S. P. Bali - Electrical Technology Machines & Measurement Vol 2-Pearson Education (2013) PDF

ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
MACHINES AND MEASUREMENTS

Volume II
S. P. Bali
Former Faculty Member
Military College of Electronics and Mechanical Engineering
Secunderabad, India
Delhi • Chennai
Copyright © 2013 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia
No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s
prior written consent.
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reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.
ISBN 9789332514416
eISBN 9789332517943
Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India
Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India
Dedicated to
My late wife SUKSHAM BALI
(10 April 1940 – 07 August 2007)
And departing leave behind us

FOOTPRINTS on the sands of time
This page is intentionally left blank.
Preface
A celebrity is a person who works hard all his life to become well known, then wears dark glasses to avoid
being recognised.
With the rising momentum of development, the scope of text books dealing, in particular, with Electrical Engineering has
expanded considerably. An important guiding objective in writing this book is to provide the students with a text book they
can read, understand and study by themselves. Intended to serve as a text book for the subject of Electrical Engineering
for BE/B.Tech Degree students it will also serve as a text-cum-reference for the students of Diploma Engineering. So
also it will be useful to candidates appearing for AMIE, IETE, GATE, UPSC Engineering Services and IAS entrance
examination. It will be equally helpful to practicing engineers to understand the theoretical aspects of their professions.
Despite the publication of a large number of text books on this field, the students continue to remain perplexed.
Keeping this fact in mind, this text book has been developed in a systematic manner, with emphasis on basic concepts.
Written in a simple, easy to understand language, reinforced by illustrations which speak of themselves and are easy
to understand and supplemented by selected worked examples based on step-by-step solutions the various chapters are
interlinked, yet independent. The book can be read in the sequence in which it is written without facing any difficulty. The
following features are intended to serve as learning aids:
1. More than enough worked examples are given in each chapter, wherever applicable to emphasize the practical utility
of the results derived.
2. Detailed summary is given at the end of each chapter, as an aid to memory.
3. Multiple choice questions (MCQ) along with their answers are included in each chapter for the self-assessment of the
student.
4. The illustrative method of treatment is used, each illustration bringing home a point.
5. Conventional questions are also given at the end of each chapter. Answers to numerical questions are also given.
6. Where possible, mechanical analysis is given.
7. Equivalent circuits are given for a better understanding of the problem.
8. The per unit system is discussed in detail with plenty of worked examples.
The book has been designed in two volumes, Volume 1: Electrical Fundamentals and Volume 2: Machines and Mea-
surements.
Vol. 2: Machines and Measurements cconsists of 24 chapters divided in two parts: Part B on Electric Machines which
comprises seventeen chapters discussing every aspect of electric machines and Part C on Electrical Measurements that
comprises seven chapters discussing the measurement of voltage, current, resistance and power and their display.
Part B on Electric Machines comprises seventeen chapters. Starting with Electromechanical Energy Conversion
motor and generator action and their interdependence are explained. Then are explained d.c. Generators, their types
and construction. The e.m.f equation is derived, followed by generator characteristics and their suitability for specific
applications. Paralleling of generators is discussed next followed by worked examples. Development and measurement
of torque is discussed next. Classification and characteristics of motors follow. Different methods of starting motors and
reversing d.c. motors are then discussed followed by losses and efficiency of d.c. motors. Then motor control is discussed
threadbare. Followed by topics like reversing the direction of motors, interlocking devices, retardation and stopping, then
comes the most important topic of transformers. Mutual coupling dot convention and types of transformers and their
construction features are discussed. After developing the e.m.f. equation the equivalent circuit of a transformer is developed
and the idea of reflected impedance introduced. This is followed by losses, efficiency and maximum power transfer, then
auxiliary topics like auto transformers, current transformers, potential transformers and transformer connections are
discussed supplemented by worked examples. An introduction to three phase transformers and their connections is given.
This is followed by synchronous generators and motors. Alternator windings, coil group connections, winding pitch and
vi Electrical Technology
distribution factors are explained. Alternator synchronizing procedure is also discussed. Synchronous motors come next;
their construction, operation, starting, followed by power factor control, the characteristics of these motors are discussed.
The text is supplemented by worked examples. In three phase induction motors, the formation of a rotating magnetic field is
discussed in details. After explaining its construction, slip and its effect on rotor frequency are discussed. The characteristics
of polyphase induction motors and their starting techniques are then explained. The various types of polyphase induction
motors, their construction and phase splitting are then discussed. Shaded pole motors and wound rotor induction motors,
various types, and their characteristics are explained in detail. In the chapter on specialized motors, reluctance motors,
hysteresis motors, stepper motors and linear induction motors, producing linear motion, are briefly explained. The next four
chapters are also of an introductory type. Chapter 47 on per unit system gives a detailed description of per unit resistance,
per unit impedance, and per unit system for transformer calculations supplemented by worked examples.
Part C of the book on Electrical Measurements comprises seven chapters. Starting with measurement systems and
errors associated with them various types of meter movements, controlling and deflecting torques are discussed in details,
supplemented by worked examples. The constructional details of the various types of meter movements are also given.
Exploiting these meter movements as ammeters, voltmeters and ammeters and the terms associated with their performance
are explained followed by worked examples, commercial type multi function multi-range meters (volt Ohm milliammeters,
Voms) are then explained. The internal circuits and working of a Simpson Multimeter and calculations of the various shunts
and multipliers, along with their equivalent circuits are given. The various types of Wattmeters and energy meters, their
construction and operation details are given. Measurement of power is explained next along with worked out examples.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, their types, controls and construction are given next followed by detailed setting up procedure.
Appendices A to M provide extremely useful information concluding with a brief Glossary of terms have been made
available as online resources.
The book also features —a Web-based circuit simulator, specially created to help students practice key circuits.
The customized FREE version integrated with the book will enable students to build, analyze and learn the circuits. Besides
being used as a practice/pre-lab tool by students, it can also serve as an exciting tool for instructors to teach the circuits.
Last but not the least I would like to put on record the appreciation of the production and editorial staff at Pearson
providing me unstained help in completing the project right from the day it was conceived till its completion. Suggestions
for improvement of the book will be thankfully acknowledged.
S. P. Bali
Contents
Preface v 32.13 Generator Losses 629

32.14 Polarity of Brushes 629
32.15 Voltage Regulation 630
PART B: ELECTRIC MACHINES
32.16 Paralleling of Generators 630
31. Electromechanical Summary
Energy Conversion 589 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Conventional Questions (CQ)
31.1 Introduction 589
31.2 Energy Conversion Devices 589 33. D.C. Motors 637
31.3 Related Fundamental Laws 590
31.4 D.c. Motor and Generator Mechanical
33.2 Development and Measurement of
Construction 592
Torque 638
31.5 Elementary Generator 593
33.3 Prony Brake 639
31.6 Average e.m.f. Generated in a Quarter
33.4 Two-Scale Prony Brake 640
Revolution 595
33.5 Dynamometer 640
31.7 Fundamental d.c. Generator Equation for
33.6 Back Electromotive Force in a Motor 641
Average e.m.f. Between Brushes 595
33.7 Classification of Motors 643
31.8 Biot-Savart Relationship 595
33.8 Construction 644
31.9 Motor Action Versus Generator
33.9 Characteristics of d.c. Motors 645
Action 599
33.10 Relation between Torque and
31.10 Power Flow Diagrams 599
Speed of a Motor 648
31.11 Conversion Process in a Machine 601
33.11 Direct-Current, Motor Starting
31.12 Linear and Rotary Motion 602
Problems 651
31.13 Methods of Analysis 603
33.12 D.c. Starting Switch 652
31.14 Energy Balance 604
33.13 D.c. Motor Reversing 655
31.15 Rotary Motion 606
Summary
31.16 Doubly Excited Rotating Machines 606
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Summary
Conventional Questions (CQ) 34. Efficiency of Direct Current
32. D.C. Generators 608 Machinery 659
32.1 Introduction 608 34.1 Introduction 659
32.2 Mechanical Construction 609 34.2 Basic Efficiency Relationships 659
32.3 Armature Structure 610 34.3 Types of Losses in d.c. Machines 660
32.4 Commutator and Brushes 611 34.4 Motor Enclosures 664
32.5 Armature Windings 612 34.5 Maintenance and Accessibility 665
32.6 Commutation 616 34.6 Cooling and Ventilation 665
32.7 Armature Reaction 617 Summary
32.8 E.M.F. Equation 618 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
32.9 Separately Excited Generator 621 Conventional Questions (CQ)
32.10 Basic Generator Types 621
32.11 Schematic Diagram and Equivalent 35. D.C. Motor Control 667
Circuit 622 35.1 Introduction 667
32.12 Characteristics of d.c. Generators 625 35.2 Control Devices 667
viii Electrical Technology
35.3 Pilot Control Devices 669 37.3 Three-phase Transformers 727

35.4 Manual d.c. Motor Starters 671 37.4 Paralleling Three-phase
35.5 Automatic Direct-Current Motor Transformer Banks 728
Starters 674 37.5 Harmonic Suppression in Three-phase
35.6 Comparison of Manual Versus Connections 728
Automatic Starter 674 Summary
35.7 Reversing Control of Direct Current Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Motors 674 Conventional Questions (CQ)
35.8 Retardation and Stopping 676
35.9 Ward-Leonard System 683 38. Synchronous Generators—
Summary Alternators 732
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) 38.1 Introduction 732
Conventional Questions (CQ) 38.2 Physical Construction of d.c.
Machines 733
36. Transformers—Single Phase 686 38.3 Alternator Windings 735
36.1 Introduction 686 38.4 Synchronous Alternator 737
36.2 Mutual Coupling 687 38.5 Stator Windings 739
36.3 Series Connection of Mutually-Coupled 38.6 Distribution Factor 741
Coils 688 38.7 Basic Voltage Generation
36.4 Parallel Connection of Mutually Coupled Formula 744
Coils 689 38.8 Alternator Performance 744
36.5 The Dot Convention 690 38.9 Alternator Percentage Regulation 745
36.6 Preventing Mutual Inducance 691 38.10 Relation between Generated Voltage
36.7 Transformer 692 and Terminal Voltage of an Alternator at
36.8 Transformer Construction 692 Various Load Power Factor 745
36.9 Ideal Transformer 694 38.11 Equivalent Circuit 753
36.10 Transformation Ratio 696 38.12 Parallel Operation 754
36.11 General Transformer Equation 697 38.13 Alternator Synchronizing Procedure 757
36.12 Practical Transformer 699 Summary
36.13 Transformer Ratings 701 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
36.14 Transformer Equivalent Circuits 703 Conventional Questions (CQ)
36.15 Secondary Voltage Phasor Relations 707
36.16 Transformer Voltage Regulation 708 39. Synchronous Motors 763
36.17 Maximum Power Transfer 708 39.1 Introduction 763
36.18 Losses in Transformers 710 39.2 General 763
36.19 Short Circuit Test 711 39.3 Synchronous Motor Construction 764
36.20 Open Circuit Test 711 39.4 Synchronous Motor Operation 764
36.21 Transformer Efficiency 712 39.5 Starting Synchronous Motors 766
36.22 Autotransformer 713 39.6 Synchronous Motor Power Factor
36.23 Power Transformers 715 Control 767
36.24 Instrument Transformers 716 39.7 Synchronous Motor V Curve 768
36.25 Pulse Transformers 717 39.8 Synchronous Capacitors 771
36.26 Transformer Connections 718 Summary
Summary Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) Conventional Questions (CQ)
40. Induction Motors
37. Three-phase Transformers 723 (Three Phase) 776
37.1 Introduction 723 40.1 Introduction 776
37.2 Three-phase Connections of Single-phase 40.2 The Rotating Magnetic Field 777
Transformers 723 40.3 Speed of the Rotating Magnetic Field 779
Contents ix
40.4 Direction of Rotation 783 43. Servos and Synchros 836

40.5 Slip and its Effect on Rotor Frequency
and Voltage 783
43.2 Operational Amplifiers 836
40.6 Construction of a Three-phase Induction
43.3 Practical Issues 840
Motor 786
43.4 D.c. Servomotors 840
40.7 Rotor Impedance and Current 787
43.5 A.c. Servomotors 842
40.8 Locus of the Current 789
43.6 Synchros 843
40.9 Losses and Efficiency 790
Summary
40.10 Air Gap Power 792
40.11 Maximum Torque 793
40.12 Induction Motor Torque-Speed
Characteristics 795 44. Open-Loop and Closed-Loop
40.13 Wrim and Scim: A Comparison 796 Systems 847
40.14 Starting Techniques for Induction
Motors 796 44.1 Introduction 847
40.15 Determination of Induction Motor 44.2 Control System 847
Parameters 798 44.3 Servomechanisms 848
Summary 44.4 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Systems 849
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) 44.5 Automation 849
Conventional Questions (CQ) 44.6 Components of a Control System 850
44.7 Transfer Function 850
44.8 Regulators and Servomechanisms 851
41. Induction Motors
44.9 Transient Periods 852
(Single Phase) 805
44.10 Damping 852
41.1
Introduction 805 44.11 The Basic Feedback Control System 854
41.2
Classes of Induction Motors 806 44.12 The Integrator 857
41.3
Getting the Rotor Started 807 44.13 Steady-State Operation of a Compound
41.4
Construction 808 Generator 860
41.5
Phase Splitting 808 44.14 Automatic Frequency Control 861
41.6
Locked-Rotor Torque 809 Summary
41.7
Resistance-Start Split-Phase Motors 811 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
41.8
Capacitor-Start Split-Phase Motors 813 Conventional Questions (CQ)
41.9
Reversing Single-Phase Induction
Motors 815 45. Inverters and Converters 864
41.10 Dual-Voltage Operation 815 45.1 Introduction 864
41.11 Shaded-Pole Motors 818 45.2 Converting Machines 864
Summary 45.3 Rectifiers: a.c. to d.c. Conversion 865
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) 45.4 Three-phase Full-wave Rectifiers 869
Conventional Questions (CQ) 45.5 Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) 870
45.6 Inverters Changing d.c. Voltage to a.c.
42. Specialized Motors 822 Voltage 871
42.1 Introduction 822 Summary
42.2 Reluctance-Start Induction Motor 822 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
42.3 Hysteresis Motors 824 Conventional Questions (CQ)
42.4 Stepper Motors 826
42.5 LIM 830 46. Controlled Rectifiers 876
42.6 Universal Motors 832 46.1 Introduction 876
Summary 46.2 Direct Thyratron Control 877
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) 46.3 Thyristor Control of Motors 877
Conventional Questions (CQ) 46.4 Thyristor Control of Motor 881
x Electrical Technology
46.5 Universal Motor Control 881 Summary

46.6 Complete Control System 882 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Summary Conventional Questions (CQ)
Conventional Questions (CQ) 50. Ammeters, Voltmeters and
Ohmmeters 937
47. Per-unit System 884
47.1 Introduction 884 50.2 Special Features 938
47.2 Resistance as Per Unit Quantity 885 50.3 Ammeters 940
47.3 Impedance as a Per-unit Quantity 885 50.4 Voltmeters 948
47.4 Per-unit Quantities for Three-phase 50.5 Ohmmeters 953
Circuits 886 50.6 Measurement of Insulation Resistance 955
47.5 Per-unit System-Transformer Summary
Calculations 887 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Summary Conventional Questions (CQ)
Conventional Questions (CQ) 51. Watt Meters and Energy Meters 960
PART C: ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 51.2 Watt Meters 960
51.3 Dynamometer-Type Watt Meter 961
48. Measurements and Error 903 51.4 Compensating Coil 963
48.1 Introduction 903 51.5 Induction-Type Watt Meters 964
48.2 Definitions 904 51.6 Energy Meters 965
48.3 Accuracy to Measure Electron 51.7 General Classification 965
Performance 905 51.8 Direct Current Types 966
48.4 Factors Affecting Accuracy 905 51.9 Alternating Current Types (Induction
48.5 Measurement Systems 906 Watt-Hour Meters) 969
48.6 Calibration 908 51.10 Poly-Phase Induction Watt-Hour
Summary Meters 974
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) 51.11 Errors in Energy Meters 974
Conventional Questions (CQ) 51.12 Measurement of Power in Three-phase
Circuits 975
49. Meter Movement 911 51.13 Measurement of Three-phase
49.1 Introduction 911 Power 977
49.2 Design Principles 911 Summary
49.3 Meters 915 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
49.4 Moving-Coil Instruments 915 Conventional Questions (CQ)
49.5 Classification of Measuring
Instruments 917 52. Multimeters—V.O.Ms 983
49.6 Gravity Control 918 52.1 Introduction 983
49.7 Moving-Iron Instruments 919 52.2 Direct Current Ranges 984
49.8 Polarized Moving-Iron Instrument 922 52.3 Direct Voltage Ranges 985
49.9 Dynamometer-Type Instruments 924 52.4 Multi-Range Ohmmeters 986
49.10 Induction-Type Instruments 926 52.5 Alternating Current Ranges 986
49.11 Hot-Wire Instruments 930 52.6 Alternating Voltage Ranges 988
49.12 Thermocouple Instruments 931 52.7 V.O.M. Specifications 989
49.13 Galvanometers 932 52.8 The Simpson Model 260 Multi-Meter 993
49.14 The Electrostatic Voltmeter 932 52.9 Digital Multi-Meters 997
Contents xi
Summary 53.9 Block Diagram 1011

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) Summary
Conventional Questions (CQ) Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
53. The Oscilloscope 1003 54. Oscilloscope Techniques 1014
53.2 CRT 1004
54.2 Preliminary Checks 1014
53.3 Intensity 1005
54.3 Screen Pattern Obtained with
53.4 Fluorescent Screen 1006
Deflection Voltages 1018
53.5 Focusing 1007
54.4 Voltage and Current Measurements 1020
53.6 Deflection 1008
Summary
53.7 Time Base 1009
53.8 Graticules 1010 Index 1023
Part B
ELECTRIC MACHINES
Eyebolt
Cast iron
frame
Bearing cap Rotor Stator
Bracket
Ball bearing
pulley end
Ball bearing
Fan
Keyed
shaft
Bearing cap
Grease
plug
Pan guard
Cast iron
conduit box
Lead hole
opening Leads
Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Electromechanical Energy
Conversion
31
OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn about:

Fundamental laws: Faraday’s law, Fleming’s right-hand and

left-hand rule and Lenz’s law
Development of torque and motor action

Induced e.m.f. and generator action

Relation between motor action and generator action

 Magnetic structure of d.c. machines
Elementary generator and generated voltage

 E.m.f. equation
Interaction of magnetic fields of current-carrying conductors

Magnitude of mechanical force

Generator and motor power flow

 Conversion process in a machine
 Linear and rotary motion
 Methods of analysis
 Energy balance—action and reaction
 Singly excited and doubly excited machines
Electric machines
31.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical energy does have an overriding advantage in the sense that it can be transmitted and controlled more easily
than most forms of energy. Electricity is most often generated in large installations, transformed to appropriate voltage in
units called transformers and carried overland for various distances. Then it is usually retransformed to lower voltages and
finally converted to whatever form required.
Devices that receive mechanical input energy and convert it to electrical energy, and those devices that receive electrical energy
and convert it to appropriate mechanical force or motion are called electromechanical devices. These broad fields of energy con-
version are handled at the mechanical-to-electrical end by generators and at the electrical-to-mechanical end by motors.
A major reason that these devices are so very widely used is that they are relatively efficient and controllable; so much
so that our entire industrialized civilization is inseparably involved with their use.
31.2 ENERGY CONVERSION DEVICES

In motors and generators, the means of coupling between mechanical and electrical energy is through appropriately located
and controlled magnetic fields. There are a few known and commercially practical electromechanical energy conversion
phenomena that govern the function of devices other than motors and generators. A few of these have been enumerated
below:
1. There are electrostatic forces between the plates of a capacitor which require very high voltages for comparatively
small forces.
2. Piezoelectric transducer effects are those by which a crystal is deformed and voltages are produced. Here, the motion
is exceedingly small even though the forces may be very substantial.
590 Electrical Technology
3. Magnetostrictive effects are those by which certain magnetic materials change their dimensions minutely under the
influence of a magnetic field. Here, as in the piezoelectric transducer, the motion is small—even microscopic—but the
force may be large.
These three phenomena are useful in instrumentation, communication and control. They are at least substantially
reversible in the sense that they work both ways. However, they are not suited to handling either high power or
continuous motion.
There are other useful energy conversion processes:
4. In case of chemical-to-electrical energy, as in batteries, some cycles are reversible in the sense that energy can be put
back in and stored. The processes so far are inefficient or heavy in relation to their power or both. Intensive development
is underway.
5. Thermal energy may be directly converted to electrical energy by thermocouples but the voltage is low so the principal
use is in measurement of temperature.
6. The entire field of energy release through chemical combustion of gaseous, liquid or solid hydrocarbon fuels is of
enormous importance. These phenomena are not reversible in the sense that we cannot usually put in energy and re-
ceive back the original fuel. To create a fuel at the present time takes about 15 times the energy that the combustion
of that fuel will release. The study of the release of the chemical energy in the form of heat and the conversion of the
heat energy by the use of an intermediate fuel into mechanical energy is the science of thermodynamics.
7. In the last generation, the release of heat energy from the fission of heavy elements such as uranium and plutonium
has made the whole new important science of atomic energy. There is promise that even more energetic energy release
cycles may be perfected and controlled through nuclear fusion. Some practical means may be found whereby the
fusion process may produce electricity directly without intervening thermodynamic cycles.
The steadily worsening fuel energy, availability coupled with the steadily increasing load, national, and world wide used
for usable energy reinforces the need for new fruitful research.
31.3 RELATED FUNDAMENTAL LAWS

All rotating electric machines as well as the related special transducers operate on the same principles and obey the same
fundamental laws. These are as follows.
1. Faraday’s law of induction
2. Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws
3. Ampere’s circuital law of the magnetic field
4. Ohm’s law
5. Biot-Savart’ s law of force on a conductor in a magnetic field
6. Watt’s determination of the relation between force, work, time and power
φ Lines of magnetic Direction of 31.3.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction

flux motion
When the magnetic flux linking a conductor is changing, an
–
e.m.f. is induced whose magnitude is proportional to the rate
of change of flux.
Direction of
generated S
In electrical work, there are many right-hand rules and/
N
voltage and or left-hand rules. They are convenient ways of remember-
current ing interrelationships where polarities and directions make a
+ great difference. One of the first of this type is due to Flem-
ing, who related Faraday’s work as follows (see Figure 31.1)
If the magnetic field is considered as stationary in space,
Moving the conductor then is considered as moving orthogonally
conductor across it. The right-hand is extended with the thumb, index
finger, and second finger extended at right angles to each oth-
er so that they are orthogonally arranged. With this arrange-
ment, the magnetic field is represented by the index finger
Figure 31.1 Faraday’s Relationship with the field represented as travelling from the North Pole
to the South Pole in the direction that the finger points. If the
thumb then is considered as pointing in the direction of motion of the conductor, the middle finger points in direction that
conventional current will flow, as illustrated in Figure 31.2.
Electromechanical Energy Conversion 591
Heinrich Lenz stated (two years after Faraday’s basic
discovery) a relationship that turned out to be basic in
electromechanical energy transformation.
In all cases of electromagnetic induction, an in-
duced voltage will cause a current to flow in a closed
circuit in such a direction that the magnetic field
caused by that current will oppose the change that
produced the current.
This relationship is really a form of stating the ba-
sic fact of the conservation of energy. It is basic to the
operation of inductances, transformers, motors and
generators and is illustrated in Figure 31.3.
Figure 31.2 Fleming’s Right-hand Rule
Figure 31.3 Magnetic Forces on a Conductor

31.4 D.C. MOTOR AND GENERATOR MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

In a practical working machine, a functional arrangement must be used to support a relatively large number of coils in an
arrangement that will allow the conductors of the coils to be moved in and out of a strong magnetic field.
A dense or concentrated magnetic field is necessary to reach a working voltage in a generator with coils of as few a turns
as possible. The fewer turns allow a large wire diameter in the limited available space. This usually means a flux density
B sufficiently high so that it nearly saturates the magnetic field structure. This, in turn, means a relatively large and heavy
magnetic structure of specially chosen magnetic alloys as shown in Figure 31.4. In a practical sense, this means that the
bulk of the volume and weight of a motor or generator is composed of a structure that is arranged in such a way that the
winding coils can be controllably passed into and out of the magnetic flux.
There are only a few types of motion that are continuous or cyclically continuous. Unless that motion is made to
oscillate in a cyclic fashion, it is a ‘one-shot’ proposition. A straight line motion or an angular motion is both ‘one-shot’
situations. The only exception that gives continuous smooth motion is rotary motion. Rotary motion has no counterpart in
nature. It is a man-conceived, mechanically-developed way of doing things.
To build an effective magnetic structure that will allow rotary motion, a motor is configured around a cylindrical stack
of magnetic alloy discs that are pressed or keyed to a shaft. The rotating magnetic structure or armature is then pierced or
slotted to allow room for the coils that are mounted on it.
Figure 31.4 Magnetic Structure (Motor or Generator)
The magnetic poles that the conductors are passed by during rotary motion must then face inwards towards the cylindrical
surface of the rotating structure. They are, in fact, curved on their inner face to conform—at least in part—to the rotating
shape. Since a magnetic line of force must be a closed loop, there must be a return path between the outer ends of the
magnetic poles. This function is taken up by the heavy alloy structure of the main frame.
This configuration is still incomplete until the end structures or end bells are provided, which serve to support the bear-
ings which, in turn, allow the required rotary motion and yet confine that motion in such a way that no mechanical contact
takes place between the armature structure and the field poles. In addition, the bearings are required to confine the axial
position of the armature as a whole. Furthermore, the bearings must support any forces due to belts, gears, couplings, or
other direct mounted drive or drive mechanisms.
The magnetic field is usually provided by a set of multiturn field coils that surround the field poles in the space
between the armature and the main frame. These coils are of various types, depending on where their required current
comes from.
The armature windings that are contained or mounted in the slots in the armature magnetic structure are proportioned
particularly according to the relations in Eq. 31.2. However, many coils and turns per coil are provided. There must be
sufficient space to accommodate them. The physical size of the armature is determined by the dimensions of the windings
it must contain and the total pole flux within it. The windings are interconnected in a few practical configurations, but they
always comprise a closed loop or loops of inter-connected coils.
31.5 ELEMENTARY GENERATOR

At the moment shown in Figure 31.5, each conductor of the single turn coil is moving at right angles to the magnetic
field. It can be assumed that the whole gap between the north and south magnetic poles is filled with a straight uniform
field. Fleming’s rule shows that the right-hand conductor is generating an electromotive force that causes the current to flow
into the page. With the left-hand conductor, the opposite holds. These two opposite-direction voltages are actually connected
in series by the back coil connection at the rear and by an external circuit that is connected across the ends of the coil labelled
+ and –.
Back
coil
Flux Cut away

pole
nt
rre
Cu
on N
S tati
of ro
is
Ax
+
– Motion
External
connections
Figure 31.5 An Elementary Generator
In many diagrams used for illustrative purposes, no such configuration actually exists, because the coil has no support and
the magnetic field is across a very substantial pole-to-pole gap in open air. This type of diagram is used because the coils
that are actually used cannot be readily seen. They are buried in the armature magnetic structure.
After 90° of rotation, as illustrated in Figure 31.6(a), the single-turn coil is now moving parallel to the assumed uniform
magnetic field. At this moment, the coil is momentarily not cutting any magnetic linkages and, therefore, not generating
any voltage. On the next 90° of motion, the coil reverses the situation, and the induced voltage is of the opposite polarity
from the original situation demonstrated in Figure 31.5.
Figure 31.6(b) shows an idealized generator case of a uniform field flowing from pole to pole. In this situation, the
voltage in any one turn will vary sinusoidally. This generation of an alternating current is true in a practical machine also,
even though the waveform is not usually a sine wave since the magnetic field does not flow straight across from a remote
pole to another remote pole.
e
180°
210°
240°
270°
300°
330°
360°
0
30°
60°
90°
120°
150°
θ
–1
(b)
Figure 31.6 (a) Instantaneous Angular Positions (b) Generated Voltage Versus Angular Position
The rectification of this unwanted a.c. voltage is conventionally performed by the commutator. This is simply a rotating
mechanical switch composed of insulated segments connected to the ends of the coils. Fixed brushes are arranged to
contact the commutator segments as shown in Figure 31.7.
A study of Figure 31.7 will show that the bottom brush is always positive in polarity, since it connects to whichever
commutator segment is positive at the moment owing to its position and motion in the magnetic field.
– Brush
+1
S N
e
30°
60°
90°
Commutator 0
120°
150°
180°
210°
240°
270°
300°
330°
360°
+ Brush
(a) (b)
Figure 31.7 Generated Voltage Versus Angular Positions (a) Commutator and Brushes
(b) Generated Voltage vs Angular Position (Same Basis) as Figure 31.6
The result of a commutated single coil elementary generator is then a full-wave rectified alternating current. In a prac-
tical d.c. machine, the magnetic field direction is not straight across from field pole to field pole, but radially inward or
radially outward at the surface of the armature owing to the magnetic properties of the armature structure. Furthermore, the
field will be relatively uniform in strength after an initial entering change from no field to full field as seen by the coil. The
result is that the generated voltage per coil is more accurately represented by the flat top waveform shown in Figure 31.8.
Figure 31.8 Generated Voltage Versus Angular Position for a Single Coil (a) Coil and Commutator
(b) Generated Voltage vs Angular Position for a Single Coil
When more coils are added and spaced uniformly around the armature—as is always the case in a practical machine—there
are always a number of coils generating voltage. These voltages are additive owing to the internal series connections of the
coils. The result is a uniform direct current with only small voltage variations as coils are switched in and out. It is usual
in a d.c. machine to have the field poles so proportioned that about 70 per cent of the outer surface of the armature surface
is covered by—and therefore—influenced by the field poles. This is the practical maximum pole area without pole-to-pole
flux leakage. For an actual magnetic circuit, it is necessary that there be at least two field poles, and that the poles exist by
integer numbers of pairs. Thus, a motor or generator is identified as ‘two-pole’, ‘four-pole’, ‘six-pole’, and so on. Either by
having multipoles or through the direct result of winding configuration, there will be some parallel paths in a d.c. armature.
Example 31.1
A conductor moving at a velocity of 1.5 m/s has a length of 40 cms as it moves through a uniform field of 1 tesla
(Wb/m2). Calculate the voltage induced in the conductor when it moves through the reference field at (1) an angle of 90°
(2) an angle of 35° and (3) an angle of 40°.
Solution:
1. E = Blv sin qV (31.1)
= (1) (0.4) (1.5) sin 90°
= 0.6 V
2. E = Blv sin qV
= 0.6 sin 35°
= 0.344 V
3. E = Blv sin qV
= Blv sin 120°
= 0.52 V
31.6 AVERAGE E.M.F. GENERATED IN A QUARTER REVOLUTION

The e.m.f. between the brushes of multicoil armature is produced by numerous coils connected in series, in which each coil
consists of many conductors of wire. In order to calculate the resultant e.m.f. between the brushes, it is first necessary to
determine the average e.m.f. induced in a single conductor in one quarter of a revolution (i.e., from a position, where there
are zero, to a position where there are maximum flux linkages).
Let us assume that the total flux produced between the poles consists of f webers and that t is the time required for one
quarter of a revolution (i.e., 90 electrical degrees). Since the flux linkages have gone from zero to maximum in one-quarter
of a revolution, the average e.m.f. induced in a single turn of two coils during this period is
Eav/coil = 4f NS (V/coil)
where, N is the number of turns per coil and S is the relative speed in revolutions per second (rps) between the coil of
N turns and the magnetic field.
31.7 FUNDAMENTAL D.C. GENERATOR EQUATION FOR AVERAGE E.M.F.

BETWEEN BRUSHES
It is possible to calculate the average voltage rating of a single coil (having one or more turns) rotating at a given speed
(rps) under a given pole of known field strength; this may be derived in the following manner.
If Z is the total number of armature conductors or coil sides and if a is the number of parallel coil paths between brushes
of opposite polarity, then the total number of turns N per armature circuit is Z/2a. The total average induced e.m.f. between
brushes, therefore, is
φ Zω P
Eg = volts(V) (31.2)
2π .α
where, f is the flux per pole in webers (Wb)
w is the angular velocity in radians/second (rad/s)
31.8 BIOT-SAVART RELATIONSHIP

The law of the force on a conductor when in a magnetic field, which quantifies the effect in Lenz’s law, is named after Biot
and Savart. This law relates the magnetic flux per unit area B, the length of the conductor that is immersed in the magnetic
field L (or l), and the current I, which together produce a force in whichever units are consistent.
31.8.1 Motor Action

When two or more sources of magnetic fields are arranged in a manner so that their fluxes—or a component of their
fluxes—are parallel within a common region, a mechanical force will be produced that tends to either force the sources of
flux together or force them apart. A force of repulsion will occur if the two magnetic sources have components of flux that
are parallel and in the same direction; this will be indicated by a net increase in flux called flux bunching in the common
region. A force of attraction will occur if the respective fluxes have components that are parallel and in opposite directions,
this will be indicated by a net subtraction of flux in the common region. This has been represented in Figure 31.9.
The use of Biot Savart law is not only confined to a motor but is essential to both a motor as well as a generator.
Any conductor that is moving across a magnetic field and at the same time carrying a current will exert a force on its confin-
ing structure. This force is termed motor action. The arrangement of the conductors used in a motor or generator to produce
their generator action results in the conductors being

in the influence of the magnetic field. They are also
producing a force lateral to that field. The force is obvi-
ously proportional to the current in the conductors. The
remaining conductors that are carrying the same cur-
rent but are not in the influence of the magnetic field do
not produce any motor action. We need to bear in mind
that the conductor that is generating a voltage is also
subject to a mechanical force. Both effects are present.
Under severe short-circuit conditions, the forces
between adjacent conductors can be high enough to
physically crush the insulation of transformers, motors
and generators, bend bus bars, tear switch boards apart,
and cause switches and circuit breakers to come apart
with explosive violence. Thus, in those applications,
where the available short circuit current is of a mag-
nitude that would cause destruction of apparatus if a
fault occurred, special current limiting devices as well
as mechanical bracing and conductor support must be
installed.
31.8.2 Elementary Two-Pole Motor

Figure 31.9 Interaction of Magnetic Fields of Adjacent Figure 31.l0 shows a rotor core, containing two
Current-carrying Conductors (a) Currents insulated conductors in rotor slots, and the rotor centred
in Opposite Directions (b) Currents in the between the poles of a stationary magnet (called the
Same Direction stator). The + mark on the end of conductor A is the tail
end of an arrow that represents the direction of current

in conductor A. The dot in the centre of conductor B is
the point of an arrow, indicating the direction of current
in conductor B. The direction of flux around each
conductor is determined by the right-hand rule.
The broken lines show the paths of component flux-
es, assuming the rotor and stator were energized at dif-
ferent times. The dotted line indicates the direction and
path of the resultant flux with both rotor and stator ener-
gized at the same time. The net flux on top of conductor
A, due to the magnet as also a result of the current in
the conductor is additive (bunching), causing a down-
ward mechanical force F. A similar action occurs at the
bottom of conductor B, causing an upward mechanical
force. The net result is a counter clockwise (CCW) turn-
Figure 31.10 Elementary Two-pole Motor
ing movement or torque called motor action.
31.8.3 Magnitude of the Mechanical Force

The magnitude of the mechanical force exerted on a straight conductor that is carrying an electric current and situated
within and perpendicular to a magnetic field, as illustrated in Figure 31.11(a), is expressed by
F = Bleff .I (31.3)
where,
F = mechanical force (N)
B = flux density of stator field (T)
I = current in rotor conductor (A)
leff = effective length of rotor conductor (m)
Figure 31.11 (a) Conductor Carrying Current, Situated within and Perpendicular
to the B Field (b) Conductor Skewed b
The effective length of a conductor is that component of its length that is immersed in and normal to the magnetic field. Thus, if
the conductor is not perpendicular to the magnetic field as shown in Figure 31.11(b), then the effective length of the conductor
is expressed by
leff = l sin a (31.4)
Angle b is called the skewing angle, which may range from 0 to 30 degrees in electrical machines.
The direction of the mechanical force exerted on the conductor is determined by flux bunching.
β°
31.8.4 Developed Torque Shaft
Figure 31.12(a) shows a rotor coil made up of a single loop

