Lecture

9 Compressibility &
Consolidation

Er. Pravash Devkota

1
 Introduction

Structures are built on soils. They transfer loads to the

subsoil through the foundations. The effect of the loads
is felt by the soil normally up to a depth of about four
times the width of the foundation. The soil within this
depth gets compressed due to the imposed stresses. The
compression of the soil mass leads to the decrease in
the volume of the mass which results in the settlement
of the structure.

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Introduction

If the settlement is not kept to tolerable limit, the

desire use of the structure may be impaired and
the design life of the structure may be reduced.

It is therefore important to have a mean of

predicting the amount of soil compression or
consolidation

3
Er. Pravash Devkota
 Compressibility

The settlement is defined as the compression of a soil layer

due to the loading applied at or near its top surface.

When a saturated clay is subjected to loading pore water is

squeezed out from the soil pore resulting in the deformation
of the soil. The deformation of soil due to the dissipation
of pore water is called CONSOLIDATION.
The total compression of soil under load is composed
of three components (i.e. elastic settlement, primary
consolidation settlement, and secondary compression). 4

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Compressibility
There are three types of settlement:
1.Immediate or Elastic Settlement (Se): caused by the elastic
deformation of dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without
change in the moisture content.

2.Primary Consolidation Settlement (Sc): volume change in

saturated cohesive soils as a result of expulsion of the water
that occupies the void spaces.

3.Secondary Consolidation Settlement (Ss): volume change due

to the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics under a constant
effective stress (creep).
5

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Consolidation

Consolidation settlement is the vertical

displacement of the surface corresponding to the
volume change in saturated cohesive soils as a
result of expulsion of the water that occupies the
void spaces.
•Consolidation settlement will result, for example,
if a structure is built over a layer of saturated
clay or if the water table is lowered permanently
in a stratum overlying a clay layer.

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Consolidation

Consolidation is the time-dependent settlement

of fine grained soils resulting from the
expulsion of water from the soil pores. The rate
of escape of water depends on the permeability
of the soil.

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Consolidation
• Permeability of clay is low Drainage occurs slowly –
therefore, the settlement is delayed.
• Clayey soils undergo consolidation settlement not only
under the action of “external” loads (surcharge
loads) but also under its own weight or weight
of soils that exist above the clay (geostatic
loads).
• Clayey soils also undergo settlement when dewatered
(e.g., ground water pumping) – because the effective
stress on the clay increases.

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Consolidation

The amount of settlement is proportional to the one-

dimensional strain caused by variation in the effective stress.
The rate of settlement is a function of the soil type, the
geometry of the profile (in 1- D consolidation, the length of
the drainage path) and a mathematical solution between a time
factor and the percent consolidation which has occurred.

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Consolidation vs. Compaction

Compaction Consolidation
Instantaneous Process Time-dependent process (
( applicable to all soils ) applicable to clayey soils
Only ). Can occur over 100s ofyears

Applicable to unsaturated Applicable to saturated soils. Decrease

soils. Decrease in air voids ( in water voids ( air voids do not exist)
not water voids ).

Dry density increases, water Dry density increases, water content

content dose not change decreases.

10

Er. Pravash Devkota

• Piston-Spring Analogy for Primary Consolidation:

1. The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is

closed. (Fully saturated soil)
2. A load is applied onto the piston, while the hole is still unopened.
At this stage, only the water resists the applied load. (Development
of excessive pore water pressure)
3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through
the hole and the spring shortens. (Drainage of excessive pore water)
4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the
spring alone resists the applied load. (Full dissipation of excessive
pore water pressure. End of consolidation) 11

Er. Pravash Devkota

 • Piston-Spring Analogy for Primary Consolidation:

Flow

u  u0  v  P
u  u  u0
 'v   'v 0
A
u  u0  u so  'v   'v 0   v
u  u0   v  'v 
 'v   v  u
 'v  0
• Spring is analogous to effective stress (stress carried by soil skeleton)
• Initially, the pore water takes up the change in total stress so effective stress does not change
• As excess pore water pressure drains, the effective stress increases (skeleton takes up load)
• Consolidation is complete when excess pressure dissipates and flow stops
• So consolidation is TIME DEPENDENT because it is a pressure dissipation (flow) process!
• Depends on hydraulic conductivity (k) and length of drainage path (Hdr)
12

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Consolidation Test

Laboratory consolidation test

The oedometer test is used
to investigate the 1-D
consolidation behaviour
of fine-grained soils.
1.Place sample in ring
2.Apply load
3.Measure height change
4.Repeat for new load.

