Republic Of Iraq

Ministry of higher Education & scientific rese arch

University of Technology
CIVIL Engineering Department
Structural Engineering Branch

Steel Design

Steel beam Preparation and assembly

Mohammed Ahmed Mzpan :
column with Supervised By Wael .
Shawky
braced frame
 LIST OF CONTENTS

Description (title) Page

LIST OF CONTENTS I
LIST OF FIGURES I
Example‎s I
NOTATION II
INTERODUCTION 1
‎Structural Framing 3
‎BRACED VERSUS UNBRACED FRAMES 4
‎MEMBERS IN BRACED FRAMES 6
‎Evaluation of Cm 7
‎Moment-resisting frame‎ 15
‎REFRANCE ‎ 18

LIST OF FIGURES Page

FIGURE 1 2
FIGURE2 4
FIGURE3 6
FIGURE4 8
FIGURE5 15
FIGURE6 16
FIGURE7 17

Example‎s Page
Example1 8
Example2 11
Example3 16

I
Cm Coefficient assuming no lateral translation of the frame

Cnet Net-pressure coefficient based on Kd [(G)(Cp) – (GCpi)]

Cp External pressure coefficient to be used in determination of wind loads

for buildings

I Moment of inertia in the plane of bending, in4; moment of inertia about the axis of bending, in4;
importance factor

Ix, Iy Moment of inertia about the principal axes, in4 Lb Length of bearing, in

Lc Length of channel anchor, in; clear distance, in the direction of the force, between the edge of the hole
and the edge of the adjacent hole or edge of the material, in

Lc Length of channel shear connector, in

Lh Distance upwind of crest of hill or escarpment to where the difference in ground elevation is half the
height of hill or escarpment, ft

Lp Limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of yielding, in

Lr Limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of inelastic lateral-torsional buckling, in; roof live
load; reduced roof live load per ft2 of horizontal projection, psf

Mcx Available flexural-torsional strength for strong axis flexure, kip-in

Mp Plastic bending moment, kip-in

Mu Required flexural strength, using LRFD load combinations, kip-in

My Yield moment about the axis of bending, kip-in

Ω Safety factor

ρ Redundancy factor based on the extent of structural redundancy present in a building

λ Adjustment factor for building height and exposure

λp Limiting slenderness parameter for compact element

λpd Limiting slenderness parameter for plastic design

λpf Limiting slenderness parameter for compact flange

λpw Limiting slenderness parameter for compact web

λr Limiting slenderness parameter for noncompact element

II
 1. Introduction
Most columns are subjected to bending in addition to the axial load; considerable care
should be taken in a practical situation to load a column under axial load only.

When significant bending is present in addition to an axial load in a member, the member is
termed as a beam-column. The bending moments on a column may be due to any of the
following effects.

(a) Eccentricity of axial force

(b) Buildingpame action In a multi-storey building, usually columns support beams which
have similar identical connection eccentricities at each floor level.

In a rigid frame building construction, the columns carry the building load axially as well as
end moments fiom the girders that frame into them. Most building frames are braced
against sway by bracings or core walls, but the horizontal wind forces have to be resisted by
bending actions in the columns. Due to the wind forces, the columns may bend in double-
curvature bending (similar to the shape of the letter ‘S’) in contrast to the single curvature
bending of columns due to moment, created by gravity loads. Single curvature bending is
often the most critical design condition than reverse or double curvature bending. These are
shown schematically in Fig. 1. Wind loads can also produce lateral loading on a column,
giving beam-type bending moment distribution.

(c) Portal or gable pame action Another common example of a column with bending
moments occurs in a portal frame where the columns and rafters are subjected to relatively
light axial loads combined with bending.

(d) Loadfrom brackets In industrial buildings, column brackets may be used to carry gantry
girders on which the cranes move. The resulting eccentricity produces bending moments in
addition to the axial loads in the columns.

In this case, the column moment is not at the column ends {see Fig. 1 (d)}.

(e) Transverse loads As already discussed, wind pressure on long vertical members may
produce bending moments. Similarly earthquakes also produce bendin in the columns.