Window End-turn
situated in a two-pole stator field of uniform flux density. The
effective length of each conductor (coil side) does not include
the end connections. The end connections, also called end turns,
are used to connect the conductors in series, but because they
N S
are not immersed in the magnetic field, they do not develop d
torque. The distance d between the centre of the shaft and the
centre of a conductor is the moment arm.
The direction of developed torque may be determined from
I Coil side
an end view of the conductors and magnet poles, as seen from I
the battery end in Figure 31.12(b). The direction of flux due to End-turn
the known direction of current is determined by the right-hand
rule, and the direction of the mechanical force on each con-
ductor is determined by the flux bunching effect. The resultant + –
torque, produced by the two-conductor couple, is CCW and has
a magnitude equal to
TD = 2F.d N.m F
TD = 2Bleff ×Id Nm (31.5)
+
31.8.5 Left-Hand Rule of Motor Action N S
Fleming’s right-hand rule relates the direction of magnetic flux,

the direction of motion, and the direction of induced voltage
polarity. A similar mutually orthogonal relationship exists F
between the direction of the magnetic field flux, the direction
of the imposed voltage and current, and the direction of the Figure 31.12 (a) Single-loop Rotor Coil Carrying
resulting mechanical force or motor action. an Electric Current, and Situated
The left-hand rule fits this force relationship if we again let in a Two-pole Field (b) End View
the index finger point in the direction of the flux from north of Coil, Showing Direction of
to south, and let the middle finger point in the direction of the Developed Force
imposed voltage and its resulting conventional cur-

rent flow. Under these conditions, the thumb will
point in the direction of the force that is devel-
oped by the Biot-Savart relationship. This has been
illustrated in Figure 31.l3. and may be compared
Flux with Figure 31.2.
t
rr e n In the usual situation, both rules are valid. In a
Cu generator, the current resulting from the generated
Flux voltage flowing through the load circuit will pro-
Force duce a force that opposes the motion that caused
n t the voltage generation. This opposing force will be
rre
Cu Force proportional to the load current and is the reason a
generator requires more driving force as its electri-
Figure 31.13 Left-hand Rule
cal load is increased. In motor, the motor torque or
turning effect is proportional to the current that is
flowing from the electrical power source. At the same time, the motor is generating a voltage according to Fleming’s right
hand rule, which opposes the line voltage direction. A motor will then run just fast enough to develop just enough opposing
voltage or back e.m.f., that it will limit its current to just enough to supply the required torque.
Example 31.2
Each armature winding conductor in a direct current generator is subject to the influence of the magnetic field for 0.254 m
of length. If, as a result of generated voltage, a current of 42.5 A flows, how much force is felt by the conductor if the field
is 1.581 Wb/m2?
Solution:
B = 1.581 Wb/m2, I = 42.5 A, l = 0.254 m,
F = BIL newtons
= (1.581)× (42.5) × (0.254)
= 17.1 newtons
Example 31.3
A d.c. machine is generating 125 V while delivering 8 A to a load. In its armature circuit; what voltage must be generated
internally in the armature?
Solution:
Vi = Eg – (Ia Ra)
Eg = Vi + (Ia Ra)
= 125 + (8 × 1.35) = 135.8 V
Example 31.4
Assume that each coil in Figure 31.12(a) has a length of 0.30 m and a skew angle of 15°. The distance between the centre
of each conductor and the centre of the shaft is 0.60 m. The combined resistance of the coil and its connections to a 36 V
battery is 4.0 W. If the stator field has a uniform flux density of 0.23 T between the poles, determine the magnitude and
direction of the developed torque.
Solution:
From Figure 31.12(b);
a = (90 – b)º = (90 – 15)º = 75º
I = Ebat /R = 36 / 4.0 = 9 A
T = 2B.I (l sin a).d
= 2' × 0.23 × 9(0.3 sin75º) × 0.60 = 0.72 N/m
The direction of the developed torque is counter clockwise.
31.9 MOTOR ACTION VERSUS GENERATOR ACTION

If, whenever motor action occurs, generator action is also developed, the question can be raised whether the converse
is also true. Generator action is shown in Figure 31.14(b), where a mechanical force moves a conductor in an upward
direction inducing an e.m.f. in the direction shown. When a current flows as a result of this e.m.f., there is a current-
carrying conductor existing in a magnetic field; hence, the result is motor action. Shown as a dashed line in Figure 31.14(b),
the force developed as a result of motor action opposes the motion that produced it. It may then be stated categorically
that generator action and motor action occur simultaneously in all rotating machinery. Hence, the same dynamo may be
operated either as a motor or a generator or both.
Note: The dynamotor is a typical d.c. dynamo that combines motor and generator action in the armature conductors.
Correspondingly, the synchronous converter is a typical a.c. dynamo that performs the same function.
A more graphic representation in terms of rotational elements is presented in Figure 31.14, which compares the
elementary motor and generator for the same direction of rotation and shows the electric circuits of each. It is the key to
an understanding of electromechanical energy conversion. Given the direction of applied voltage and current shown in
Figure 31.14(a), the motor action that results produces a clockwise rotational force on both conductors. The direction of
induced counter e.m.f. is also shown as opposed to the applied voltage, both in Figure 31.14(a) and in the motor circuit of
Figure 31.14(c). It should be observed that in order for the current to produce clockwise rotation and to have the direction
shown in Figure 31.14(c), it is necessary that the applied armature terminal voltage Va must be greater than the developed
counter e.m.f. Ec.
Direction of applied Direction of induced

voltage and current Direction of rotation voltage and current
Direction of armature
and torque produced rotation and driving
by current torque
S N S N
Direction of Retarding torque

induced e.m.f. produced by current
(a) (b)
Ia Va = Ec + IcRc Ia Eg = Va + IaRa
+ I Retarding +
a Ec Ia Eg
+ torque
φ φ
Va M Ra Load Va G Ra
Driving Driving
torque M torque
Va > Ec by motor Driving torque > retarding torque
action
(c) (d)
Figure 31.14 Elementary Motor Action Versus Generator Action (a) Elementary Motor
(b) Elementary Generator (c) Motor Circuit (d) Generator Circuit
31.10 POWER FLOW DIAGRAMS

A clean picture of the dynamo, operating as either a motor or a generator is shown by the combined power flow diagram in
Figure 31.l5. On the left side of the diagram is mechanical power, and on the right side is electric power.
31.10.1 Generator Power Flow

If mechanical power is applied to the shaft of a dynamo as the input, the power at the shaft is TS/5252 hp. A dynamo,
driven mechanically as a generator, sustains certain rotational losses. The difference between the rotational losses and the
input mechanical power represents the net mechanical power converted to electric power by electromechanical conversion
(EgIa). But the generator also sustains some internal electric losses, which subtract from the electric power developed.
The net electric power output is, therefore, EgIa minus the electric losses, or the terminal voltage twices the total current
delivered to the load (Vt It, shown at the right side in Figure 31.15). To summarize, as shown is Figure 31.15, for a dynamo
operating as a generator or as an alternator: The generated E or Eg exceeds the armature terminal voltage Va applied across
the load.
Electric output Mechanical Rotational losses

power power input + Electric losses (31.6)
Developed =EgIa= Mechanical Power input – Rotational losses (31.7)
electric power =Electric output power + Electric losses (31.8)
Figure 31.15 Combined Power Flow Diagram for Motor or Generator Action
31.10.2 Motor Power Flow

Electric power applied to the terminals of a motor (VtIt), shown at the right of Figure 31.15, is immediately reduced
by certain electric losses within the motor. The difference appears in the form of internal electric power (EcIa) which
is converted to mechanical power by electromechanical conversion. The mechanical power available, which has been
produced by internal motor torque, (EcIa//746) sustains some internal mechanical losses. The difference between these
mechanical losses and the mechanical power produced as a result of electromechanical conversion is the mechanical output
power. In summary, as shown in Figure 31.15, for a dynamo operating as a motor;
Mechanical Electric Electric losses (31.9)

output power power input + Rotational losses
Developed = Ecla = Electric power (Electric losses)
mechanical power input (31.10)
Mechanical + Rotational (31.11)
= output power losses
So, the dynamo is in reality, really very simple and straight forward, as shown in Figure 31.l5. The area of mechanical
power is on the left side of the dashed vertical lines, and the area of electric power is on the right side of the lines. The
centre area is represented by the change of energy state, or electromechanical conversion (since energy can be neither
created nor destroyed) where no loss occurs.
Putting mechanical power into a dynamo involves mechanical power loss, change of state, electric power loss and
electric output. Putting electric power into a dynamo involves electric loss, change of energy state, mechanical power loss
and mechanical output.
Example 31.5
A 10 kW, 230 V, 1750 rpm, shunt generator was run light (1750 rpm) as a motor to determine its rotational losses at its
rated load. The applied voltage across the armature (Va) computed for the test was 245 V, and the armature current drawn
was 2 A. The field resistance of the armature was 230 W, and the armature circuit resistance measured 0.2 W. Calculate
(1) Rotational losses at full load; (2) full load armature circuit loss and field loss; and (3) efficiency of the generator at
rated load.
Solution:
1. Rotational loss = Va Ia – I 2a Ra
= (245 × 2) – (22 × 0.2)
= 490 – 0.8 = 489.2 W
2. At the rated load,
P 10, 000 W
I=
L = = 43.5 A
Vt 230 V
230 V
I a = It + I L = + 43.5 = 44.5 A
230 W
2
Full load armature loss = I a R a = (44.5) 2 0.2 = 396 W
Field loss = Vf × If = 230 V' 1 A = 230 W

3. Efficiency of a generator at any load
output at that load
 =
output at that load + rotational loss + copper loss s at rated load
rated output
=
rated output + rotational loss + copperr loss at rated load
10000
Efficiency at full load =
6 + 230)’100
10000 + 489.2 + (396
= 90.0 per cent
Example 31.6
An armature consists of 40 coils and each coil has 20 turns. When the armature is rotated at 200 rad/s in a four-pole field
structure having a flux of 5 m Wb/pole, and there are four paths in the armature. Calculate (1) the number of conductors
and (2) the voltage between brushes generated by the armature.
Solution:
1. Z = (40 coils) × (2 conductors/turn) (20 turns/coil)
= 1600 conductors
2.
φ Zω P
Eg =
2π a
(5 × 10−3 )(1600)(200)(4)
=
2π × 4
= 254.6 V (between brushess)
31.11 CONVERSION PROCESS IN A MACHINE

Much electrical energy is used to provide simple heat, either for cooking or for heating a room. Some heat conversion is used
to produce light as in the common light bulb, but a lot of electrical energy is used to drive machines. All electrical machines
operate on a common set of principles. These principles apply whether the device operates with alternating current or with
direct current. The most simple, so far as construction is concerned, involve linear movement; these include the relay and
the contactor. The former was by far the most common electrical machine of all, but now is being replaced by the electronic
switch which has no moving parts. The contactor remains in common use for switching power circuits on and off.
Simply made rotating machines have few applications. Most rotating machines are complicated to create. An electrical
machine is one that links an electrical energy system to another energy system by providing a reversible means of energy
flow in its magnetic field. The magnetic field is the coupling between the two systems and is the neutral link. The energy
transferred from one system to the other is temporarily stored in the system and then released to the other system. Usu-
ally, the energy system coupled to the electrical energy is a mechanical one. Not all machines deal with large amounts of
energy—those operating at very low power levels are often termed transducers, particularly when providing signals with
which to activate electronic control devices.
In a mechanical energy system, a mechanical force is associated with the displacement of its point of action. An elec-
tromagnetic system can develop a mechanical force in two ways: (1) by alignment; and (2) by interaction. The force of
alignment can be illustrated by the arrangements shown in Figure 31.16.
In Figure 31.16(a) two poles are situated opposite one another;
each is made of a ferromagnetic material and a flux passes from the
one to the other. The surfaces through which the flux passes are said
to be magnetized surfaces and they are attracted towards one an-
other, as indicated in Figure 31.16(a).
The force of alignment acts in any direction that will increase the
magnetic energy stored in the arrangement. In the first case, it will
try to bring the two poles together since this decreases the reluctance
of the air gap in the magnetic circuit and, hence, will increase the
flux and, consequently, the stored energy. This principle of increas-
Figure 31.16 Force of Alignment ing the stored magnetic energy is the most important one and is the
(a) Force of Attraction key to machine theory.
(b) Lateral Force of Alignment In the second case, as shown in Figure 31.16(b), the poles are not
situated opposite one another. The resultant force tries to achieve
stored magnetic energy by two component actions: (1) by attraction of the poles towards one another; and (2) by align-
ing the poles laterally. If the poles move laterally, the cross-sectional area of the air-gap is increased and the reluctance is
reduced with a consequent increase in the stored magnetic energy, as before.
Both actions attempt to align the poles to the point of maximum stored energy, i.e., when the poles are in contact with a
maximum area of contact. The force of alignment necessarily acts in the direction of lines of flux.
31.12 LINEAR AND ROTARY MOTION

Many devices demonstrate the principle of the force of alignment. The most familiar is that of the permanent magnet and
its attraction for ferromagnetic materials. Electromagnetic devices, such as the relay (Figure 31.17), demonstrate the force
of alignment giving rise to linear motion. When the coil is energized, a flux is set up in the relay core and the air gap. The
surfaces adjacent to the air-gap become magnetized and are attracted, hence putting the armature plate in the direction
indicated. The relay’s function is to operate switches and this is used extensively in telephone exchanges.
Figure 31.17 The Electromagnetic Relay-force of Alignment Giving Rise to Linear Motion
The force of alignment can also be used to produce rotary motion, as in the
reluctance motor shown in Figure 31.18. In this case, the rotating piece, termed
the rotor, experiences radial forces in opposite directions, thereby cancelling
each other out. The rotor also experiences torque due to the magnetized rotor
and pole surfaces, attempting to align themselves. This alignment torque
occurs in any rotating machine which does not have a cylindrical rotor, i.e., in
a rotor that is salient, as in the case shown in Figure 31.18.
The force of interaction has the advantage of simplicity in its applica-
tion. To calculate or even to estimate the energy stored in the magnetic
fields of many arrangements is difficult, if not impossible. Many of these
cases, however, can be dealt with by the relationship F = Bli. This also
includes the case of a beam of electrons being deflected by a magnetic
field in, say, a cathode ray tube.
There are numerous applications involving the force of interaction
to give rise to rotary motion. These include the synchronous and induc- Figure 31.18 Reluctance Motor-force of
tion machine as well as commutating machines. All are variations of the Alignment Giving Rise to
same theme, each having a different characteristic suitable for the various Rotary Motion
industrial drives required.
A simple machine illustrating the principle involved is shown in
N Figure 31.19. By passing a current through the coil, it experiences a force
on each of the coil sides resulting in a torque about the axis of rota-
tion. A practical machine requires many conductors in order to develop
a sufficient torque, depending on the manner in which the conductors
are arranged, and the various machines are created. Each is a system
linking device. At one end is the electrical system; at the other end is the
mechanical system. In between, there is a magnetic field forming a two
S
way-link between them. If there is to be a flow of energy, all three will be
involved simultaneously.
Figure 31.19 Rotary Machine Illustrating
There are three methods of approach to analyze the energy conversion
Force of Interaction
process, each of which has to allow for the imperfections of a machine.
No machine gives out as much energy as it takes in. The difference is termed the losses—the losses in the electrical system,
the mechanical system and the magnetic system.
Note: The reaction in the electrical system—apart from the flow of current—is the introduction of an e.m.f. into that
system; the product of e.m.f. and current gives the rate of electrical energy conversion.
31.13 METHODS OF ANALYSIS

The basic energy conversion procession involves the magnetic coupling field and its action and reaction on the electrical
and mechanical systems. There are three methods of approach: (1) the classical approach; (2) the generalized machine
approach; and (3) transient operation (not dealt with here).
The classical approach is based on the assumption that the operation of a machine can be predicted from a study of the
machine losses. Such an approach is simple, but it has two major disadvantages. First, it deals almost exclusively with the
machine operating under steady-state conditions and thus transient response conditions are virtually ignored, i.e., when it
is accelerating or decelerating. Second, the losses of each machine are different. As a consequence, each type of machine
requires to be separately analyzed. Such a process is both tedious and repetitive but it is simple.
The generalized approach depends on a full analysis of the coupling field as observed from the terminals of the ma-
chine windings. The losses are recognized as necessary digressions from the main line of the analysis. The coupling field
is described in terms of mutual inductance. Such an approach, therefore, considers any machine to be merely an arrange-
ment of coils, which are magnetically linked. No attention is paid as to the form of the machine initially and it exists as a
box with terminals from which measurements may be made to determine the performance of the machine. The measured
quantities are voltage, current, power, frequency, torque and rotational speed, from which may be derived the resistance
and inductance values for the coils. In the light of the derived values, it is possible to analyze the performance, both under
steady state as well as transient conditions.
The generalized approach has been universally appreciated, since it has so much to offer. It has taken a long time (since
the late 1950s) to attain recognition. The difficulty that produced its earlier use was the complexity of the mathematics
involved, but once the mathematical manipulations have been carried out, they need not be repeated. The results can be
separately modified to analyze not only most types of machines but also the different modes of operation. The individual
machine is considered by making simplifying assumptions at the end of the analysis, but the effect of the theory is to con-
centrate attention upon the properties common to all machines.
31.14 ENERGY BALANCE

Let us consider the operation of a simple attracted-armature relay, such as the one shown in Figure 31.20. We may assume
that initially the switch is open and that there is no stored field energy. These conditions are quite normal. After the switch is
closed, the sequence of events falls into four distinct groups in the following manner.
Figure 31.20 Attracted-armature Relay
1. After the switch is closed, the current rises exponentially. If L1 is the inductance of the coil for the initial position of the
armature, the initial rate of rise of current is given by V/L1. The electrical energy from the source is partly dissipated
as i2R losses in the magnetizing coil while the remainder is converted into stored energy in the magnetic field. During
this period, the armature experiences an attractive force, but the various mechanical restraints prevent it from moving.
2. At some appropriate value of current, the armature begins to move. This occurs when the force of attraction fE bal-
ances the mechanical force fM. During the motion of the armature, there are many changes of energy in the system.
On the mechanical side, energy is required to stretch the spring, drive the external load and to supply the kinetic en-
ergy required by the moving parts. At the same time, the air gaps are being reduced with a consequent increase in the
inductance of the arrangement. This causes a reaction in the electrical system in the form of an induced e.m.f. This
induced e.m.f. tends to reduce the coil current and also permits the conversion of electrical energy. It is the reaction to
the action.
3. The armature cannot continue to move indefinitely but, instead, it hits an end stop. This causes the kinetic energy of
the system to be dissipated as noise, deformation of the poles and vibration.
4. Now that there is no further motion of the system, the inductance becomes constant at a new higher value L2. The
current increases exponentially to a value V/r. The rate of rise is less than the initial rate of rise since the inductance is
now much greater.
The energy flow processes are, therefore, many and yet they are typical of many machines; in rotating machines there is
no sudden stop, but otherwise the processes are similar. To handle so many at one time, it is necessary to set up an energy
balance convention.
Since the conversion process can take place in either direction,
let the energies be input energies to the system, WE and WM,
respectively. In the internal system, let the stored magnetic field
energy be Wf, the stored mechanical energy be Ws, and the non-
useful thermal energy, (due to i2R loss, friction, etc.), which is a
loss, be Wl. The arrangement is illustrated in Figure 31.21. Between
any two states of the system, the energy balance (Figure 31.22)
may be expressed as
Figure 31.21 Energy Balance Diagram WE +WM =W f +Ws +Wl (31.12)
Alternatively, the energy rates of flow may be expressed as
dW f dWs dWl
p E + pM = + + (31.13)
dt dt dt
∆WE Increasing ∆WM

(pE = ei) (pM = −fEu)
∆Wf
Figure 31.22 Idealized Energy Balance Diagram
It follows that the ideal and essential energy balance may be expressed as
d WE + d WM = d Wf (31.14)
and, hence, the power balance may be expressed as
dW f
pE + pM = (31.15)
dt
The actions and reactions are indicated in Figure 31.23.
On the electrical side, the applied voltage is v and this is
opposed by the reaction in the form of back e.m.f. The electrical
power is pE = vi while the rate of conversion is ei. These two terms
are equal only when the i 2R loss is either neglected or considered
external to the conversion process, as in the idealized system of Figure 31.23 Actions and Reactions in a
Figure 31.22. Practical Conversion System
On the mechanical side, the mechanical input force fM acts
towards the conversion system and moves in a similar direction, say, with a velocity u. The reaction to this is the magneti-
cally developed force fE. These two forces are equal and opposite only when the mechanical system is at rest or moves
with uniform velocity. The difference would otherwise give rise to acceleration and, hence, there could not be steady state
conditions. There is also a slight difference between the forces when the mechanical system is moving due to friction.
Example 31.7
An electromagnet is made using a horseshoe core as shown in Figure 31.24. The
core has an effective length of 600 mm and a cross-sectional area of 500 mm.
A rectangular block of steel is held by the electromagnets force of alignment
and a force of 20 N is required to free it. The magnetic circuit through the block
is 200 mm long and the effective cross-sectional area is again 500 mm2. The
relative permeability of both core and block is 700. If the magnet is energized
by a coil of 100 turns, estimate the coil current.
Solution:
There are two air gaps in the magnetic circuit; hence, the force to part the circuit
is double that at any one air-gap.
B2 A B2 A
f m = 2. = = 20 N
2 µ0 µ0
 20 × 4π × 10−7 
B= −6  = 0.222 T
 500 × 10 
B 0.222
H = = = 250 At /m
µ0 µ r 4π × 10−7 × 700
F = Hl = 250 × (600 + 200) × 10−3 = 200 At = Ns = 1001
200
I = = 2.0 A
100 Figure 31.24 For Example 31.7
31.15 ROTARY MOTION

The principles of the linear machine also apply to the rotating machine by replacing x by λ (the angle of rotational
distortion) and u by w cut the angular velocity of the rotor.
Angular velocity → Symbol: wr Unit: radians per second (rad/s)
Angular speed symbol: n or mn Unit: revolutions per second (r/s)
dWf
The torque of a rotating machine is given by M E =
dλ
Note: M rather than T is used to symbolize the torque of a rotating machine.
31.16 DOUBLY EXCITED ROTATING MACHINES

The reluctance machine and also the relays are singly excited systems, i.e., only the stator or the rotor is excited by a
current-carrying coil. In either case, the motion is caused by a movable part changing its position to reduce in reluctance
of the magnetic circuit. Due to the physical construction in the rotary case, the axis of the rotor tries to align itself with the
axis of the field.
In order to strengthen the attraction towards alignment, both the rotor and
the stator can be excited. A simple arrangement is shown in Figure 31.25.
This is called a doubly excited system.
With this arrangement, the stator and the rotor each have two mag-
netic poles. Such a machine is described as a two-pole machine. Ma-
chines can be made with greater number of poles. The windings and
the magnetic circuit components give rise to clearly defined rotor and
stator fields. By the symmetry of the fields, each has an axis. The axes
indicate the directions of the mean magnetizing forces across the air-
gaps for each of the fields. Since the gap lengths are constant, the field
axis can have complexor properties ascribed to them, their magnitudes
being related to the respective magnetomotive force (m.m.f.s).
It is now possible to describe the torque as being created by the
m.m.f. axes trying to align themselves. The axes are functions of the
Figure 31.25 Simple Doubly Excited Rotary
coil construction and, hence, became less dependent on the construc-
System
tion of the core members, which only serve to distribute the field al-
though they are, of course, required to ensure that a sufficient field strength is available, and it follows that specially shaped
rotors are no longer required.
The total flux in the air gap is the result of the combination of the field due to the rotor winding as well as due to the
stator winding. The torque is created by the desire for the alignment of the fields.
There are three important families of doubly excited rotating machines.
1. Synchronous machines Stator flux — alternating current

Rotor flux — direct current
2. Asynchronous machines Stator flux — alternating current
Rotor flux — alternating current
3. Commutator machines Stator flux — direct current
Rotor flux direct current
S UM M A RY
1. Electrical energy can be transmitted and controlled retransformed to lower voltages and converted to
more easily. whatever form required.
2. Electricity is generated in large installations, trans- 3. The means of coupling between mechanical and
formed to appropriate voltage in transformers, carried electrical energy is through appropriately located and
overhead for various distances, and then it is usually controlled magnetic fields.
4. When the magnetic flux linking a conductor is chang- 9. The armature is slotted to allow room for the coils that
ing an e.m.f. is induced whose magnitude is propor- are mounted on it.
tional to rate of change of flux. 10. The magnetic poles are curved on their inner face to
5. Right-hand and left-hand rules are convenient ways of conform to the rotary shaft.
remembering interrelationships where polarities and 11. The armature windings always comprise a closed loop
directions make a great difference. or loops of interconnected coils.
6. In all cases of electromagnetic induction, an induced 12. The commutator is a rotating mechanical switch com-
voltage will cause a current to flow in a closed circuit in posed of insulated segments connected to the ends of
such a direction that the magnetic field which is caused the coils.
by the current will oppose the change that produced the 13. Any conductor that is moving across a magnetic field
current. and at the same time carrying a current will exert a
7. The bulk of the volume and weight of a motor or genera- force on its confining structure. This force is termed
tor is composed of a structure that is arranged in such a motor action.
way that the winding coils can be controllably passed 14. The effective length of a conductor is that particular
into and out of the magnetic flux. component of its length that is immersed in and normal
8. Rotary motion is a man-conceived mechanically devel- to the magnetic field.
oped way of doing things. 15. Generator action and its counterpart motor action occur
simultaneously in all rotating machinery.
M U LT IP LE C H O I C E Q UE S TI O NS (M C Q )
1. The right-hand motor rule is usually used to determine 4. To obtain motor action, current is supplied to a loop of
(a) Flux density (b) Flux direction wire in a magnetic field by
(c) Direction of conductor movement (a) Slip rings (b) Brushes
(d) Induced current (c) Split rings
2. Torque on a single loop of wire in a magnetic field is d) Brushes and a commutator
(a) Constant 5. The principle of motor action is
(b) The same as field flux (a) A conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy
(c) The turning force (b) A conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy
(d) Never at a maximum value (c) An unpredictable phenomenon
3. The amount of torque on a current-carrying conductor (d) A conversion of chemical energy to mechanical energy
in a magnetic field depends on 6. The generator effect in a motor produces a
(a) The amount of current in the conductor (a) High power factor
(b) The current direction in the conductor (b) Counter electromotive force
(c) The direction of rotation (c) High resistance
(d) The direction of magnetic field between the two poles (d) Reduced line voltage
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b).
CON V E N TI O NA L Q UE S TI O NS (C Q )
1. What is a reversible energy conversion process? 4. Explain why all electric machines, when operating,
2. When is motor action present in a generator? develop torque and generator voltage at the same time.
3. When a unit is acting as a generator, in which direction 5. Explain four electromechanical energy conversion
does the motor action take place? effects.
D.c. Generators 32
OBJECTIVES

Distinguish between the functions of a motor and


generator
Distinguish between lap and wave windings


Understand shunt, series, and compound


generators and armature winding
Describe types of d.c. generators and their


characteristics
Calculate generated e.m.f. for a generator using


E = V + IaRa
(c) Cumulative Compound (c) Differential Compound
Understand current and voltage relations in the


three types of generators
Understand the need for, and requirements of


paralleling generators
Solve simple problems using the above relations


(c) Interpole Compound
Compound generators
32.1 INTRODUCTION
A dynamo is a rotating electric machine which is capable of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy when
operating in the motor mode, and mechanical energy into electrical energy when operating in the generator mode. For
the generator, rotary motion is supplied by a prime mover (a source of mechanical energy) in order to produce relative
motion between the conductors of the armature and the magnetic field of the dynamo in order to generate electrical
energy. For the motor, electrical energy is supplied to the conductors and the magnetic field winding of the dynamo as
well in order to produce an electromagnetic force between them and thus produce mechanical energy. This gives rise
to a number of interesting possibilities and choices in determining which shall be the rotor (the part of the dynamo
that rotates) and which shall be the stator (the part of the dynamo that is stationary). The various types of dynamo
possibilities are as follows.
1. The direct current (d.c.) dynamo which has a rotating armature and a stationary field.
2. The synchronous (a.c.) dynamo with a rotating armature and a stationary field.
D.c. Generators 609
3. The synchronous (a.c.) dynamo with a rotating field and a stationary armature.
4. The asynchronous (a.c.) dynamo which has both stationary and rotating armature windings.
Direct current generators, however—once the mainstay of electric power for large and small industrial plants—are
being increasingly replaced by solid-state devices that convert available a.c. to d.c. for d.c.-drive system and other d.c.
applications.
32.2 MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

(Refer to Figure 32.1). The mainframe is required to serve as a return path for all the circulating magnetic flux that
passes from the field poles to the armature. This flux-carrying requirement determines the needed cross-section of
magnetic material, usually carbon steel. As a result of the needed flux-carrying ability, there is usually far more metal
than is needed for structural strength requirements. The most usual structure is a rolled ring one with the end closure
butt welded in automatic machinery which, in turn, leaves a visible weld. This ring structure must be lathe turned
so that it’s inside surface is a true cylinder and so that its ends are square with the bore. These steps are required
to maintain the necessary geometric dimensions so that the finished machine will assemble without unnecessary
adjustment and also so that the field pole shoes will fit concentrically around the armature. Some form of mounting
feet is usually welded into this frame structure, as can be seen in Figure 32.2 (a representative mainframe unit). The
alternative mounting is to use the end bells for bolting surfaces. This structure is seen at its simplest in medium sizes
in automobile starting motors where the butt weld shows clearly. These bolts may appear as regularly spaced hexagon
heads around the middle of the frame. Where space is critical, these fastenings may be countersunk. Again, this counter
sinking is used on an automobile starter because, quite literally, external bolt heads would prevent mounting the unit
as closely as is required.
Typical
line of Main
magnetic’ frame
flux
Typical slot
Field to allow for
N pole armature
re winding coil
m atu
r c space needs
A eti
a gn ture (one of many)
M uc
str
aft
Sh
S Field
pole
Air gap
between
face of
pole and
armature
surface
Figure 32.1 Magnetic Structure (Motor or Generator) Figure 32.2 Representative d.c.
Repeated here for Convenience Mainframe Unit
There are other constructions seen on d.c. machine mainframes, depending upon the make, size and application. Some
units are of cast iron or cast steel where the field poles and mounting feet are integral. This makes a very neat unit but the
machining required largely cancels any advantages. Cast iron construction limits the flux density that can be achieved and
is largely obsolete.
On very large units, the mainframe is split into an upper and lower half with a bolted flange joint on the horizontal
centreline. This construction appears when the armature is too large and heavy to insert without a hoist. On the largest
sizes, the field poles and field coils also require crane handling and, therefore, a separable structure serves two main
purposes.
Small to medium units may have their mainframe structure
of punched laminations assembled in stacks. This structure
makes an integral unit of the frame and the field poles. It can
produce an excellent and very sound structure but the punching
die costs are high. Figure 32.3 illustrates a punched mainframe
construction.
Field poles are usually, but not always, made of thin
laminations of highly magnetic steel alloys. Laminated
construction is necessary on the inner or pole shoe end of the
field poles. This is because of the pulsations of field strength
that result when the notched armature rotor magnetic structure
passes the pole shoe. Variations in field strength result in
Figure 32.3 Punched Mainframe Construction internal eddy currents being generated in the magnetic structure.
These eddy currents are losses. They may be largely prevented
by having laminated magnetic structures. Laminated structures allow
magnetic flux to pass along the length of the laminations but do not allow
electric eddy currents to pass across the structure from one lamination
to another. The assembled stack of laminations is held together as a unit
by appropriately placed rivets. The outer end of the laminated pole is
curved to fit very closely into the inner surface of the mainframe. A
typical laminated field pole and pole shoe are shown in Figure 32.4. Any
break, whatever, in a magnetic structure, causes significant reluctance
which is roughly analogous to resistance, so that more ampere turns
are necessary to make a given magnetic flux flow in the structure as a
whole. More ampere turns mean more heat, which is a loss, so that the
pole to mainframe joint is usually quite tightly clamped by the field pole
mounting bolts. Figure 32.4 A Typical Laminated Field
Pole and Pole Shoe
32.3 ARMATURE STRUCTURE

The armature structure serves a dual purpose in the sense that it is the support for the winding conductors that pass through
the magnetic field and is also a substantial portion of the magnetic flux circuit. Since any part of the armature magnetic
structure sees cyclic reversals in magnetic flux direction, it is potentially subject to more severe eddy current losses than
the field pole shoes and is, therefore, invariably laminated.
The usual construction from the very smallest sizes up into the integral horse power or kilowatt range is a stack of
discs of magnetic alloy steel. These discs are notched or perforated in the outer periphery to accommodate and support the
armature windings. The required stack size is held as a unit by appropriate rivets, which are parallel to the shaft. The rivets
themselves are a path for eddy currents and are a short-circuit path for generated voltages, so they must be insulated. Either
that or their function must be taken by adhesively bonding the lamination stack by using insulating varnish. However, the
stack is originally held; the windings themselves reinforce the unit as a whole. On the larger sizes the joint between the
laminations and shaft is keyed in order to transmit the torque forces. On smaller units, a press fit is sufficient. The very
large units are complicated by the need to keep the lamination sizes within the range of reasonable punch and die tooling.
In these cases, the core of the armature is called a spider. It is a structural member that fills the radial space between
the shaft and the built-up lamination stack, which now takes the form of a magnetic ring. Practical considerations limit
the size of armature laminations to a few modular sizes, and also
limit the range of the number of available winding slots in any one
Commutator Slots diameter.
Shaft The armature winding coils are placed in these slots
(Figure 32.5) in various arrangements. However, these coils are
configured electrically; they must be so arranged mechanically
that they may be mounted in lamination slots. This mounting
must be mechanically secure against centrifugal and torque
Bearing forces and must be adequately insulated and also allow the
Armature
simplest possible assembly. In the larger sizes, these coils
Figure 32.5 The Armature become very difficult to form, handle and assemble in position.
D.c. Generators 611
32.4 COMMUTATOR AND BRUSHES

The basic purpose of commutators is to change the
alternating current to direct current. The windings
terminate in the rotary switching unit known as the
commutator. This unit is almost always made of wedge-
shaped segments of hard-drawn copper. The copper
segments are insulated from each other as well as from
their end clamps by strips of mica. No better material has
been found. The requirements of low resistance, excellent
conductivity, and good wear resistance are conflicting.
Figure 32.6 shows a typical armature rotor stack and
commutator complete with coils, fan and bearings.
A practical commutator does not switch just one coil but
operates with many. These coils are connected in series to
form a winding and the winding is a continuous one tapped
at regular intervals by connections made to a commutator
with many segments, as shown in Figures 32.7 and 32.8.
The arrangement is called a commutator winding. The Figure 32.6 Direct Current Armature Complete
advantages of this form of connection are that there are now with Coils, Commutator Fan and
many coils contributing to the system, thereby making it Bearings
bigger and more effective, and only two of the coils can be
short circuited at any instant by the brushes, leaving the large
majority of the coils unaffected.
Coils in
slots
Commutator
segment
construction Wedge
Slot liner
Main
insulation
Separator
Cross-section
of coils in slot
Conductor
Figure 32.7 A Simple Commutator

Winding and Winding
Construction Details Figure 32.8 Commutator Segment
The switching function is shared by the commutator and the brushes. These brushes are made of a carbon or carbon
graphite or a copper-filled carbon mixture. Here, low contact resistance, some controlled internal resistance and good
wearing qualities are required. The actual contact surface is between the brush and a copper oxide surface on the
commutator. If the rubbing friction and electrical sparking are extreme, the copper oxide is not renewed as fast as it wears
and the result is poor life. Good life is achieved under proper design conditions. The commutator assembly is pressed
or pressed and keyed to the shaft at a predetermined distance from the lamination stack. An armature is electrically completed
by attaching the appropriate winding coil ends to the commutator segments. The joint is made with solder or even high-
temperature bronze for heavy duty.
Finally, the whole assembly is strapped for strength to resist centrifugal stresses, dipped in insulating material and
baked, balanced and equipped with a fan for cooling.
32.5 ARMATURE WINDINGS

The working part of a motor or generator, whether alternating or direct current, constitutes the armature windings. These
are where the voltage is generated and where the force that results in turning effort or motor action is developed. The field
windings serve to produce the magnetic field that is required; they carry only from 2 to 10 per cent of the current in the
machine if they are shunt windings. Similarly, if the field is series wound, it will carry full armature current but will have
only a few per cent of the voltage that is present, across the armature. Either way, the armature windings have a much larger
wattage and are a more critical part of the design.
Only two basic configurations of windings are used—lap winding and wave winding. Some larger machines use a
combination of these two basic types known as frog-leg winding, because of the appearance of the coil before it is installed.
There are further subdivisions of each type, having relation to the number of conductors that are brought along in parallel
such that a winding may be said to be simplex if a single conductor, duplex if doubled, and triplex if tripled, and so on. An
understanding of these winding configurations is necessary to determine the number of paths that exist as also to identify
the currents that each conductor is required to carry.
The armature windings—whether on the rotor or stator—are always of the non-salient type and are distributed equally in slots
adjacent to the air gap around the periphery of the armature. Essentially, there are two kinds, depending on the type of closure or
re-entrance of the winding: (1) closed-circuit windings used in d.c. dynamos and (2) open-circuit windings used in a.c. dynamos.
Regardless of the type or application, most armature windings consist of diamond-shaped preformed coils as shown
in Figure 32.9 (a), which are inserted into the armature slots and connected in a manner to produce a complete winding.
Each coil consists of many turns of fine linen-covered, cotton-covered, or enamel-covered wire, individual taped, lacquer-
dipped, and insulated from the armature slot. The number of conductors (Z) in any given coil will be twice the number of
turns making up the coil, i.e., two conductors per turn.
In general, armature coils span 180 degrees, i.e., from the center of a given pole to the center of a pole of opposite
polarity, which is physically adjacent, as shown in Figure [32.9 (b) and (c)]. If a coil covers a span of 180 electric degrees, it
is called a full-pitch coil, whereas one that spans less than 180 degrees is called a fractional pitch coil. An armature wound
with a fractional pitch is called a chorded winding. Chorded windings require the use of less copper than full-pitch coils
Figure 32.9 Types of d.c. Armature Coils and End Connections (a) Preformed Armature Coil
(b) Lap-wound Coil (c) Wave-wound Coil (d) Two-layer Windings
D.c. Generators 613
but they have approximately the same characteristics because the shorter front-end and back-end are inactive. A coil that
spans 150 electrical degrees would have a pitch factor p of 150°/180° = 8.33 or 83.3 per cent. In general pitch factor of less
than 80 percent are avoided.
Most windings are two-large windings, i.e., two coil sides are inserted in each slot. In winding a two-layer armature,
as has been shown in Figure 32.9 (d), one coil side p is placed in the bottom of a slot and the other side is not. The second
coil side is not inserted until all the other armature coils have been inserted in the bottom slots. When coil side x has
been inserted, only then is coil side 1 inserted; when coil side y has been inserted in a bottom slot, only then is coil side 2
inserted, and so on. The purpose of this procedure is to assume both strength against centrifugal forces and nearly perfect
equality in the size, shape and weight of all the coils. The same purpose behind all the various winding configurations to
take a conductor path from one polarity of brush via a commutator segment, up through the magnetic field, around the back
end of the armature structure, back the opposite way through the opposite field, and finally back to another commutator
segment. This process is repeated around the commutator and the armature lamination stack until the winding is complete,
symmetrical and balanced. Certain requirements must be carried out.
1. Every coil must be of such a configuration that when seen as going away from the commutator, it passes through the
influence of one field polarity and when coming back it passes through the influence of the other field polarity. In this
way, the voltages generated are additive. The coils may be of one or many turns (see Figure 32.9).
2. The coils must be interconnected at the commutator in such a way that all the conductors under the influence of one
magnetic pole are connected so that their incremental voltages are additive.
3. The whole winding must be configured in such a way that regardless of
the angular position of the armature, the commutator-brush connection I
relation to the field pole influence is maintained in the same sense.
4. The coil shapes and end configuration must make maximum use of the V
copper so as to minimize resistance loss, cost and weight. Ra
5. The windings should be as strong as possible and braced and/or supported

where required. Copper is a superior electrical conductor, but it is a poor E
structural material for a highly stressed location such as a rotating arma-
ture winding.
6. The finished armature assembly should be in good dynamic balance, and
the balance must be maintained in service.
All these requirements are met more or less in modern lap, wave, or frog-leg
windings. In fact, an armature winding is a remarkable packaging job as far as Figure 32.10 Equivalent Network
density and efficiency are concerned. The equivalent network of a generator of a Generator
armature winding is given in Figure 32.10. Armature Winding
32.5.1 Lap Windings

