreases plant accumulation
(Liu et al. 2016).
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Nitrogen dilution curve and the nitrogen nutrition
index (NNI)
An increase in N fertilization can usually be reflected in a
corresponding rise in crop yield, but further improvements
could not be accomplished after a peak value has been attained
(Scharf and Lory 2009). Consequently, the N application may
boost N content in the surrounding setting at a peak limit and
therefore pose environmental issues (Ju et al. 2009).
Therefore, it is suggested that certain diagnostic instruments
be used to identify status before further N application. Soil/
plant testing offers important guidance in attaining viable crop
development in this regard (He et al. 2009; Cui et al. 2008;
Alivelu et al. 2006). In addition to soil analytical strategy,
parameters of plant growth also show N soil supply, and thus
plant diagnosis seems important to determine the soil’s N sta-
tus. This N assay has been reported to implement suitable N
management to improve crop use and to prevent the danger of
soil and water resource accumulation of N (Lemaire et al.
2008; Ziadi et al. 2008a; Naud et al. 2009; Vouillot and
Barret 1999).
The correlation between plant N content (Nc) and shooting
biomass provides significant data for optimizing N implemen-
tation to maximize crop development (Ulrich 1952).
Regardless of variable soil supply, the concentration of plant
N generally reduces as crop development increases (Lemaire
and Salette 1984a, 1984b). This decrease in N with plant de-
velopment was referred to as the dilution curve and defined
empirically as follows:
Nc ¼ aW −b ð1Þ
Where W reflects Mg ha−1 and N as g kg−1, the coefficient a
denotes percentage N of plant concentration when crop
weight = 1 Mg ha−1 and dilution coefficient, i.e., b, produces
a reduction in N concentration with the rise in shoot biomass.
Crop cultivars display a variable curve of dilution affected by
parameters of histology and morphological characteristics.
The N dilution curve has been constructed for various crop
species, e.g., Triticum aestivum (Greenwood et al. 1990),
Pisum sativum L. (Ney et al. 1997), Oryza sativa L. (Sheehy
et al. 1998), Brassica napus L. (Colnenne et al. 1998),
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (Tei et al. 2002), Lolium
multiflorum L. (Marino et al. 2004), Linum usitatissimum L.
(Fl’enet et al. 2006), and Gossypium spp. (Xue et al. 2007). In
Zea mays L., the specific constant values (a = 34.1 and b =
0.37) achieved in France (Pl’enet and Lemaire 2000) at the
silking stage in irrigated maize were found like those estimat-
ed in Germany (a = 31.4, and b = 0.39) (Herrmann and Taube
2004). Later, Ziadi et al. (2008b) also verified the critical N
curve’s importance and linked curve values with the nitrogen
nutrition index (NNI) calculation. This was discovered to be a
reliable indicator of the proper management of a crop’s
nutrition. The N dilution curve, however, requires validation
for climatic circumstances and newly established genotypes
for distinct plant species and experimental sites. In this regard,
the assessment usually includes a critical N dilution curve, a
comparison of newly developed and existing curves for dif-
ferent crop genotypes and the likelihood of using the dilution
curve to optimize crop N nutrition. It has been noted that the
critical N concentration assay is a reliable way to evaluate
plant N nutrition status during its development. Therefore,
the N dilution curve is used as an indicator for diagnosing
an increasing crop’s N status to achieve peak output.
An environmental consequence of N fertilizer
The management of fertilizers in crop production is of practi-
cal significance as it can play a key role in the economy of
fertilizers and environmental pollution (Schulze 1989). The
application of fertilizer based on urea or ammonium to alka-
line calcareous soils results in the volatilization of ammonia
(NH3) (Akhtar et al. 2012). Different N losses as volatilization
of ammonia were recorded up to 32 and 35% by Zhang et al.
(1992) and Gandhi and Paliwal (2004), respectively. The ma-
jor losses of ammonia were generally noted during the early
days of implementation of N-fertilizer, which was discovered
to be as large as 80% of the complete loss during 10 days of
implementation of N (Akhtar et al. 2012). Losses of ammonia
reduce the use of N by plant and therefore the effectiveness of
the applied fertilizer-N (Saleem and Ahmed 1988). The pH of
the soil was heavily associated with the volatilization quantity.
High soil alkalinity (pH ~ 8.2 or greater) increases urea hydro-
lysis while acidic soils (pH 5.2) take twice as long as urea
needs to hydrolyze, but greater concentrations of NH4 in
microsites exacerbate ammonia volatilization (Fenn and
Richards 1989). The N losses may differ in the textured soils.