Purlins placed between panel joints of a rafter of roof trusses (in order to reduce the size of
purlin or to accommodate maximum size of roofing sheets) will produce bending in rafters

1
Fig .1.

2
 2. Structural Framing
For the purpose of structural analysis and design, industrial buildings are classified as 1
Braced frames

2 Unbraced frames

In braced buildings, the trusses rest on columns with hinge type of connections and the
stability is provided by bracings in the three mutually perpendicular planes.

These bracings are identified as follows:

(a) Bracings in the vertical plane in the end bays in the longitudinal direction ‎[see Fig. 2(a)]‎

(b) Bracings in the horizontal plane at bottom chord level of the roof truss ‎[see Fig. 2(c)]‎

(c) Bracings in the plane of upper chords of the roof truss [see Figs .2(a) and (b)]

(d) Bracings in the vertical plane in the end cross sections usually at the gable ends [see Figs
2. (a) and (c)]

The function of a bracing is to transfer horizontal loads from the frames (such as due to
wind or earthquake or horizontal surge due to acceleration and breaking of travelling
cranes) to the foundation. The longitudinal bracing on each longitudinal end provides
stability in the longitudinal direction.

The gable bracings provide stability in the lateral direction. The tie bracings at the bottom
chord level transfer lateral loads (due to wind or earthquake) of trusses to the end gable
bracings.

Similarly stability in the horizontal plane is provided by

1 a rafter bracing in the end bays, which provide stability to trusses in their planes or

2 a bracing system [see Fig. 2(c)] at the level of bottom chords of trusses, which provide
stability to the bottom chords of the trusses.

Purlins act as lateral bracings to the compression chords of the roof trusses, which increase
the design strength of the compression chords. The lateral ties provide similar functions to
the bottom chord members when they are subjected to compression due to reversal of
loading (see Section 12.5.8 also). X bracings (as shown in Fig2) are the commonly used
bracing systems. K-type bracing systems may also be used. If the building is lengthy, bracings

3
in the end bays alone may not be sufficient. In these cases, every fourth or fifth bay is
braced and the roof upper chord bracings are also provided in these bays.

fig 2
Braced frames are efficient in resisting the loads and do not sway. However, the braces
introduce obstructions in some bays and may cause higher forces or uplift forces in some
places. Wide flange columns are often used for exterior columns of braced frames. (For
interior columns of braced frames with height less than 7 m, Square Hollow Section (SHS)
columns may yield most economical solution because of their high radius of gyration about
both axes.)

3. BRACED VERSUS UNBRACED FRAMES

As explained in Section 6.3, “Methods of Analysis for Required Strength,” there are two
types of secondary moments: P-d (caused by member deflection) and P-Δ (caused by the
effect of sway when the member is part of an unbraced frame [moment frame]). Because of
this, two amplification factors must be used. The AISC Specification covers this in Appendix
8, “Approximate Second-Order Analysis.” The approach is the same as the one used in the
ACI Building Code for reinforced concrete (ACI, 2008).

4
Mr = B1Mnt + B2Mlt (AISC Equation A-8-1)

where

Mr = required moment strength

= Mu for LRFD

= Ma for ASD

Mnt = maximum moment assuming that no sidesway occurs, whether the frame is actually
braced or not (the subscript nt is for “no translation”). Mnt will be a factored load moment
for LRFD and a service load moment for ASD.

In flexural zone 1 (i.e., yielding), the compression flange of the beam is braced laterally at
distances less than or equal to Lp, the limiting length for plastic bending. The lateral bracing
prevents the compression flange from buckling, thereby enabling the maximum stress to
reach the yield stress and develop the full plastic moment of the section.

In flexural zone 2 (i.e., inelastic torsional buckling), the compression flange is braced laterally
at distances greater than Lp but less than or equal to Lr, the limiting length for inelastic
torsional buckling. With bracing spaced at this distance, inelastic torsional buckling occurs
before the yield stress is reached. Mr is the moment strength available when Lb equals Lr
for service loads where the extreme fiber reaches the yield stress, Fy, including the residual
stress.

In flexural zone 3 (i.e., elastic torsional buckling), the compression flange is braced at
distances greater than Lr. This results in elastic torsional buckling. Regardless of the flexural
zone, the basic design formulas for designing flexural members for strength are based on
design requirements given in AISC Specification Chap. B, and shown in Eq. 5.4 and Eq. 5.5.