The differences among winding types arise from the way the coil ends are configured. A lap winding may have one or more
turns of an approximately trapezoidal shape, with the two ends close to each other so that they can be connected to adjacent
commutator segments. There are small variations in a duplex or higher plex lap coil, but the coil ends are near each other.
Figure [32.11 (a) and (b)] shows a basic lap winding with two turns and three active commutator segments. A brush is
required for each pole of a lap-wound armature.
Co
il 2
Co
il 1
(a) (b)
Figure 32.11 (a) Lap Armature-winding Coil, (b) Lap-wound Armature

A winding of this type can be clearly seen in Figure 32.12 starting from segment A, the conductor current path is 1, 2,
3 and 4 to complete the first loop at segment B. However, the second loop starts at B, and the path is 5, 6, 7 and 8 ending
at segment C. In this way, each loop overlaps the next. Development of the lap winding can be seen from Figure 32.13.
1
12 2
11 3
A
F B
10
4
E C
D
9 5
8 6
7
D E F A B C D E
9 10 11 12 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
To 7
To 12
Figure 32.12 Simple Illustration of the Lap
Winding in Figure 32.11 Figure 32.13 Development of the Lap Winding
32.5.2 Wave Windings

The wave winding in contrast is designed for high voltage applications and it has two parallel current paths. Such a winding
can use only two brushes regardless of the number of individual poles.
The wave winding has the same basic trapezoidal appearance in the coil body, but the coils are spread apart
(see Figures 32.14 and 32.15). The coil ends are connected to commutator segments that are one less or one more
segment than the angular distance between two like polarity field poles. A wave winding must go at least twice around
the armature before it closes back where it started.
Figure 32.14 Wave-wound Armature

Figure 32.15 Illustration of Wave Winding
Figure 32.16 shows a wave winding, where the conductor starts from the segment (1) and passes through a slot (2, 3) to the
rear of the drum where it turns (3, 4) and completes the path in the other direction (4, 5). Path 2 to 3 is shown as a north pole,
while path 4 to 5 is the opposite or a south pole. Figure 32.17 shows the partial winding laid out or its developed version.
The wave winding obtains its name from the shape of the coils before they are placed on the armature core, as they
look like a wave. Figure 32.17 shows this type of winding where the series-connected armature conductors are cutting flux
under adjacent unlike poles at the same time. The winding, as illustrated, goes around the armature enough times to connect
all the conductors in series.
A wave winding of this type has an advantage over a lap winding for some uses because it causes a higher voltage for a given
number of poles and armature conductors. The coils in each path are series connected, and the number of paths is always two
for any number of poles. The voltage produced by the generator is the sum of the voltages produced around the entire armature.
D.c. Generators 615
A B C D E F G H I J K
N S N S
11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Load
Figure 32.16 Development of the Wave
Winding Figure 32.17 Developed Wave Winding
For the lap winding, the various paths are parallel-connected. There are as many paths in a lap winding as there are poles
in the machine. For a given number of poles and armature conductors, a lower voltage is produced; however, the load can
be greater than with the wave winding.
32.5.3 Lap and Wave Winding—A Comparison

Lap Winding: There are as many parallel paths as the product of multiplicity and the number of poles. Each coil, at any
instant, contains a group of coils in series. The current carried by each armature coil is I/a. The winding requires as many
brushes as there are poles. Lap windings are used in high current low voltage d.c. dynamos.
Wave Winding: The number of paths in the armature is twice the multiplicity. Each coil, at any instant, contains a group
of coils in series (similar to the lap winding). The current carried by each armature coil is I/a (similar to the lap winding).
The wave winding requires only two brushes. Wave windings are used in high voltage low current applications.
32.5.4 Paths in Lap-Wound and Wave-Wound Armatures

The paths for a four-pole lap-wound simplex dynamo are shown in Figure 32.18 (a). There are four poles and four paths,
each path carrying one-fourth of the total current and generating a voltage per path of ep. The total power generated by the
dynamo operating as a generator is epl. Figure 32.18 (c) shows the equivalent circuit of this armature operating as a motor
at the same speed and flux density. The c.e.m.f. generated per path is ep and the resistance of the winding in each path is rw.
In the motor mode, the applied line voltage VL exceeds ep by the voltage drop across the resistance of the windings, IrwJ4
(assuming no brush voltage drop).
Figure 32.18 Armature Paths and Equivalent Circuit for a Four Pole Lap-wound Simplex Dynamo
(a,b) Paths in a Lap-wound Dynamo (Generator Mode) (c) Equivalent Circuit of a Lap-wound
Dynamo (Motor Mode)
The paths for the four-pole wave-wound simplex dynamo are shown in Figure 32.19. It should be noted that there are four
poles and two paths since the paths are independent of the number of poles in a wave winding. For conductors of the same current-
carrying capacity as the lap winding above, i.e., 1/4, the current per path in the wave winding is 1/4. The total current—since there
Figure 32.19 Equivalent Capacity Wave-wound Dynamo Showing Paths and Equivalent Circuit for a Four-
pole Simplex Wave Winding (a) Wave-wound Armature (b) Paths (Generator Mode)
(c) Equivalent Circuit of a Wave-wound Dynamo (Motor Mode)
are but two paths—is 1/2. But now that there are only two paths, the total number of conductors per path is doubled, and the e.m.f.
per path is 2ep. The total power generated by the dynamo operating as in the generator mode is 2epI/2, or still epl.
The wave-wound dynamo in the motor mode is shown in Figure 32.19 (c). The resistance per path and the voltage per
path are twice that of the equivalent lap-wound armature because there are twice as many conductors in series producing
a higher c.e.m.f. and higher resistance in opposition to the applied voltage.
32.6 COMMUTATION
The rectangular-shaped voltage wave generated within a d.c. armature coil is changed to a unidirectional voltage in the load
circuit by means of a mechanical rectifier called a commutator, mounted on the armature shaft. This is illustrated in Figure 32.20
for an elementary two pole machine with one armature coil and a two-bar commutator. Connections to the external terminals
are made via small stationary blocks of graphite called brushes that are pressed against the commutator by springs.
The generated voltage within the armature coil changes direction every 180 electrical degrees (as shown in
Figure 32.20) of rotation, but the voltage in the external circuit remains in the same direction. The rotating commutator and
stationary brushes constitute a rotary switch that provides a switching action called commutation that switches the internal
alternating voltage and current to direct current in the external circuit.
Figure 32.20 Sketches Showing the Commutation Process with a One-coil Armature. As One Coil Moves
into the Neutral Plane Another Moves Out, Producing an Essentially Constant Voltage
D.c. Generators 617
When the coil is rotating through the neutral plane, as shown in Figures [32.20 (a) and (c)], it is shorted by the brushes.
Since the coil sides are not cutting flux, no armature voltage is generated and no short circuit current occurs.
A practical machine has many coils distributed around the armature and the coils pass through the neutral plane one at a time.
32.7 ARMATURE REACTION

The form and shape of the magnetic field caused by the main fields, (Figure 32.21) becomes distorted when current is
present in the armature windings. This is because the armature windings themselves are wound on a magnetic structure.
The magnetic field thus produced in the armature is 90 electrical degrees from that produced by the fields. These two fields
become vectorially combined in a distorted result. Figure 32.22 shows a typical undistorted field pole magnetic field that is
present with little or no current in the armature. Figure 32.22 shows a visualization of the armature-produced field, which
is present to a degree approximately proportional to the armature current.
N S
Figure 32.21 Magnetic Flux Distribution due Figure 32.22 Magnetic Flux Distribution due
to Field Poles Only to Armature Excitation Only
Figure 32.23 shows the result of the combination of the two

fields. The magnetic field on one side of the field pole is in effect
swept aside and reduced. The mid-pole field is about the same as
when no current is present in the armature. But the other side of
the field pole now has a substantially larger field than before. The N
voltages generated in the windings are unfortunately generated in
direct proportion to the actual field that is present. Followed to its
ultimate conclusion, this armature reaction results in the neutral
voltage point being appreciably moved in relation to the brush posi-
tion. As a result, the commutator and brush switching function is
no longer spark free and the resulting brush and commutator life is
drastically reduced.
32.7.1 Correcting Armature Reaction Effect

S
There are four main ways of combating the armature reaction
problem.
1. The first method is to rotate the brush hanger mechanism to
find the correct but distorted neutral point. This is very effec-
tive at a fixed current load. On the other hand, the brushes must Figure 32.23 Combined Magnetic Flux
be moved each time the load is changed. This was the early an- Distribution due to Armature
swer, but it has become obsolete. It has the merit that it worked and Field
at one time and is easily understood.
2. The second method is to shape or otherwise modify the ends of the field pole shoes so that high flux cannot exist on the
ends because of the high path reluctance. This is customarily done on almost all the machinery built today. It reduces
but does not eliminate the problem.
3. The third method is to add interpoles or commutating poles to the field structure. These units resemble small main
field poles and are installed midway between the main field poles. They function by locally modifying the resultant
of the main field pole and armature-caused distorted magnetic field. This distorted field has the local effect around
the brushes, causing some voltage generation to take place in the armature coil that is undergoing switching by the
commutator and brush. The result of the combined field caused by the main field, the armature reaction field, and the
commutating field is that locally around the brushes there is no effective field. Therefore, there is no unwanted voltage
generation to spoil the required commutation and brush switching process. Since the effect of armature reaction is
related to armature current, its counter action by commutating fields is also needed in relation to armature current.
This is readily accomplished by connecting the commutating field windings in series with the armature, so that the
variable requirement is automatically met in service. Commutating fields are so effective that they are invariably used
in medium and large d.c. machines.
Once experienced, it is immediately obvious when commutating fields are incorrectly adjusted or wrongly
connected. The commutator sparks viciously, there is a sound much like frying bacon and a sharp smell of ozone.
In such a situation, immediate correction is necessary, because commutator and brush life may be reduced by more
than 1000 to 1.
4. Very large machines or machines with very severe duty cycles such as in large machine tools or especially in rolling mill
drives, require the last feature, which is compensating windings (see Figure 32.24). These windings are laid directly into
the pole shoes of the main fields. They are parallel to the armature shaft and carry current in the opposite direction to the ar-
mature windings immediately adjacent to these. The result is that the main field flux symmetry is no longer distorted, since
the armature reaction magnetic flux is equally and oppositely opposed by the compensating winding flux. The function
of the commutating fields is still required but to a reduced degree. Compensating windings are expensive and sometimes
cumbersome, but their end results in reliable, spark free commutation under conditions that would be impossible without
them. This constitutes the fourth method.
Figure 32.24 Techniques of Overcoming Armature Reaction
32.8 E.M.F. EQUATION

Let p = Number of pairs of poles
f = Flux per pole in Wb
Z = total number of conductors on armature
= Number of slots × Number of conductors per slot
N = speed in revolutions per minute (r.p.m.)
e.m.f. generated by armature = e.m.f. generated by one of the parallel paths
dφ
e.m.f. generated = Flux cut per second, i.e., e = e = V
dt
Flux cut by one conductor in making one revolution = 2 pf
N
Flux cut by one conductor per second = 2 pφ ×
60
( 2 pφ N )
\ e.m.f. generated in one conductor = (32.1)
60
D.c. Generators 619
1. For a wave-wound armature

Z
No. of conductors in series per path =
2
pφ NZ
\ e.m.f. generated = V (32.2)
60
2. For a lap-wound armature
Z
Number of conductors in series per path =
2p
Z 2 pφ N φ NZ
\ e.m.f. generated = × =
2p 60 60
If a is the number of parallel paths through the armature, then
2 p φ NZ
E = × V (32.3)
a 60
For a given machine, E varies directly as fN.
Example 32.1
An eight-pole lap-wound armature has 960 conductors and a flux per pole of 20 mWb. Calculate the e.m.f. generated when
running at 500 r.p.m.
Solution:
φ NZ
E = V
60
20 × 10−3 × 500 × 960
=
60
= 160 V
Example 32.2
If the armature in the above example were wave-wound, what would be the e.m.f. generated?
Solution:
φ NZ
e.m.f. generated = p × 60 V
20 × 10−3 × 500 × 960

= 4×
60
= 640 V
Example 32.3
A four-pole 1200 r.p.m. generator with a lap-wound armature has 65 slots and 12 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is
0.02 Wb. Determine the e.m.f. induced in the armature.
Solution:
φ NZ
e.m.f. induced in the armature = V
60
0.02 × 65′ × 12′ × 1200
=
60
= 312 V
Example 32.4
A lap-wound d.c. shunt generator having 80 slots with 10 conductors per slot generates at no load an e.m.f. of 400 V, when
running at 1,000 r.p.m. Find out the flux per pole. If this generator is required to generate a voltage of 220 V on an open
circuit, at what speed should it be rotated?
Solution:
φ NZ
e.m.f. generated = V
60
1000 × 80 × 10
400 = φ ×
60
400 × 60
φ =
1000 × 80
= 0.03 Wb
E
For a given machine Eα N φ or αN
φ
Since, f is the same in both the cases = E α N
To generate 400 V r.p.m. = 1000
1000 220
To generate 220 Vp r.p.m. = = 550
400
Example 32.5
(1) A triplex lap-wound armature is used in a 14-pole machine with 14 brush sets, each spanning three commutator bars.
Calculate the number of paths in the armature.
(2) Repeat part (1) for a triplex wave-wound armature having 2 such brush sets and 14 poles.
Solution:
1. mp = 3 × 14 = 42 paths
2. a =2m = 2 × 3 = 6 paths
Example 32.6
Calculate the generated e.m.f. in each part of Example 32.5 if the flux per pole is 4.2 × 106 times, the generator speed is
60 r.p.m. and there are 420 coils in the armature, each coil having 20 turns.
Solution:
1. Z = 420 coils × 20 turns/coil × 2 conductors/turn
4.2 × 106 × 60 × 14
E= × 10−8
60 × 42
= 235.2 V
4.2 × 106 × 16800 × 60 × 14
2. E= × 10−8
60 × 6 × 10
= 1646.4 V
Note: 1. Simplex lap windings have as many parallel paths as main field poles a = P.
2. Simplex wave windings have two parallel paths regardless of the number of poles: a = 2.
The amount or degree of multiplicity or plex determines the number of parallel paths in the following manner.
3. A lap winding has pole times the degree of plex parallel paths:
a = P× plex.
4. A wave winding has two times the degree of plex parallel paths
a = 2 × plex.
where, P = poles and a = parallel paths.
D.c. Generators 621
32.9 SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR

There are three basic types of generators with subtypes and they have distinctly different characteristics. To see how each type
and subtype gains its characteristics, it is logical to see how the generator is affected by variations of field strength. Then the
variations of field strength that result from various field-to-armature connections can be better understood. It is in the various
ways of connecting the field circuit that the generator types develop their individual characteristics as shown in Figure 32.25.
If the main fields are supplied from an external source, their ampere turns of excitation can be independently controlled.
In a practical generator, the output voltage is controlled by many factors. The parameters of number of conductors Z,
number of field poles P, and number of parallel paths in the armature windings are designed and built in the features of the
particular circuit.
I
Ia
V
E
Ra
Figure 32.25 Separately Excited d.c. Generator (V=E-IaRa = E-IRa )
Once it is built, one way to control the generated voltage of a given generator is to vary its rotative speed. The other way
is to vary its field flux per pole. The rotative speed is controlled by the characteristics of the prime mover that is coupled
to the generator and any gearing or belt drive that may be interposed between the prime mover and the generator. The field
flux is determined by the overall magnetic path characteristics which are designed and built in feature, much as the
armature windings and number of poles. The field coils are also designed and built with a particular number of winding
turns of a particular wire. The ampere turns that are present in the coil are determined by the physical number of turns and
the current that flows as a result of the applied field voltage. The applied field voltage can, of course, be of almost any value
within reason when applied separately.
A separately excited d.c. generator is illustrated in Figure [32.26 (a) and (b)]. The potentiometer in Figure 32.26 (a) permits
zero adjustment of the shunt field current as a minimum, whereas the rheostat in Figure 32.26 (b) permits minimum current
adjustment but not zero. The separately excited generator of Figure 32.26 (b) combines self-excitation of the series field and
separate excitation of the shunt field, providing the advantages of compound operation with the advantages of separate field
excitation. The armature current relations of this generator are the same as those for the series generator.
Figure 32.26 Separately Excited Generators (a) Separate Excitation, Shunt Field Using Potentiometer
(b) Separate Excitation, Shunt Field Compound Operation
32.10 BASIC GENERATOR TYPES

The generated voltage depends on the field magnetic flux. The different ways in which this field flux can be supplied are
as follows.
1. The field connections can be tapped directly from the armature. In this way, the voltage that drives the current through
the field coil is the full armature circuit voltage. The current can be decreased by the use of a series resistance in the
field circuit if desired. This connection, called a self-excited shunt generator or simply a shunt generator, has been
illustrated in Figure 32.27 (a).
2. The field connections can be connected in series with the armature circuit. In this way, the field ampere turns will be
primarily controlled by the resistance of the connected load. There will be no field excitation if no current flows to
the load. Known as a series generator, it has been presented in Figure 32.27 (b). Its outputs and characteristics will be
seen to be quite different from those of the shunt generator. A series-connected field coil is composed of relatively few
turns of heavy wire, whereas a shunt-connected field is composed of many turns of finer wire. The same field ampere
turns can be produced (120 turns × 10 amp = 1200 At and 1200 turns × 1 amp = 1200 At). The coils are very different
but the ampere turns are the same.
3. The third type, as shown in Figure 32.27 (c) combines a shunt and a series field and is called a compound generator. This
type combines the features of the shunt and series generators. There is a further subdivision according to whether the
shunt field is connected across the armature alone, called short-shunt compound, or connected across both the armature
and the series field, called long-shunt compound. These different varieties of compound generators have slightly different
characteristics but normally perform the same tasks. All of these connections are shown in Figure 32.27.
Figure 32.27 Three Connections of the Field Coil (a) Shunt (b) Series (C) Compound
Note: Ordinarily, if a generator is separately excited, it is labelled as such: but if it is self-excited, the term may be only implied.
32.11 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The differences among the three basic types of d.c. generators emerge from the manner in which the d.c. stator field
winding’s excitation is produced. The purpose of the generator is to produce a d.c. voltage by conversion of mechanical
energy to electrical energy and a portion of this d.c. voltage is used to excite the stationary magnetic field winding.
32.11.1 Shunt Generator

When the excitation is produced by a field winding connected across the complete (or almost complete) line voltage produced
between the brushes of the armature, the d.c. dynamo is called a shunt generator, as shown in Figure 32.28 (a). The rotor
armature is represented (enclosed in a rectangle) as consisting of a source of e.m.f. (Eg ), a resistance (Rw) of the armature
winding, a resistance (Rb) of the carbon brushes and the brush contact resistance made with the rotating armature. The entire
armature circuit consists of the armature (enclosed in the rectangle of dashed lines) and two optional windings, the compensating
winding (Rc) and the interpole winding (Ri) located on the stator. Thus, the portion of the armature circuit that rotates is shown
as enclosed in the rectangle and that portion of the armature circuit that is fixed on the stator is outside the rectangle.
D.c. Generators 623
Figure 32.28 Shunt Generator. Schematic and Equivalent Circuit.

(a) Complete Schematic Circuit Diagram of Shunt Generator
(b) Equivalent Circuit of the Shunt Generator
For simplicity, all series resistances in the armature circuit may be added and lumped together under a single resistance
(Ra), called the armature circuit resistance. In the equivalent circuit of a shunt generator shown in Figure 32.28 (b), the
armature circuit consists of a source of e.m.f. (Eg) and an armature circuit resistance (Ra).
The field circuit of a shunt generator is in parallel with the armature circuit and, as shown above, consists of the shunt
field winding wound on the stationary field poles and a rheostat.
The shunt generator, when loaded, is composed of three parallel circuits: (1) the armature circuit; (2) the field circuit;
and (3) the load circuit. Since the basic source of e.m.f. and current is the armature, the equivalent circuit Figure 32.28 (b)
yields the following current relation
Ia = If + Il (32.4)
where, Ia is the armature current produced in the same direction as the generated voltage Eg, If is the field current (Vf /Rf ) in
the field circuit and Il is the load current (V1/R1).
For the three circuits in parallel, the same voltage exists across the armature field, and load circuits, respectively,
Va = Vf = Vl (32.5)
where, Va is the voltage across the armature, i.e., Va = Eg – IaRa
Vf is the voltage across the field circuit and V1 is the voltage across the load.
Example 32.7
A 150 kW, 250 V shunt generator has a field circuit resistance of 50 Ω and an armature circuit resistance of 0.05 Ω.
Calculate (1) The full line current flowing to the load; (2) the field current; (3) The armature current; and (4) the full-
load generated voltage.
Solution:
kW × 1000 150 × 1000 W
1. Il = = = 600 A
Vl 250 V
Vl 250 V
2. If = = = 5A
Rf 50 Ω
3. Ia= If + Il = 50 + 600 = 605 A
4. Eg = Va + IaRa = 250 + 605 × 0.05 = 320.25 V
32.11.2 Series Generator

When the excitation is produced by a field winding connected in series with the armature in such a way that the flux
produced by the series-connected field winding is a function of the current in the armature and the load, the d.c. dynamo is
called a series generator. The complete schematic diagram of the series generator is shown in Figure 32.29 (a). The series
field is excited only when a load is connected to complete the circuit. Since this field must carry the full or rated current of
the armature, it is constructed of a few turns of heavy wire.
Figure 32.29 Series Generator. Schematic and Equivalent Circuit (a) Complete Schematic Circuit
(b) Equivalent Circuit
The compensating winding (Rc) located on the field poles and the interpole winding (Ri) are included in series with the
armature winding (Rw) of the rotating armature, which produces a generated e.m.f. (Eg). The equivalent circuit (under load)
of a series generator is shown in Figure 32.29 (b). The current in the series field winding (Is) is controlled by a diverter
(Rd), which serves to provide a degree of adjustment of excitation of the series field in much the same way as the rheostat
in shunt generator.
Unlike the shunt generator whose field excitation is virtually independent of the load, the series field excitation
(for comparison) depends primarily on the magnitude of resistance of the load. Thus, the diverter serves to provide only
minor adjustment of the series field excitation in a series generator.
The current relations in a series generator are
Ia = Il= Is+ Id (32.6)
The voltage relations of a series generator, as shown in the equivalent circuit of Figure 32.29(b), may be summarized as
Va = Vl + IsRs (32.7)
where, Va is the voltage across the armature, or Eg – IaRa
V1 is the voltage across the load
IS RS is the voltage drop across the series field
32.11.3 Compound Generator

When the field excitation is produced by a combination of the two windings, namely, a series field winding excited by the
armature or line current, and a shunt field winding excited by the voltage across the armature, the d.c. dynamo is called
a compound generator. The complete schematic diagram of a compound generator is shown in Figure 32.30 (a). The
stationary field structure is represented as consisting of a shunt field winding and a series field winding wound over the
shunt field winding; in addition to the compensating winding inserted in the pole face of the main field poles.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 32.30 Compound Generator: Schematic and Equivalent Long- and Short-shunt Connections.
(a) Complete Schematic Long-shunt Connection (b) Equivalent Circuit Long-shunt
Compound Generator and (c) Equivalent Circuit Short-shunt Compound Generator
D.c. Generators 625
The circuit has been simplified to produce two possible equivalent circuits: a long-shunt connection and a short-shunt
connection. Figure 32.30 (b) shows the long-shunt compound generator connection in which the field circuit is in parallel with
the combined armature and series field circuits as well as with the load circuit. Figure 32.30 (c) shows a short-shunt connection
in which the shunt field circuit is in parallel with the armature circuit, and the series field circuit is in series with the load.
The current relations of the long-shunt connection of a d.c. compound generator are
Ia = If + Il = Is + Id (32.8)
The current relations of the short-shunt connection of a d.c. compound generator are
Ia = If + Il and Il = Is + Id (32.9)
The essential difference between the two is that in the short-shunt connection, the armature current excites the series field,
whereas in the long-shunt connection, the load current excites the series field.
Example 32.8
A long-shunt compound generator rated at 100 kW and 500 V d.c. has an armature resistance of 0.03 Ω a shunt field
resistance of 125 Ω and a series field resistance of 0.01 Ω The diverter carries 54 A. Calculate (1) The diverter resistance
at full load and (2) The generated voltage at full load.
Solution:
1.
Vf 500 V
If = = = 4A
Rf 125 Ω
Ia = I f + Il = 4 + 200 = 204 A
Is = Ia − Id = 204 − 54 = 150 A
Since, diverter and series field are in parallel
I d Rd = I s Rs and Rd = ( I s Rs ) / R d
150 × 0. 01
Rd = = 0.0278 Ω
54
2. Eg = V1 + I a Ra + I s Rs
= 500 + (204 x 0.03) + (150 x 0.01)
= 507.62 V
32.12 CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C. GENERATORS

For each form of generator, there are two groups of characteristics to be considered. These are: (1) Open-circuit
characteristics; and (2) Load-characteristics.
32.12.1 Separately Excited Generators

Under open circuit conditions, the armature winding carries no current, yet it has an e.m.f. induced in it due to its rotation
in the magnetic field which is energized from a separate source. The e.m.f. is given by Eαf N, and we may consider this
relation for a variation of speed when the field flux is maintained constant and for variation of the field flux when the speed
is maintained constant.
In the first case, the field flux is constant, provided the field current If is constant, thus EαN. Initially, let the field current
be If. Thus, the e.m.f./speed characteristic takes the form shown in Figure 32.31 (a). Higher values of field current If2 and
If3 increase the field flux and, therefore, give rise to proportionately greater e.m.f.s for any given speed, but in each case the
characteristics are essentially linear.
In the second case, let the speed be constant and the field current stay varied. Since the speed N is constant, Eαf. The
flux f is varied by the field current If and the relation takes the form defined by the B/H characteristic of the magnetic
circuit. It follows that the E/If characteristic also takes a similar form as illustrated in Figure 32.31 (b). By increasing the
rotor speed, the e.m.f. characteristic is also increased, thus a family of characteristics can be created with a separate char-
acteristic for each particular speed. None of the characteristics passes through the origin of the graph because even when
If is zero, there is still a small e.m.f. induced by the residual magnetism.
I I
Figure 32.31 Open-circuit Characteristics of a Separately Excited d.c. Generator
The function of a generator is to supply current to a load, and generally this is undertaken at a specific supply voltage. Let
us suppose that the generator is excited to give the required terminal voltage and that a load is introduced, thus increasing
the armature current from zero. Provided that the field current and the rotor speed are maintained as constant, the terminal
voltage/load current characteristic takes the form shown
in Figure 32.32. This characteristic is called the external V
characteristic of the generator. E
This characteristic indicates that the terminal voltage Volt drop due to IaRa and
drops with increase in the load current. There are two rea- armature reaction
sons for this drop:
1 The armature reaction decreases the field flux and,
hence, reduces the induced e.m.f.
2. There is the IaRa voltage drop in the armature.
In practice, the drop in output voltage at full load com-
Full load current I
pared with the no-load terminal voltage is small, although
appreciable. If necessary, the terminal voltage may be Figure 32.32 External or Load Characteristic of a
maintained constant, by increasing the field current and/ Separately Excited d.c. Generator
or the rotor speed.
32.12.2 Shunt Generator

When a shunt generator is operated under no-load conditions, it is the output terminals that are open-circuited, as shown
in Figure 32.33. The armature still requires supplying current to the field winding. However, to obtain the open-circuit
characteristic, it is a simple test to operate the generator at a constant speed with the field separately excited, thus obtaining
the characteristic shown in Figure 32.33 (b). Normally because the field current If is comparatively small, as is the armature
resistance Ra, it follows that this characteristic is almost the open-circuit characteristic of the shunt generator and it is not
necessary to allow for the very small IaRa voltage drop.
Critical field
V characteristic Open-circuit
Operating characteristic
V voltage E/Ia
If
E
Ra Field winding
characteristic
V/If
(a) (b) Ia
Figure 32.33 d.c. Shunt Generator Under No-load Conditions
The V/If characteristic of the field windings is a straight line, its gradient depending on the resistance of the windings.
The generator starts by inducing an e.m.f. due to the residual magnetism. This e.m.f. causes a current to flow in the field
windings which enlarges the magnetic field which, in turn, increases the induced e.m.f. This process continues until the
D.c. Generators 627
e.m.f. causes just sufficient current to flow to produce a sufficient field to exactly induce the e.m.f. This condition occurs
when the open-circuit characteristic meets the V/I/ characteristic of the field windings. Once the steady state condition has
been achieved, there are several possible changes of condition that may be applied to the generator. For instance, if the
resistance of the field winding circuit is increased, then the slope of the field characteristic increases and the characteristic
intersects at a lower value of E. However, if the line of the field resistance characteristic becomes tangential to the open-
circuit characteristic, then a critical point is reached when the generator is unable to sustain the induced e.m.f., which
suddenly falls to a very low value. This limitation means that the variation of field resistance is not a suitable method of
obtaining control of the output voltage over a large range. Nevertheless, it is often quite sufficient to control the output
voltage over a small range near the normal operating voltage. If a wider range of output voltage variation is required, it is
necessary to vary the speed of the rotor.
If the field-circuit resistance is too high, the shunt generator will fail to excite itself. Thus, a shunt generator can fail to
excite because it has no residual magnetism, because the field windings are reverse connected or because the resistance of
the field circuit is too high. Other reasons for failure to excite originate from malfunction of components, e.g., dirty brushes
on the commutator or a winding being open-or short-circuited.
When the shunt generated is operated under load, the load characteristic shown in Figure 32.34 is similar to that of
the separately excited generator. In this instance, however, the characteristic is drawn on the basis that the speed N is
constant, the field current If now depending on the terminal voltage of the generator. Since this voltage tends to decline
with increase of load current I, it follows that If also declines, thus, reducing the field flux f and, hence, the induced e.m.f.
E. This, in turn, further reduces the terminal voltage; thus, the drop of the characteristic is slightly more pronounced in
the shunt generator than in the separately excited generator. The decline in the terminal voltage is, therefore, caused by
1. The effect of armature reaction.
2. The IaRa voltage drop in the armature winding.
3. The reduction in the field current If mainly due to the other two causes.
Over a normal working range, i.e., from no load to full
load, the drop in output voltage of a shunt-excited generator V
is generally less than 5 per cent, which is much smaller than E Volt drop due to
is suggested by the characteristic shown in Figure 32.34. The IaRa
characteristic in that diagram was exaggerated in order to armature reaction
and
emphasize that there is a voltage drop with increase of load. weakened field
If a shunt generator is operated alone, it cannot be excessively
overloaded. Instead, when the current reaches a certain value
and then tries to increase, the terminal voltage collapses;, thus,
the generator protects itself. The voltage collapses because it Full load current
is unable to maintain sufficient current in the field winding to Figure 32.34 External or Load Characteristic of a
create sufficient field for the necessary e.m.f. d.c. Shunt Generator
Example 32.9
An open-circuit test was carried out on a d.c. shunt generator driven at 1000 r.p.m., the field being separately excited.
Terminal voltage V (volts) 312 357 390 414 435
Field current If (amperes) 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
The resistance of the field circuit is 200 Ω. Find the open-circuit voltage of the generator when: (1) it is driven at
1000 r.p.m. (2) it is driven at 800 r.p.m.
Solution:
The results of the test are illustrated in Figure 32.35. The V/lf characteristic is constructed by considering a voltage, say,
400 V and, hence, determining the field current as 400/200 = 2.0 A. By plotting this condition on the graph and joining the
point to the origin, as shown, the V/If characteristic can be constructed.
The intersection of the open-circuit characteristic of the armature when operating at 1000 r.p.m. and the V/If characteristic
occurs at a point corresponding to the terminal voltage of 418 V.
EαfN
For any given value of field current, the flux remains the same and
EαN
Figure 32.35 For Example 32.9
Thus, in each case the induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rotor speed. If the rotor speed is reduced to 800 r.p.m. from
1000 r.p.m., then the e.m.f. is also reduced. Consider the first set of results in which the terminal voltage was 312 V and
let this be E1, the e.m.f. being induced when the rotor rotated at 1000 r.p.m. and the field current was 0.8 A. Given that the
speed is reduced to 800 r.p.m. and the field current remains at 0.8 A, then the new e.m.f. E2 is given by
E1/E2 = N1/N2
Hence,
By repeating this procedure, we are able to obtain the open-circuit characteristic of the generator operating at 800 r.p.m. as being
Terminal voltage V (volts) 250 326 312 331 348
Field current If (amperes) 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
The characteristic is drawn and its intersection with the V/lf characteristic indicates that the open-circuit voltage of the
generator at 800 r.p.m. is 309 V.
Example 32.10
A shunt generator supplies 50 kW to 500 V constant-voltage d.c. system. The armature rotates at 650 r.p.m. and has a
resistance of 0.2 Ω. The field current of the generator is 3 A, and this field current remains constant when the output of the
generator is reduced to 35 kw. Assuming that the effect of armature reaction is negligible, find the rotor speed required for
this smaller output.
Solution:
I1 = P1/V = 50000/500 = 100 A
E1 = V + IalRa = 500 + (100 + 3)0.2 = 520.6 V
For 35 kW output, the supply current is given by
I2 = P 2 /V = 35000/500 = 70 A
and
E2 = V + IalRa = 500 + (70 + 3)0.2 = 514.6 V
D.c. Generators 629
The field current is constant and since the armature reaction is negligible
E1 N
= 1
E2 N2
and
514.6
N 2 = 650 × = 642.5 r.p.m.
520.6
32.12.3 Series Generator

When the series generator is operated with no load, there can be no armature current and, therefore, no current in the field
windings to induce an e.m.f. However, a small e.m.f. will be generated due to residual magnetism.
When a load is applied to the generator, current can flow in the field windings and an e.m.f. is induced. The external or
load characteristic of the series generator as shown in Figure 32.36 is similar to that of the open-circuit characteristic which
can be obtained by separately exciting the machine. The
difference between the characteristics is caused by a Critical load
V characteristic
voltage drop due to: (a) armature reaction, (b) the IaRa Open-circuit characteristic
voltage drop, (c) the IaRf voltage drop
The output voltage, therefore, depends on the External characteristic
resistance of the load and may be determined by drawing Internal V/Ia
the voltage/current characteristic of the load as shown to voltage drop
meet the external characteristic. If the load resistance is
too large, the slope of the characteristic becomes too steep Load resistance
and exceeds that of the critical load resistance, in which characteristic
case the generator fails to excite. On the other hand, if V/I
the load resistance is too small, the machine protects
Full-load current Ia
itself by letting the output voltage fall, as illustrated.
Figure 32.36 Characteristics of a d.c. Series Generator
32.13 GENERATOR LOSSES
A generator is a machine for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. During such conversions, losses take
place. These losses are dissipated in the form of heat. The principal losses are:
1. Copper loss due to I2R heat losses in the armature and field windings
2. Iron (or core) loss due to hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the armature. This loss can be reduced by constructing
the armature of silicon steel laminations having a high resistivity and low hysteresis loss. At constant speed, the iron
loss is assumed to be constant.
3. Friction and windage losses as a result of bearing and brush contact friction and losses due to air resistance against
moving parts (called windage). At constant speed, these losses are assumed to be constant.
4. Brush contact loss between the brushes and the commutator. This loss is approximately proportional to the load
current.
The total losses in a machine can be quite significant and operating efficiency of 80 per cent and 90 per cent are common.
32.14 POLARITY OF BRUSHES

The output terminal of a generator, as with other d.c. power units, possess electrical polarity. In the case of generators, the
brush polarity is used to distinguish between the electrical polarity of the brushes and the magnetic polarity of the field
poles. Brush polarity markings are often omitted. It can be determined by connecting a voltmeter across the output leads
of the generator. Many automotive and aircraft generators are constructed with either the positive or negative brushes
grounded to the frame of the generator.
When the armature is driven in either direction, an electrical polarity is established at the generator output terminals
and at the brushes. If the machine is stopped and then driven in the opposite direction, the field flux is cut in the opposite
direction and the brush polarity changes. This has been illustrated in Figure 32.37.
As a result, the brush polarity in a separately excited generator can be changed by reversing either the direction of rota-
tion of the armature or the direction of the field current. However, if both the armature direction and field current direction
change, the brush polarity will remain unchanged.
Field Field Field Field
A B A B A B A B
G G G G
+ – – + + – – +
Armature Armature Armature Armature