Because of low cation exchange capacity, light-textured soils
have been discovered to have a greater issue (Bernard et al.
2009). Urease enzyme in soil hydrolyses urea to form an un-
stable carbamic acid transformed into ammonia and carbon
dioxide; the former flees into the atmosphere unless it reacts
with water to form ammonium (NH4+) (Benini et al. 1999).
The process of hydrolysis raises soil pH as high as 9.0 which
is adequate for ammonia volatilization (Brady and Weil 2001).
Nitrification is a significant aerobic method that transforms
ammonia/ammonium into nitrate during the N-cycle in the
soil. Soil procedures are not definitive because they cause
other procedures to initiate. Different goods, including nitrous
oxide (N2O) (Carlson and Ingraham 1983), are affected by the
microbial-mediated system. Although the atmospheric level
of N2O is much smaller than that of CO2, it has excellent
potential for global warming that is discovered to be 300 times
higher than CO2 and adds up to 6% of the process of global
warming. The N2O in the stratosphere is also a very reactive

ozone (Dalsgaard et al. 2005). Its emission from agricultural
areas also reflects an enormous loss of applied N fertilizer in
addition to environmental consequences (Ali et al. 2008).
Arable soils contribute 65% of worldwide gas emissions of
N2O (Prather et al. 1995). The significant soil processes re-
sponsible for gaseous emissions were discovered to be nitrifi-
cation and denitrification (Sahrawat and Keeney 1986).
Inorganic N fertilizers, organic manures, and mode of imple-
mentation may have an impact on N emission, while soil
physicochemical characteristics are also the other drivers con-
trolling N2O escape (Smith 1997). Lower N emissions as N2O
are observed in submerged soil (Sahrawat and Keeney 1986),
whereas greater N2O emissions were observed in aerobic soil
circumstances (Ciarlo et al. 2008).
The use of urea as N fertilizer is escalating globally with a
contribution of more than 50% of the total consumption of N
fertilizer (IFIA 2007). In Pakistan, urea is also used intensive-
ly as an N fertilizer (> 90% of complete N use) (NFDC 2010).
Using urea to soil outcomes in a sequence of biochemical
responses affecting plant accessibility of N. The average plant
recovery of N applied as urea ranges from 50 to 60% in maize
and wheat to 30 to 40% in paddy rice (Hardy et al. 1975),
whereas approximately 39 to 33% of N applied to wheat and
maize is mostly lost as NH3 volatilization (Mahmood et al.
1998). The poor N-use efficiency of urea is primarily attribut-
able to volatilization of ammonia (NH3) from industrial soils
(Hamid and Ahmad 1987; Hamid et al. 1998; Latifah et al.
2011), particularly when applied under warm, dry, and low pH
soil conditions (Cabrera et al. 2001; Gioacchini et al. 2002;
Khalil et al. 2002; Kissel et al. 2004; Ahmed et al. 2006;
Pacholski et al. 2006; Zaman et al. 2008; Rochette et al.
2009). Urea slowly diffuses in soil, and most urea is hydro-
lyzed in urea granules microsites. After 24 h of ground imple-
mentation, Rachhpal-Singh and Nye (1984) noted the very
small quantity of urea spreading below 1.2 cm deep in the
soil. Dawar et al. (2011) reported that most of the urea hydro-
lyzed within a 2 cm sphere of granule application. Therefore,
urea dissolution around the granule microsites is probable to
result in elevated urea-N concentration and consequently
NH4-N concentration on urea hydrolysis (Fenn et al. 1982).
The concentration of NH4 in the soil changes the nitrification
rate as this method is fast and generally complete at low NH4
concentration (Broadbent et al. 1957; Donaldson and
Henderson 1990). The rate of soil urea-N conversion can de-
termine the accessibility of NH4 and NO3-N for plants.
Sustainable cropping system for improved N
utilization
Sustainable cereal farming systems, particularly wheat-rice
cultivation, can be enhanced by promoting biodiversity, crop
rotation, and/or legume growth in the fellow era, particularly
before rice cultivation (Garrity and Becker 1994; Lauren et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res
2001). The main constraint for bringing legume into the pre-
rice niche is the period of moment generally available for
legume development, while the other constraint is the lack
of soil moisture for legume cultivation (Garrity and Becker
1994). Apart from several advantages, legume cultivation was
not practiced as a pre-rice niche or as a fellow period catch
crop due to extra costs incurred without money return on their
manufacturing (Ali and Narciso 1994). Forestry or pulse cul-
tivation in the rice-wheat scheme is becoming attractive com-
pared with sole manure plants, as it also provides farmers
short-term financial advantages and is similarly useful in
terms of sustainability of resources (Ali and Narciso 1994;
Lauren et al. 2001). The use of legume residue as green ma-
nure considerably improves soil fertility and farm productivity
by using atmospheric-N (fixed by legume) for cereal
manufacturing. This can result in less commercial N fertilizer
implementation and restore soil health for better crop cultiva-
tion (Yaqub et al. 2010).