For LRFD, the nominal strength, Mn, when multiplied by a resistance factor, ϕb (given in
AISC Specification Chap. F), must be greater than or equal to the required strength, Mu. The
quantity ϕbMn is also known as the design strength. Equation 5.4 is

derived from AISC Specification Eq. B3-1.

u b n *LRFD+ M ≤φ M

5
For ASD, the nominal strength, Mn, when divided by a safety factor, Ωb (given in AISC
Specification Chap. F), must be greater than or equal to the required strength, Ma. The
quantity Mn /Ωb is also known as the allowable strength. Equation 5.5 is derived from

AISC Specification Eq. B3-2.

4. MEMBERS IN BRACED FRAMES

The amplification factor given by Expression 6.7 was derived for a member braced against
sidesway—that is, one whose ends ‎cannot translate with respect to each other. ‎

Figure .3 shows a member of this type subjected to equal end moments producing single-
curvature bending (bending that ‎produces tension or compression on one side throughout
the length of the member). ‎

Maximum moment amplification occurs at the center, where the deflection is largest. For
equal end moments, the moment is ‎constant throughout the length of the member, so the
maximum primary moment also occurs at the center. Thus the maximum ‎secondary
moment and maximum primary moment are additive. Even if the end moments are not
equal, as long as one is ‎clockwise and the other is counterclockwise there will be
singlecurvature bending, and the maximum primary and secondary ‎moments will occur near
each other

Fig 3

6
 5. Evaluation of Cm
The factor Cm applies only to the braced condition. There are two categories of
members:
those with transverse loads applied between the ends and those with no
transverse loads. Figure .4b and c illustrate these two cases (member AB is the
beam–column
under consideration).
1. If there are no transverse loads acting on the member,

M1M2 is a ratio of the bending moments at the ends of the member. M1 is

the end moment that is smaller in absolute value, M2 is the larger, and the
ratio is positive for members bent in reverse curvature and negative for
single-curvature bending (Figure .4). Reverse curvature (a positive ratio)
occurs when M1 and M2 are both clockwise or both counterclockwise.

7
 2. For transversely loaded members, Cm can be taken as 1.0. A more
refined procedure for transversely loaded members is provided in the
Commentary to Appendix 8 of the Specification. The factor Cm is given as

fig 4
Example 1
A 12- ft W12 X 96 (50 ksi steel) is used as a beam-column in a braced frame. It
is bent in single curvature with equal and opposite end moments and is not
subjected to intermediate transverse loads. Is the section satisfactory if Po =
175 k, PL = 300 k, and first-order Mar = 60 ft-k and MLA. = 60 ft-k?

Solution. Using a W12 x 96 (A = 28.2 in 2 , I x = 833 in 4 , 0bM px = 551

ft-k,

= 367 ft-k, Lp= 10.9 ft, L, = 46.7 ft, BF = 5.78 k for LRFD
Ὠb and ‎3.85 k for ASD)

8
 ‎

9
 RFD ASD
‎ Π2EIX (1r2)(29,000)(833)
Pelx=
(KILx)2 (1.0 x 12 x 12)2
= 11,498 k

M„ = (1.071)(120) = 128.5 f-k

Since Lb = 12 ft > L4, = 10.9 ft < L, = 46.6 ft
Mrs =
BtxMmx = (1.064)(168) = 178.8 ft-k
.'. Zone 2
Since Lb = 12 ft > Lp = 10.9 ft < Lr= 46.6 ft
.'. Zone 2
ØBMpx = 1.0[551 – (5.78)(12 – 10.9)] = 544.6 ft-k

Mp.r fib
= 0.975 < 1.0 OK

• Section is satisfactory.
.*. Section is satisfactory.

10
Example 2

11
12
13
14
 6. Moment-resisting frame.
resistance including special moment-resisting frames, braced frames, and shear walls.

Moment-resisting frames resist lateral loads by means of special flexural connections

between the columns and beams The flexural connections provide the necessary ductility at
the joints to dissipate the energy demand with large inelastic deformations.

A number of different methods are used to provide the connections and these are specified
in American Institute of Steel Construction, Prequalified Connections for Special and
Intermediate Steel Moment Frames for Seismic Applications (AISC 358-10).3 A typical
moment-resisting frame building is shown in Fig. 5 with a reduced beam section connection
detailed.