(a) (b)
Figure 32.37 Factors Affecting Brush Polarity (a) Reversing Armature Rotation Reverses Brush Polarity
(b) Reversing Field Current Reverses Brush Polarity
A separately excited generator develops voltage for either direction of rotation. This is not true, however, for self-
excited units; they develop voltage in one direction only. The standard direction of rotation of d.c. generators is clockwise
when looking at the end of the generator opposite the drive-shaft (usually the commutator end).
32.15 VOLTAGE REGULATION (d)
The terms voltage regulation and voltage control are often confused. Voltage (b)
control refers to intentional changes in the terminal voltage made by manual (a)
or automatic regulating equipment such as a field rheostat. Voltage regulation
Output voltage
refers to automatic changes in the terminal voltage due to reaction within
the generator with changes in the load current. For example, it is inherent in (c)
the design of a shunt generator for the output voltage to fall off as the load
increases. If the drop is severe, the generator is said to have poor regulation.
The voltage regulation of a generator is one of its important characteristics.
Different types of generators have different voltage regulation characteristics.
Figure 32.38 illustrates the action of the voltage at the terminals of a generator Load current
for different values of load current. Figure 32.38 Voltage Regulation
The drop in terminal voltage is caused by the loss in voltages:
1. Across the internal resistance of the armature circuit, including the brush contacts.
2. Due to armature reaction.
The curve at (a) is the normal curve for a shunt generator. An ideal curve is shown at (b). Curve (c) illustrates a generator
with very poor regulation in the sense that the load voltage drops off considerably as the load current increases. A rising
characteristic curve is obtained by using a cumulative compound wound generator curve (d).
The term voltage regulation is a measure of the extent to which VL changes as IL varies. It is expressed as a percentage
and is calculated from
V − VFL
Percentage regulation = NL × 100
VFL
where, VNL = Terminal voltage under no-load conditions
VFL = Terminal voltage under full-load conditions
An ideal voltage source would have zero percentage regulation, in which case the regulation curve would be a horizontal line.
32.16 PARALLELING OF GENERATORS

There are many reasons for paralleling generators.
1. Power sources such as generators are frequently primary safety items and are, therefore, duplicated or paralleled for
reliability.
2. Many major types of machinery, such as generators, run most efficiently when loaded to their design rating. Electric
power costs less per kilowatt-hour when the generator producing it is efficiently loaded. Therefore, when the load is
reduced, one or more generators can be shut down and the remaining units kept efficiently loaded.
D.c. Generators 631
3. Breakdown or routine maintenance frequently requires that the device being worked on be isolated from its work and
shut down. Therefore, if power sources are paralleled, then routine or emergency operations can be performed without
disturbing the load conditions. This affects both safety and economy.
4. In the modern world of expanding population, goods and services, the use of electricity is constantly increasing. When
added capacity is required, the new equipment can be simply paralleled with the old. This frequently means a more
flexible operation, since it increases the choices available for reasons 2 and 3.
5. In many situations not confined to generators, the equipment available to do a particular task may not be available in
a sufficiently large capacity or size in a single unit. Here, paralleling must be a design feature just to meet the original
load requirement.
32.16.1 Parallel d.c. Generator Requirements

The principal types of situations where paralleling of d.c. generators is required are parallel shunt generators of the same
or varying sizes as well as parallel compound generators of the same or varying sizes.
In all different situations, there are certain requirements that must be met for successful electrical paralleling. A parallel
circuit is one in which the same voltage exists across each unit at the paralleling point. This is in accordance with KVL.
If the generated voltages of the individual generators are not all the same and they are paralleled, then, three different
conditions may be met.
1. When a generator is producing an internally generated voltage Eg that is appreciably above the voltage at the paralleling
point, generator action is taking place and the unit is delivering current to the load.
2. If the generator is developing the same voltage as that existing at the paralleling point, no effective generator action
is taking place and no current is flowing to the load. The generator is said to be floating on the line. It is neither
contributing nor drawing current and is still being rotated by its own prime mover.
3. If the generator is set so as to develop less internal Eg than the voltage at the paralleling terminals, it will draw current
from the paralleling point and will be operating as a motor. In this case, though, the unit is drawing power from—
rather than delivering power to—the paralleling junction point.
These three situations are in entire agreement with KCL, as any parallel circuit must be. Furthermore, the following
criteria are equally important.
1. The polarities of the generators must be the same or the connections must be interchanged until they are the same.
2. The voltages should be nearly if not actually identical so that each machine will contribute towards the output.
3. The change of voltage with change of load should be of the same character. A positive regulating machine cannot
usefully combine with a negative regulation machine, as circulating currents would then dominate the situation.
4. The prime movers that drive the generators should have similar and stable rotational speed characteristics.
Example 32.11
Three identical 5 kW shunt dynamos are driven by a single prime mover. Each machine has a field resistance of 60 Ω and
an armature circuit resistance of 0.18 Ω. The three machines are set to no-load voltages of 124 V, 120 V and 115 V. They
are then connected to a bus that is maintained at 120 V by other machines. Determine for each of the three machines:
(1) The line current sent into or drawn from the bus; (2) The armature current; (3) The power drawn from or delivered to
the bus; and (4) The power generated.
Solution:
E g − V1 124 − 120
1. Ia = = = 22.0 A acting as a generator
Ra 0.18
120 − 120
= = 0 A floating on the line
0.18
115 − 120
= = − 27.8 A acting as a motor
0.18
2. Since each machine is connected to the line, each field is seeing 120 V and, thus, drawing current that the armature is
presumed to supply,
Vf 120
=
If = = 2A
Rf 60
Then the armature A = 22.2 + 2.0 = 24.2 A
Armature B = 0 + 2.0 = 2.0 A
Armature C = –27.8 + 2.0 = –25.5 A
The machines are unbalanced to a great extent and yet each machine has a current within the safe range, since from basic
power law
P 5 × 1000
=I = = 41.7 A rated
E 120
3. P = IE, For machine A 22.2 × 120 = 2664 W

For machine B 0 × 120 = 0 W
For machine C –27.8 × 120 = –3336 W
Machine C is drawing more power from the bus than machine A is delivering, while machine B is floating. The bus is not
aided by the three improperly adjusted machines. Each machine delivers power to its field. Therefore,
P = IE –2 × 120 = 240 W to each field
2664 + 240 = 2904 W generated, A
0 + 240 = 240 W generated, B
–3336 + 240 = –3096 W motor power, C
Machine C will deliver 3096 W motor power back to its prime mover if we decide to neglect all losses but the power to the
field. (This is only an approximation.)
If each machine had been set to at least the voltage of machine A, there would be a reasonable purpose to the parallel
combination. Full-rated load will require that each machine deliver 41.7 A, which with the same procedure as (A) would
require
E= 120 + IaRa = 120 + [(41.7 + 2) 0.18] = 127.9 V
This is 7.9 V greater than the bus voltage. The machine performance is not linear.
S UM M A RY
1. A dynamo can operate either in the motor mode or 12. A brush is required for each pole of a lap-wound armature.
generator mode. 13. The wave winding is designed for high-voltage
2. Rotary motion is supplied by a prime mover. applications.
3. The rotor is the part of the dynamo that rotates. 14. Rotating the brush hanger mechanism to overcome
4. The stator is the part of the dynamo that is stationary. armature reaction reduces the armature reaction but
does not eliminate the problem.
5. The armature structure serves as a support for the
winding conductors. 15. Commutating fields are so effective that they are
invariably used in medium and large d.c. machines.
6. The armature magnetic field sees cyclic reversals.
16. The use of compensating windings results in spark-free
7. The armature winding coils are placed in slots in
commutation.
various arrangements.
17. There are three basic types of generators with subtypes.
8. The windings terminate in the rotary switching unit
known as the commutator. 18. For each form of generator, there are two groups of
characteristics—open circuit characteristics and load
9. The basic purpose of the commutator is to change a.c.
characteristics.
to d.c.
19. The efficiency of a generator is a maximum when the
10. The switching function is shared by the commutator
variable loss is equal to the constant loss.
and brushes.
11. The working part of a machine is the armature winding
where the voltage is generated or motor action is
developed.
D.c. Generators 633
1. The direction of induced voltage in a conductor can be 11. The winding on an interpole is
changed by (a) Made of many turns of fine wire
(a) Increasing the field strength (b) Wound in a direction opposite to that of the armature
(b) Reversing the field direction winding
(c) Increasing conductor length (c) Connected in series with the armature load
(d) Decreasing conductor size (d) Connected across the generator terminals
2. Direct current can be supplied to a load by a loop of 12. To raise generator voltage
wire rotating through a field with the use of (a) Field current should be increased
(a) Slip rings (b) Brushes (b) Field current should be decreased
(c) A commutator (d) A conductor (c) Speed should be decreased
3. Induced voltage can be increased in magnitude by (d) Brushes should be shifted forward
(a) Using a commutator 13. Generator output voltage control is usually accom-
(b) Using slip rings plished by
(c) Decreasing conductor length cut per second (a) Varying the speed (b) A rheostat in the field
(d) Increasing the number of lines of force (c) Increasing the flux (d) Decreasing the flux
4. The induced voltage in a single loop reverses 14. A separately excited generator has the field connected
(a) Once each revolution (a) Across the armature
(b) Once each half revolution (b) In series with the armature
(c) Twice each half revolution (c) To an external circuit
(d) Twice each revolution (d) None of these
5. Maximum voltage is induced in a single loop when the 15. The voltage of a separately-excited d.c. generator may
sides of the loop are passing be increased by
(a) Perpendicular to the lines of force (a) Increasing the speed of rotation of the armature
(b) Parallel to the lines of force (b) Decreasing the magnetic flux
(c) At an angle of 45° to the lines of force (c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) At an angle of 60° to the lines of force (d) Neither (a) nor (b)
6. When a commutator is used on a single loop, the volt- 16. The function of the brushes on a generator is to
age at the brushes has a (a) Carry the current to the external circuit
(a) Very large magnitude (b) Prevent sparking
(b) Changing polarity (c) Keep the commutator clean
(c) Constant polarity (d) Reverse the connections to the armature to provide d.c.
(d) Constant magnitude 17. Electrical polarity at the brushes may be changed by
7. The left head generator rule is usually used to determine (a) Reversing the rotation of the armature
(a) Rotational direction (b) Reversing the direction of the field current
(b) Field direction (c) Either (a) or (b)
(c) Current direction (d) Neither (a) nor (b)
(d) Magnetic field strength 18. Most d.c. generators are
8. A generator (a) Self excited
(a) Changes electrical energy to mechanical energy (b) Excited by storage batteries
(b) Changes mechanical energy to electrical energy (c) Excited separately
(c) Is always self excited (d) None of these
(d) Is always separately excited 19. The field coils of a shunt generator are always connected
9. One of the following is not essential in generating a d.c. (a) In parallel with a rheostat
voltage (b) In parallel with each other
(a) A magnetic field (b) A commutator (c) In series with each other
(c) Slip rings (d) A conductor (d) Across the armature
10. Commutating poles are 20. The voltage of a shunt generator is built up by
(a) Fastened to the centre of the commutator (a) Permanent magnetism
(b) Used to regulate the voltage at the armature (b) Proper operation of the field rheostat
(c) Secondary poles induced by cross magnetizing the armature (c) Residual magnetism
(d) Located midway between the main poles (d) Increasing the speed
21. The field windings of a shunt generator must have 26. The series winding must be large enough to carry
(a) Full line current applied (a) The total magnetic flux
(b) Comparatively low resistance (b) A 300 per cent overload
(c) One ohm resistance per volt (c) Full line current
(d) Comparatively high resistance (d) Full line voltage
22. Cutting resistance out of a shunt field circuit 27. Select the type of generator that may be used for loads
(a) Cuts down the magnetic flux quite distant from the generator
(b) Decreases the terminal voltage (a) Over compounded
(c) Increases the load (b) Flat compounded
(d) Increases the terminal output voltage (c) Under compounded
23. Failure of a d.c. generator to build up to its rated voltage (d) Differential compounded
can be due to 28. The normal voltage of a compound generator is
(a) Loss of residual magnetism changed by adjusting the
(b) Resistance greater than the critical field resistance (a) Series field shunt
(c) Rotation of the armature opposite to that known to cause (b) Brush setting
a voltage build up (c) Shunt field rheostat
(d) Brush contact resistance effectively increasing the field (d) Equalizer
circuit resistance above the critical point 29. The resistance of a series field diverter should be
(e) Improper connection of the field circuit leads at the brushes (a) Comparatively high
(f) All of these (b) Equal to the resistance of the series field
24. Voltage control refers to a change that takes place (c) A variable resistance
(a) Due to the operation of auxiliary regulating equipment (d) Comparatively low
(b) When the speed is regulated 30. To achieve maximum compounding effect the diverter
(c) When the terminal voltage is increased rheostat should be
(d) Automatically when the load is changed (a) Set at its minimum value
25. When the load is raised from minimum to maximum (b) Set at a high value
there is (c) Set at a midway value
(a) No change in terminal voltage (d) Removed from the series field circuit
(b) An increase in terminal voltage
(c) A decrease in terminal voltage
(d) Less change than in other generators
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c) 21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (a)
8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (a) 29. (a) 30. (b).
14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (d)
1. On a d.c. machine why is a heavy mainframe construc- 8. What determines the quantity and spacing of the brushes?
tion required? 9. Name three functions of the armature shaft bearings?
2. Is an odd number of field poles possible? Why? 10. What is the purpose of the end bells?
3. Name two main functions for the cylindrical laminated 11. Where are the main field coils located?
steel structure of the main portion of a d.c. armature. 12. How are the field coils mounted or attached?
4. Where are armature winding coils placed in a d.c. 13. What is the purpose of commutating fields?
machine?
14. Where are the commutating fields mounted?
5. To what are the ends of the armature winding coils
15. What is the purpose of compensating windings?
connected?
16. Where are compensating windings placed?
6. What is the usual material for the commutator bars or
segments? 17. What is armature reaction and what is its most serious
effect?
7. What is the function of the commutator?
D.c. Generators 635
18. How do commutating field windings cope with the 39. A four-pole wave-wound armature has 123 conductors
effect of armature reaction? and runs at 1200 r.p.m. If the flux per pole is 25 mWb,
19. Why do the brushes normally cover more than two find the e.m.f. generated.
commutator segments? 40. A four-pole lap-wound armature having 320 conductors
20. Describe the flow of magnetic flux in the closed is run at 900 r.p.m. If the flux per pole is 50 mWb, find
magnetic circuit in a d.c. machine. the e.m.f. generated.
21. What is meant by a separately excited generator? 41. A four-pole lap-wound armature has 120 slots and four
conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 50 mW and it
22. What is meant by a self-excited generator?
generates 240 V. Find the speed.
23. Name three basic d.c. generator types. Draw their
42. A shunt generator supplies 195 A at 220 V. Armature
schematics.
resistance is 0.02 A and shunt field resistance is 44 Ω.
24. Draw the equivalent circuits of the three basic d.c. If the iron and friction losses amount to 1600 W, find
generator types. the e.m.f. generated, copper losses and commercial and
25. What determines the output voltage polarity of a d.c. electrical efficiencies.
generator? 43. A shunt field generator has a field current of 1.13 A
26. What is the difference between the internal and external and a full load current of 16 A. What is the armature
characteristics of a d.c. generator? current?
27. Name two major causes of internal voltage loss in a d.c. 44. The same generator as in CQ 42 has a load voltage of
generator under load conditions. 125 V. What is the armature circuit voltage and the
28. Does a series generator output voltage continue to field circuit voltage?
increase even with a very serious current overload? 45. If the same generator as in CQ 42 has an armature
29. What two different connections are recognized for the circuit resistance of 0.693 Q, what is the armature
shunt field in a compound generator? circuit voltage drop at full load using armature current
30. Is residual magnetic field polarity an important from CQ 42?
consideration in a compound generator? 46. Under no load conditions, what would be the terminal
voltage of the generator in CQ 42 through 44, if no
31. Name the electrical requirements for successful
voltage drop other than armature circuit resistance is
paralleling of d.c. generators.
considered?
32. Why are identical shunt generators comparatively easy
47. Calculate the e.m.f. generated by a four-pole wave-
to parallel?
wound armature, having 45 slots with 18 conductors
33. What happens if an incoming generator is set per slot when driven at 1200 r.p.m. The flux per pole is
substantially above the bus voltage to which it will be 0.016 Wb.
paralleled?
48. Derive the e.m.f. equation of a d.c. generator.
34. What happens if an incoming generator is set to deliver
49. Describe the various parts of a d.c. generator.
exactly the same voltage as the bus to which it will be
paralleled? 50. Explain the difference between lap and wave
windings.
35. What happens if an incoming generator is set to
a voltage below the bus voltage to which it is 51. Describe the conditions essential to build up voltage in
paralleled? a d.c. generator.
36. The output of a shunt generator is 500 A at a terminal 52. A d.c. generator develops an e.m.f. of 200 V when
voltage of 225 V. Armature resistance is 0.03 Ω and driven at 1000 r.p.m. with a flux per pole of 0.02 Wb,
shunt field resistance is 50 Ω. What is the e.m.f. it is desired that this e.m.f. be increased to 210 V at
generated? 1100 r.p.m. What should be the value of flux per pole
under the new circumstances?
37. A short shunt compound generator delivers 100 A at a
terminal voltage of 200 V. Armature resistance is 0.2 Ω 53. A voltmeter connected across the terminals of a d.c.
series field resistance 0.04 Ω and shunt field resistance shunt generator, rotated at rated speed, shows no
51 Ω....
. Find the total current output of the armature and appreciable reading. What corrective measures will
the e.m.f. generated. you take?
54. What do you understand by the term armature reaction
38. A long shunt compound generator has full load
in a d.c. generator?
output of l00 kW at 250 V. Armature resistance is
0.05 Ω series field resistance is 0.03 Ω and shunt 55. Explain why compensating winding is used in large
field resistance is 55 Ω. Find armature current and d.c. machines.
e.m.f. generated. 56. What are interpoles? Why are they used?
57. A 7.5 kW d.c. generator is to be paralleled with a 250 V 58. A 250 kW d.c. generator has been carrying its full rated
bus. If its voltage is set to 265 V at no load, and it has load when attached to a 600 V bus. The machine has
an armature circuit resistance of 0.523 Ω. an armature circuit resistance of 0.083 Ω. If the bus
(a) What current will it deliver? breaker is suddenly opened, what no load voltage will
(b) Is the current within the machines’ rating? be found to be reproduced by the generator if change of
field current is neglected?
ANSWERS (CQ)
36. 235.1 V 37. 104 A, 224.8 V 38. 404.5 A, 322. 3 V 43. 17.1 A 44. (a) 125 V (b) 125 V 45. 11.9 V 46. 137 V
39. 122 V 40. 240 V 41. 600 r.p.m. 42. 224 V; 47. 518.4 V 52. 0.019 Wb 57. (a) 32.7 A (b) rating 30.0 A
1900 W; 94.5 per cent; 95.8 per cent 58. 635 V.
D.c. Motors 33
OBJECTIVES

 The development of counter e.m.f.

The development and measurement of torque

Classification of motors

Generator action and motor action and their relationship

 Power rating of motors
Construction of motors

 Characteristics of d.c. motors
 d.c. motor starting problems
 d.c. starting switch

 d.c. motor reversing Motor and generator action
Solution of simple problems on the above topics

33.1 INTRODUCTION
The d.c. motor and the d.c. generator are essentially the same device. In the d.c. generator, the shaft is rotated by means of
mechanical power and direct current is the output from the machine. In the same device—when it is used as a motor—direct
current is applied to the machines and the resultant interaction of the magnetic fields causes the motor to produce mechanical
energy. A generator can be used as a motor or a motor can be used as a generator.
There is a similarity between motors and generators. In a motor as opposed to a generator, there is still a relative motion
between conductors and a magnetic field. The rotation of the armature coil will produce a cutting of the magnetic lines
of the flux; hence, there will be a voltage induced in the armature. According to the laws of magnetism, the induced volt-
age will oppose the applied voltage used to drive the motor. The magnitude of this force depends on the field strength the
direction of rotation, and the speed of rotation. The faster the speed and the stronger the field, the larger will be the induced
counter e.m.f. (c.e.m.f.).
As far as construction is concerned, there is no difference between a d.c. generator and a d.c. motor. The only difference
is that in a generator, the generated e.m.f. is greater than the terminal voltage, whereas the generated e.m.f. is less than the
terminal e.m.f. in a d.c. motor see Figure [33.1 (a) and (b)]. Since the generated e.m.f. in a motor is in opposition to the
applied voltage, it is referred to as the back e.m.f. or counter e.m.f. (c.e.m.f.).
If IL If Is
Ia Ia
Rh Rh +
A V RL A V
Shunt Shunt –
field field
(a) (b)
Figure 33.1 (a) A d.c. Shunt Generator, the Generated e.m.f. E = V + IaRa
(b) A d.c. Shunt Motor, the Generated e.m.f. E = V – IaRa
Example 33.1
The armature of a d.c. machine has a resistance of 0.1 W. Calculate the generated e.m.f. when it is running as (1) generator
giving 80 A at a terminal voltage of 230 V and (2) a motor taking 60 A with applied voltage of 2 30 V.
Solution:
In both cases the field current is assumed as negligible.
1. Generated e.m.f. E = V + laRa = 230 + 80 × 0.1 = 238 V
2. Back e.m.f. E = V - IaRa = 230 – 60 × 0.1 = 224 V
33.2 DEVELOPMENT AND MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE

Since an electric motor, or any rotary-power producing device is a producer of continuously rotating torque, and since we
can equate torque and angular velocity to get power, we need to know how torque is developed and how it is measured.
The force acting on a conductor immersed in a magnetic field is given by:
F = BI l newtons (33.1)
These relations can be related to the torque developed in a motor by multiplying in the following manner.
1. By the number of conductors Z that are in the armature.
2. By the decimal equivalent of the percent of effective pole arc coverage to find the number of the conductors that are
in the magnetic field and functioning.
3. By the effective radius of the conductors to convert the force to torque.
4. By convening the current Iin amperes to Ia, the total armature current, and dividing by a the number of parallel paths in
the winding which yields the actual current per conductor.
Bla PZ (per cent cov)d (33.2)
T = N- m
a
Example 33.2
A 500 V, d.c. motor is loaded to operate at 500 r.p.m. while developing a torque of 125 N-m. The supply current to the
motor is 2.54 A. Find the efficiency of the motor.
Solution:
2Nπ T
v= = 0.89
60 VI
Example 33.3
A lift of mass 250 kg is raised with a velocity of 5.0 m/s. The rope by which the lift is suspended is wound onto a drum of
diameter 50 cm and the efficiency of the winding mechanism is 0.85. Determine (1) the rotational speed of the winding
drum, (2) the torque applied to the drum by the rope, and (3) the driving torque applied to the shaft of the drum by the
winding motor. (4) Given that the winding mechanism is driven by 500 V d.c. motor of efficiency 0.91, determine the supply
current to the motor.
Solution:
2π Nr 60u
1. u = ωr = ;N =
60 2π r
60 × 5
N = = 159 rev/min
2 p × 0.3
2. T = Fr = Mgr = 250 × 9.81 × 0.3
= 736 N-m
2π NT 2 pl × 159 × 736
P0 = = = 12, 260 W
60 60
P0 12, 260
=
Pi = = 14, 420 W
n 0.85
D.c. Motors 639
Let the shaft torque be Ts. Hence, the shaft power is the input power to the winding mechanism and
60 Pi 60 × 14420
3. Ts = = = 866 N-m
2π N 2π × 159
The shaft power is the output power of the motor which has an efficiency of 0.91; hence, the electrical power is
given by
14420
4. = Pe = 15850 W
0.91
I = Pe /V = VI
15850
=I = 31.7 A
500
Example 33.4
A d.c. motor takes a total line current of 135 A while rotating at 2550 r.p.m. (267.0 rad/sec). The field pole flux density
is 0.8106 Wb/m2 and the field pole coverage is 72 per cent. There are four parallel paths and 96 total conductors, which
are effectively in the magnetic structure for 152.4 mm. The effective radius of action is assumed to be the outside of the
armature, which has a diameter of 187.3 mm. Determine (1) the gross developed torque and (2) the power that would result
if all this torque were available on the rotating shaft.
Solution:
BI a lZ (per cent cov )d
1. T =
a
0.8106(135)(0.1524)(96)(0.72)(0.0936)
=
4
= 26.97 N-m
2. Tw × 10–3 = kW = 26.97 × 267.0 × 10–3
= 7.207 kW
33.3 PRONY BRAKE

In its usual form, a prony brake is a screw-actuated
clamp brake band, which is wrapped around a rotating
water-cooled brake drum. The tendency for the F
brake mechanism to travel around with the drum is
due to the friction-transmitted torque force moving
mechanism. The friction between the drum and the
brake shoe is related to the band clamping pressure.
This force which is attempting to rotate the brake with
the moving drum is resisted with a brake arm, which
is connected to a fixed anchorage through a calibrated
spring scale.
With the device under measurement rotating, as illus-
trated in Figure 33.2, the brake clamp is adjusted until
the desired r.p.m. is held. Under this condition, all the
torque developed by the prime mover is then absorbed
by the brake and shown by the scale reading twice the
arm length.
In large sizes, the brake requires constant cooling,
since all the prime-mover output power is connected
to friction caused heat at the brake surface. The prony
brake may vibrate or oscillate badly unless carefully pre- Figure 33.2 Typical Prony Brake for Torque
pared but is simple and useful. Measurement
Example 33.5
A d.c. motor is tested with a prony brake loading device and Scale tension setting
to set friction
the following data are taken: brake load arm radius from centre
0.6096 m; zero scale reading testing (tare reading) was 13.92 m; Fixed scale
support
operating brake scale reading during test is 90.3 N. The rotating
speed is 855 r.p.m. (89.53 rad/sec).
(1) What is the torque developed? (2) What power does this Scale B low force
with rotation shown Scale A high force
represent? with rotation shown
Solution:
1. T = F × d = (90.3 – 13.92) (0.6096)
= 45.53 N-m torque F = FA – FB in pounds
or ounces
2. Tw × 10–3 = kW f = fA – fB in newtons,
kilograms, or grams
= 45.56 × 89.53 × 10–3
Force radius is
= 41.7 kW pulley radius (or
Friction surface
Note: Tare scale reading cannot be ignored if it is present. motor shaft radius
is cord, typically
in small units)
nylon line
Rotation with force
33.4 TWO-SCALE PRONY BRAKE difference shown
In small sizes, a two-scale prony brake may be used; as shown in Figure 33.3 Typical Two-scale Prony Brake for
Figure 33.3. In this device, the effective radius arm is the radius of Motor Torque Measurement
the grooved pulley or, in very small sizes, the radius of the motor
shaft. The friction is varied by moving both spring scales and, thus, tightening or loosening the nylon cord brake band.
The net torque reading is the difference between the scale readings. The usual scale readings are in milligrams or grams.
33.5 DYNAMOMETER
The most versatile and expensive torque measuring device is the dynamometer. A dynamometer may be used to either absorb
or produce torques; so it is more flexible in use than a prony brake, which belongs to the class of absorption dynamometers as
Scale support shown in Figure 33.4.
A dynamometer is usually a d.c. shunt field ma-
Force scale Rotation chine of appropriate size and r.p.m. capability. The
key to the operation of the dynamometer is the fact
that in any loaded rotating electrical machine, mo-
tor action and generator action take place simultane-
ously. When absorbing power, a dynamometer serves
as a generator and the generated voltage is connected
to a resistive load bank. The ohmic adjustment of the
Tare adjustment
load bank—together with the voltage that the dyna-
mometer is adjusted to produce—determines the cur-
rent that flows. The restraining torque that resists the
Tachometer Force rad.
D in feet
rotation exists in the armature windings. Any torque
(optional)
d in metres force that exists in the armature is there by action
Dynamometer
support Force scale
with the magnetic flux. Therefore, when a dynamom-
trunnion F in pounds or f in newtons eter is absorbing torque, its field tends to be pulled
Motor around equally by the motor action that exists.
Dynamometer to be
generator tested T = f × d converted to newton metres. (33.3)
The stator and surrounding frame structure of a
dynamometer are mounted on low friction ball bearings,
which are concentric or coaxial with its armature rotor
Unit support base
bearings. The whole of the field and frame of stator
Figure 33.4 Typical Electric Dynamometer for assembly are accurately balanced by appropriate
Motor or Generator Torque weights to remove any gravity torque effects.
D.c. Motors 641
During operation, the dynamometer stator tends to pull its support bearings but is restricted from doing so by a torque arm
and appropriate scale, much as in the prony brake. The length from the bearing centreline of the stator assembly to the scale
attachment point is the torque moment arm. It is usually marked on a conspicuous label attached somewhere on the unit.
T = f × d newton metres. (33.4)
It is not necessary to measure the electrical quantities in the dynamometer to measure the torque or power. Only the scale
arm length, the scale force, and the rotative speed need to be recorded. The speed is usually conveniently read by a directly
attached tachometer. Any brush, magnetic and bearing drags also are shown on the spring scale, so the dynamometer is an
accurate device. Its great versatility lies in its ability to also function as a motor and to drive any rotating device within its
capability and, at the same time, measure the power produced at the shaft coupling.
The bulk of energy produced by a dynamometer is normally dissipated in a resistive load bank, which is remotely
located and maybe appropriately cooled.
Example 33.6
It is desired to test a 1865 kw mill motor on a dynamometer at both its low and high rated speeds of 225 and 450 r.p.m.
(23.5 and 47.124 rad/sec). If a dynamometer rig is available that has a 1.524 in radius arm, what force scale range must be
available in newtons?
Solution:
kW × 103 1865 × 103
f1 = = = 51940 N at 23.56 rad/sec
cw 1 .524 × 2356
1865 × 103
f2 = = 25970 N at 47.12 rad/sec
1.524 × 47.12
33.6 BACK ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE IN A MOTOR

Motion
When a motor armature is rotating as a result of the torque that is produced
by motor action, it is also acting as a generator at the same time. Since
there must be a magnetic field from the field poles in order that motor
action can take place, that same field then generates voltage in any passing Field
armature conductor. By Lenz’s law and the relation between Fleming’s
right-hand rule of generator action and the left-hand rule of motor action, it
can be seen that the generated voltage opposes the current produced by the
applied voltage that causes the motor action as shown in Figure 33.5. This
generated voltage that opposes the applied line voltage is known as back
e.m.f. An e.m.f. is induced whenever there is an interchange of energy.
Since the back e.m.f. follows the rules and formulas of generators entirely,
Current
its magnitude is a linear function of rotating speed if the flux is held at a con-
stant. As a motor comes up to speed, its back e.m.f. increases until it is a sub- Figure 33.5 Fleming’s Right-hand Rule
stantial part of the imposed line voltage. This back e.m.f. is the very neces- of Generator Action
sary and beneficial effect that
Motion regulates the armature current
drawn from the lines.
In relation to the current Ia in the armature winding we can, therefore, say
that the rate of energy interchange is given by
Field P = EIa
In a motor, this power is the rate at which electrical energy is changed into
mechanical energy (assuming that there are no losses in the transfer). In a
generator, this power is the rate at which mechanical energy is changed into
electrical energy (with the same assumption). This has been shown in Figure 33.7.
V = E ± I a Ra
Ea fN (33.5)
Current Ta f Ia
Figure 33.6 Fleming’s Left-hand Rule If the machine is operated as a motor, the source must supply both the power
of Motor Action that is converted and also the I2R loss.
Figure 33.7 Power Flow Diagram for a d.c. Motor and a d.c. Generator
Example 33.7
A 250 V, d.c. motor is loaded to operate at 1250 r.p.m. and the armature current is 5 A. Given that the resistance of the
armature is 2.0 W, determine the output torque of the motor.
Solution: I 5.0 A
V = E + la Ra
V
E = V − Ia Ra 250 V
E
= 250 − (5 × 2)
= 240 V M Ra 2.0 Ω
It follows that the converted power is
P = EIa = 240 × 5 = 1200 W
2π NT 2π × 1250
1200 = =
60 60 Figure 33.8 For Example 33.7
T = 92 N-m
Note: 1. In the relation E = Blu the length l is already fixed
E ∝ Bu
2. The velocity depends on the rotational speed.
E ∝ fN
3. Let K be a suitable constant of proportionality,
E = KfN
and
E1 = Kf 1N1 and E2 = Kf 2N2
Thus,
E1 = φ1 N1 
(33.6)
E2 = φ 2 N 2 
a useful relation for predicting the operation of a d.c. machine.
Example 33.8
A 500 V d.c. motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 W and is loaded to operate at 1200 r.p.m., the armature current for that
load being 40 A. If the load on the motor is increased so that the armature current is 60 A, determine the rotational speed
of the rotor, given that
1. The field flux remains unchanged.
2. The field flux is increased by 10 per cent.
D.c. Motors 643
Solution:
E1 = V − I a Ra = 500 − ( 40 × 0.2 ) = 492 V
E2 = V − I a 2 Ra = 500 − ( 60 × 0.2 ) = 488 V
1. (E1/E2) = (f 1 N1/f 2 N2) where, f 1 = f 2

488 × 1200
N 2 = ( E2 N1 / E1 ) = = 1082 r.p.m.
1.1 × 492
2. f2 = 1.10 f1
E2φ1 N1 488 × 1200
N2 = = = 1082 r.p.m.
1.1φ1 × E1 1.1 × 492
Example 33.9
A d.c. motor, while carrying the normal load, draws 22.5 A from the line at 125 V. It has an armature circuit resistance of
0.45 W. Determine
1. The back e.m.f. being developed.
2. The gross developed mechanical power.
Solution:
1. Va - Ec = IaRa, Ec=Va + Ia Ra
Ec = 125 – (22.5) 0.45
= 114.9 V back e.m.f.
2. Ea I a = Pd
114.9 × 22.5 = 2585 W
2585
Pd = 2.585 kW = = 3.465 hp
746
The motor is developing 3.465 hp or 2.585 kW gross mechanical power.
Note:
1. The net useful power is a bit less.
2. The rotating speed of a d.c. motor is the equilibrium result of back e.m.f. due to the speed, allowing just enough current
to pass to meet the gross torque requirements.
3. The gross power developed is the equilibrium result of the gross armature circuit wattage from the lines minus the
armature I 2R copper loss.
4. Any necessary shunt field wattage is also a loss.
5. The back e.m.f. developed is a major factor in determining motor performance.
6. The various types of motors are fundamentally dependent on the manner in which their field winding circuits are
arranged.
33.7 CLASSIFICATION OF MOTORS

Electric motors can be broadly classified by the type of power source needed to operate them. The three major categories of
motors, as shown in Table 33.1 are the d.c. motors, the a.c. motor and the universal motor.
Table 33.1 also lists many of the types of motors available within the three major categories of motors. Some of the
types of motors listed in the Table 33.1 can be further subdivided.
Motors can also be classified by their intended use or special characteristics, e.g., gear motors, synchronous motors,
multispeed motors, torque motors and so on.
Motors also can be grouped into one of the three broad power ratings as: integrated horse power (ihp), fractional horse
power ( f hp) and sub-fractional horse power (sf hp). Motors rated at less than 1/20 hp are classified as sfhp motors, and the
power is usually expressed in millihorse power (mhp) rather than in fractional horse power. Fractional horse power motors
include those motors rated from 1/20 to Ihp. Any motor rated above Ihp is an ihp motor.
Table 33.1 Major Categories of Motors
Direct Current Alternating Current Universal
Series Split-phase Non-compensated
Shunt Capacitor-start Compensated
Compound Permanent-split capacitor
Permanent-magnet Two-value-capacitor
Brushless Shaded-pole
Stepper Reluctance
Hysteresis
Repulsion
Repulsion-start
Repulsion-induction
Induction
Consequent pole
Polyphase
Universal motor is designed to operate from either a.c. or d.c. power.
D.c. motors are used for many applications where the control of the speed of a motor is important. There are three types
of d.c. motors: series, shunt and the combination of series-shunt or compound. In the series type, the field winding is in series
with the armature. In the shunt type, the field winding is arranged in paral-
lel with the armature. In the compound type of motor, there are two sets of
field windings—one set is in parallel with the armature while the other set
is in series with the armature.
33.8 CONSTRUCTION
All d.c. motors—regardless of size—have a stationary field member
(usually called a frame or yoke) and a rotating armature member. The
frame, which is made of cast or fabricated steel, serves as a means of
support for the motor and forms a part of the magnetic circuit connecting
the field poles and commutating poles. The field poles upon which the field
coils are wound are made of cast steel, forged steel or steel laminations.
When cast or forged steel is used, the core is usually made with a circular
cross section. Laminated poles, as illustrated in Figure 33.9, are most Figure 33.9 Laminated Field-pole Piece
commonly used (except for very small motors), have a rectangular cross
section, and are fastened to the frame by bolts.
Figure 33.10 (a) Isometric View of Armature (b) Preformed Armature Coil
D.c. Motors 645
The armature is made of machine-wound coils embedded in the parallel slots on the surface of the armature core. The
core is made of thin wrought-iron or mild, of from 18 to 25 mils in thickness.
The brushes are constructed as a means of carrying the current from the external to the internal circuit. They are
usually made of carbon and are carried in brush holders (Figure 33.11) that are mounted on brush holder studs or
brackets.
The commutator is built up of segments of hard-drawn copper insulated from supporting rings by built up mica to form
a cylinder. These segments are tightly clamped together by means of a heavy external ring. In order to improve commuta-
tion, modern motors are equipped with auxiliary poles (Figure 33.12). The variously termed interpoles or commutating
poles are small auxiliary poles placed between the regular field poles. Their purpose is to assist commutation and prevent
sparking at the brushes for different loads.
Spring
Brush
Figure 33.11 Brush and Holder for a d.c. Motor Figure 33.12 Interpoles
33.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF D.c. MOTORS

The two principle characteristics are the torque/armature current and speed/armature current relationships. From these
relations, the torque/speed relationship can be derived. Field
33.9.1 Shunt Motors

A shunt motor is connected exactly as the shunt generator is connected
as shown in Figure 33.13. In the usual sense, the line voltage is constant
R
or nearly so. This means that the field flux f will be a constant value.
A
The field may or may not use a field rheostat to change the field current
and thus the flux value. When the field flux change serves to change the
generated voltage in a shunt generator, it affects the rotating speed in a
shunt motor. This is true because the change of flux changes the back
e.m.f. volts to rotating speed relation.
DC
Weakening the field requires a higher rotative speed to produce the same
required back e.m.f. and, thus, increases the speed. Strengthening the field re- Figure 33.13 The Shunt Motor
duces the rotative speed required to produce the required back e.m.f. which,
consequently, reduces the effective speed of the motor.
The process has a limited effective range, since with a very weak field the motor will tend to be unstable with a high load.
There is also a top limit to the field due to saturation. Any one motor may have a 2-to-1 up to 4-to 1 effective range of speed
by field control. Wider speed ranges require compensating windings and elaborate controls.
33.9.2 Shunt Motor Speed Characteristics