13

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Consolidation Test
Laboratory consolidation test Dial gage

Porous stone
2 in. to 3 in.

Water Water
bath Soil sample bath
mm
25

Soil sample
Porous stone
An undisturbed soil sample 25 mm in height and 75
mm in diameter is confined in a steel confining ring and
immersed in a water bath.
14

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Laboratory consolidation test
• It is subjected to a compressive stress by applying a vertical
load, which is assumed to act uniformly over the area of the soil
sample.
• Several increments of vertical stress are applied usually by
doubling the previous increment.
• Two-way drainage is permitted through porous disks at the top
and bottom.
• The vertical compression of the soil sample is recorded using
highly accurate dial gauges.
• For each increment, the final settlement of the soil sample as
well as the time taken to reach the final settlement is recorded.

15

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Consolidation Test
Determination of void ratio

1. Height of solids method

2. Change in void ratio method

Er. Pravash Devkota

16
 Consolidation Test
1. Height of solids method

17

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Consolidation Test
1. Change in void ratio method

Sr x e = w x G
18

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Compressibility Characteristics

The compressibility of soils under one-dimensional

compression can be described from the decrease in the
volume of voids with the increase of effective stress. This
relation of void ratio and effective stress can be depicted
either as an arithmetic plot or a semi-log plot.

In the arithmetic plot as

shown, as the soil
compresses, for the same
increase of effective stress
Δσ', the void ratio reduces
by a smaller magnitude,
from e1 to e2. 19

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Compressibility Characteristics

1. COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBILITY, av
the compressibility of a soil decreases as the effective
stress increases. This can be represented by the slope of
the void ratio – effective stress relation, which is called the
coefficient of compressibility, av.

The -ve sign is introduced to

make av a positive parameter.

20

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Compressibility Characteristics

2. COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY, mv

It is defined as the volumetric strain per unit increase in

vertical stress.
mv= (Δv/v0)/Δσ‘
= (Δe/(1+e0))/Δσ‘
So,
mv = av /(1+e0)

21

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Compressibility Characteristics

3. COMPRESSION INDEX

It describes variation of the void ratio e as a function of the

change of effective stress Δσ' plotted in the logarithmic
scale:

Terzaghi & Peck

Cc = 0.009 (WL - 10) for undisturbed soil

Cc = 0.007 (WL – 10) for remoulded soil

22

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Compressibility Characteristics
4. RECOMPRESSION INDEX
The recompression index Cr is determined from the graph
representing the variation of void ratio e as a function of the
effective stress σef plotted in the logarithmic scale for unloading -
reloading sequence. (Slope of recompression curve)

If no results from either laboratory

or in situ measurements are
available, the recompression
index Cr can be approximately
derived from:
23

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Compressibility Characteristics
5. SWELLING INDEX
The Swelling index Cs is determined from the graph representing the
variation of void ratio e as a function of the effective
stress σef plotted in the logarithmic scale for unloading - reloading
sequence. (Slope of unloading Curve)

Cs

24

Er. Pravash Devkota

 Normally Consolidated and Over-Consolidated Clays
The figure shows the relation of void ratio and effective stress of a clay
soil as a semi-log plot.
OP corresponds to initial loading of the
soil. PQ corresponds to unloading of the
soil. QFR corresponds to a reloading of the
soil. Upon reloading beyond P, the soil
continues along the path that it would have
followed if loaded from O to R
continuously.
The preconsolidation stress, σ'pc, is defined
to be the maximum effective stress
experienced by the soil. This stress is
identified in comparison with the effective
stress in its present state. For soil at state Q
25
or F, this would correspond to the effective
stress at point P. Er. Pravash Devkota
 Normally Consolidated and Over-Consolidated Clays
The preconsolidation stress, σ'pc, is defined to be the maximum
effective stress experienced by the soil.
If the current effective stress, σ ', is equal (note that it cannot be
greater than) to the preconsolidation stress, then the deposit is said to
be normally consolidated (NC).
σ '≤ σ'pc
If the current effective stress is less than the preconsolidation stress,
then the soil is said to be over-consolidated (OC).
σ '› σ'pc
overconsolidation ratio (OCR), which is defined as the ratio of the
preconsolidation stress to the current effective stress.