Moment-resisting frames have the advantage of providing bays free from obstructions.
However, special detailing is required for finishes and curtain walls to accommodate, without
damage, the large drifts anticipated.

Concentrically braced frames, described by Cochran and Honeck,4 and eccentrically braced
frames, described by Becker and Ishler,5 are illustrated in Fig. 5. These systems have the
advantage over moment-resisting frames of less drift and simpler connections.

In addition, braced frames are generally less expensive than moment-resisting frames. Their
disadvantages are restrictions on maximum building height and architectural limitations.

fig 5

15
Example 3 Redundancy Factor For the north-south direction, determine the redundancy
factor on the second floor of the two-story steel framed building shown in Fig. 6. Lateral
resistance in the north-south direction is provided by special steel moment frames with
identical stiffness. Lateral resistance in the east-west direction is provided by concentrically
braced frames with identical stiffness. The stiffness of a braced frame is ten times the
stiffness of a moment frame. The diaphragms may be considered rigid and the building is
assigned to seismic design category D.

Fig 6
V = base shear = 619 lb/ft Fx2 = shear at second story = 238 lb/ft Fx2/V = 0.38> 0.35 ... ASCE 7
Sec. 12.3.4.2 must be applied

The plan view of the second story, showing the lateral force-resisting elements, is shown in Fig6a. Only one
bay of special steel moment frames is provided at each end of the building and, thus, the building does not
comply with case (b) of ASCE 7 Sec. 12.3.4.2.

To investigate case (a) of ASCE 7 Sec. 12.3.4.2, the special steel moment frame at the east end of the
building is removed as shown in Fig. 60b.

Check reduction in story strength

This leaves three moment frames in the north-south direction. At the ultimate limit state, it may be
assumed that the three moment frames have each reached their ultimate capacity of FM and are providing
restraint to lateral displacement. The total story shear capacity in the north-south direction is now 3FM.
Prior to removal of this moment frame, the story shear capacity in the north-south direction was 4FM.
Hence, the reduction in story strength is

FM/4FM = 0.25 < 0.33 ... satisfactory

Check for extreme torsional irregularity

After removal of the moment frame at the east end of the building, the ultimate story shear is

16
Vu = 3FM

Torsional restraint is provided by the four braced frames each with a force of FB. This is shown in

Fig. 7a.

For forces in the north-south direction, the center of rigidity is located at distance from the west wall given
by xR = 30 ft

From symmetry, the center of mass is located 45 ft from the west wall. Accidental eccentricity is given

by ASCE 7 Sec. 12.8.4.2 as

ea = 0.05 × 90 = 4.5 ft

The displaced center of mass, allowing for accidental eccentricity, is located a distance from the west wall
given by

xM = 45 + 4.5 = 49.5 ft

The maximum eccentricity is

e = xM – Xr = 49.5 – 30 = 19.5 ft

The torsion acting on the building is

Tu = eVu = 19.5 × 3FM = 58.5FM

The couple created by the force in the braced frames produces an equal and opposite torsion which is

Tu = 2FB × 30 = 60FB

Hence 58.5FM = 60FB

FB = 0.98FM

The displacement produced in the story is shown in Fig. 7b. The average story drift is

17
δavg = FM/s where s is stiffness of one moment frame

The east-west deflection of the south-east corner of the story is

δx = FB/10s = 0.098FM/s

where 10s is stiffness of one braced frame.

From the similar triangles

δy/45 = δx/15

δy = 3δx = 0.29FM/s

The maximum story drift is

δmax = δy + δavg = 1.29FM/s

The ratio of the maximum drift to the average drift is

δmax/δavg = 1.29 < 1.4 ... extreme torsional irregularity does not exist

Removing an interior moment frame is less critical than the removal of an end frame.

Hence, the redundancy factor is ρ = 1.0

7. REFRANCE
Steel Design Fifth EditionWilliam T. Segui

The University of MemphisRoeder and Lehman, ‘Seismic design and behavior of concentrically braced steel
frames’,

Structures Magazine, February 2008, pp. 37-39.

Steel Structures Design and Practice N. SUBRAMANIAN Consulting Engineer Maryland USA OXF

Becker, R. and Ishler, M. 1996. Seismic Design Practice for Eccentrically Braced Frames.

Structural Steel Educational Council, Moraga, CA.

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