When once adjusted for a particular speed and when holding the same field adjustment, the shunt motor is a relatively
Va − I a R a
constant speed motor over its full normal load range. This follows from ω = where, the field flux f is held
kφ
nearly constant. The only variable then is Ia, the armature circuit current. If the
current increases due to an increasing load, the IaRa terms increases linearly.
The effect is that w will drop a small amount over the normal load range (see
Shunt Figure 33.14).
Speed
33.9.3 Shunt Motor Torque Characteristics

Compound
The d.c. shunt motor has the field connected across the line. The field is
independent of the armature current and any changes in the load. Any change
Series in armature current changes the torque of the motor. When the load on the
motor increases the motor slows down and the counter e.m.f. is reduced,
O Input current allowing a greater armature current to flow and, thus, producing a larger
torque. This larger torque is needed because of the increased load on the
Figure 33.14 Speed Characteristics motor.
When the load on the
motor is decreased, there is a corresponding increase in motor speed and
the counter e.m.f.; the armature current decreases and so does the torque.
A starting resistance is needed for a shunt motor as a means of limit-
ing the armature current. This limitation of armature current is needed TFL
until the required counter e.m.f. is built up by the speed of the motor. In
this motor, the starting current is small, and the starting torque is small Compound
because of the added resistance in series with the armature. The torque Shunt
Torque
characteristic curve is, therefore, represented by a straight line as shown Series
in Figure 33.15.
33.9.4 Series Motors

A series motor is internally connected with the main field coils in series IFL
with the armature circuit. This means that all armature circuit current passes 0 Input current
through the fields. The field coils are then designed and built with relatively
few turns of a relatively large cross-section. The few field coil turns supply Figure 33.15 Torque Characteristic
the needed ampere turns with
the heavy armature circuit current. The large cross-section results in low
resistance and, therefore, low wattage field losses even with high current.
In a series motor, as illustrated in Figure 33.16, the field flux is entirely
dependent on the armature current. When operating below the knee of the
saturation curve, the field magnetic flux is then directly proportional to the
d.c. armature current.
Figure 33.l6 The Series Motor
33.9.5 Series Motor Speed Characteristics

In a series motor the speed versus back e.m.f. relations are modified
(33.7)
In the series case, the armature circuit has the added resistance of the series fields, which increases the voltage drop due to
resistance and reduces the back e.m.f. by that amount. The field flux is now proportional to the fixed number of turns in the
field and the particular saturation curve, represented as k , and the field excitation current, which is now Ia. k is then not
constant over the full range of operation.
The speed of the motor is still directly proportional to the counter e.m.f. although the counter e.m.f. numerator term,
Ia(Ra + Rsc), is slightly different. The speed is still inversely proportional to the denominator term, but now the denomina-
tor has an Ia factor. Armature current la is a direct multiplier to the entire denominator and, thus, the la effect is far larger in
the denominator. Since the flux f is now directly related to Ia, an increase in Ia must inversely reduce S. The speed curve
closely resembles a hyperbola, as represented in Figure 33.16.
The high speed at small values of current indicates that this type of motor must not be run on very light loads and, invari-
ably, such motors are permanently coupled to their loads.
D.c. Motors 647
33.9.6 Series Motor Torque Characteristics

Torque T varies as Ia (T ∝ Ia). Since the armature and field currents are the same current, I, in a series machine then T ∝ fI
over a limited range, before magnetic saturation of the magnetic circuit of the motor is reached (i.e., the linear portion of
the B-H curve for the yoke, pole, air gap, brushes, and armature in series). Thus,
f ∝ I and T ∝ I 2
After magnetic saturation, f almost becomes a constant and T ∝ I. This is shown in Figure 33.15. The torque increases
nearly parabolically and then blends into a straight linear increase.
33.9.7 Compound Motors

When a d.c. motor has both a shunt and a series field, it is known as a compound motor, as shown in Figure 33.17. If
the motor is connected in such a way that the series field aids the shunt field, it is known as a cumulative compound
motor. When the series field is connected to oppose the shunt field, it is
then a differential compound motor. The terms are identical to those used in
identifying d.c. generators.
The compound motor acts with a combination of the characteristics of
shunt and series motors. The larger the effect of the series field, the more
the characteristics resemble those of a series motor. Although any range of
performance characteristics is available, only certain regions of the potential
range are normally used.
The cumulative compound motor develops a high torque to match an in-
crease in the torque load as does a series motor. However, the cumulative
compound motor has a definite and controllable no-load speed, so that there is Figure 33.17 The Compound Motor
no run away problem. This makes the type particularly adaptable to uses requiring sudden application of heavy load, such
as in rolling mill drives. A particular advantage under sudden but short duration heavy load is that when the motor drops in
rotative speed as it is loaded, it gives up a portion of its kinetic energy to drive the load. If the speed were to be held more
closely, the transient would have to be met by high peak currents from the supply line.
Cranes, hoists, and elevators use cumulative compound motors since they can smoothly start a heavy load and yet not
over speed when unloaded. The series field is frequently cut out of the circuit automatically when the hoist is up to speed.
The steady state situation is then handled as if by a shunt motor. A further advantage is the ability to use the motor as an
adjustable brake by using it as a generator with a descending load, since it has the shunt field available.
The differential compound motor is not too widely used, but it does have some special characteristics that lend it to some special
services. When the series field opposition effect is adjusted so that the loss of flux effect just cancels the loss of speed of a shunt
motor when loaded, a substantially constant speed results. There are two major performance problems, however, in a differential
compound motor that severely limit its use: (1) when set for a flat or even rising speed with load characteristic, the motor will tend
to run away or severely increase its speed with a high load; and (2) this same effect of the series field tending to take over will cause
a differential compound motor to start in the opposite direction of that desired unless the starting current is held down. Usually, the
series field is cut out by special switching during starting. The differential compound motor is a special purpose machine.
33.9.8 Compound Motor Speed Characteristics

The speed characteristics of cumulative compound motors can be Differential
developed in the following way compound
Motor speed (r.p.m. or rad /s)
Va − I a ( R a + R sc )
S = (33.8)
kφsh + kk ′I n
Here, the numerator is the same as in the series motor, and the
Shunt
denominator is the sum of the series and shunt cases.
Va − I a ( R a + R sc ) Cumulative
For the differential compound motor S = (33.9) compound
kφsh + kk ′I a
Series
These equations differ only in the sign (+ or –) in the denominator. Rated load
It can be seen that if Ia becomes large enough, the second term in the current
denominator will overcome the first term. In this case, there is no Armature current Ia (A)
effective field and full short-circuit current will flow. As the kk´1a term
increases, the total effective flux becomes less and less and the motor Figure 33.18 Speed Characteristic of
accelerates dangerously. This has been illustrated in Figure 33.18. Compound Generator
33.9.9 Compound Motor Torque

Characteristics
Regardless of compounding, the current in the shunt field circuit
and the field flux during starting and running is essentially constant.
The current in the series field is a function of the load current drawn
N-
by the armature.
Starting with a flux equal to the shunt field flux at no load and
one that increases with armature current, the cumulative com-
pound motor produces a torque curve that is always higher than
that of the shunt motor for the same armature current, as shown in
Figure 33.19.
For the differential compound motor starting with a flux equal
to the shunt field flux at no load, any value of armature current
will produce a series field m.m.f. that reduces the total air gap
flux and hence the torque. Thus, the differential compound mo-
tor produces a torque curve that is less than that of the shunt
motor.
Figure 33.19 Comparison of Torque-load
Characteristics for d.c. Motors
33.10 RELATION BETWEEN TORQUE AND
SPEED OF A MOTOR
Since torque is defined as a force tending to produce rotation, increasing the field flux would tend to increase the torque
and (possibly) the speed (T = kfIa N-m).
On the other hand, increasing the flux would reduce the speed
Va − ( I a R a + Brush Drop)
S =
Kφ
There is no inconsistency and this is explained.

What happens when the field flux is reduced?
1. The field flux of a shunt motor is reduced by decreasing the field current.
2. The counter e.m.f. drops instantly.
3. The speed remains constant as a result of the inertia of large and heavy armature.
4. The decrease in Ec causes an increase in armature current.
5. A small reduction in field flux produces a large increase in the armature current.
6. The small decrease in flux is more than counterbalanced by a large increase in the armature current.
7. The torque increases more than the flux was reduced.
8. This increase in torque produces a corresponding increase in the speed.
To summarize, decreasing field current (and field flux) results in an

Torque increase in the speed.
Speed (r.p.m.)
33.10.1 Torque Versus Speed

Shunt
The torque-speed characteristics of these motors are illustrated in
Compound Light Figure 33.20.
The speed of the shunt motors does not change to a great extent
as the torque increases. However, the speed of the series motor drops
Heavy considerably as the amount of the required torque is increased. The
Series
compound motor has characteristics that lie between those of the
series motor and the shunt motor. A heavily compounded motor that
acts like a series motor is one that has more series turns than it has
Figure 33.20 Torque Versus Speed shunt turns.
D.c. Motors 649
Example 33.10
A motor develops a torque of 150 N-m and is subjected to 10 per cent reduction in field flux, which produces a 50 per cent
increase in the armature current. Find the new torque produced as a result of this change in field flux.
Solution:
f Ia T
Original condition 1.0 1.0 150 N-m
New condition 0.9 1.5 ?
T = kf Ia
Using the ratio method, the new torque is the product of two new ratio changes.
0.9 f 1.5I a
T = 150 = 202.5 N-m
1.0 f 1.5I a
Example 33.11
A d.c. shunt motor having an armature resistance of 0.25 W and a brush contact voltage drop (BD) of 3 V receives an
applied voltage across its armature terminals of 120 V. Calculate the armature current when
1. The speed produces a counter e.m.f. of 110 V at a given load
2. The speed drops (due to application of additional load) and the counter e.m.f. is 105 V.
3. Compute the percentage of change in counter e.m.f. and in armature current.
Solution:
V − ( E c + Brush Drop) 120 − (110 + 3)
1. Ia = =
Ra 0.25
= 28 A
120 − (105 + 3)
2. At increased load, Ia =
0.25
= 48 A
110 − 105
3. dEc = , 100 = 4.54 per cent
110
28 − 48
dI a = , 100 = 71.4 per cent
28
Note: 1. A small increase in counter e.m.f. (4.54 per cent) has resulted in a much larger increase in armature current
(71.4 per cent).
2. Small changes in motor speed and counter e.m.f. are accompanied by correspondingly large changes in the
motor current.
3. In some types of servomotor transducer devices, the motor current is used as an indication of motor load and
motor speed.
Example 33.12
The shaft torque of a d.c. motor driving a 100 V d.c. shunt-wound generator is 2.5 N-m. The armature current of the
generator is 1.6 A at this value of torque. If the shunt field regulator is adjusted so that the flux is reduced by 15 per cent,
the torque increases to 35 N-m. Determine the armature current at this new value of torque.
Solution:
T1 = k f1Ia1
T2 = k f2Ia2
Hence,
T1 φ1 I a1 φ1 I a1 T2
= and Ia 2 =
T2 φ 2 I a 2 φ 2T1
16 × 35
= = 26.35 A
0.85 × 2.5
Example 33.13
The armature of a d.c. machine has a resistance of 0.25 W and is connected to a 300 V supply. Calculate the e.m.f. generated
when it is running
1. As a generator giving 100 A.
2. As a motor taking 80 A.
Solution:
1. As a generator
E = V + Ia Ra
= 300 + (100) (0.25) = 325 V
2. As a motor
E = V – Ia Ra
= 300 – (80) (0.25) = 280 V
Example 33.14
An 8-pole d.c. motor has a wave wound armature with 900 conductors. The useful flux per pole is 25 mWb. Determine the
torque exerted when a current of 30 A flows in each armature conductor.
Solution:
pφ ZI a
T = N-m
πc
–3
p = 4, c = 2, f = 2.5 × 10 Wb, Z = 900, Ia = 30
(4)(25 × 10 −3 )(900)(30)
T =
π (2)
= 42.91 N-m
Example 33.15
A 200 V d.c. shunt-wound motor has an armature resistance of 0.4 W and at a certain load has an armature current of 30
A and runs at 1350 r.p.m. If the load on the shaft of the motor is increased so that the armature current increases to 45 A,
determine the speed of the motor assuming that the flux remains constant.
Solution:
E∝f n applies to both generators and motors.
For a motor E = V – IaRa
Hence,
E1 = 200 – (30 × 0.4) = 188 V
and
E2 = 200 – (45 × 0.4) = 182 V
E1 φ1n1
=
E2 φ 2 n2
Since the flux is constant, f1 = f2
1350
188 60 22.5 × 182
Hence, = and n2 = = 21.78 rev/sec
182 n2 188
The speed of the motor = (21.78 × 60) = 1307 r.p.m.
Example 33.16
A 4-pole 440 V d.c. motor takes an armature current of 50 A. The resistance of the armature circuit is 0.3 W. The armature
has a wave winding with 850 conductors and the useful flux per pole is 0.025 Wb. Calculate the speed of the motor. If the
machine is connected across 220 V supply calculate the new approximate speed. It is to be assumed that the new flux is
0.02 Wb.
D.c. Motors 651
Solution:
The generated e.m.f. for a motor
E = V − I a Ra
E = 440 − ( 50 × 0.3 ) = 425 V
2 Znp φ  850 
E = = 2  × n × 2 × 0.025
a  2 
n = 10 r.p.s. = 600 r.p.m.
V
n= φ
k
n1 V1φ 2 440 × 0.02
= =
n2 V2φ1 220 × 0.025
n1
= 1.6
n2
n1 10
= = 6.25 r.p.ss . = 375 r.p.m.
n2 1.6
Example 33.17
A 6-pole 480 V d.c. motor takes an armature current of 110 A. The lap-wound armature has 864 conductors. Calculate (1) the
speed and (2) the gross torque developed in the armature. Assume flux per pole to be 0.05 Wb and armature resistance as 0.2 W.
Solution:
1. E = 480 – 110 × 0.2 = 458 V
458 = (2 × 864/6) × n × 3 × 0.05 n → r.p.s.
n = 10.6 r.p.s. = 636 r.p.m.
2. Mechanical power developed
Pm = 458 × 110 = 50380 Watts
If T is gross torque in N-m
2p nT = 50380
50380
T = = 756 N-m
2π n
33.11 DIRECT-CURRENT, MOTOR STARTING PROBLEMS

It is desirable to keep the armature circuit resistance of a d.c. motor as low as it reasonably can be. Under normal operating
conditions, this low resistance is entirely beneficial. However, during starting and acceleration, excessive current would
flow if the full line voltage were placed across the armature circuit. In a complete circuit, current equals voltage divided
by resistance I = E/R. In a normal operation, the current is adjusted by the presence of the back e.m.f. Thus, the normal
current is limited by the fact that the effective voltage across the low armature resistance is a self-adjusting result of
I = (Vp – Vc)/Ra. Since the Ec factor is not available at the start, the Ra must be increased by added resistance or the Vl must
be reduced in some fashion.
In the usual industrial situation, the line voltage is fixed or nearly so. Such fluctuations as may take place are due to the
source characteristics and the total line voltage drops between the source and the motor. It is usually desirable to limit the
maximum starting current to 125 to 150 per cent of the normal running current. Occasionally, a value of 200 per cent or
more may be used under special conditions. The desired conditions can be equated by the following modifications.
V1 − E c
Ir × M = (33.10)
Ra + Rs
The full-load rated motor current, Ir times an agreed upon multiplying factor for the allowed starting current M equals the
line voltage Vl minus the counter voltage (if there is one) divided by the total armature circuit resistance Ra plus the needed
starting resistance Rs. The total armature circuit resistance will include all series windings—such as a series field—unless
it is specially shorted out, as would be done in a differential compound motor.
Vl − E c
Rs = Ra (33.11)
Ir M
33.12 D.c. STARTING SWITCH

Usually the motor is allowed to accelerate until the high starting current drops down to the normally rated current by the
effect of a partial counter voltage. Then the resistance is reduced until the desired maximum current is again reached,
whereupon further acceleration takes place.
Figure 33.21 shows a simplified schematic diagram of the current-limiting parts of a typical starting switch. The actuat-
ing mechanisms are not shown.
When the current has dropped from Ir × M to a value
Tapped current to or near Ir, which may be called Il, there is some counter
limiting resistance voltage. This is shown as
Ec=Vl – Il(Ra+Rs) (33.12)
The intermediate speeds that are reached when the current
Series decays to the Il arbitrary lower limit is approximated as
field
Control
Ec
arm
S = S rated × or (33.13)
Armature El − ( I l × R a )
d.c.
supply Ec
ω = ω rated × (33.14)
Figure 33.21 Simplified Starting Switch El − ( I l × R a )
These formulas are seen to be the rated angular velocity
multiplied by the ratio of the counter or back e.m.f., divided by a term that is the normal operating counter voltage. This
approximation is invalid for currents that are greatly different from the rated Il motor with a series field.
Example 33.18
A d.c. motor is rated at line conditions of 230 V and 27.5 A at normal full load. It turns at 1750 r.p.m. (183.3 rad/sec) under
rated conditions. It has a total armature circuit resistance of 0.803 W, and it is desired to hold its maximum starting current
to 150 per cent of the normal full-load current.
Determine
1. The current that would flow if there were no added starting resistance.
2. A total starting resistance to meet specified conditions.
3. The rotational speed that may be expected, when the motor has accelerated sufficiently to reduce the line current to the
normal rated value.
4. Intermediate values of starting resistances that will allow 150 per cent of rated current to flow for further acceleration
and the speeds reached when the current decays to 100 per cent.
Solution:
1. There is no added resistance and no back e.m.f.:
I= E/R = 230/0.803 =286.4 A
This current is obviously excessive and high currents such as this are the reason why starting resistances are used. It is
(286.4/27.5) × 100 = 1041 per cent of the specified current or 1041/150 = 6.94 times the desired starting current, which is in
itself an overload.
V − Ec
Rs = l − Ra
2. Ir M
230 − 0
= − 0.803 = 4.77 Ω = R s total
27.5 × 1.5
In a real sense high accuracy is not needed and the resistance would be satisfactory if between 4.5 and 5.0 W.
D.c. Motors 653
3. First determine counter voltage at rated current with Rs tot in the armature circuit
E c = Vl − I l ( Ra + R s tot )
230 – 27.5(0.803 + 4.77) = 76.7V = Ecl
Ec
Now, S = 5rated
El − ( I l × R a )
76.7
1750 = 645.5 r.p.m. = S1
230 − (27.5 × 0.803)
4. Since a back e.m.f. and a partial speed now exist, the starting resistance is now reduced so that 150 per cent of rated
current again flows and the process is repeated.
230 − 767
− 0.803 = 2.91 Ω = R s 2
2751.5
The starting resistance is then reduced from 4.77 W to 2.91 W at the second point on the starter.
The second r.p.m. is now determined .
230 − 27.5 ( 0.803 + 2.91 ) = 127.9 V = Ec 2
127.9
and 1750 × = 1076 r.p.m. = S2
230 − (27 .5 × 0.803)
The motor increases from 645.5 up to 1076 r.p.m.
Repeating the process as many times as necessary, we find steps 3, 4 and 5.
Rs3 = 1.67 W S3 = 1363 W
Rs4 = 0.845 W S4 = 1554 W
Rs5 = 0.335 W S5 = 1682 W
An Rs6, resistance would be –0.0708 W. The minus value indicates that no additional resistive steps are needed to avoid
a current of over 150 per cent of the rated value once a velocity of 1682 r.p.m. is reached. The sixth stage of the starting
sequence puts the motor directly across the line with safety.
230 − 198
Note: EC5 = 199.8 V, = 37.6 A
0.803
27.5′ 1.5 = 41.25 A
37.6 A < 41.25 A }
The sixth step is not required
Example 33.19
A 120 V d.c. shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 W and a brush volt drop of 2 V. The rated full load armature
current is 75 A. Calculate the current at the instant of starting and the percentage of load current.
Solution:
V − BD 120 − 2
I st = a =
Ra 0.2
= 590 A (counter e.m.f. is zero)
590
Percentage of full load = × 100 = 786 per cent
75
Note: The starting current, in this case, is approximately 8 times as great as the rated full-load armature current, due to lack
of counter e.m.f. at the instant of starting.
Example 33.20
Calculate the various steps (taps) of starting resistance to limit the current in the motor in Example 33.18 to
1. 150 per cent rated load at the instant of starting.
2. A counter e.m.f. that is 25 per cent of the armature voltage Va at 150 per cent rated load.
3. A counter e.m.f. that is 50 per cent of the armature voltage at 150 per cent rated load.
4. Find the e.m.f. at full load without starting resistance.
Solution:
1. At starting, Ec is zero
V − Brush Drop 120 − 2
Rs = a Ra = 0.2 = 1.05 − 0.2
Ia 1.5′ 75
= 0.85 Ω
2. R = 120 − ( E c + Brush Drop) Ra = 20 − 30 − 2 0.2
s
Ia 1.5′ 75
= 0.582 Ω
120 − (60 + 2)
3. R s = 0.2 = 0.516 − 0.2 = 0.316 Ω
1.5′75
4. Ec = Va − ( I a Ra + BD ) = 120 −  ( 75 × 0.2 ) + 2  = 103 V
A progressively decreasing value of motor starting resistance is required as
the motor develops an increased c.e.m.f. owing to acceleration. This is the
principle of the armature resistance motor starter.
The manner in which a starter is used in conjunction with the three
basic types of d.c. dynamos, used as motors, is shown in Figure 33.22.
The techniques shown here for starting a motor are schematic dia-
grams only. Commercial forms of manual and automatic starters and
controllers differ somewhat from these.
The shunt and compound motors are started with full excitation (i.e.,
the full line voltage is impressed across the field circuit) in order to de-
velop maximum torque (T = kf Ia). In all the three types, the armature
starting current is limited by high-power series connected variable starting
resistor. In commercial practice, the initial inrush of armature current is
generally limited to a higher value than the full-load current to develop
greater starting torque, particularly in the case of large motors that have
great inertia and that come up to speed slowly.
With the starting arm at position 1 in Figure 33.22 (a), the maxi-
mum series resistance will limit the armature current on starting to about
150 per cent of its rated value. As the motor slowly picks up speed, the ar-
mature develops c.e.m.f. and the armature current drops to approximately
full load. If the starting arm were left at position 1, the armature current
would drop somewhat and the speed would stabilize at a value well below
the rated speed. In order to accelerate the motor armature once more, it
is necessary to move the arm to position 2. Again, there is an inrush of
armature current and the motor rises in speed. This process is continued
until the motor armature attains its rated speed, without the need for a
series armature resistance and where the c.e.m.f. at that speed is sufficient
to limit the armature current.
All three types—if started with a mechanical load coupled to the
armature—will accelerate more slowly than if started without load.
The series motor, particularly, should never be started without load
coupled to its armature. The shunt and compound motors, on the oth-
er hand, may be started with or without mechanical load.
Figure 33.22 Starter Connections for Shunt, Manual starters require some experience in moving the contact arm
Series, and Compound Motors through the various steps of resistance to accelerate the motor to rated
in Schematic Form (a) Shunt speed without producing excessive armature current. Automatic starters
Motor Starter (Schematic Form) are designed electrically to accelerate the motor to each resistance step,
(b) Series Motor Starter (Sche- regardless of the degree of motor loading, without damage to the motor.
matic Form), Compund Motor Note: Except in the very small sizes, a d.c. motor always needs some
Starter (Schematic Form) sort of starting device and frequently needs a speed control.
D.c. Motors 655
33.13 D.c. MOTOR REVERSING

The direction of rotation of any d.c. motor depends upon the magnetic polarity of its main fields and the direction of the
conventional current that flows in the armature windings that are immersed in the fields. The resultant direction is then in
accordance with the left-hand rule of motor action. The left hand rule relationship is met under all the field poles in any motor.
The methods of winding the armature all accomplish the same thing in a motor: the current is directed oppositely under
both north and south poles; so each region pulls in the same direction. When the flux—as shown by the index finger—flows
inward to the armature, as under a north pole, the current must go parallel to the assumed shaft direction. If an adjacent and,
therefore, south pole is simulated, the flux points out from the shaft. Then, if the hand is further rotated so that the current is
also opposite to its original relationship, the thumb (which represents motion) is pointed in the original direction.
All this means that rotational direction is determined by four factors:
1. The direction of the field coil winding, which is built in.
2. The connection polarity of the whole field, which may be changed or switched.
3. The direction of the armature coil winding, which is also built in.
4. The connection polarity of the brush group, which is the fixed access point to the armature winding and which may be
changed or switched.
Factors (2) and (4) are accessible modifications and may be manipulated. Conversely, factors (1) and (3) are fixed by
the construction of the unit and cannot realistically be changed.
If the overall terminal polarities of a d.c. motor are changed, the current direction of both the armature and the field are
changed. Since this, in effect, does the same thing as moving from one pole to another locally, the rotating torque direction
is not changed. The exception to this is a permanent magnet field motor where only the armature has coil windings. In this
case, reversal can be produced only by reversing the line connections. A reversal is accomplished by changing the polarity
of either the armature or the field, but not by changing both (see Figure 33.23).
Figure 33.23 Direct Current Motor Reversing (a) Shunt Motor Reversing
(b) Series Motor Reversing (c) Compund Motor Reversing
33.13.1 D.c., Motor Reversing Circuit Connections

In a shunt motor, the field normally has much less current than the armature, and so it would seem that the field is the logical place
to switch. This is not usually the best practice since the field is a highly inductive circuit. Thus, if any switching is performed
before the field current has fully decayed the switch points will arc viciously or even dangerously in large sizes. Furthermore,
since any switching is usually the most unreliable part of an electric circuit, it is unwise to switch where the basic action desired
contributes to further unreliability. Finally, upon failure of a field reverse switch contact, the next start will take place with little
or no field, which causes high-speed run away. For these reasons, the armature circuit is usually the reversed part.
In a series motor as illustrated in Figure 33.23 (b), it does not make much difference since the series coil is much less inductive
with its fewer winding turns. The field also has the same current as the armature. A compound motor shown in Figure 33.23 (c)
must have both fields changed if field reversing is used, so armature switching is less complex. If only one field were reversed,
a compound motor would be changed from cumulative to differential, which changes the whole character of the motor.
S UM M A RY
1. The d.c. generator and the d.c. motor are essentially the 12. Motors can also be grouped into three power ratings.
same device. 13. There are three types of motors: series, shunt, and
2. Since the generated e.m.f. in a motor is in opposition to compound.
the applied voltage, it is referred to as the back e.m.f. or 14. The two principle characteristics of a motor are the
counter e.m.f. torque/armature current and the speed/armature current.
3. Any rotary power producing device is a producer of 15. A shunt motor is a constant speed motor over its full
continually rotating torque. normal load range.
4. T = BIa IZ ( per cent covered) d N-m. 16. The torque characteristic of a shunt motor is represent-
5. Since all the prime mover power is converted to friction ed by a straight line.
caused by heat, in large sizes constant cooling is required. 17. The series motor must not be run on very light loads
6. In small sizes, a two-scale prony brake may be used. and invariably such motors are coupled to their loads.
7. When a dynamometer is absorbing torque, its field tends 18. The torque of series motors increases nearly paraboli-
to be pulled around equally by the motor action that exists. cally and then blends into a straight linear increase.
8. It is not necessary to measure the electrical quantities in 19. The compound motor acts with a combination of the
the dynamometer in order to measure the torque or power. characteristics of series and shunt motors.
9. The bulk of energy produced by a dynamometer is dis- 20. A progressively decreasing value of the motor start-
sipated in a resistive load bank which is remotely located. ing resistance is required as the motor develops an in-
10. The magnitude of back e.m.f. is a linear function of creased c.e.m.f. conforming to acceleration.
rotating speed. 21. In all three types of motor, the armature starting current
11. Electric motors can be broadly classified by the power is limited by a high-powered series-connected variable
source needed to operate them. starting resistance.
1. Torque on a single loop of wire in a magnetic field is 5. A d.c. motor draws more current with a mechanical
(a) Constant load coupled to its shaft because
(b) The same as the field flux (a) Counter e.m.f. is reduced with speed
(c) The turning force (b) Voltage differential decreases
(d) Never at a maximum value (c) Applied voltage decreases
2. If another loop of wire is added to make a double-loop (d) Torque depends on the magnetic strength
armature 6. The speed of a d.c. motor may be reduced below its rated
(a) The torque becomes steadier speed without losing torque by reducing the voltage at the
(b) The torque becomes less smooth (a) Motor (b) Series field
(c) The magnetic field decreases in value (c) Armature (d) Armature and field
(d) Commutator segments must be reduced 7. Advantages of d.c. motors are
3. D.C. motors are rated in (a) Simplicity in construction
(a) Voltage, current, frequency and speed (b) Speed control above and below base speed
(b) Voltage, current and horse power (c) Excellent torque and speed
(c) Voltage, current, speed and torque (d) Horse power for size
(d) Voltage, current, speed and horse power 8. The direction of rotation of a compound interpole mo-
4. The generator effect in a motor produces a tor may be reversed by reversing the direction of cur-
(a) High power factor rent flow through the
(b) Counter electromotive force (a) Armature
(c) High resistance (b) Armature and field circuit
(d) Reduced line voltage (c) Armature, interpole and series field
(d) Shunt field
D.c. Motors 657
9. For a series motor 15. The speed of a d.c. shunt motor

(a) The field is operated below saturation (a) Increases with an increase in load
(b) An increase in both the armature current and the load (b) Decreases with an increase in applied voltage
current because of an increase in load (c) Decreases if the field strength is increased
(c) The reduction in speed due to an increase in load is (d) Decreases less than in a series motor of the same hp for the
greater than that in the shunt motor same increase in load
(d) All of these 16. As load is applied to a d.c. motor the
10. Brushes of a d.c. motor ride on (a) Field current decreases
(a) Commutator (b) Armature (b) Field voltage increases
(c) Shaft (d) Commutating pole (c) Armature current decreases
11. The twisting effect of a motor is called (d) Armature voltage increases
(a) Turning power (b) Horse power 17. The load requirements of a particular d.c. motor instal-
(c) Torque (d) Brake horsepower lation require extremely high starting torque. If speed
12. The twisting effect of a d.c. motor is produced primarily by regulation is not important, use a
(a) The armature (a) Series motor
(b) A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field (b) Differential compound motor
(c) The rotor (c) Shunt motor
(d) Torque in the field coils. (d) Cumulative compound motor
13. A d.c. motor is required to maintain the same speed at 18. As a load is applied to a cumulative compound-wound
full load as at no load. d.c. motor its
This type of operation can be obtained by using a (a) Speed decreases
(a) Series motor (b) Counter e.m.f. decreases
(b) Cumulative compound motor (c) Torque decreases
(c) Shunt motor (d) Series field current decreases
(d) Differential compound motor
14. As a load is applied to a d.c. shunt motor the
(a) Field current increases
(b) Counter e.m.f. increases
(c) Armature current increases
(d) Torque developed decreases
ANSWERS (MCQ)
l. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (a).
8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a) ll. (c) 12. (a) 13. (c)
1. Explain the different parts of a d.c. motor. 10. How does a prony brake measure torque?
2. How does a d.c. motor work? 11. What is the mechanism of torque measurement with a
3. Write short notes on the following: dynamometer?
(a) Back e.m.f. (b) Gross torque (c) Shaft torque 12. What is the back e.m.f. or counter voltage?
4. Explain the methods employed to achieve sparkless 13. How is back e.m.f. beneficial?
commutation in an a.c. motor. 14. What is the effective voltage across a d.c. motor armature?
5. What are the salient features and fields of application 15. What is the meaning of armature power?
of different types of d.c. motors? 16. Is electrical power related to mechanical power?
6. Why should a series motor never be run on no load? 17. What is meant by equilibrium motor speed?
7. A motor is running at 950 r.p.m. and the torque exerted 18. What is meant by the term shunt motor?
at the pulley is 150 N-m. What is the horse power being 19. What is the dominant speed characteristic of a shunt
transmitted? motor?
8. What is torque? 20. What relationship exists between speed and load torque
9. What is the source of torque force in a d.c. motor? in a series motor?
21. What is meant by a compound motor? 30. A d.c. shunt motor is rotating at 267.0 rad/sec and de-
22. What conditions require the use of a compound motor? veloping 57.2 N-m of torque. How many Watts of me-
23. What is one major problem in d.c. motor starting? chanical power are developed?
24. How is a d.c. motor reversed? 31. A 125 V d.c. motor for an electric automobile has an
armature circuit resistance of 0.042 W. It is operating
25. If the power transmitted by the shaft of a motor is
at a steady speed and drawing 135A armature current.
50 hp, the speed being 480 r.p.m., what is the torque?
What is the back e.m.f.?
26. A 100 V shunt motor is taking a current of 220 A. The
32. A shunt motor develops a torque of 250 N-m at rated
armature resistance is 0.015 W and shunt field resis-
load. When it is subjected to a 15 per cent decrease in
tance is 20 W. Calculate the back e.m.f. and power
field flux, the armature current increases by 40 per cent.
spent in turning the armature.
Calculate the new torque produced as a result of the
27. A series motor takes 40 A at 220 V and runs at 800 r.p.m. change in field flux.
The armature resistance is 0.2 W, series field resistance
33. A 220 V shunt motor develops a torque 54 N-m at an
0.1 W, iron and friction losses l/2 kW. Calculate (a)
armature current of 10 A. Find the torque when
total torque, (b) shaft torque and (c) bhp.
(a) the armature current is 15 A
28. Derive the standard torque equation of a d.c. motor
from first principles. (b) the armature current is 20 A
29. Draw the speed load characteristics of series, shunt and (c) the armature current is 5 A
cumulatively compounded motors.
ANSWERS (CQ)
7. 153.8 hp 30. 15.3 kW
25. 740 N-m 31. 119 V
26. 96.8 V; 20.807 W 32. 297.5 N-m
27. 99.3 N-m; 93.2 N-m; 10.48 hp; 33. 81 N-m; 108 N-m; 27 N-m
Efficiency of Direct
Current Machinery
34
OBJECTIVES

 The fixed and variable losses in electric
machines (d.c.)
Relationships between losses

Efficiency of electric machines (d.c.)