Note that when the soil is normally consolidated, OCR ≤ 1 26

when the soil is over consolidated, OCR › 1

 ESTIMATION OF PRECONSOLIDATION STRESS
It is possible to determine the preconsolidation stress that the soil had
experienced. The soil sample is to be loaded in the laboratory so as to
obtain the void ratio - effective stress relationship. Empirical
procedures are used to estimate the preconsolidation stress, the most
widely used being Casagrande's construction which is illustrated.

27

Er. Pravash Devkota

 ESTIMATION OF PRECONSOLIDATION STRESS

The steps in the construction are:

• Draw the graph using an appropriate

scale.
• Determine the point of maximum
curvature A.
• At A, draw a tangent AB to the curve.
• At A, draw a horizontal line AC.
• Draw the extension ED of the straight
line portion of the curve.
• Where the line ED cuts the bisector
AF of angle CAB, that point corresponds
to the preconsolidation stress.
28

Er. Pravash Devkota

Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio–Pressure Relationship

A soil specimen will be remolded when it is subjected to

some degree of disturbance. This remolding will result in
some deviation of the e-logσ’ plot as observed in the
laboratory
from the actual behavior in the field. The field e-logσ’ plot
can be reconstructed from the laboratory test results in the
manner described in this section (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967).

29

Er. Pravash Devkota

Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio–Pressure Relationship
Normally Consolidated Clay of Low to
Medium Plasticity
1. In Figure, curve 2 is the laboratory e-log σ’
plot. From this plot, determine the
preconsolidation pressure (that is, the
present effective overburden pressure).
Knowing where , draw vertical line ab.
2. Calculate the void ratio e0 in the field,
Draw horizontal line cd.
3. Calculate 0.4 eo and draw line ef. (Note: f is
the point of intersection of the line with
curve 2.)
4. Join points f and g. Note that g is the point
of intersection of lines ab and cd. This is
the virgin compression curve.
It is important to point out that if a soil is
remolded completely, the general position
of the e-logσ’ plot will be as represented 30
Er. Pravash Devkota
by curve 3.
Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio–Pressure Relationship
Overconsolidated Clay of Low to
Medium Plasticity
1. In Figure, curve 2 is the laboratory e-log σ’ plot
(loading), and curve 3 is the laboratory unloading,
or rebound, curve. From curve 2, determine the
preconsolidation pressure Draw the vertical line
ab.
2. Determine the field effective overburden
pressure σ’0 Draw vertical line cd.
3. Determine the void ratio in the field ,e0. Draw
the horizontal line fg. The point of
intersection of lines fg and cd is h.
4. Draw a line hi, which is parallel to curve 3
(which is practically a straight line). The
point of intersection of lines hi and ab is j.
5. Join points j and k. Point k is on curve 2, and its
ordinate is 0.4e0 .
The field consolidation plot will take a path hjk.
The recompression path in the field
31
is hj and is parallel to the laboratory rebound Er. Pravash Devkota

curve (Schmertmann, 1953).

Calculation of Settlement from One-Dimensional Primary
Consolidation

Let us consider a saturated clay layer of thickness H and cross-sectional area A

under an existing average effective overburden pressure σ0', Because of an
increase of effective pressure, Δσ', let the primary settlement be Sc.

32
Er. Pravash Devkota
Calculation of Settlement from One-Dimensional Primary
Consolidation
Δ𝐻 Δ𝑉 From e vs log σv‘ graph
=
𝐻 𝑉
Δ𝑒
Δ𝐻
=
Δ𝑒 𝐶𝑐 = σ1′
𝐻 1+𝑒0 𝐿𝑜𝑔( )
σ0′
Δ𝑒
Sc = Δ𝐻 = xH
1+𝑒0 σ1′
Δ𝑒 =𝐶𝑐 x𝐿𝑜𝑔(σ ′)
0

In Normally consolidated clays

33
Er. Pravash Devkota
Calculation of Settlement from One-Dimensional Primary
Consolidation
In Over consolidated clays

34
Er. Pravash Devkota
 35
Er. Pravash Devkota
 36
Er. Pravash Devkota
 37
Er. Pravash Devkota
 38
Er. Pravash Devkota
Time Rate of Consolidation
(Terzaghi one Dimensional Theory of consolidation)

Terzaghi (1925) proposed the first theory to consider the rate of one-
dimensional consolidation for saturated clay soils. The mathematical
derivations are based on the following six assumptions (also see Taylor,
1948):

1. The clay–water system is homogeneous.

2. Saturation is complete.
3. Compressibility of water is negligible.
4. Compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange).
5. The flow of water is in one direction only (that is, in the direction of
compression).
6. Darcy’s law is valid.

