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University of Wasit

College of Education

Supervision of Mr. saad Jaber

Students group

BILAL.K
SUHAIR J.E
DUAA R.K

Set Theory
Introduction
Set theory is a branch of mathematical logic that
studies sets, which informally are collections of objects.
Although any type of object can be collected into a set, set
theory is applied most often to objects that are relevant to
mathematics. The language of set theory can be used to
define nearly all mathematical objects.
The modern study of set theory was initiated by Georg
Cantor and Richard Dedekind in the 1870s.
After the discovery of paradoxes in naive set theory, such
as Russell's paradox, numerous axiom systems were
proposed in the early twentieth century, of which
the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms,
with or without the axiom of choice, are the best-known.

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Set theory is commonly employed as a foundational

system for mathematics, particularly in the form of
Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of
choice\ Beyond its foundational role, set theory is a branch
of mathematics in its own right, with an active research
community. Contemporary research into set theory includes a
diverse collection of topics, ranging from the structure of
the real number line to the study of the consistency of large
cardinals.

 Union, Intersection and Difference of Sets

The members of a set are sometimes called elements of

the set. If X is a
member of the set S, we write:
x∈S

If x is not a member of S we write

x∉S

A set with a FInite number of elements can often be described by

explicitly
giving its members. Thus
S={1,3 , {1,5 }}

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is the set with members 1,3 and , {1,5 }. Note that 5 is not a member. If we
write the members of a set in a different order, we still have the same
set.

If S is the set of all x such that …..x …. is true, then we write

S={x : … x ....}

and read this as S is the set of x such that …..x…… For example, if
S={x :1<x ≤2 } , then S is the interval of real numbers that we also
denote by (1; 2].

If A and B are sets, their union A∪B is the set of all objects which
belong to A or belong to B (remember that by the meaning of or this also
includes those objects belonging to both A and B). Thus

A ∪ B={x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B }

The intersection A ∩ B of A and B is defined by

A ∩ B={ x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B }

The difference A n B of A and B is defined by

A ∖ B={x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B}

Proposition Let A, B, C and B λ¸ (for ¸ λ ∈ J) be sets. Then

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A ∪ B=B ∪ A A ∩ B=B ∩ A
A ∪(B ∪ C)=( A ∪B)∪ C A ∩(¿ B ∩C)=( A ∩ B)∩C
A⊂ A∪B A∩B⊂A
A ⊂ B iff A ∪ B=B λ ∈ J B λ=¿ λ ∈ J ( A ∩ Bλ )¿ A ⊂ B iff A ∩ B= A λ ∈ J B λ =¿ λ ∈ J ( A ∪
A ∩( B ∪C)=( A ∩ B) ∪( A ∩C ) A ∪(B ∩C)=( A ∪B)∩( A ∪ C)
A∩ A∪
¿ ¿

Ac

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More generally

(¿ t=1 ¿ ∞ A t )c =¿ t=1¿ ∞ A ct and (¿ i=1 ¿ ∞ A i)c =¿ t=1 ¿ ∞ Aci

And

(¿ λ ∈ J A λ )c =¿ λ ∈ J A cλ and(¿ λ ∈J A λ )c =¿ λ ∈ J Acλ

Functions:

Functions as Sets

The basic property of ordered pairs is that

One way to define the notion of an ordered pair in terms of sets

is by setting

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College of Education/ Mr. saad Jaber

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( x , y )={{x }, {x , y }}

In particular, we write

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College of Education/ Mr. saad Jaber

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Elementary Properties of Functions

:We have the following elementary properties

:Proposition

[∪D=
fC ] fC[ ∪] fD[ ] f [¿ λ∈ J A λ= ] ¿ λ∈ J f [A λ ]
λ∈ J f C
[ λ]¿
[ ∩D ⊂
fC ] fC [ ∩] fD[ ] ¿
−1 −1
f U [ ∪V= ] f U [ ∪
] f− 1 [V ] f− 1 [¿ λ∈ JU λ=] ¿ λ∈ J f− 1U [ λ]
−1
[ λ ] f [ f [A ]]¿
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1
f U [ ∩V =] f U [ ∩
] f V [ ] f [¿ λ∈ JU λ= ] ¿ λ∈ J f U
¿ ¿

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College of Education/ Mr. saad Jaber

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Equivalence of Sets

Proposition

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College of Education/ Mr. saad Jaber

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University of Wasit

College of Education/ Mr. saad Jaber