 Simple problems on the above
Efficiency
34.1 INTRODUCTION
The efficiency of any device or process is simply a ratio of its useful output to its gross input. The output and input must
be measured in the same units. Since the operation of any device requires energy in order to produce its desired output and
furthermore, since the amount of energy lost in a process is inversely related to its efficiency, the shortage (worldwide) of
energy makes this subject extremely important.
Forces must move through distances within the desired times in order to perform work at the desired rates. However,
when work is performed, energy must be consumed since work and energy are synonymous. Force times distance is work
or energy. Power brings in a time relation. The rate of performing work determines the rate of the use of energy. The rate of
doing work depends upon the rate of consumption of energy times the efficiency of the process. If a process is 50 per cent
efficient, it then takes twice as much energy to perform the process than if it were 100 per cent efficient. The difference is
lost and mostly unrecoverable heat and a part, at least, is difficult-to-recover heat.
A motor or a generator has a physical size that is directly related to the amount of heat that it has to dissipate in opera-
tion. This heat dissipation, of course, depends on the losses within the machine. Since the size of a machine of any sort is
a major factor in its weight and cost, the smallest machine that will perform a given task usually has an advantage in the
cost. The smaller machine may be more efficiently loaded and, if so, it will use less energy.
34.2 BASIC EFFICIENCY RELATIONSHIPS

The efficiency of any machine, such as a motor or generator, is then simply its output power divided by its input power
when they are in the same units. The output is the input minus the various accumulated losses. Similarly, the input is the
output plus the same losses. For d.c. motors and generators, these losses turn out to be regular and predictable. Some losses
can be nearly eliminated. By careful design, all of them can be reduced. Efficiency formulas are
output power
Efficiency = × 100 per cent = η per cent (34.1)
input power
(η is the lower case Greek letter eta)

output = input − Σ losses (34.2)
input = ouput + Σ losses (34.3)
(∑ is the Greek upper case sigma, which is used to mean the summation of)
input − Σ losses
input
output
output + Σ losses
Example 34.1
A 14.92 kW motor operating on 125 V takes 144 A when operated at rated conditions. Determine (1) the losses involved
and (2) efficiency.
Solution:
1. input power = 125 × 144 = 18000 W or 18.0 kW
Input = output + ∑ losses or Out put − input = ∑ losses
18.0 − 14.92 = 3.08 kW losses
2. Efficiency may be determined in a number of ways

output 14.92
η = × 100 per cent = × 100 = 82.9 per cent
input 18.00
input − Σ losses 18.00 − 3.08
input 18.00
output 14.92
output + Σ losses 14.92 + 3.08
34.3 TYPES OF LOSSES IN D.C. MACHINES

With a generator, the difference between mechanical power input and electrical power output is composed of a family of losses.
The mechanical power input is normally measured and stated in horse power and is converted to Watts or kilowatts. TS/5252.1
= horse power and the equivalent of horse power × 0.74570 = kilowatts. The most widely used equivalent is 0.746 = kw.
34.3.1 Rotational Losses

Following Figure 34.1 on a step by step basis, the mechanical input power is first reduced by the rotational losses.
In other words, any power required to turn the armature is a direct subtraction from the input power. Therefore, the
rotational power is not available for the development of electrical power. Rotational losses are a summary of bearing
friction, brush mechanical friction, cooling fan power, windage loss of armature as a whole and magnetic circuit drag
loss.
Since the armature rotates within the magnetic field, the magnetic flux path in the armature laminations is required to
change continually. Any one portion of the armature must charge and discharge cyclically. The resultant hysteresis losses
show in the form of consumption of mechanical rotation power. There is yet another magnetic-related loss called eddy
current loss. This loss occurs because any conductor that moves in a magnetic field has a voltage generated within it. Since
the laminations themselves are conductive, they have internal voltages that circulate in whatever path that is available.
These losses would be very substantial without a laminated structure and would cause much heating in the core. Even with
laminations, they are not entirely negligible, but they are small.
All these losses can be isolated and measured, but ordinarily they are taken as a whole, where
Prot = IaVa (34.6)
The voltage and current are taken when running at no load.
Note: If there is no field of a particular type, its loss type is not applied; if no series field then no series field loss, etc.
34.3.2. Winding Resistance Losses

The electrical power losses are mostly due to the various resistances that are present in the various parts of the windings.
Since the armature windings are undergoing reversals of polarity and current, they have some inductive effect.
The various resistances may be summarized as Ra. Since all these windings are subject to the same current, the losses are
P a = I a 2 ×R a (34.7)
Efficiency of Direct Current Machinery 661
Figure 34.1 Generator Losses, Direct Current
These losses vary as the load current squared and are thus known as variable losses. I a 2 R a is the largest single loss in the whole
machine. After the rotational losses and all the armature circuit losses are subtracted, the series circuit output power remains.
34.3.3 Shunt Field Loss

The final generator loss is the winding loss in the shunt field. This is normally considered as a fixed loss, since for any
particular excitation adjustment of the shunt field rheostat, it is fixed if the line voltage is fixed. When the shunt field circuit
resistance is known,
Psh = Ish2 Rsh (34.8)
If the field circuit voltage is known, the loss is
Psh = Vsh × Ish (34.9)
In a long-shunt compound generator, Vsh = Vl.
In a short shunt situation, the Vsh voltage is subject to a series field voltage drop
Vsh = Vl – Il Rsc (34.10)
Example 34.2
A 75 kW d.c. generator is operated at 230 V. Tests have shown that the rotational loss is 1810 W and the shunt field circuit
draws 5.35 A. The armature circuit has a resistance of 0.035Ω and the brush drop is 2.2 V. Calculate (1) the rated current
delivered, (2) the total losses, (3) the input power required, and (4) the efficiency at the rated load.
Solution:
1. P 75000
=I = = 326 .1 A
I 230
2. P = IE
= 5.35′ 230 = Psh = 1230 W
The rotational loss is given as 1810 W. The variable losses are found from the armature current, which is 326.1 + 5.35 =
331.45 A. Therefore, the copper loss in the armature circuit is
Ia 2 × R a = (331.45) 2 (0.035) = Pa = 3846 W.
The brush power is (331.45)(2.2) = 729.3 W ≅ PB .
The total losses are then

1234 + 1810 + 3846 + 729 = P∑ losses = 7615 W
3. Input power = output power + P∑ losses

= 75000 + 7615 = 82615 W = 82.615 kW
75000
4. η = × 100 per cent = 90.8 per cent
82165
Note: This is a generator, and the input power must be larger than the output power.
Direct current motor losses are shown in Figure 34.2. They are the same types of losses, but they are subtracted in the
opposite sequence. In a generator, the input mechanical power must be larger than the output electrical power in order to
compensate for the losses. The motor situation is opposite in that the input electrical power must be larger than the output
mechanical power to compensate for the losses.
Again, if a particular field winding is not present, obviously, its type of loss is not involved.
34.3.4 Relationships Between Losses

Motor and generator losses are of two types: fixed losses and variable losses. The fixed losses are not really fixed since they
vary with adjustments but they do not differ to a major degree with load current. These are the rotational losses and the
shunt field loss. At a single field setting, a shunt machine may vary only a few per cent in rotational speed. A shunt field,
rheostat adjustment range may vary the field current and thus the loss by a factor of 3 or 4.
Variable losses are the armature circuit resistance losses, since their power loss varies as the square of the current and
the current varies with the load. In general, the series field, the commutating field, and the compensating windings (if they
are present), are variable I 2R losses.
The machine reaches its maximum efficiency when the variable losses equal the fixed losses.
Prot + Vl I sh ≅ I a2 R a at η max
(34.11)
Eq (34.11) is a general case for any motor or generator. However, some of the terms may not be present in a specific
case. For example, in a series motor, the only fixed loss would be the mechanical parts of the rotational loss. Even the
magnetic part of the rotational loss would then be a variable. In addition, if a particular type of series winding is not
present in a machine, it is not a part of the variable losses.
If the fixed and variable losses are equal at maximum efficiency the following is also true.
output output
ηmax ≅ ≅ (34.12)
output + 2 ( variable losses ) output + 2 ( fixed losses )
input − 2 ( variable losses ) input − 2 ( fixed losses )

and ηmax ≅ ≅ (34.13)
input input
Figure 34.2 Motor Losses Direct Current
where, η is in decimal form.

Pout
ηmax ≅ (34.14)
Pout + 2 I a2 R a
Pin − 2 I a2 R a
ηmax ≅ (34.15)
Pin
Example 34.3
A 10 kW shunt generator having an armature circuit resistance of 0.75 Ω and a field resistance of 125 Ω generates a
terminal voltage of 250 V at full load. Determine the efficiency of the generator at full load assuming that the iron, friction,
and windage losses amount to 600 W.
Solution:
Output power = 10000 W = VI
10000
Load current =I = 40 A
250
V 250
Field current =
If = = 2A
Rf 125
Armature current = If + I = 2 + 40 = 42 A
VI 10000
Efficiency η = = × 100 per cent
(VI + I a R a + I f V + C) 10000 + (42 × 0.75) + (2 × 250) + 600
2 2
10000
= = 80.50 per cent
12423 × 100 per cent
Example 34.4
A 60 hp (44.74 kW) rated, 234 V shunt motor has an armature resistance, including brush resistance, of 0.052 Ω. The field
resistance is 48.7 Ω. The motor is stated to have a maximum efficiency of 90.9 per cent. Calculate (1) the line current
carried at the maximum efficiency and (2) the rotational loss.
Solution:
1. If we assume I a ≅ I l by neglecting the smaller field current
Pout
ηmax ≅ (The output power is specified by the motor power rating.)
Pout + 2 I l2 R a
2. If we modify this by using I × V instead of P

then
I lVl Vl
ηmax ≅ =
I lVl + 2 I l 2 R a Vl + 2 I l R a
230 230
≅ 90.9 ≅ =
230 + 2 I l (0.052) 230 + 0.104 I l
and I l = 221 A
The total fixed losses will match the total variable losses at peak efficiency.
Prot = I l 2 Ra − Psh = ( 216.3 ) ( 0.052 ) − 1086 = 1347 W
2
Note:
 203 
I a − I l − I sh = 221 −   = 216.3 A
 48.7 
El2 ( 203 )
2
Psh = = 1086 W
Rsh 48.7
34.4 MOTOR ENCLOSURES

The motor types begin with the simplest and least expensive and work on up to the most elaborate. More elaborate
enclosures usually require larger frame sizes for a given power, since ventilation is restricted.
1. Open Enclosure: An opened frame structure permits maximum air circulation for ventilation. This construction usually
is designed in such a manner as to prevent dropped objects from coming into contact with electrically live or moving parts.
2. Drip-proof Enclosure: An enclosure so constructed that liquid or solid particles that fall at not greater than 15° from verti-
cal will not enter the enclosure either directly or while running off the surface.
3. Splash-proof Enclosure: Carries the drip-proof situation further so that particles arriving at up to 100° from the vertical will
not penetrate inside. It should be noted that each increase in protection usually reduces ventilation.
4. Guarded Enclosure: This enclosure is so arranged that no accidental or intentional object can penetrate. Specifically,
a ½ inch diameter rod must not be able to penetrate screens or guards.
5. Weather-proof Enclosure: A variation of the drip-proof and splash proof design that prevents blowing rain, snow, or dust
contacting electrical parts.
6. Totally Enclosed Enclosure: Either closed and/or covered but not necessarily air-tight enclosure.
7. Explosion-proof Enclosure: Designed to contain an inside explosion and/or to prevent ignition of specified gases or
vapours surrounding the motor. This may be accomplished by specified screens and/or flame traps.
8. Dust Ignition-proof Enclosure: Totally enclosed and constructed to exclude entrance of ignitable dusts or dust that would
build up and affect performance.
9. Waterproof Enclosure: Designed in such a way that its total enclosure may be sprayed by the steam from a hose without
detrimental effect. Shaft leakage is allowed if it is drained away in a specified fashion. This enclosure is used in dairy and
other food processing machinery where daily cleaning or even sterilization takes place.
34.5 MAINTENANCE AND ACCESSIBILITY

A motor or generator must always take into account the need for easy access to inspect, maintain, repair, or replace the unit.
With DC machines, the commutator and brushes should be regularly checked for any mechanical wear. The wear products that
are primarily finely powdered brush particles, should be periodically cleaned out for maximum life. This dust, when mixed
with excess shaft bearing oil or grease, will cling tenaciously to any surface. It is conductive so that it may lead to flash over and
damage if not removed.
Modern bearings are very long lived but need periodic checking. A normal well-designed ball bearing may go from
5000 to 10000 hours without service. However, it will eventually need regreasing. If properly done, another 5000 to 10000
trouble-free hours may be expected. However, if not attended to, the bearings will eventually fail and perhaps spoil the
motor windings, owing to progressive overloading.
Bearing life is greatly affected by misalignment during installation or by too tight belt tension. Winding temperature and,
therefore, winding life expectancy are greatly affected by accumulated dust and grime, since this prevents effective cooling.
These problems are interrelated, since a major cause of electrical failure is over lubrication of the bearings.
The machine operator should be aware of abnormal sounds, vibrations, smells and excess surface temperature. Each abnor-
mality can usually be traced to improper maintenance and, if detected soon enough, can be cleared up in a few minutes. Ignored
symptoms have a way of resulting in serious and expensive break down.
34.6 COOLING AND VENTILATION

The life of an electrical machine is largely dependent upon the durability of insulating materials. Insulating materials start
deteriorating at relatively low temperatures. Thus, the temperature rise of an electrical machine is limited by the quality of
insulating materials used in it. The temperature rise at rated load must be within the prescribed limits. If the ambient temperature
under actual working conditions is higher than the standard ambient temperature, then the load on the machine must be reduced.
Various cooling methods commonly used for rotating electrical machines are: (1) Radial ventilation; (2) Axial ventilation;
(3) Combination of (1) and (2); and (4) Forced ventilation.
The method of cooling to be used for a specific machine depends on the size and type of machine.
SUMMARY
1. The efficiency of any device or process is the ratio of its 5. Prot = IaVa.
useful output to its gross input. 6. The electrical power losses are mostly due to the resis-
2. Efficiency is expressed as a percentage and it has no units. tance present in various parts of the windings.
3. Rotational losses are a summary of bearing friction, brush 7. Ia2Ra is the largest single loss in the entire machine.
mechanical friction, cooling fan power, windage loss of 8. The shunt field loss is considered as a fixed loss.
armature as a whole, and magnetic circuit drag loss. 9. Variable losses are the armature circuit resistance losses.
4. Hysteresis and eddy current losses show as consumption 10. The machine reaches its maximum efficiency when the
of mechanical rotation power. variable losses equal the fixed losses.
11. More elaborate enclosures usually require larger frame 12. A motor or generator must always take into account the need
sizes for a given power since ventilation is restricted. for easy access to inspect maintain, repair or replace the unit.
1. In a d.c. machine, the constant losses are 3. Iron losses in a d.c. machine under no load and loaded
(a) The armature copper losses operation are
(b) Commutator losses (a) The same (b) Different
(c) Iron losses and mechanical loss (c) Much larger under loaded operation
(d) Friction and windage losses 4. Mechanical losses in d.c. machines occur as
2. At maximum efficiency there are (a) Bearing friction loss
(a) Constant losses = variable losses (b) Brush friction loss
(b) Constant losses > fixed losses (c) Bearing friction, brush friction, and air friction loss
(c) Constant losses < fixed losses (d) Air friction and bearing friction loss
(d) None of these
ANSWERS (MCQ)
l. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c).
1. Define efficiency. 10. A 20 hpdc motor has 89.3 per cent efficiency at rated
2. Must the input of a device be smaller or larger than the power. What are its total losses?
output? Why? 11. A 3.5 kW motor is 87.2 per cent efficient at rated power.
3. Name the major categories of losses in a d.c. machine. What is it input power?
4. What are some components of the rotational losses? 12. A 10 hp motor has an input of 8.425 kW, while its losses
5. What are some winding losses in a d.c. machine? are 925 W. What is its efficiency?
6. Why is the shunt field loss considered separately? 13. A d.c. motor draws 33.3 A and its shunt field uses
1.35 A. If its armature circuit resistance is 0.385 Ω.
7. What is the loss relation at peak efficiency of a machine?
What is its armature circuit power loss?
8. A 5 hp motor draws 34.64 A at 125 V under rated condi-
14. A 2.24 kW rated motor has 630 W of total loss. What is
tions. What is its efficiency?
its efficiency?
9. A 7.50 kW shunt motor draws 33.8 A at 250 V under
rated conditions. What is its efficiency?
ANSWERS (CQ)
8. 86.2 per cent 9. 88.8 per cent 10. 1787 W 11. 4014 W 12. 89.0 per cent 13. 407 W 14. 78.0 per cent.
D.c. Motor Control
35
OBJECTIVES

 Motor speed control Off
 Control devices: hand-operated mechanical switches, face plate No-volt trip
and drum
 Starter switches, two-point, three-point, and four-point Overload
trip
Arm.
 Pilot control devices and their symbols
 Relay types and symbols
 Comparison of manual and automatic starters
L F A Shunt
 Reversing the direction of shunt, series, and compound motors field
D.c.
 Manual reverse control supply
 Various interlocking devices

 Retardation and stopping D.c. Motor control
 Dynamic, regenerative and electric brakes

 Jogging
 Calculation of speed and simple problems on the above issues
 Ward Leonard system
35.1 INTRODUCTION
Any substantial-sized d.c. motor needs current-limiting resistance in the armature circuit for reasonable control of armature
current during starting. To reverse a d.c. motor, the polarity of the armature must be changed in relation to the polarity of the
field see Figure [35.1 (a) and (b)]. The relatively simple control of rotational speed by changing field flux, armature voltage,
load, or a combination introduces another control function. The controlled reduction of rotational speed may require special
design attention depending upon the load character or safety requirements. Some of the considerations that should be studied
in order to determine a motor control will help put the problem of control selection in its proper perspective.
35.2 CONTROL DEVICES

Primary control devices include, but are not limited to the following types of devices:
1. Hand-operated Mechanical Switches: This may be the knife switch in which a blade-like element moves between
or is clamped by fixed spring jaws.
2. Rotary Switches: One or more metal segments are rotated into or away from contact with spring-loaded, fixed contacts.
These are frequently called drum switches because of their roughly cylindrical construction. Rotary switches may have
their fixed contacts arranged like the numbers on a clock face. These contacts are connected by a moving contact arm. The
result is called a face plate rotary switch to differentiate it from the drum rotary. These are shown in Figures 35.2 and 35.3.
3. Magnetic Contactors: Magnetic contactors are electromagnetically actuated spring-loaded contacts, usually compris-
ing of at least two circuits, and frequently as many as four or five separate circuits. A contactor requires some form of
Figure 35.1 Reversing a d.c. Motor by (a) and (b) Reversing the Armature Current (c) and
(d) Reversing the Polarity of the Field
Figure 35.2 Face Plate Rotary Switch Symbols Figure 35.3 Drum Rotary Switch Symbol
D.c. Motor Control 669
pilot device for its actuation. This is really a special

power-handling form of a relay. A relay is defined
as an electromagnetically operated switch. In the
motor control field, if the device is used for open-
ing or closing the main power lines, it is a contactor.
Conversely, if it is a pilot device used to control the
operation of a contactor, it is a relay. The two differ-
ent functions may be performed by the same device:
the fields of application overlap.
4. Starter Switch: A starter switch may be manually
or magnetically operated. In either case, a starter
switch is a combination of a contactor and appro-
priately matched thermal overload devices pack-
aged in a coordinated and standardized assembly.
Any one of the overload (OL) heater elements can
serve to break the normally closed auxiliary contact
that is associated with it. Since all the OL contacts
are in series, the opening of any one of them causes
the contactor coil to relax and the contactor to drop
out. The OL contacts do not carry motor current.
The heater elements do carry motor current, as can Typical three line magnetic starter switch for a.c. or d.c. service, L3 −T3
be seen in Figure 35.4. would not be used for d.c. or single phase a.c. Note that if any line
overheats due to high current its associated normally closed contacts
5. Current-limiting Resistors: Current-limiting resistors will open and break the coil-holding current. The external pushbutton
are primary devices for handling the main armature actuation is not shown. This is really a magnetic contactor with
matching associated overload protection. A manual starter will have
circuit current. They must be of appropriate resistance mechanical rather than electromagnetic actuation and mechanical
and wattage for the task. The resistors may be inserted overload release.
or removed from the circuit either by contactors or by a
face plate rotary switch. Figure 35.4 Magnetic Starter Switch Symbols
6. Protection Devices: Protection devices such as
fuses or circuit breakers are used to break the current flow to the motor if a trouble develops that results in excessive
current flow. Larger motors usually require both types of protection, since each has different characteristics.
35.3 PILOT CONTROL DEVICES

Pilot control devices include, but are not limited to, the following types of devices.
1. Push Button Switches: The first link in the chain of control elements is frequently a push button that can be jabbed
with a finger. This device simply closes or opens a contact against the force of a light spring. As soon as the force of the
finger is removed, the internal spring returns the movable element to its original position. This is said to be momentary
action. If the button is mechanically linked to another—as in a start-stop combination—so that when pressed it stays
in the on position, it is said to be maintained.
Most frequently, a push button is single and independent. Usually, the push button has dual contacts so that it can
be used as either normally open (NO), or normally closed (NC). It is very rugged and long lived.
2. Float Switches: Float switches are operated by a fluid level in a tank or process channel. The actual switch can be NO
or NC, or have both types of contacts. The actuation may be either with rising fluid level or dropping level or even a
combination of the two.
3. Pressure Switches: Pressure switches may be actuated by increasing or decreasing the pressure, which may be set at
low or high.
4. Temperature Switches: Temperature switches may be actuated by increasing or decreasing the temperature.
There are many ranges and applications. Either float, temperature, or pressure switches may be NO or NC, or
have both types of contacts. All these various types of switches are available in sealed enclosures for hazardous
conditions.
5. Flow Switches: Flow switches may be actuated by increasing or decreasing the flow in relation to a set flow point. The
actual phenomenon being measured is frequently the difference between two pressures measured in specially shaped
portions of the tubing or ducting, such as a venturi section.
6. Location, Proximity, or Position Generally Detected by
Limit Switches: It is sometimes necessary to actuate a switch
within a travel location as about 0.025 mm. In other situations,
such as in crane hook travel, a location of ±1 mm is sufficient.
It is sometimes necessary to use a switch in the opposite of its
normal sense. For example, the circuit may require that the
switch be opened at the end of the desired travel, but a NC
switch may not allow sufficient over travel. In this case, a NC
switch may be held closed with a spring and be forced to open
against the spring at the desired limit point.
7. Foot-operated Switches: Foot-operated switches are a
special form that is used in industrial control when both
the hands are occupied. The switch can be related to a push
button or a limit switch, but a special enclosure is required
for reasonable life.
8. Relays: Relays are magnetically operated switches.
There exist many types of relays as far as size, shape and
appearance are concerned. Almost any conceivable con-
tact arrangement can be used. Many varieties of relays are
available that have adjustable and reproducible parameters.
Time delay in operation or release or both, or pull in or drop
out at particular desired current levels or voltage levels are
obtainable. Many control functions can be accomplished
by the judicious use of relays. Contacts on a relay can serve
to interlock functions so that the prescribed sequences of
operation are automatically obtained. Undesired or unsafe
operation sequences are locked out until the necessary con-
ditions and sequences are in existence.
Figure 35.5 Push Button Circuit Symbols 9. Sensors: Sensors or pickups or transducers may also be used
as pilot devices (Figures 35.6 and 35.7). In general, these
terms mean a device that converts one phenomenon into another. One pilot device can operate another. For example, a
fluid level may be sensed by a capacitor device; the fluid becomes the dielectric of the capacitor as it displaces the air
or gaseous vapor in the tank. The resulting change in capacitances can be used in a tuned circuit to change a current
flow and operate a relay that is sensitively adjusted.
10. Starting Requirements: It is necessary that the motor and its power supply have the same or nearly the same voltage rat-
ing. The power supply must make sufficient current available for steady state and peak current requirements. If an operator
is used, is a skilled person or a fool proof control required? Is the control manually operated or automatic? If manually
operated, is a push button control required or will a rotary lever that requires some judgement be used? If an automatic
starting control is to be used, will the beginning of the start cycle be based upon standard pilot devices? Will it be necessary
to synchronize the start with another operation or avoid some interfering position condition some form of interlocking is
Figure 35.6 Pilot Device Symbols Figure 35.7 More Pilot Device Symbols
required? What is the starting duty cycle and will it be frequent

or infrequent? Are there significant starting torque require-
ments or does the load have high inertia (either of these condi-
tions would prolong the starting cycle). When starting, is the
machine always loaded or always unloaded? Does the motor
require small increments of motion or jogging?
35.4 MANUAL D.C. MOTOR STARTERS

There are a variety of control circuits. Their differences
are in whether the reduction in resistance is accomplished
manually or automatically and in the types of protections that
are built in.
The simplest d.c. starters to understand are the various variet-
ies of face plate switch starters that are known as two-point, three-
point and four-point starters. The names evolve from the number
of external connections on the starter control box. These have been
illustrated in Figures 35.9 through 35.11. A degree of similarity is
apparent among these starters. All have a face plate rotary switch
with a connected group of current limiting resistors. The differenc-
es lie in the form of protection they contain. These protections are
what determine the utility of the specific starter types.
Figure 35.9 Two-point Motor Starter

Figure 35.8 Relay Symbols
35.4.1 Two-point Starter

A two-point starter is specifically designed for a series motor that is possibly subject to an over speed problem due to loss
of load. Here, the spring-loaded control arm is held in the full on position by an electromagnet.
This magnet is series wound and its ampere turns are a function of the load current. If the motor loses its load and over
speeds, the current will drop down to a low value and the spring-loaded arm will be released. This type of release will also
drop out if the line voltage decreases too far. The control will then require a restart by moving the arm.
35.4.2 Three-point Starter

A three-point starter is suitable for a shunt or compound
motor. The electromagnetic holding coil that is used here
is in series with the shunt field coil. The protection gained
is against the case where the field circuit opens, owing
to internal failure or field rheostat failure. Protection
is needed because the shunt motor will over speed in
the same manner as the series motor if it loses its field
excitation. D
A three-point starter, however, is sensitive to the field
current adjustment and it may drop out when not required
by over speed if the line voltage also fluctuates. Figure 35.10 Three-point Motor Starter
35.4.3 Four-point Starter

The four-point starter overcomes the last disadvantage by placing the holding coil across the line so that a large range of
field adjustments is possible as shown in Figure 35.11.
35.4.4 Drum Rotary Switch Starter

The drum switch provides the same type of control that
can be achieved with a face plate starter, as illustrated in
Figure 35.12, but it has the advantages of being able to
handle greater current and, therefore, larger motor sizes.
This is because the physical contact shapes and spacing
lend themselves to magnetic arc blow-out features.
D Furthermore, since the actual acceleration current limiting
resistors are not physically part of the drum switch, or
even in its housing, they may be made as large as desired.
As a result, the drum switch is adaptable to running the
motor continuously at intermediate or even the lowest
Figure 35.11 Four-point Starter speed. This is because with large enough resistors, the
circuit can be used for armature voltage control. Drum
switch controllers are the basis of large crane controls.
Figure 35.12 Drum Controller Starter (d.c.)

The drum switch version of a motor control shown in Figure 35.12 is strictly comparable to the face plate rotary switch
control as shown in Figure 35.13 with a few exceptions. The drum control has fewer accelerating steps and does not pro-
vide a means for a loss of field current cause an automatic stop. The operation is as follows.
1. The bus line safety switch is usually left on.
2. The circuit breaker is manually or electrically set when the operation is determined.
3. The maintaining relay will close when the circuit breaker is closed. Conversely, it will drop out if voltage is lost during
operation and then require that the controller be returned to the off position in order to restart. This relay then
is necessary to prevent an automatic restart of the motor if the controller is in run position. It serves the same
purpose as the holding coil in Figure 35.13. The auxiliary contacts MA serve to hold the contactor on while volt-
age exists.
4. The drum controller is then advanced to position 1, which supplies current to the armature through the full bank
of current limiting acceleration resistors. This breaks the connection at M.1 and M.2 but the MA contacts hold the
armature coil.
5. Deliberate motion to step 2 and then to step 3 progressively cuts out part of the acceleration resistors.
6. When the motor is in step 4, the motor is fully on the line and operating.
7. Speed control of a shunt or compound motor is then available with the shunt field rheostat, which may be left in a
preset position.
8. lf the motor has only a series field, the speed adjustment is obtained by leaving the control handle in an intermediate
position.
9. The normal means of shutdown is by opening the circuit at the circuit breaker.
10. Breakers are provided for protection against overload currents and fuses for short circuits anywhere in the motor or
controller.
Note: There are many variations of the face plate and drum controllers. Reversing maybe added to either type.
The over speed danger must be covered by a separate sensor and pilot relay if it is considered necessary, because loss
of field current will not cause a drop out.
35.4.5 Direct-current Three-point

Starter Circuit
The complete circuit shown in Figure 35.13 shows
a number of normal places where the circuit may be
opened either manually or automatically. In a factory
installation, normally there is a manual safety switch
where the power lines leave the overhead bus supply.
The same switch box has the fuses for short-circuit
protection, so that a winding failure is also protected.
D
In the machine, there is a manual or magnetic starter
switch that makes the machine live or dead as far as
electric power goes. This switch does not actually
start the machine. It is, however, the usual location
for the overload breaker system. The particular
symbol shown in Figure 35.13 is that of a magnetic
trip breaker.
Next in the circuit is the actual three-point starter
box. The handle is moved slowly and steadily clock-
wise until the acceleration cycle is completed when
the handle hits a stop and is magnetically held on. Any
speed adjustment is controlled by the separate field
rheostat with its circuit shown in the Figure 35.13.
The motor is shown as a long-shunt compound, but
a short-shunt compound or a plain motor may be Figure 35.13 Direct-current Three-point Motor
equally applicable. Starter Circuit
35.5 AUTOMATIC DIRECT-CURRENT MOTOR STARTERS

Any starting sequence that is initiated either by pushing a button or by the closure of some other form of pilot device
must have certain automatic features. The principal feature is that the starting sequence must begin with the current-
limiting acceleration resistors in the armature circuit. Then, some form of automatic control must progressively
remove these resistances until the full-line voltage is available to the armature circuit. Even the simplest control
must automatically reset either when the stop button is pushed or when another pilot device calls for shut down.
This controlled removal of resistance is the heart of the problem. Safety features such as overload release, short-
circuit protection, and low-voltage sequence resetting are usually the same on a manual or automatic motor starting
control.
35.6 COMPARISON OF MANUAL VERSUS AUTOMATIC STARTER

A comparison of manual versus automatic control, their advantages and disadvantages is given in Table 35.1. All automatic
control devices are either open or closed loop in function. The distinction between open and closed is determined by
whether operation is independent of the performance of the motor for open loop or at least partially dependent upon the
performance of the motor for closed loop. In a closed loop, some performance parameter is detected, measured and used
to influence the input.
Table 35.1 Manual Versus Automatic Control: A Comparison
Manual Automatic
1. Sequence time may be varied at will, depending upon 1. Sequence time is either fixed or the time is depen-
operator skill and motor response. An unskilled opera- dent upon internally measured parameters. No skill is
tor may hurry to the point of overload or lag unneces- required.
sarily. 2. Relatively more complicated and expensive. Some skill
2. Simple in construction and maintenance, it is easy to and knowledge are needed.
understand and service. 3. Relatively larger space and greater weight and cost.
3. Relatively smaller space and less weight with lower cost. 4. Operator may be remote and at various stations.
4. Operator is near major power functions. 5. Certain relay forms are very vulnerable to moisture and
5. Can be completely enclosed, waterproof, etc. Less sus- dust since pneumatic time delays may be used. Rela-
ceptible to moisture or dust damage. Wiping contacts tively less or no wiping action on contacts. Therefore,
are self cleaning. less self cleaning.
6. Size is limited since operator effort increases as con- 6. No limit to size and no increase in operator fatigue since
tact sizes increase. Locomotive size drum controllers push buttons need not grow with the size of the task.
require added contactors to relieve effort and hazard. 7. Ionized gas buildup is minimized owing to quick make
7. Ionized gas buildup due to arcing contacts is serious if and break of electromagnetic contactors and relays.
controller is enclosed or sealed. May even be explosive,
as an extreme.
A purely timed switching sequence that removes the current limiting resistances is open loop. When the switching of
resistances is made dependent on the actual armature circuit, the control is then a closed loop. Open-loop controls are
simpler and, thus, easier to understand. Conversely, closed-loop controls are a bit more complicated to understand and
to service, but they adjust to circumstances.
35.7 REVERSING CONTROL OF DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS

Various means of reversing the armature circuits are used in both manual and/or automatic d.c. starters as shown in
Figure 35.14. In any case, the whole armature circuit must be reversed as a connected group including commutating fields
and compensating windings if they are present. The series field, if it is present, is the only part of the armature circuit that
remains unreversed.
Series Motor: The connection of either the field winding or of the armature must be reversed.
Shunt Motor: Figure [35.15 (a) to (c)] shows the two alternative methods of reversing the direction of rotation of a shunt motor.
Figure 35.14 Reversing Direction of Rotation of a d.c.

Series Motor (a) Diagram of a Series Motor
with the Direction of Motion Assumed to be
Clockwise (b) Connections to the Field Wind- Figure 35.15 Reversing the Direction of
ing Interchanged, Giving Reversed (Anticlock- rotation of a d.c. Shunt Motor
wise) Rotation (c) Alternative Method when
the Armature Connections at the Brushes are
Interchanged
Compound Motor: The easiest way to reverse the direction of rotation of the compound wound motor is to reverse the
connections to the armature, as illustrated in Figure [35.16 (a) and (b)]. The reversal of the field connections involves both shunt
and series windings, as shown in Figure 35.16 (c).
35.7.1 Manual Reverse Control

A typical two-, three-, or four-point starter using a face plate rotary switch may be reversed by interchanging A-1
and A-2 connections of the motor. This is accomplished with a double-pole double-throw switch by interchanging
the connections after the motor has stopped. Various interlocking devices are provided to keep this from happening
inadvertently. A small drum rotary switch can be used for the reverse in conjunction with the main starter switch, as
shown in Figure 35.17. The large and small switch will be so mechanically interlocked in such a way that the reversing
switch can only be moved when the main controller is at the off position.
Note:
1. Off position is optional and may not be needed. Detents are used to hold chosen position.
2. In hardware or household practice, the toggle double-pole double-throw switch is called a four-way switch because
only four terminals are provided.
3. Standard six contact rotary switches have the same connec-
tions as above, plus two added contacts which are connected
together for either forwarder or reverse.
The fundamental use of reversing contacts on switches is
shown in Figure 35.18. The symmetrical rectangular array of two
forward or F contacts or two reverse or R contacts surrounding
the armature circuit is frequently used in control diagrams.
Again, if commutating fields or compensating windings are
present, they must be between the A-1 and A-2 contacts along
with the armature itself.
35.7.2 Reversing Requirement

Considerations
1. Is the motor reversing required regularly, occasionally, or
never?
2. Might reversing be required in an emergency even though not
a normal sequence?
3. Might plugging be required?
4. Is the normal reverse cycle of operation essentially similar to
the forward motion or are these specific and unsymmetrical
requirements to meet in one side, and not the other?
Note:
1. When a process that is being performed by a motor requires re-
peated and controlled reversal of direction, a plugging reverse
control is used.
2. Incomplete circuits are shown. The safety devices and accelera-
tion circuits previously shown are required in a complete circuit.
35.8 RETARDATION AND STOPPING

There are many situations when it is desired to bring a d.c. motor and
its driven load to a controlled reduction of speed. The obvious method
is to apply brakes and dissipate the energy in the form of heat. The
problem resolves to controllably reverse the torque on the motor.
If the motor is converted so that it operates as a generator, it will
convert shaft energy to electrical energy. The electrical energy can
be dissipated remotely in a number of ways. The motor can absorb
as much or more mechanical energy input as a generator than it
could deliver as a motor.
Figure 35.16 Reversing Direction of Rotation
The problems of electric retardation are solved in two principal
of a Compound-wound Motor
ways.
Dynamic Braking: The motor is converted to a generator by
circuit arrangement, and the energy it produces is dissipated in a resistive element as heat. Dynamic braking is simple
and does not require voltage adjustment in the usual case.
Regenerative Breaking: The motor also acts as a generator but, by careful arrangement, the generated electrical energy
is fed back into the bus lines to become useful and recoverable electrical power. Regenerative braking involves careful
adjustment but is much more efficient since energy is returned.
35.8.1 Electric Brakes

The final means of retardation and stopping of a motor is through mechanical brakes. Electrically operated mechanical
brakes are usually electromagnetically released and applied by an adjustable spring mechanism. There are frequent
situations: the load inertia is small, or the electromagnetic brake is entirely adequate to perform the complete retardation
and holding job.
-
- -
Figure 35.17 Double-pole Double-throw Switches
Electromagnetically released brakes are very safe devices. They do not release inadvertently and allow a mechanism
to drift or run away. On the other hand, they will immediately grab and bring the mechanism to an emergency stop if the
power fails or a breaker goes out.
35.8.2 Jogging
It is defined as the quickly repeated closing of a circuit in order to start a motor from the rest for the purpose of
accomplishing small movements of the driver machines. There are many circumstances where it is desired to produce a
Figure 35.18 Fundamental Reversing Control
small motion on a motor-driven device, such as to complete a traversing operation to inch a hoist or a crane hook into a
reserved position.
Jogging requires a button control that will imitate a slow speed motion and not the whole starting cycle. The circuit
problem then comes down to a. push button operation that will close the M contacts without actuating the holding contacts
(Figure 35.19). When the button is released, all should stop, as nearly instantaneously possible. Figure 35.19 shows a por-
tion of a reversible jogging circuit. Five push buttons are provided: stop, jog, run, forward, and reverse. The jog-run switch
is a maintained pair in such a way that if the jog is depressed it stays and forces run back out. On the other hand, if run is
depressed, it stays and forces the jog back out. When run is selected, all F contacts are closed, thus, selecting the armature
circuit. However, when jog is selected the following steps

occur.
1. Pressing either forward or reverse will start the operation R
F
at the lowest speed. The motor does not finish its accel-
eration cycle but continues at a stabilized low speed.
2. When the forward button is released, operation ceases
immediately. F
3. Reverse operation is equal and opposite in this control
Jogging, however, may be applied to a unidirectional
control if desired.
R
F
Example 35.1
A 240 Y d.c. shunt motor has an armature resistance of
0.27 W and field winding resistance of 160 W. On no load, R
the motor takes a current of 2.9 A and its speed is 1 250 r.p.m.
On full load, the motor takes a current of 40.0 A and,
although the field current remains the same, the flux per
pole is reduced by 5 per cent due to armature reaction.
Determine the full load speed of the motor.
Solution:
Let the e.m.f. under no-load conditions be El and the Figure 35.19 Partial Reversible Jogging Circuit
armature current be Ia1 as shown in Figure 35.20 (a).
V 240
I a1 = I1 − I f = I1 − = 2.9 − = 1.4 A
Rf 160
E1 = V − I a1 Ra = 240 − (1.4 × 0.27) = 239.6 V
Let the e.m.f. under full-load conditions, as seen in Figure 35.20 (b) be
I a2 = I 2 − I1 = 40.0 − 1.5 = 38.5 A
E2 = V − I a2 R a = 240 − (38.5 × 0.27) = 229.6 V
However, E1 φ1 N1 100 229.6

= and N 2 = × = 1261 r.p.m.
E2 φ 2 N 2 95 239.6
Example 35.2
A 500 V d.c. shunt motor has an armature resistance of 1 W and a field winding resistance of 500 W. When loaded
to-develop a total torque of 100 Nm, the motor takes a current of 21 A from the supply. Determine the speed of the rotor.
With the field current remaining unchanged, the motor is further loaded until the torque is 120 Nm. Assuming that the
effect of armature reaction is negligible, determine the speed of the motor,
Solution:
When the total torque is 100 Nm, let the circuit quantities be as shown in Figure 35.21(a)
V 500
If = = = I A; I a1 = I1 − I f = 21 − 1 = 20 A
Rf 500
E1 = V − I a1 R a = 500 − (20′ 1) = 480 V
2π N1T1 60 × E1 I a1 60 × 480 × 20
E1 I a1 = I1ω1 = ; N1 = = = 917 r.p..m.
60 2π T1 2π × 100
When the torque is 120 Nm