The intercropping scheme appears to be viable because it
includes recovery crops, i.e., legumes and exhaustive crops,
i.e., cereals; this scheme is regarded as environmentally
friendly. It is known that legumes solve atmospheric N
(Vankessel et al. 1985). Cowpea and groundnut usually accu-
mulate 80–250 kg N ha−1 which may become accessible to the
plants associated with the mineralization of their residues
(Mohr et al. 1999; Przednowek 2003; Liebman and Dyck
1993; Donald et al. 1963; Norman 1996; Weber 1966). The
biological N fixation in legumes is magnified on the incorpo-
ration of cereals as the use of excessive cereal nitrate enhances
the legume’s ability to use atmospheric N (Fujita et al. 1992).
However, the constant cultivation of legumes creates nitrate
accumulation and thus reduces the legume’s N fastening ca-
pacity (Anil et al. 1998; Willey 1979). Cereal mono- cropping,
on the other side, depletes N and other nutrients resulting in
reduced or stagnant yields.
The biological N fixation in legume is magnified on cereal
inclusion as utilization of excessive nitrate by cereal enhances
the capability of legume to utilize atmospheric N (Fujita et al.
1992). The continuous legume cultivation, however, causes
accumulation of nitrate and hence decreases N fixation capabil-
ity of the legume (Anil et al. 1998; Willey 1979). On the other
hand, cereal mono-cropping depletes N and other nutrients
resulting in lower or stagnant yield. Legume association with
cereal or use of legumes as green manure increases soil fertility
and productivity of crops (Andrews 1979; Hinga 1979; Gill
et al. 2009). By using natural resources, the scheme of co-
cropping gives higher advantages in terms of farm productivity
(Hauggaard-Nielsen et al. 2001). Researchers reported higher
yield, N assimilation by crop, and sustainable soil fertility in the
mix cropping system (Karpenstein-Machan and Stuelpnagel
2000; Li et al. 2001; Fujita et al. 1992; Izaurralde et al. 1992;
Ofosu-Budu et al. 1995). Cowpea, soybean, and groundnut
intercropping have been discovered to enhance wheat crop
Environ Sci Pollut Res
yields by 34, 27 and 19% (Nair et al. 1981). The legume residue
decomposition provides nutrients that the related or subsequent
cereal crop may consume. Consequently, crop diversification is
seen as a better way to exploit natural resources that can reduce
crop reliance on chemical fertilizers alone and pave the manner
for sustainable crop manufacturing.
Conclusion
Plant produce is the key form of dietary intake and source of
nitrate consumption by human beings. Although N fertilizers
are required for sustainable crop production to achieve food
security, nitrogen efficiency of different crop plants ranges
from 18 to 35%, causing the wastage of inorganic fertilizers
and has become a major source of nitrate contamination in the
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem. Various approaches have
been discussed to keep plant nitrate accumulation and nitrate
contamination in the environment to a minimal level:
& Nitrate accumulation in plants can be reduced by replacing
nitrate-based fertilizers with ammonium-based nitroge-
nous fertilizers.
& N uptake efficient plant genotypes can help to minimize N
fertilizer application and nitrate accumulation due to better
utilization and conversion of nitrogen content to crop
yield.
& A combination of balanced inorganic fertilizers, split appli-
cation, use of slow release, organic, and nanofertilizers
could be adopted to avoid excessive nitrate concentrations.
& In plants, exact physiological processes accountable for
nitrate accumulation need to be investigated at the molec-
ular level.
& Old world (available before the green revolution) germ-
plasm of crop plants needs to be included in breeding
programs to incorporate genes responsible for nitrogen
use efficiency in major food security crops.
& Farming communities, seed companies, general public,
and policymakers need to be educated for adverse effects
of overdoses of nitrogenous fertilizers, nitrate accumula-
tion in plant’s edible parts, and impact of nitrate contam-
ination on human health and to the environment.
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