39
Er. Pravash Devkota
Figure a shows a layer of clay of thickness 2Hdr (Note: Hdr = length of maximum
drainage path) that is located between two highly permeable sand layers. If the
clay layer is subjected to an increased pressure of s, the pore water pressure at
any point A in the clay layer will increase. For one-dimensional consolidation,
water will be squeezed out in the vertical direction toward the sand layer.
Figure b shows the flow of water through a prismatic element at A. For the soil
element shown,
Rate of outflow of water - Rate of inflow of water = Rate of volume change

40
Figure (a) Clay layer undergoingconsolidation
(b) flow of water at A during consolidation
Rate of outflow of water - Rate of inflow of water = Rate of volume change

A
41
 B

A C
42

D
The change in the void ratio is caused by the increase of effective stress (i.e., a
decrease of excess pore water pressure). Assuming that they are related linearly,
we have
E
D E

43
Equation (F) is the basic differential equation of Terzaghi’s
consolidation theory and The solution yields,

where m an integer
M = (π /2)(2m + 1)
uo = initial excess pore water pressure
Tv = time factor

Hdr= Drainage Path

For open Layer (double drainage) Hdr = H

For Half close Layer (single drainage) Hdr = 2H 44
The average degree of consolidation for the entire depth of
the clay layer at any time ‘t’ can be written

The values of the time factor and their corresponding average

degrees of consolidation may also be approximated by the following
simple relationship (Tayler (1948)):

45
The average degree of consolidation for the entire depth of
the clay layer at any time ‘t’ can be written

The values of the time factor and their corresponding average

degrees of consolidation may also be approximated by the following
simple relationship (Tayler (1948)):

46
47
Hdr = H/2 = 25mm/2

48
 Hdr = H = 1.8 m

Er. Pravash Devkota 49

Example 2: For a laboratory consolidation test on a soil specimen that
is drained on both sides, the following were obtained:
Thickness of the clay specimen = 25 mm
σ1 = 50 kN/m2 ; e1 = 0.92
σ2 = 120 kN/m2 ;e2 = 0.78
Time for 50% consolidation = 2.5 min
Determine the soil permeability for the loading range.

Solution:

Er. Pravash Devkota 50

Er. Pravash Devkota 51
Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
Coefficient of consolidation Cv
The rate of consolidation settlement is estimated using the Coefficient
of consolidation Cv. This parameter is determined for each load
increment in the test.

The coefficient of consolidation ( c r ) can be determined by the

(Casagrande) Logarithm-of-Time and by
(Taylor) Square –Root of Time Methods.

52

Er. Pravash Devkota

Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
Logarithm-of-Time Method
For a given incremental loading of the
laboratory test, the specimen deformation
against log-of-time plot is shown in Figure.
The following constructions are needed to
determine cv.
Step 1: Extend the straight-line portions of
primary and secondary consolidations to
intersect at A. The ordinate of A is
represented by d100—that is, the
deformation at the end of 100% primary
consolidation.
Step 2: The initial curved portion of the plot
of deformation versus log t is approximated
to be a parabola on the natural scale. Select
times t1 and t2 on the curved portion such
that t2 = 4t1. Let the difference of
specimen deformation during time (t2 - t1)
Er. Pravash Devkota
53

be equal to x.
Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
Logarithm-of-Time Method

Step 3: Draw a horizontal line DE such that

the vertical distance BD is equal to x. The
deformation corresponding to the line DE is
d0 (that is, deformation at 0%
consolidation).
Step 4: The ordinate of point F on the
consolidation curve represents the
deformation at 50% primary consolidation,
and its abscissa represents the
corresponding time (t50).
Step 5: For 50% average degree of
consolidation, Tv = 0.197 so,

54
Er. Pravash Devkota
Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
Square-Root-of-Time Method
In the square-root-of-time method, a plot of
deformation against the square root of time is
made for the incremental loading. Other graphic
constructions required are as follows:
Step 1: Draw a line AEB through the early portion
of the curve.
Step 2: Draw a line AC such that OC = 1.15OB.
The abscissa of point D, which is the intersection E
of AC and the consolidation curve, gives the
square root of time for 90% consolidation ( t90 ).
Step 3: For 90% consolidation,
T90 = 0.848,
so,

55
Er. Pravash Devkota