Let the original quantities be as represented in Figure 3l.21 (b)
T1 Ia
= 1
T2 I a2
120
I a2 = × 20 = 24 A
100
E2 = V − I a2 R a = 500 − (24 × 1)
= 476 V
2π N 2T2
E2 I a2 = T2ω2 =
60
Figure 35.21 For Example 35.2 60 × 476 × 24
N2 = = 909 r.p.m.
2π × 120
Example 35.3
A series motor has a resistance 0.5 W between the terminals. It runs at a speed of 1500 r.p.m. when taking 10 A from 200 V
supply. Find the speed at which it will run when taking 20 A from the same supply. Assume no saturation.
Solution:
Motor resistance R m = 0.5 Q; I a1 = 10 A; I a2 = 20 A
Eb 1 = V − I a1 R m = 200 − (10 × 0.5) = 195 V
Eb 2 = V − I a2 R m = 200 − (20 × 0.5) = 190 V
N1 195 × 20
As there is no saturation: =
N 2 190 × 10
1500 × 190 × 10
N2 = = 730 r.p.m.
195 × 20
Example 35.4
A 220 V d.c. motor runs at 500 r.p.m. when the armature current is 50 A. Calculate the speed if the torque is doubled, given
the armature resistances at 0.2 W.
Solution:
Since N1 is constant, T ∝ f Ia
Since f is constant, T ∝ Ia
and Ta1 ∝ Ia, Ta2 ∝ Ia2
Ia 2
2= or I a 2 = 100 A
50
E1 = 220 − (50 × 0 .2) = 210 V
E2 = 220 − (100 × 0.2) = 200 V
N1 E 200 × 500
= 1 and N 2 = = 476 r.p.m.
N2 E2 210
Example 35.5
A 230 V d.c. shunt motor runs at 1000 r.p.m. when the armature current is 35 A. The resistance of the armature circuit is
0.3 W. Calculate the additional resistance required in the armature circuit to reduce the speed of the motor to 750 r.p.m.,
assuming the armature current is then 25 A.
Solution:
Voltage applied to the motor = 230 V
Initial speed N1 = 1000 r.p.m.
I a at 1000 r.p.m. = 35 A; R a = 0.3 Ω
Eb 1 = 230 − (35 × 0.3) = 219.5 V
Let the additional resistance be R

Total resistance in the armature circuit = (0.3 + R) Ω
Armature current in the new situation = 25 A
Eb 2 = 230 − 25(0.3 + R)
As shun t field current is the same, φ1 = φ2 and Eb = kφ N where, k is a constant
Eb 1 = kφ1 N1 and Eb 1 = kφ2 N 2
Eb 1 φ1 N1
= ×
Eb 2 φ2 N2
222.5 − 25 R φ1 750
or = ×
219.5 R φ 2 1000
222500 − 25000 R = 750 × 219.5
R = 2.315 Ω
Example 35.6
A 240 V shunt motor runs at 1450 r.p.m. on full load with an armature current of 11 A. The total resistance of the armature
and brushes is 0.6 W. If the speed of the motor is to be to 1000 r.p.m. with the same armature current, calculate the amount
of resistance to be connected in series with the armature and power lost.
Solution:
I a2 = I a1 − 11 A
Eb 1 = V − I a Ra = 240 − (11 × 0.6) = 233.4 V
N1 = 1450 r.p.m.
With additional resistance, R W in the armature circuit
Eb 2 = V − I a 2 (R + R a ) = 240 − 11(0.6 + R) = 233.4 − 11 R
N 2 = 1000 r.p.m.
Eb 2 N2 233.4 − 11 R 1000
= or =
Eb 1 N1 233.4 1450
R = 6.585 Ω
Power lost = I 2 ( R + R2 ) = 112 × (6.585 + 0.6)
= 869.4 Watts
Example 35.7
A motor runs at 900 r.p.m. off a 440 V supply. Calculate the approximate speed when the motor is connected across a
200 V supply. Assume the zero flux to be 0.7 of the original flux.
Solution:
If f is the original flux, then N r ∝ V
φ 460
900 = and kφ = 0.511
kφ
new voltage
new speed =
k × original flux × 0.7
200
Nr = = 559 r.p.m.
0.511 × 0.7
Example 35.8
A d.c. motor takes an armature current of 110 A at 480 V. The resistance of the armature circuit is 0.2 W. The machine has
six poles and the armature is lap-connected with 864 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb. Calculate: (1) the speed and
(2) the gross torque developed by the armature.
Solution:
1. Eg = 480 − (110 × 0.2) = 458 V
846 N r × 3
458 = 2 × × × 0.05
6 60
N r = 636 r.p.m.
2. Mechanical power developed by the armature is
110 × 458 = 58380 W
636
2π M × = 50380
60
(M is the torque in Newton metres exerted on the armature to develop the mechanical power)
M = 756 r.p.m. Nm
Example 35.9
A shunt motor, supplied at 250 V, runs at 900 r.p.m. when the armature current is 30 A. The resistance of the armature
circuit is 0.4 W. Calculate the resistance required in series with the armature to reduce the speed to 600 r.p.m., assuming
that the armature current is then 20 A.
Solution:
Initial e.m.f. generated = 250 – (30 × 0.4) = 238 V
Since the excitation remains constant, the generated e.m.f. is proportional to speed.
600
e.m.f. generated at 600 r.p.m. = 238 × = 158.7 V
900
Hence, voltage drop due to the total resistance of the armature circuit is
250 – 158.7 = 91.3 V
and the total of resistance of the armature circuit is

91.3
= 4.567 Ω
20
Therefore, additional resistance required in armature circuit is
4.567 – 0.4 = 4.167 W
35.9 WARD-LEONARD SYSTEM

To realize all the virtues of a d.c. motor, an adjustable voltage power supply is required. One possibility is to use an a.c.
motor driving a d.c. generator and an exciter to supply field excitation current.
In Figure 35.22, the motor-generator set converts a.c. power to adjustable voltage d.c. power. With control rheostat
at RCM set for the rated field current, d.c. motor voltage V is controlled by the generator field current through RCG.
Motor speed can be controlled smoothly from stand still to rated speed in either direction, reversing the direction
of generator field current reverses the direction of motor rotation. Speeds above the rated speed can be obtained by
reducing the motor field current. Regenerative braking of the load is possible by reducing the generator field current,
thereby reducing V below the motor e.m.f. E = knf and reversing the power flow; the generator acts as a motor,
driving the a.c. machine as a generator feeding the rotational energy of the load back into the a.c. line. Regenerative
braking saves energy while providing smooth control.
Iaccel Ibrake
RCX
RCG
A.c. S
D.c. RCM
motor
motor
+
V
D.c.
D.c.
exciter
generator
Figure 35.22 Ward-Leonard System Adjustable Voltage Supply
S UM M A RY
1. For reasonable control of armature current, d.c. mo- 9. The names for face plate switch starters evolve from the
tors need current-limiting resistors in the armature number of external connections on the starter control box.
circuit. 10. The drum control has fewer accelerating steps.
2. Primary control devices may be hand-operated me- 11. There are many variations of the face plate and drum con-
chanical switches, rotary switches, magnetic contactors, trollers. Reversing may be added to either type.
starter switches (two-point, three-point or four-point). etc. 12. In any type of controller, whatever the type, controlled
3. A starter switch may be either manually or magneti- removal of resistance is the heart of the problem.
cally operated. 13. Manual starters are simple in construction and easy to
4. A starter switch is a combination of a contactor and understand and service.
appropriately matched thermal overload devices. 14. Automatic starters are relatively more complicated and
5. Current limiting resistors must be of appropriate resis- expensive. Some skill and knowledge is needed to oper-
tance and wattage for the task. ate them.
6. Protection devices, such as fuses or circuit breakers, 15. A typical starter may be reversed by interchanging A1
are used to break the current flow to the armature, and A2 connections of the motor.
if trouble develops that results in excessive current 16. The switches are so mechanically interlocked so that
flow. the reversing switch can only be moved when the main
7. Relays are magnetically operated switches. controller is at the opposition.
8. Drum rotary switch starter has the advantage of being 17. The problem of controllable reduction of speed resolves
able to handle greater currents and, therefore, larger to controllably reverse the torque on the motor.
motor sizes.
18. If the motor is converted to operate as a generator, it 23. Jogging requires a button control that will initiate a slow-
will convert the shaft energy to electrical energy. speed motion and not the whole starting cycle.
19. The motor can absorb as much or more mechanical en- 24. To realize all the virtues of a d.c. motor, an adjustable
ergy input as a generator than it could deliver as a motor. voltage power supply is required.
20. In dynamic braking the motor is converted to a genera- 25. A motor starter accelerates a motor to its normal speed
tor by circuit arrangement and the energy it produces is in one direction of rotation.
dissipated in a resistive element as heat. 26. A motor starter limits the current in the armature cir-
21. Regenerative braking involves careful adjustment but is cuit to a safe value during the starting or acceleration
much more efficient since energy is returned. period.
22. Electrically operated mechanical brakes are usually 27. The drum controller is used to start, stop, reverse, and
electromechanically released and applied by adjustable vary the speed of a motor.
spring mechanism.
1. For a given d.c. motor, the speed depends upon 5. The speed of a d.c. motor is proportional to
(a) Flux only (b) Applied voltage only (a) Counter e.m.f. (b) 1/f
(c) Counter e.m.f. only (d) (a) and (c) (c) Eb f (d) Eb /f
2. It is desired to reverse the speed of a motor. This can be 6. What will happen if the field of a d.c. shunt motor is
done by opened?
(a) Reversing the armature and field connections (a) The speed of the motor will be reduced
(b) Reversing the armature connections only (b) It will continue to run at its normal speed
(c) Reversing the supply connections (c) The speed of the motor will be enormously high and
3. A motor starter may damage it
(a) Accelerates a motor to its normal speed in one direction (d) The current in the armature will decrease
only 7. In a d.c. motor the starting resistance is used
(b) Accelerates and reverses a motor (a) Across the motor
(c) Is used for jogging (b) In series with the field winding
(d) Limits the current in the armature circuit to a safe value (c) In series with the armature
4. Which of the methods of speed control is used to re- (d) In series with the motor as a whole
duce the speed of a shunt motor below its rated speed?
(a) Armature control (b) Field control
(c) Ward-Leonard control (d) Armature and field control
ANSWERS (MCQ)
l. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) and (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c).
CON V E NTI O NA L Q UE S TI O NS (C Q )
1. What is the major operating difference between a man- 9. What features of a d.c. motor necessitate current limit-
ual and an automatic d.c. motor starter? ing resistors in a starter circuit?
2. What is the distinction between a pilot device and a 10. What is the difference between a normally open (NO)
primary control device? and a normally closed (NC) contact on a control element?
3. What is meant by the duty cycle of a motor? 11. When reversing a d.c. motor, what element of the motor
4. What is the function of a limit switch? circuit usually has its circuit sequence changed?
5. What does the term plugging mean? 12. What is meant by the term jogging?
6. What is low-voltage protection? 13. What simple circuit provisions are necessary for a
7. What electrical functions are performed by a manual motor control to have a jogging feature?
starting switch? 14. What limits the range of the d.c. motor speed control when
8. Explain the difference between a two-point, three-point, it is performed by varying shunt field current?
and four-point starting switch? 15. What is the economic disadvantage of speed control by
means of series armature resistance?
16. Why is the line voltage control of a d.c. motor more ef- 24. A 220 V shunt motor running at 1000 r.p.m. has an ar-
ficient than series armature resistance control? mature resistance of 0.3 W and an armature current of
17. What is the disadvantage of combined series and shunt 15 A at a certain load. What resistance should be placed
armature resistance speed control? in series with the armature to reduce the speed of the
18. A d.c. series motor of resistance 1 W between terminals motor to 750 r.p.m.?
runs at 800 r.p.m. at 200 V with a current of 15 A. Find 25. A shunt motor takes an armature current of 40 A at a
the speed at which it will run when connected in series certain load. The armature circuit resistance is 0.6 W.
with a 4 W resistance and taking the same supply voltage. Find the resistance required in series with the armature
19. Briefly explain the different methods of speed control circuit to reduce the speed of the motor by 60 per cent.
of d.c. motors citing their relative merits and demerits. The load torque remains constant.
20. What is the necessity of a starter for a d.c. motor? With 26. A 10 hp, 240 V series motor has a line current of
the help of a diagram, describe the working of a three 38 A and a rated speed of 600 r.p.m.. The arma-
point starter for a d.c. shunt motor. ture circuit and series field resistances are, respec-
21. Explain how the speed of a d.c. shunt motor may be tively, 0.4 Q and 0.2 O. The brush volt drop is 5 V.
varied both above and below the speed with which it Assume that the motor is operating on the linear portion
runs with full field current. of its saturation curve below rated armature current.
Calculate
22. Discuss the Ward-Leonard method of speed control for
d.c. motors and explain its merits over other methods. (a) Speed when the load current drops to 20 A at half
rated load.
23. A 220 V shunt motor runs at 950 r.p.m. when the arma-
ture current is 50 V. The armature circuit resistance is (b) The no-load speed when the line current is 1 A.
0.5 W. Calculate the value of resistance to be connected (c) The speed at 150 per cent rated load when the line
in series with the armature to reduce the speed to 760 current is 60 A and the series field flux is 12.5 per
r.p.m. when the armature current of the motor is 40 A. cent of full-load flux due to saturation.
ANSWERS (CQ)
18. 540.5 r.p.m. 25. 1.96 W
23. l.l W 26. (a) 1198 r.p.m. (b) 25185 r.p.m. (c) 450.1 r.p.m.
24. 3.591 W
Transformers — Single Phase 36
OBJECTIVES
Primary Secondary
Mutual inductance and methods of controlling

mutual inductance 180° 270° 360°
0° 90°
 Dot convention and its significance
(a)
Transformer types and construction of transformers
 Flux lines build upward in primary
(single-phase only) Primary Secondary
Current and voltage relations in an ideal transformer


General transformer equation and simple problems
 180° 270° 360°
involving it 0° 90°
 Practical transformer and circuit relations (b)

Flux lines collapse downward in
 Transformer ratings and connected problems secondary
Primary Secondary
Impedance transformation in transformers–transfor-

mation ratio
 Step-up and step-down autotransformers 180° 270° 360°
0° 90°
 Transformer equivalent circuit—referred to primary

and secondary (c)
Flux lines build downward in primary
 Transformer regulation; open circuit test and short-

Primary Secondary
circuit test
Pulse transformers, power transformers and instru-
 180° 270° 360°
mentation transformers 0° 90°
 Parts of a transformer and transformer cooling (d)

Flux lines build collapse upward in
 Transformer connections secondary
Transformer action
36.1 INTRODUCTION
When electric energy is transmitted, losses occur which depend on the magnitude of the current. In order to minimize these
losses, higher voltages are used and, thus, lower currents are needed for the same energy. On the other hand, it is necessary
to return to lower voltages for the sake of distribution at the place where power is being consumed and, furthermore, to
adjust these distribution voltages to the various requirements.
The reason only alternating current is given priority over direct current is due to the fact that the former can be more
easily transformed.
By using very high voltage in power distribution lines, the required current can be kept low. This, is turn, means lower
losses in the lines. The problem with d.c. power is that it can only be generated at a relatively few thousand volts owing to
the limitations of the generator’s commutator and brushes. Once generated, the voltage cannot be raised to a higher level by
convenient means as far as high power level is concerned. This was a real limit in the past.
Alternating current can be and is generated at 15000 volts and higher. Then, by the use of transformers, it can be raised
to levels of many hundreds of thousand of volts; thus, enormous power can be carried over long distance at low current
levels (see Figure 36.1).
Figure 36.1 Typical Higher Voltage Transformer and Associated Switching Structure
36.2 MUTUAL COUPLING

The property of mutual inductance is associated with the
flux of one coil linking with the turns of a second coil. The Linkage
alternating current i1 in the coil illustrated in Figure 36.2 flux
creates an alternating magnetic flux, part of which only links
coil 1 (this is referred to as the linkage flux) and the remainder
links coil 2 causing an induced voltage, V2, whose magnitude,
in part, depends on i1 and the value of the mutual inductance i1
between the coils.
Mutual inductance, M, like self inductance, is measured
in henrys. The mutual inductance is 1 Henry if—when the
current i is instantaneously changing at the rate of one ampere
per second—the induced voltage v2, is 1 volt. The factors that Linkage V2
determine the value of mutual inductance are; the number of Coil 1 Coil 2
flux
N1 turns N2 turns
turns for N1 and N2, the cross-sectional area of the coils, the
orientation of their axes and the nature of their cores.
Induced voltage, V2 = M × rate of change in i1.
In terms of sine wave values
V2r.m.s = 2pf Mi1r.m.s (36.1)
where, f is the frequency of the current i1.
Provided the two coils are wound in the same sense, V2 lags
i1 by 90°, but if the coils are in the opposite sense V2 leads i1 by
90°. The property of mutual inductance is reversible, so that if
the same rate of change of current, i1 is flowing in coil 2, then the
voltage induced in coil 1 is (M × rate of change in i1). Figure 36.2 Mutual Coupling
If the coils are tightly wound, one on top of the other, with a common soft-iron core, the leakage flux is negligible.
Assuming perfect flux linkage between the coils, the mutual inductance is
µ0 µ1 N1 N 2 A
M = Henrys (36.2)
l
where,
A is the cross-sectional area of each of the coils in square metres
m r is the relative permeability of soft-iron.
l is the length of the coils in metre
µ0 = 4π × 10−7
µ0 µ1 N12 A
The self - inductance of f L1 = Henrys (36.3)
l
µ µ N2A
and that of L 2 = 0 1 2 Henrys (36.4)
l
Then =M 2
L=
1 L2 and M L1 L 2 (36.5)
In case leakage flux cannot be neglected, then only a fraction, k, of the total flux links the two coils. The fraction k which
cannot exceed 1 is called the coefficient of coupling or coupling factor.
Equation (36.5) can now be written as
M = k L1 L 2 (36.6)
N2 N
Also M = k L1 × = kl2 × 1 (36.7)
N1 N2
If L1 = L2 = L
then k = M/L and M = kL (36.8)
Note: If a steady direct current flows through L1, the linkage flux is constant in magnitude and direction and the voltage
induced in L2 is zero.
36.3 SERIES CONNECTION OF MUTUALLY-COUPLED COILS

The individual fluxes of two mutually coupled coils, connected in series, can aid or oppose depending on the sense in which
the coils are wound (see Figure 36.3(a)).
A B
M
k
L1 + L2 + 2M
L1 L2
Coil #1 Coil #2 L1 + L2 + 2k × L1L2
(a) (b)
Figure 36.3 Coils in Series Aiding
If the coils are in series aiding, as shown in Figure 36.3(a), then,

LT+ = L1 + L 2 + 2 M = L1 + L 2 + 2k L1 L 2 (36.9)
If the fluxes are opposing, then
LT− = L1 + L 2 − 2 M = L1 + L 2 − 2k L1 L 2 (36.10)
LT+ − LT−
and M = (36.11)
4
The (+) and (–) signs are for aiding and opposing, respectively.
If L1 = L2 = L, then
L1+ = 2( L + M ) = 2 L(l + k ) (36.12)
and L1− = 2( L − M ) = 2 L(1 − k ) (36.13)

LT+ + LT−
and L= (36.14)
4
LT+ − LT−
M = (36.15)
4
LT+ − LT−
and k = (36.16)
LT+ + LT−
36.4 PARALLEL CONNECTION OF MUTUALLY COUPLED COILS

Figure 36.4 represents two mutually coupled coils in parallel. If the sense of the winding is such that the coils are in parallel
aiding, then
A
L1 L 2 − M 2
LT+ = (36.17)
L1 + L 2 − 2 M
However, if the sense of the winding is such that the coils are in parallel opposing,
the sign of M is reversed and M
L1 L2
L1 L 2 − M 2
LT− = (36.18)
L1 + L 2 + 2 M
and
1 1 1
= + (36.19)
LT L1 ± M L 2 ± M B
Note: If M = 0, Eqs. 36.17 through 36.19 reduce to the familiar product over sum Figure 36.4 Parallel Coils with
(L1L2 / (L1+L2)) formula, Mutual Inductance
If L1=L2= L
L+M
LT+ = (36.20)
2
L−M
and LT− = (36.21)
2
Example 36.1
Two coils whose self inductances are 75 mH and 125 mH have a mutual inductance of 155 mH. What is the coupling factor?
Calculate the equivalent inductance if the coils are connected in (1) series–aiding (2) series opposing.
Solution:
15.5
Coupling factor, k = = 0.155
75 × 125
1. LT = L1 + L2 +2M
= 75+ 125+ 2 × 15.5 = 231 mH
2. LT = 75+125 – 2 × 15.5= 169 mH
Example 36.2
Two coils, whose self-inductances are 65 mH and 85 mH, are connected in parallel-aiding, with a coupling factor of 0.35.
What is the total equivalent inductance of the parallel combination? If one of the coils is now reversed without changing
the coupling factor, what is the total equivalent inductance?
Solution:
M = k L1 L 2 = 0.35 65 × 85 = 26 mH
parallel - aiding, LT = L1 L2 − M 2
L1 + L2 − 2M
65 × 85 − 262
= = 49.5 mH
65 + 85 − 52
L1 L 2 − M 2
parallel− - opposing LT =
L1 + L 2 + 2 M
65 × 85 − 262
=
65 + 85 + 52
= 24.0 mH
36.5 THE DOT CONVENTION

In Figure 36.5, two coils are shown with a common core which channels the magnetic flux f. This arrangement results in close
coupling. To determine the proper sign on the voltages of mutual induction, apply the right-hand rule to each coil.
f
I
R1 f1 f2 R2
Thumb
+ L1 L2 +
v1 i1 i2 v2
– M –
(a) (b)
Figure 36.5 (a) Close Coupling (b) Right-hand Rule

If the fingers wrap around in the direction of the assumed current, then the thumb points in the direction of the flux.
Resulting positive directions for f1 and f2 are shown in the Figure. If fluxes f1 and f2 aid one another, then the signs on the
voltages of mutual inductance are the same as the signs on the voltages of self-inductance.
In Figure 36.6, source v1 drives a current i1, with a corresponding flux f1 as shown. Lenz’s law implies that the polarity
of the induced voltage in the second circuit is such that if the circuit is completed, a current will pass through the second
coil in such a direction as to create a flux opposing the main flux established by i1. When the switch is closed, as illustrated
in Figure 36.6(b) flux f2 will have the direction shown. The right-hand rule, with the thumb pointing in the direction of
f2 provides the direction of the natural current i2. The induced voltage is the driving voltage for the second circuit, as
suggested in Figure 36.6(b). This voltage is present whether or not the circuit is closed. When this switch is closed, current
i2 is established with a positive direction as shown.
R2
R1 φ1 φ2 R2
L2
+ L1 L2
v1 i1 i2
– i2
M di1 –
M +
dt
(a) (b)
Figure 36.6 (a) A Passive Second Loop (Switch Open) (b) Passive Second Loop (Switch Closed)
The sign on a voltage of mutual inductance can be determined if the winding sense is shown on the circuit diagram as in
Figures 36.5 and 36.6. To simplify matters, the coils are marked with dots at the terminals which are instantaneously of
the same polarity.
To assign the dots to a pair of coupled coils, select a current direction in one coil and place a dot at the terminal where the
current enters the winding. Determine the corresponding flux by application of the right-hand rule, as illustrated in Figure 36.7.
φ φ
i
i
Figure 36.7 Establishing the Sign on Voltage of Mutual Inductance

The flux of the other winding, according to Lenz’s law, opposes the first flux. Now let us place a dot at the terminal of the
second winding where the natural current leaves the winding. This terminal is simultaneously positive with the terminal of
the first coil when the initial current had entered. With the instantaneous polarity of the coupled coils given by the dots, the
pictorial representation of the core with its winding sense is no longer needed. The following dot rule may now be used:
1. When both the assumed currents enter or both leave a pair of coupled coils by the dotted terminals (Figure 36.8), the
signs on the M-terms will be the same as the signs on the L-terms, but.
2. If one current enters by dotted terminal, while the other leaves by a dotted terminal, the signs on the M-terms will be
opposite to the signs on the L-terms.
+ +
i1 i2 i1 i2
+ v +
v
– –
– –
(a) (b)
Figure 36.8 The Dot Rule
36.6 PREVENTING MUTUAL INDUCANCE

Mutual inductance can be reduced or prevented by methods such as: (1) Axis Orientation; (2) Physical Separation; and (3) Shielding.
1. Axis Orientation: In Figure 36.9(a), the two coils are near each other along a common axis, resulting in magnetic
coupling. Now if we suppose that the centre axes of the two coils are at 90° to each other, as shown in Figure 36.9(b);
under this condition, very little of the flux from one coil cuts the other coil. This amounts to saying that very little
coupling occurs between the two coils (inductors). When the axes of the coils are lined up and close together, as shown
in Figure 36.9(a), the result is mutual inductance.
Output Magnetic
Magnetic field
field
Axis
Coils near each

other along a
common axis
Generator
(a) (b)
Figure 36.9 Magnetic Coupling (a) High Mutual Inductance (b) Very Little Mutual Inductance
2. Physical Separation: When inductors are physically separated, then
mutual inductance is reduced. The further apart the inductors are, the
less the mutual inductance (coupling of flux) they have.
3. Shielding: An inductor which is enclosed in a magnetic shield has very
little mutual inductance with surrounding inductors (Figure 36.10). The
flux from surrounding inductors passes through low–reluctance, high-
permeability shield rather than through the shield enclosed inductor.
36.7 TRANSFORMER
The transformer is a simple, reliable and efficient device for changing an a.c.
voltage from one level to another. The ratio of voltage change, k, can be almost
any reasonable number either to step up or step down the voltage. Figure 36.10 A Radio Frequency
When two coils of wire are inductively coupled, the magnetic flux that Coil with Its Shield
passes through one coil passes through the other to a greater or lesser degree. In other words, the magnetic circuit is
common or largely common to both coils. If the magnetic flux is cyclically varying—because the coil that creates it has
a cyclically varying current in it—the magnetic flux linkage to the second coil is also cyclically changing. As a result,
the varying flux generates a second varying voltage in the second coil. The second voltage is transformer voltage and is
said to be created by transformer action (see Figure 36.11).
The availability and use of transformer action is one of the major reasons for commercial preference of alternating current
for power use. Alternating current is also subject to power losses in transmission by the I 2R effect. This product results in
Watts of lost power. If the current can be substantially reduced by raising the voltage, the I 2R loss can be drastically reduced.
This is the major reason for long transmission lines using high voltage levels. Very little power is lost in the transformer.
Transformers change voltage and inversely change current. They also may serve for electrical isolation and to change
impedances.
The input a.c. connection to the primary coil has been illustrated in Figure 36.11. The primary coil may be the high or
low voltage end. If the input is the high-voltage end, the transformer is called a step-down transformer. When operated in the
reverse order, with the primary coil using the low voltage, the unit is called a step-up transformer. Transformer symbols are
given in Figure 36.12. The figure is self explanatory.
Flux
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Primary Secondary
coil coil
Alternating
current –
+ +
–
Primary source Alternating (e) (f)

of power voltage
Figure 36.12 Transformer Symbols (a) Air Core
Figure 36.11 Transformer Action: The Primary (b) Iron Core (c) Shielded (d) Variable
Receives the Power, the Secondary Autotransformer (e) Multiple Second-
Delivers it aries (f) Center-Tapped Secondary
36.8 TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

The primary and secondary coils are connected magnetically by the laminated iron core, as has been shown in Figure 36.13.
They are not connected by electrical conductors. If the core forms a simple rectangle in construction, with the primary
coil surrounding one leg, and the secondary another parallel leg, it is known as a core-type transformer, as illustrated in
Figure 36.14. Conversely, if the core forms a rectangular figure eight, with both coils concentrically mounted on the middle
leg, it is known as a shell-type transformer as shown in Figure 36.15.
(a) (b)

 I laminations


 E laminations


 I laminations

I and E joints
(c)
Figure 36.13 Stacking of E and I Laminations (a) First Four Layers (b) Second Four Layers
H1
X1 High
voltage
Low
voltage H2
X2
Figure 36.14 The Core-type of Transformer
X1
H1
X2
H2
Figure 36.15 Shell Type of Transformer

The two types are different in construction and, as might be expected, they have somewhat different properties. The
differences are such that neither type has dominated the field. Both types are available.
In general, the core type has a longer mean length of the core and a shorter mean length of coil turn. The core type also
has a smaller cross-section of iron, and will need a greater number of turns of wire, since, in general, not as high a flux may
be reached in the core. However, the core-type is better adapted for some high-voltage services since there is more room
for insulation.
The shell type has better provision for mechanically supporting and bracing the coils. This allows better resistance
to the very high mechanical forces that develop during a high current short circuit.
Many satisfactory forms of lamination stacks have been developed using simple rectangular sheared or punched plates
of core steel. Higher production units use E-shaped or L-shaped punchings. Finally, the core may be wound of a continuous
ribbon of special high permeability steel.
With either of the transformer constructions, the coils are carefully wound, mechanically supported in bobbins or
coil forms, and impregnated with insulation. The terminals are carefully supported and brought out to a terminal board
or insulators.
The transformer core is assembled inside the coils, and is mechanically clamped, otherwise supported in position.
Clamping is necessary to keep the laminations from moving under cyclic magnetic forces. The electrical and magnetic
assembly is then placed in a case except for the very smallest sizes. Very small units are sometimes of open construction
with mounting brackets attached to the core. Medium and large units are fully cased.
Small and medium transformers are air cooled even if of cased construction. Large sizes are filled with an insulating
transformer oil in order to transmit heat from the coils and core to the outside surface where air cooling is available. Still
larger sizes have either cooling fans or actual oil-to-air radiators to enable the heat to be transmitted to the surrounding air.
36.9 IDEAL TRANSFORMER

If a transformer could be constructed with ideal properties it would need to have the following not quite attainable properties.
1. All magnetic flux created by the primary coil would ideally link with the secondary coil. There would be no leakage
flux. This is nearly achieved in a carefully designed iron core transformer.
2. The primary and secondary coils would have zero resistance. Again, this is nearly achieved, but some resistance is present,
since the conductor cross-section is limited. A transformer having these ideal properties is shown in Figure 36.16.
φm
H1
X1 I1 E1 E2
I2
V2 Load
V1
H2
X2
Figure 36.16 Ideal Transformer
The operation of the ideal is then as follows.

1. With the incoming primary coil voltage momentarily being positive, the direction of the primary current is as shown
with the arrow I1. This produces the magnetic flux fm in the direction shown. The subscript m signifies mutual flux. In
an ideal transformer, that is the only flux present.
2. Since this flux fm is changing, it is inducing a voltage E1, which opposes the applied voltage V1. The dot convention
shows that the induced voltage is positive at the top of the coil when applied voltage is positive. This is in accordance
with Lenz’s law.
3. At the same time, the magnetic flux is also inducing a voltage E2 in the secondary coil.
4. Again, in accordance with Lenz’s law, this voltage must be of such polarity that any current, I2, that it produces must
also oppose the mutual flux.
If these conditions are true, as they certainly are qualitatively even in a real transformer, then
1. If there is no load, or the secondary circuit is open I2 = 0 A.
2. Since the applied voltage V1 is alternating in polarity, its resultant current I1 is also alternating. I1 produces the flux
fm which also alternates at the same frequency. The alternating flux induces voltage E1, which constantly opposes
V1, and induces voltage E2. These are also alternating voltages whose instantaneous polarities follow the dot con-
vention.
3. There is a small component of the I1 current that remains, because I1 is not completely cancelled. Thus, E1 does not
quite equal V1. This small component is called Im or the magnetizing current. This is the current necessary to overcome
the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The reluctance is low in a magnetic circuit, but it is not zero. The magnetizing
current is the only current during no load.
4. Figure 36.l7(a) shows the relations of these various phasors under no-load condition. Im lags the primary voltage by
90° because the coil is assumed to be a pure inductance (no resistance). The flux fm is in phase with the current.
5. The varying flux leads the voltage that it induces by 90°. Yet another way of saying this is that induced voltages E1
and E2 are lagging the flux by 90°. This brings E1 180° out of phase with V1; or E1 opposes V1. This is entirely in
accordance with an ideal inductance at this stage since the secondary coil is an open circuit and does not yet have any
effect.
6. Let us assume that an inductance or lagging load is connected to the secondary terminals, as illustrated in
Figure 36.17(b). A lagging load is by far the most usual situation for a power transformer and this is most realistic. The
lagging current I2 can be seen to lag the secondary voltage E2 by the power factor angle q2.
I2 Where θ ′1 = θ 2
E1 (also E2) V1 E2 θ2 V1
θ ′1
I1 = Im Im
I ′1
φm φm
(a) (b)
I2 Where θ ′1 = θ 2
E2 θ2 V1
θ ′1
Im
I ′1
θ1
I1
Φm
(c)
Figure 36.17 Ideal Transformer Phase Relations (a) Primary Coil Relations, No Load
(b) Secondary Coil Relation, Under Load (c) Primary Coil Relations, Under Load
7. Even though this is an assumed ideal transformer it, nonetheless, has real properties. Its secondary current I2 and secondary
coil turns N2 together produce a demagnetizing flux that is proportional to I2N2 and which opposes fm. This effect, if not
compensated, would tend to reduce both E2 and E1 voltages.
8. Thus, the assumed direction of E1 voltage causes the primary component of the load current I'1 flow in the primary,
I' N1 = I2N2, so that the same number of ampere turns of magnetization that was lost in step 7 is restored. The sinusoidal
flux level in a transformer then remains nearly constant. The symmetry between I2 and q2 on the one hand and I'1, and
q´1 on the other should be kept in mind.
9. With reference to Figure 36.17(c) it can be seen that now there are two components of the primary coil current
Im and I´1, The phasor sum of these currents is then I1, which may be seen to have a different power factor angle
q1. Thus, in loading an ideal transformer, its primary current will assume a lower power factor than its original
q = 90° when unloaded. The power factor angle q1 reflects the load power factor angle as one of its component
parts. Therefore, the power factor angle q1 of the primary current is not the same as q2, of the load current and as a
result, angle q1 > q2.
36.10 TRANSFORMATION RATIO

The effect of loading is roughly analogous to the loading of a d.c. shunt motor. The back e.m.f. of generator action
decreases along with the speed until enough additional current is drawn for the load to be supported. Here, the presence of
I2 phasor forces I´1 to grow. In turn, the phasor sum of I´1 and Im grows until sufficient current is drawn to support the load
and maintain the magnetizing ampere turns.
The equality between the secondary demagnetizing ampere turns and the primary magnetomotive force ampere turns
can be equated. Thus
I´1 N1 = I2N2 (36.22)
The above equation can also be written as
I2 N1
= =k (36.23)
′
I1 N2
Here k is a transformation ratio, or ratio of primary coil turns to secondary coil turns. This is popularly known as the
turns ratio.
The turns ratio is a fixed quantity, depending on the actual number of turns in the winding coils as the transformer is
wound and connected. It is not a constant in a fundamental sense, but is rather a built-in fixed ratio.
Example 36.3
The high-voltage coil of a transformer is wound with 700 turns of wire, and the low-voltage coil is wound with 292 turns.
When used as a step-up transformer, the load current is 10.5 A. Find: (1) The transformation ratio k, and (2) The I´1 current,
which is the load component of the primary current.
Solution:
1. N1/N2 = k
292/700 = k = 0.417
2. I2/I´1 = k or I´1 = I2/k
= 10.5/0.417= 25.2 A
Note:
1. In a real situation, the actual current is a few per cent higher than I´1 This is to allow for the component Im.
2. There will also be added currents necessary to account for the leakage of magnetic flux.
3. The high voltage side always has the smaller current and vice versa.
Example 36.4
Using the same transformer as in Example 36.3, calculate its transformation ratio when used as a step-down transformer.
Solution:
Now, the high-voltage winding is the primary.
N1/N2 = 700/292
k = 2.40
Note:
1. Equation 36.22 works both ways.
2. Subscript 1 means primary. Subscript 2 means secondary.
3. The transformer can be used either for step-up or for step-down.
4. k depends on how the transformer is used.
5. The two numbers are reciprocals.
N1 E1 I2 V
6. =
k = = = 1
N2 E2 I1 V2
7. E1 > V1 and E2 > V2 (by a small amount in a practical transformer).

8. V1I1 >V2I2.
In an ideal transformer, the volt-amperes in the primary circuit equals the volt amperes in the secondary circuit if we
neglect Im. If I´1 is much larger than Im, we may say that E1I1 = E2I2. Finally, for an ideal transformer with no flux losses, no
I 2R losses and negligible magnetizing current, V1I1 = V2 I2. In a real transformer of very large size, the difference between
the output power and its input power is around 1 per cent. Even in small to medium sizes, less than 10 per cent loss is not
usual. Transformers are rated in volt-amperes or kilovolt-amperes rather than Watts. The volts per turn is constant since
each turn is cut by the same flux.
Example 36.5
A 4600 to 230 V, 60 Hz, 7.5 kVA transformer is rated at 2.6 volts per turn of its winding coils. Assuming it to be an ideal
transformer, calculate the (1) Step-up ratio, (2) step-down ratio, (3) total turns of the high voltage coil, (4) total low-voltage
turns, (5) Primary current as a step-down, and (6) secondary current as a step-up.
Solution:
1. V1/V2 = k = 0.05
1 1
2. = = 20
k 0.05
4600 Vt
3. = 1769 turns
2.6 V
230 Vt
4. = 8.5 turns
2.6 V
5. As a step-down transformer, 4600 V coil is the primary

7.5 kVA(1000 VA)
= 9.63 A
(4600 V) kVA
6. 230 V is the secondary rating
7500 VA
= 32.6 A
230 V
36.11 GENERAL TRANSFORMER EQUATION

To develop the basic voltage relationship in a transformer, on a basis that does not involve the turns ratio, we start with
Eq. 36.24.
φ volts
E av =
t turns (36.24)
Equation 36.24 relates a steady value of the magnetic flux f, with a time to link that flux. As a result, the voltage produced
is given as Eav, since nothing is assumed about the uniformity or the lack of uniformity of the velocity required to traverse
the flux in time t. If, we now realize that the winding turn does not move, but that flux changes sinusoidally and cyclically
from maximum through zero to an opposite polarity maximum, we can then write:
E av = 4φm f N (36.25)
where,
fm refers to the peak mutual flux
f = the cyclic frequency of flux variation
N = the number of turns required (Primary or Secondary)
Since the voltage term wanted is the root mean squared rather than the average, the exact relation needed is.
Eav=4(1.1l)fm f N (36.26)
This is the general transformer equation. The peak flux is a limitation of the magnetic material chosen, and then related to
the physical size of the unit in question. The higher the total flux, the less turns are needed to induce a given voltage, as a
transformer is enlarged (it has room for a larger cross-section core), The peak magnetic flux chosen is normally not far around
the knee of the curve—as can be seen in Figure 36.18—since a non-linear change in flux with the primary coil current will
introduce a non-linear relation between applied voltage and induced voltage. This will result in appreciable harmonics in the
transformer output.
Flux density – β , webers per square metre

1.8 Annealed sheet
silicon steel
1.6
1.4 Cast steel

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 Cast iron
0.2
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
H ampere turns per metre
Figure 36.18 Magnetization Curves
A transformer is also limited in its usable frequency. Since the maximum permissible flux density may not be exceeded, a
reduction in frequency must be accompanied by a reduction in the applied voltage.
Example 36.6
A 4600 to 230 V, 60 Hz, step-down transformer has core dimensions of 76.2 mm by 111.8 mm. A maximum flux density of
0.930 Wb/m2 is to be used. Calculate the following assuming 9 per cent loss of area due to stacking factor of laminations, (1)
primary turns required, (2) turns per volt, (3) secondary turns required and (4 ) transformation ratio. Give your comments.
Solution:
Although the mechanical dimensions are normally given in millimetres, the calculations are performed in metres.
0.0762 m (0.118 m)(0.91) = 0.007752 m 2
0.93000 Wb
0.00752 m 2 = φ = 0.0072 Wb
m2
E
N =
4.4428 f φ pm
4600
1. Np = = 2397 turns
4.4428(60)(0.0072)
2. 2397t/4600 V = 0.521 t/V

3. 230 V × 0.521 t/V = 120 turns
4. k = 4600/230 = 20
Comments:
1. The transformer specified is a fairly large one owing to its core size. Had its core area been less, say, 0.1 times the
area specified, the required turns would have been 10 times as much; because 0.1 times the area would have meant
0.1 times the peak mutual flux. This, in turn is reasonable, since fm (maximum flux density or flux per unit area) is an
inherent quality of the magnetic steel.
2. Since the frequency f is also a linear component of the basic equations, if the frequency is changed, the voltage must
change in a given transformer. A transformer designed for a low frequency can be used at a higher frequency. If the
voltage is not changed the peak magnetic flux will be less. The other way around, if the frequency is reduced the volt-
age must also decrease because the magnetic flux cannot substantially increase.
Example 36.7
A 120 V to 27.5 V, 400 Hz, step-down transformer is to be operated at 60 Hz. Find (1) the highest safe input voltage and
(2) the transformation ratio in both frequency situations. Give your comments.
Solution:
1. Since the peak mutual flux cannot increase, the allowed voltage must decrease in proportion because the general trans-
former equation must fit in either situation.
120 (60/400) =18 V
2. The 27.5 V secondary must also decrease by the same ratio since the volts per turn are the same for both primary and
secondary.
Therefore,
V1 120
=
k = = 4.36
V2 27.5
The general transformer equation does not specify the current lm. However, the magnetization of the core requires ampere
turns through the coil. This current is related to the lamination steel used and how far beyond the true linear portion of the
magnetization curve—as shown in Figure 36.18—the designer cares to go. Single-phase transformers will develop severe
harmonics in the input voltage and current if the operating point of fm is too far up the curve.
Example 36.8
The transformer in Example 36.6 is operated with no load or an open secondary. The mean magnetic path length is 1219
mm. Find the current required to maintain the core magnetization.
Solution:
The specified magnetic flux densities are entered into Figure 36.l8 to find the required A-t/m of the core length. For b =
0.930 Wb/m2, m = 420 A-t/m. (using the curves for annealed sheet silicon steel). The required ampere turns is (404 × 1.219)
= 494 turns. It is not possible to interpret the curve to sufficient accuracy.
The peak magnetization takes place during the peak current (for a.c. currents are rated in r.m.s values) 495 AT/2397
T = 0.207 peak amperes = 0.146 A=Im. This will still be under ideal transformer condition, and there will be some
loss. A transformer of this size would have a rating in the 15 to 20 kVA range, so that its rated Ip current would be in
the 2-3 A range.
36.12 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER

The ideal is not really achieved. One basic problem is that the inductive coupling between the coil windings is not
perfect. In spite of all precautions in the design of the magnetic circuit, there is some small magnetic flux leakage
from each coil. Each coil has some resistance which produces I 2 R losses. Each coil has inductance by virtue of its
construction so that the currents passing through the coil see IZ voltage drop through the impedance. A loaded practical
transformer then corresponds to Figure 36.19.
Z1 = ( R1 ) 2 + ( X L1 ) 2 (36.27)
Z1 = R1 + jXL1 (36.28)
E1 = V1 − IZ (36.29)
V1 = E1 + I1Z (36.30)
N1 E1
=
k = (36.31)
N2 E2
Z 2 = ( R 2 ) 2 + ( X L2)2 (36.32)
Z 2 = R 2 + jX L 2 (36.33)
Ê 2 = V2 + I 2 Z 2 (36.34)
V2 = Ê 2 − jI 2 Z 2 (36.35)
Where,
f1 is the primary leakage flux
f2 is the secondary leakage flux
R1 is the primary coil resistance
XL1 is the primary coil inductive leakage reactance due to leakage flux
R2 is the secondary coil resistance
and XL2 is the secondary coil inductive leakage reactance due to leakage flux.
These are simply the real-world circuit values that must exist since it is not possible to build coils around a magnetic
core without some resistance and substantial inductance. The R and X components are really combined in the same wire
length of the coils.
These values are minimized by careful construction, as are the unavoidable leakage fluxes. The shell construction will
nearly eliminate the leakage fluxes. However, the coils will then be longer (have a longer mean length) and the resistance
will be inevitably greater.
The actual physical design is a compromise of many factors. Improvements in the properties of lamination steel directly
improve the transformer design. Higher attainable flux density would allow less winding turns for the same-sized core ow-
ing to a larger total flux in a smaller physical size. This effect would reduce the winding size and resistance.
From Figure 36.19, as well as the ordinary a.c. circuit theory, it can be seen that the following instantaneous relations
are true if the correct phasor relations are used:
Primary leakage Secondary leakage

flux = Φ 1 flux = Φ 2
Mutual flux I2Z2
I1Z1
Φm
R1 XL1 XL2 R2
I1 E1 E2
I2 ZL
V1 Φ1 V2
Φ2
N1 turns N2 turns
Figure 36.19 Practical Transformer Circuit Relations
E1′ = V1′ − I1′ Z1 or V1′ = E1′ + I1′ Z1 (36.36)
E 2′ = V2′ + I 2′ Z 2 (36.37)
and
Further E1′ = V1′ − I1′ ( R 1 ) 2 + ( XL1 ) 2 (36.38)
E2′ = V2′ + I 22 ( R 2 ) 2 + ( X L 2 ) 2 (36.39)
For a loaded practical transformer with lagging PF,

V1 > E1 and V2 > E2
The simple algebraic addition or subtraction of the IZ terms corresponds to the worst possible power factor, but it is a useful
first approximation.
36.13 TRANSFORMER RATINGS

The manufacturer of an electrical machine usually indicates on the nameplate the normal operating conditions. A typical
nameplate might read ‘4600 : 230 V, 60 Hz, 10 kVA’. The design voltages of the two windings are 4600 V and 230 V r.m.s
and the turns ratio is 1:20; either side may be the primary. At a frequency of 60 Hz, the design voltages bring the operation
near the knee of the magnetization curve and the core losses are not excessive.
The actual primary voltage will be that necessary to provide rated secondary voltage under rated load. On large
transformers, taps on the windings allow small adjustments in the turns ratio. Using either side as a secondary, the rated
output of 10 kVA (full load) can be maintained continuously without excessive heating, and the consequent deterioration
of the winding insulation. Since the heating is dependent on the square of the current, the output is rated in apparent power
(kVA) rather than in power (kW). Supplying a zero power-factor load, a transformer can be operating at rated output while
delivering zero power.
The cross-section of the iron core is determined by the operating voltage and frequency. The cross section of the copper
conductor is determined by the operating current. Knowing the effect of these factors, an engineer can operate a device
under changed operating conditions.
When electrical isolation between primary and secondary is not required, an auto transformer offers a low cost high-
efficiency alternative. In the auto-transformer, all the turns link the same flux, but some of the turns carry both primary and
secondary currents.
Example 36.9
A 2300 V to 230 V step-down transformer is rated at 750 kVA and 60 Hz. Its windings have the following resistances and
inductances: R1 = 0.093 W, XL1 = 0.280 W, R2 = 0.00093 W and XL2 = 0.00280 W. The transformer is operating at rated load.
Calculate the following:
1. Primary and secondary currents.
2. Primary and secondary winding impedances.
3. Primary and secondary winding voltage drops.
4. Primary and secondary induced voltages.
5. The transformation ratio.
6. Ratio of terminal voltages.
Solution:
kVA 75000
1. = I1 =
V1 2300
= 326.1 A
750000
I2 = = 3216 A
230
I1 when determined in this fashion assumes no losses in the transformer.
2. Z1 ( R1 ) 2 + ( X L1 ) 2 = (0.093) 2 + (0.280) 2 = 0.295 Ω
Z 2 ( R 2 )2 + ( X L 2 )2 = (0.00093) 2 + (0.00280) 2 = 0.00295 Ω
3. = =
I1Z1 326 .1(0.295) 96.2 V
I 2 Z 2 = 326.1(0.00295) = 0.962 V
4. E1 = V1 − I1Z1 = 2300 − 96.2 = 2204 V

E2 = V2 − I 2 Z 2 = 230 + 9.62 = 239.6 V
2204
5. k = = 9.198
239.4
V1 2300
6. = = 10
V2 130
Note:
1. A transformer actually has a turns ratio that is numerically less than the terminal voltage ratio.
2. A transformer can be used either way within its ratings.
Example 36.10
Using the same transformer, as in Example 36.8, as a step-up unit with the rated kVA at the low- voltage winding, determine
the probable secondary voltage.
Solution:
E1 = V1–I1Z1 = 230 – 0.92 = 220.4 V
1
=k = 0.1087
9.193
E1 220.4
E=
2 = = 2028 V
k 0.1087
E 2 = V2 + I 2 Z 2 or V2 = E2 − I 2 Z 2
(2028 − 96.2)V = V2
V2 = 1932 V
Comparable ratios of performance hold for any transformer under reversed conditions. As a result, many transformers have
tapped windings or a choice of many turns ratios.
Example 36.11
The high voltage side of a transformer has 500 turns and the low-voltage side has 100 turns. When connected as a step-down
transformer, the load current I2 is 12 A. Calculate: (1) transformation ratio, (2) load component of primary current (I1) and (3)
transformation ratio if the transformer is used as step-up transformer.
Solution:
N1 500
1. = k = =5
N 2 100
I 2 12
2. =
I1 = = 2.4 A
k 5
N1 100
3. =
k = = 0.2
N2 500
Example 36.12
A 2300/115 V, 60 Hz, 4.6 kVA step-down transformer is designed to have an induced e.m.f. of 2.5V/turn. Assuming an
ideal transformer, calculate (1) Number of high-side and low-side turns, (2) Rated primary and secondary current, (3) Step-
down and step-up ratio, using answers to part (1), and (4) Step-down and step-up ratios using answers to part (2).
Solution:
2300
1. Nh = = 920t = N1
2.5
115
Nl = = 46t = N 2
2.5
4600
2. Ih = = 2A
2300
4600
Il = = 40 A
115
920
3. kh = = 20
46
46
kl = = 0.05
920
40
4. kh = = 20
2
2
kl = = 0.05
40
Example 36.13
A 1 kVA, 220/110 V, 400 Hz transformer is desired to be used at a frequency of 60 Hz. Calculate: (1) the maximum r.m.s
voltage that may be applied to the high voltage side and maximum voltage output of the low-voltage side, (2) The kVA
rating of the transformer under conditions of reduced frequency.
Solution:
1. To maintain the same permissible flux density, both voltages of the high and low sides must change in the same propor-
tion as the frequency.
60
Eh = 220 × = 33 V and
400
Eh 33.0
El = = = 16.5 V
k 2
2. The original current rating of the transformer is unchanged, since the conductors still have the same current-carrying
capacity. Thus,
1 × 103
Ih = = 4.545 A and the new VA rating is
220
Vh I h = Vl I l = 33 × 4.545 − 150 VA
= 0.15 kVA
36.14 TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

The ability to lump together the equivalent combined circuit of a primary and secondary depends on the concept of
reflected impedance.
36.14.1 Reflected Impedance

Referring to Figure 36.19 and using the nomenclature shown, we may develop an impedance reflection scheme as follows:
1. If the load impedance ZL is removed, the secondary is open circuit, I2 = 0 and ZL = ∞.
2. Looking back into the transformed secondary terminals, the impedance is Z2 = V2 /I2.
3. Looking into the primary terminals, the impedance is Z1 = V1/I´1
4. A change in the load current I2 is reflected by a change in the primary current. Since the primary and secondary are
related, we can use a single equivalent circuit with the secondary reflected to the primary. Thus
V1 = kV2 and I1′ = I 2 /k2

kV2 V
= Z1 = k 2 = k 2 Z 2 or k 2 = Z1/Z 2. (36.40)
I 2 /k I2
The fact that the ratio of the input to output impedance is equal to the transformation ratio squared is of vital importance.
Primary and secondary impedance are related to Ohm’s law, so that
1. The high-voltage side has a relatively lower current and, thus, higher impedance.
2. The low-voltage side has a relatively higher current and thus lower impedance.
3. When reflected to the high-voltage side, impedance is higher, and vice versa.
Example 36.14
Find the turns ratio of the transformer to provide impedance matching in the circuit in Figure 36.20.
Solution:
If the connection is made direct, as in Figure 36.20 very little power develops in the 10,000 Ω
4 W load. A transformer, as represented in Figure 36.21 is, therefore, inserted as k2 4Ω
50 V
will have to equal 4/10000.
k 2 = 2500 (a)
=k =
2500 50 Figure 36.20 For Example 36.14
I1 k = N1/N2
I2
50:1
V1 Z1 V2 ZL
10,000 Ω 4Ω
10,000 Ω
50 V
Z12 = k 2Z2
(a) (b)
Figure 36.21 (a) Impedance-Matching (b) Impedance-Matching Transformer
Example 36.15
An audio output transformer connected between audio amplifier and its speaker has 500 primary turns and 25 secondary
turns. If the speaker impedance is 8 W, calculate:
1. Impedance reflected to the transformer primary at the output of the amplifier.
2. Matching transformer primary current if the output of the amplifier is 10 V.
Solution:
N 500
1. k = 1 = = 20
N2 25
Z1 = k 2 Z L = (20) 2 × 800 = 3200 Ω = 3.2 kΩ
V1 10
2. =
I1 = = 3.124 A
Z1 3200
36.14.2 Impedance Matching

The transformation ratios are V1/V2 = N1/N2 = k and, correspondingly, I1/I2 = N2/N1 = 1/k. If we divide the voltage ratios by
the current ratios, we get the respective impedance ratios.
V1/V2 k Z
= = 1 = k2 (36.41)
I1/ I 2 1/ k Z2
Z1 = k 2Z L
Z1 = k 2 ZL
The above relation establishes the transformer as an impedance-
matching device. It states that the ‘total impedance on the secondary of a Z1 = Z 2′ II Z ′3 N2
transformer, ZL, is reflected back to the primary as a primary impedance V2
Z2
N1
which is ZL(k2), where ZL is the matching transformer secondary load x
(where ZL > > Z2) and k is the turns ratio N1/N2. VP Z1
N3 y
36.l4.3 The Three Winding Transformer as an V3 Z3
Impedance Matching Device

Figure 36.22 shows an impedance-matching transformer having two Figure 36.22 Impedance-matching Trans-
separate secondary windings, N2 and N3 each connected to two separate former with Two Separate
loads, Z2 and Z3, respectively. Treating each impedance separately Secondary Loads
( NN )
2
1
Impedance reflected by Z 2 = Z 2′ = Z 2 (36.42)
2
= Z′ = Z ( )
2
N 1
Impedance reflected by Z3 3
(36.43)
3
N 2
The two reflected impedances, Z´2 and Z´3, may be considered as two unequal parallel impedances reflected as the primary
impedance, where Zt = Z´2||Z´3 or
Z 2′ Z 3′
Zt = Ω (36.44)
Z ′2 + Z ′3
Z 2′ =( )
N1 2
N2
= Z2, Z 3′ = ( )
N1 2
N2
N
N1
N
= Z 3 , V2 = V p 2 and V3 = 3
N1
36.14.4 Tapped Matching Transformers

Frequently, tapped-matching transformers are used with their loads connected, as shown in Figure 36.23. In this case, load
Z3 sees its impedance reflected to the primary as Z´3= [N1/(N2 + N3)2] Z3, since Z3 is connected across the entire secondary.
A relatively common type of tapped impedance-matching transformer used to match the output of a transistorized audio
amplifier to a 4 W, or 8 W speaker load is shown in Figure 36.24. The load should present the same primary impedance, Zp, to
the audio amplifier in order to match the output impedance of the transistorized audio amplifier for maximum power transfer.
A
8Ω
N3
N1 NP B
4Ω
VP Z1
Z3 ZP N2
N2 N1
Z2
G
G
Figure 36.23 Tapped-secondary Impedance- Figure 36.24 Impedance-matching Transformer with

matching Transformer Two Taps for Single Secondary Load
Example 36.16
The output impedance of a (single channel 100 W) transistorized power amplifier is 3.2 kW. A tapped impedance-matching
transformer, as shown in Figure 36.24 having 1500 primary turns is used to match the amplifier output to either 4 W, or an
8 W speaker. Calculate: (1) total number of secondary turns, N2, to match an 8 W impedance speaker, (2) number of turns,
N1, to match a 4 W impedance speaker, (3) impedance that must be connected between the 4 W and 8 W terminals to reflect
a primary impedance of 3.2 kW.
Solution:
Zp 3200
1. k = = = 20
ZL 8
NP 1500t
N2 = = = 75t
k 20
ZP 3200
2. k = = = 28.284
ZL 4
Np 1500t
N1 = = = 53t
k 28.284
3. N 2 − N1 = 75t − 53t = 22t
Zp 3200
ZL = 2 = = 0.69 Ω
k (1500/ 22 ) 2
1. The 4 W tap is not placed at the centre of the secondary winding N2 but at some point approximately 0.7 of the total
winding with respect to terminal G.
2. As shown by part (3) of the solution, improperly connecting a 4 W or 8 W speaker between the 8 W and 4 W taps
produces a severe ‘mismatch’. The proper load impedance between these connections (for correct impedance match)
is 0.69 W. Such a mismatch reduces the power (and volume) to the speaker severely.
36.14.5 Equivalent Circuits

It can be seen from Figure 36.25 that the secondary winding resistance and inductive reactance and the load have been
reflected back to the primary. The resulting circuit has the primary, secondary and magnetization circuits shown in series
parallel. The primary current is composed of the magnetization current, Im and the load component I´1.
I1Z1 I1′k2Z2
R1 XL1 k2 R 2 k 2XL2
I1 Im I1′
Vj kV2 k 2ZL
Rm XLm
Figure 36.25 Equivalent Circuit of Loaded Power Transformer
Rm represents the in-phase component of the magnetization current; XLm represents the inductive reactance component of
the transformer with an open secondary. The total current Im is almost 90º lagging with respect to the voltage V1. If the
transformer is unloaded I´1 is zero and the right branch does not affect the circuit.
In Figure 36.26, the Rm and XLm block has been shifted to the input voltage V1 side of the R1 and XL1 components. This
would involve the magnetizing current being fed from the full V1 voltage without the small reduction due to I1Z1 drop. Since
the Im current is already very small in relation to I1 and at a very substantial phasor angle to it, this does not appreciably
affect the I1 current. However, it does allow the primary resistance and reactance components and the reflected secondary
resistance and reactance to be lumped as shown in Figure 36.26.
I1′Ze1
R 1+ k 2R2 XL1 + k 2XL2
I1 I1′
Im
Vj
kV2 k 2ZL
Rm XLm
Figure 36.26 Equivalent Circuit Approximation with Combined Primary

and Reflected Secondary Impedances
Then, since the Im current component is considered negligible, when the transformer is loaded, the lm branch can be
discarded leaving Figure 36.27 as the final simplification. The following combinations have been made.
I I1Ze1
I1 Re1 Xe1
V1 kV2 k 2ZL
Figure 36.27 Simplified Equivalent Circuit with Magnetizing Current Im Assumed as Negligible
Rel =R1+ k R2 2
(36.45)
Xel=XL1+k2XL2 (36.46)
Z e1 = ( R e1 ) 2 + ( X e1 ) 2 or (36.47)
Z e1 = R e1 + jX e1 (36.48)
As a result of the assumption that Im is minimal I1 ≅ I´1
We can now combine the resistive and reactive components of the load
V1
I1 = (36.49)
( R e1 + k 2 R L ) 2 + ( X e1 ± k 2 X L ) 2
V1
or in complex form I1 = (36.50)
R e1 + k R L + j ( X e1 ± k 2 X L )
2
The ± sign allows for load power factor, the plus sign for lagging load power factor, the minus sign for leading load power
factor, and the k2XL term drops out for unity power factor.
36.15 SECONDARY VOLTAGE PHASOR RELATIONS

Transformer impedances can be reflected either all to the primary or all to the secondary. To determine the secondary power
factor and voltage regulation, it is desirable to reflect impedances to the secondary. The impedance relationships become
equivalent secondary relations.
R1
R e2 = R 2 + 2 (36.51)
k
X L1
X e2 = X L 2 + (36.52)
k2
Z e2 = ( Re 2 )2 + ( X e 2 )2 (36.53)
Z e 2 = R e 2 + jX e 2 (36.54)
The relation between these impedances is shown in Figure 36.26.
36.15.1 Unity Power Factor Voltage Relations

When the phasors are combined in a diagram form as illustrated in Figure 36.28,
voltage regulation of a power transformer can be calculated. With a unity power
factor load, the output current I2 is drawn in line with the output terminal voltage V1
V2. Thus, the voltage phasor I2 Re2 is also in line with the output voltage V2. Since k
I2 Xe2
e2
I2 Z
the reflected primary and secondary impedances must be accounted for, the I2Ze2
phasor is drawn as shown. Ze3 is the combined impedance of both windings. The
relationship between V1 and V2 is
I2 = I1k V2 I2 Re2
V1
= (V2 + I 2 R e2 ) 2 + ( I 2 X eL ) 2 (36.55)
k Figure 36.28 Unity Power Factor
This is very similar to the voltage regulation of a synchronous alternator
under the unity power factor. V1
k Z e2
I2 = I1k I2
36.15.2 Lagging Power Factor Voltage Relations
e2
I2 X
When the load power factor is lagging, the load current lags behind q2 V2
the load voltage V2 by the power factor angle q, as shown in
Figure 36.29. Since the current in the secondary winding is in phase V
2 co
sq
with the load current, the voltage phasor I2Re2 is drawn parallel to the
q2
2
sin
load current I2, establishing the impedance triangle relationship to the

2
V
e2
V2 phasor. The voltage phasor V2 has been drawn horizontally; as is

I2 R
the conventional diagram attitude (the trigonometric visualization is

simplified). Figure 36.29 Lagging Power Factor
V1
= (V2 cos θ 2 + I 2 R e 2 ) 2 + (V2 sin θ 2 + I 2 R e 2 ) 2 (36.56a)
k
36.15.3 Leading Power Factor

When the load power factor is leading, the voltage phasor diagram assumes the relationship shown is Figure 36.30. Since the
load current leads the load voltage, I2 is shown leading V2, and V2 is still shown horizontally in a reference position.
V1
= (V2 cos θ 2 + I 2 R e 2 ) 2 + (V2 sin θ 2 − I 2 R e 2 ) 2 (36.56b)
k
The minus sign occurs in the last term since the V2 sin q2 phasor sense is opposite to the I2 Xe2 phasor.
Note: The relations in all three power factor situations involve the same reflected equivalent impedance triangle as can be
seen in Figure 36.31.
XL1
k2
Xe 2
e2
Z
XL2
I2 Xe2
s q2 V2
co
V2 sin q2
V1
k R1 R2
q2
I2 Re2 k2 Re2
V2
I2 = I1k
Figure 36.3l Reflected Equivalent
Figure 36.30 Leading Power Factor Impedance Relations
36.16 TRANSFORMER VOLTAGE REGULATION

The fall in output terminal voltage is known as regulation and increases as the load increases. It is usually expressed as
a percentage of the secondary no load voltage.
No load secondary voltage − full load secondary voltage

Per cent regulation =
full load secondary voltage
In Eq. 36.56, the last term is plus (+) for unity and lagging power factor and minus (–) for leading power factor. Again, if
the power factor is unity, the cos q2 term is unity and the sin q2 term is zero. Equation 36.56 becomes Eq 36.55. The output
voltage of a transformer is not intended to match the input voltage, but rather the input voltage times the transformation
ratio (V1/k). The voltage regulation then becomes
V1 / k − V2
100 = per cent regulation (36.57)
V2
36.17 MAXMIMUM POWER TRANSFER

Figure 36.32 shows a practical a.c. source, V, whose internal impedance, ZS, is essentially resistive. The terminal voltage of
the source is V1. Since the transformer is ideal, the primary induced voltage E1 = V1. The load impedance ZL is resistive, RL,
and is coupled to the source via an ideal matching transformer. The load impedance reflected to the primary is Zp, where,
Zp = k2ZL = k2RL.
N1
I1 k= I2
Zs = Rs N2
Zp
Vs N1 N2
+
V V1 = E1 E2 = V2 ZL = RL V2
–
Source Ideal
matching
transformer
Figure 36.32 Using Matching Transformer for Maximum Power Transfer from Source (V) to Load (RL)
For maximum power transfer in a.c. circuits, the following equalities occur.
1. The reflected impedance to the primary must be the conjugate of the source impedance. For the resistive case shown
in Figure 36.32.
ZP RS
R=
P R=
S =
k 2 R L , and k =
ZL RL
2. The terminal voltage V1 is equal in magnitude to the internal voltage drop across the source impedance or half the
source voltage V:
V
=
V1 V=S
2
3. Then the secondary terminal voltage V2, using the transformation ratio, is
V1 V
V2 = =
k 2k
4. The secondary current, I2 and primary current I1 are, respectively,

V2 V V V
I2 = = 1 = =
ZL kZ L 2kZ1 2kR L
I2 V V V
I1 = = = =
k Z1 + Z P 2 ZP 2 R S
5. Then the power transferred to the load is
PL = I 22 R L
6. The power supplied by the source or the total system power, PT is
PT = VI1 cos θ = PL + PS = I 22 R L + I12 RS
7. And the power transfer efficiency, η is

PL
η = 50 per cent
PT
Example 36.17
For the circuit shown in Figure 36.32 the supply voltage of the source is 10∟0◦ V, the resistance of the source is 1 kW, and
the load resistance, is 10 W. Calculate:
(1) required transformation ratio of the matching transformer for MPT; (2) terminal voltage of the source at MPT; (3)
terminal voltage across the load at MPT; (4) secondary load current I2, by at least two independent methods; (5) primary load
current drawn from the source, I1 by at least two methods; (6) maximum power dissipated in the load; (7) power dissipated
internally within the source (8) power transfer efficiency.
Solution:
RS 1000
1. =k = = 10
RL 10
2. V 10 0ο V
V1 = = = 5V
2 L
V1 5 V
3. V=
2 = = 0.5 V
k 10
V2 0.5 V V 10 V
4. I2 = = = 50 mA, I 2 = = = 50 mA
Z1 10 W 2kR L 10′10 W
I2 50 mA V 10 V
5. I1 = = = 5 mA; I1 = = = 5 mA
k 10 2RS 21 kW
6. PL = I 22 RL = (50 mA) 2 10 Ω = 25 mW
7. PT = VI1 cos θ = (10 V)(5 mA)(1) = 50 mW; PT + PS = 25 mW = 50 mW

PL 25 mW
8. η= = = 50 per cent
Pr 50 mW
36.18 LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS

A transformer heats up when in operation. The basic purpose of a transformer is not to provide heat but to transfer energy
from the primary to the secondary. Any heat produced by a transformer represents a power loss or inefficiency. The
efficiency η of a transformer is
PS
percentage efficiency, η = × 100 (36.58)
PP
The power consumed by the transformer is referred to as a power loss. This is caused by hysteresis loss, eddy current loss,
and copper or I 2 R loss.
1. Hysteresis Loss: This has been dealt with in detail in Chapter 10.
2. Eddy Current Loss: The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the coil conductors as well as the core. The
voltage induced in the core causes the current to circulate in the core. This current is called eddy current. The eddy
current, in flowing through the resistance of the core, produces heat.
An eddy current is defined as a local current induced in a conducting, body by a varying or relatively moving magnetic flux.
The production of eddy currents is a serious disadvantage firstly because energy is expended in producing them, and
secondly because the eddy currents produce heat and may cause an undesirable temperature rise.
In a.c. circuits, the eddy currents are continuously induced; consequently, their presence is a much more serious matter
here than in a simple d.c. circuit
It is not possible to prevent the induction of eddy currents but their magnitude can be restricted by providing a
high resistance path. For this reason, high resistivity is a desirable feature in soft magnetic materials when carrying
alternating fluxes.
The cores of instruments that are subjected to alternating fluxes are always subdivided by constructing them from thin
laminated sheets (Figure 36.33) or stampings, each one insulated
from its neighbour by a film of insulating varnish. This lamination
Oxide on has very little effect on the magnetic path but offers maximum re-
each surface
sistance to eddy currents. The path of eddy currents includes these
of the
laminations insulating gaps in series, and the gaps further afford a considerable
reduction in the magnitude of eddy currents.
For the higher frequency currents, dust cores or ferrites are em-
ployed. The use of a special high permeability iron, such as mu-
metal, for the stampings reduces the loss by reducing the dimensions
Figure 36.33 Laminated Core required for the iron circuit. Refer Figure 36.34.
3. Copper Loss: Copper loss refers to the power dissipated in the wind-
(a)
ings of the transformer. It is also called the I 2R loss, where, R is the
d.c. resistance of the turns in the winding.
Copper loss is minimized by using as large a conductor as possible in the
windings. However, the conductor size is limited by the area of the windows (b)
(openings) in the core into which the winding must fit.
36.19 SHORT CIRCUIT TEST (c)
The short circuit test of a transformer, as illustrated in Figure 36.35,

is performed by shorting out the low voltage winding, and applying
voltage to the high voltage winding until the rated current flows in the (d)
high voltage winding, at which time the rated current should also flow in
the low voltage winding.
Figure 36.34 Production of Transformer
Core Stampings
Isc Power HV
meter LV
VSource Vsc
VSource adjusted until rated current flows in windings.

Values referred to measured windings.
Vsc P
zeq = Req =
Isc Isc2
Xeq = Zeq2 – Req2
Figure 36.35 Transformer Test Connections—Short Circuit Test
The voltage and power is recorded. Because core losses are proportional to V 2, and the voltage required to cause rated
current to flow with a shorted winding is low, the core losses are very low during the short circuit test. The core losses are
low enough in the short circuit tests to be ignored for all but the most accurate calculations.
All the input power drawn during the short circuit test is used in overcoming the total reflected primary copper
loss. Little or no power is consumed by the magnetic losses during the short circuit test.
36.20 OPEN CIRCUIT TEST

Figure 36.36 shows the connections for the open circuit test. The low voltage winding is supplied with the rated voltage
which should result in the rated voltage on the high voltage side. The current drawn should be low enough so that the
copper losses are very low and the power measured is almost all from the core losses. The current drawn during the open
circuit test will be the excitation current.
HV
Power Isc LV
meter
VSource
At rated Voc
low
voltage
Ioc = Iex LV = jIm + Ih + e = jIex sin θ + Iex cos θ
Voc2 Poc
Poc = cos θ =
RcLV Voc Ioc
Figure 36.36 Transformer Test Connections—Open Circuit Test

During the open circuit test, there are virtually no copper losses in the primary winding and none in the secondary winding,
since I is very small compared to the rated I. As a result, the power consumed in the open circuit test is all chargeable to the
magnetic circuit losses. These losses include the hysteresis and eddy current losses and the magnetization power losses. When
both the losses have been found, the overall transformer efficiency can be calculated.
36.21 TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of any device is its output power divided by its input power. When the efficiency is desired in per cent the
answer is multiplied by 100.
output
Efficiency = × 100 = η per cent (36.59)
input
The short circuit test will enable determination of the winding copper losses in a transformer. The open circuit test will
enable the determination of the combined magnetic circuit losses in a transformer. Since these are all of the losses involved,
input − ∑ losses
Efficiency = × 100 per cent (36.60)
input
or
output
× 100 per cent (36.61)
output + ∑ losses
In rating the efficiency of distribution transformers used to supply a load district or a commercial area, a term called the all-
day efficiency is used. This is simply the total energy delivered by the transformer in 24 hours divided by the total energy
input. A determination of this efficiency shows the advantage of the fact that the best efficiency is placed somewhere near
the mid-load. The all-day efficiency takes into account periods of no load when the input is solely the Pcore requirement.
Distribution transformers and voltage-dropping transformers for machine tools are never switched off. There is an
advantage in keeping the windings mildly warmed by the magnetizing current. This helps prevent insulation breakdown in
a humid climate since the windings tend to stay dry when they are warm.
Transformers are the most efficient devices ever invented. A transformer that is properly designed, built and cooled
can be more than 99 per cent efficient. Maximum efficiency always occurs at the load point where the fixed losses equal
variable losses. For maximum efficiency in a transformer, variable copper losses must equal fixed core losses, or
I 22 R e2 = Pc (36.62)
Pc
I2 = (36.63)
R e2
Where, I2 is the load current, at which maximum efficiency occurs.
Example 36.18
A 20 kW lighting transformer of ordinary efficiency, 95 per cent is on full load for six hours a day. Find the all day
efficiency if the full-load losses are equally divided between copper and iron.
Solution:
Total losses on full load = 5 per cent of 20 kW = 1 kW
Iron losses = 0.5 kW and full load copper losses = 0.5 kW
Output of 20 kW for 6 hours = 120 kWh
Copper losses for 6 hours/day = 3kW
Iron losses for 24 hrs/day = 12 kWh
Energy intake during 24 hours = 135 kWh
All day efficiency = 120/135 = 88.9 per cent
Example 36.19
The total copper loss of a transformer determined by the short circuit test at 20 °C is 630 W, and the copper loss determined
by the true ohmic resistance at the same temperature is 504 W. What is the load loss at a working temperature of 75 °C?
Solution:
Eddy current loss at 20 °C = 630 – 504 = 126 W
True copper loss at 75 °C = (504) (75 + 234.5)/(20 + 234.5) = 613 W
Eddy current loss at 75 °C = (126) (20 + 234.5)/(75 + 234.5) = 104 W
Load loss at 75 °C = 613 + 104 = 717 W
Example 36.20
A 50 kV A, 2200/200 V, 60 Hz transformer has a core loss, determined by the open circuit test, of 3500 W and a copper
loss at rated current of 630 W, determined by the short circuit test. Find the efficiency: (1) at full load, unity power factor;
(2) at three fourth load, unity power factor; (3) at full kVA rating, 80 per cent power factor; and (4) at three fourth of rated
kVA, 80 per cent power factor.
Solution:
50000
1. = 98.1 per cent
50000 + 350 + 630
3 /4 (50000)
2. = 98.22 per cent
3 / 4 (50000) + 350 + (3 / 4) 2 630
50000(0.80)
3. = 97.6 per cent
50000(0.80) + 350 + 630
3/ 4 (50000)(0.80)
4. = 97.7 per cent
3 / 4 (50000)(0. 80) + (3 / 4)2 (130)
36.22 AUTOTRANSFORMER
In an autotransformer, part of the energy transfer is by conduction. In a normal transformer, all of the energy transfer is by
induction. The special field of utility of an autotransformer is where the transformation ratio is relatively small or near unity.
The three principle types of autotransformers are shown in Figure 36.37. It is composed of two separate windings that
are electrically joined at a common point. An autotransformer is more efficient than a normal transformer. In a step-down
autotransformer, V1 > V2, so that I1 < I2. In a step-up autotransformer, the situation is the other way round so that
I2
I1
a I1
I2
b V2 Load
V1 V1 Ic
Ic V2 Load
c
(a) (b)
I2
I1
Movable
brush
Load
V2
V1 Ic Prepared
winding
surface
(c)
Figure 36.37 Autotransformer Circuits (a) Step-down Autotransformer (b) Step-up Auto-
transformer (c) Variable Autotransformer
V1 < V2 and I1 > I2.
The real difference in an autotransformer is that in a step-down autotransformer
I2 = I1 + Ic (36.64)
And in a step-up autotransformer
I1 = I2 + Ic (36.65)
The term Ic means the common current. The common current is always the arithmetic difference between I1 and I2. The
normal transformer has two windings for the I 2R losses. The autotransformer has a sharply reduced loss in the common
winding portion and a normal loss in the extended winding leg. The reason for the greatly reduced current in the common
winding portion is that I1 and I2 currents pass through the common portion and they are always in the opposite sense. The
current caused by the induced voltage flows opposite to the input current. In an autotransformer, the secondary current is
this induced current.
36.22.1 VARIABLE AUTOTRANSFORMERS

An autotransformer is made variable in the voltage adjustment in a similar fashion to the output of a potentiometer. These
are built by winding a single coil on a toroidal magnetic core. The outer surface of the winding is specially plated and
prepared for use as a commutator-like switching surface. The movable secondary connection is usually a special carbon
composition brush. It is arranged in such a way that the connection is never opened, but rather a continuous variation of
secondary turns is selected turn by turn. The secondary voltage is then adjustable in very small steps from about 0 to 1.2
or more times the primary voltage. The result is an efficient source of variable output a.c. voltage. Autotransformer circuits
are shown in Figure 36.37.
36.22.2 Autotransformer Power Division

The power divided between the conducted power, Pcon, and the transformed power, Ptr, is such that the output power equals
the sum of the two parts.
P2 = Pam + Ptr (36.66)
This assumes that the power factor is 100 per cent and the load is purely resistive.
In Figure 36.37(a) if we label the upper part of the winding, that sees the input current, as a, b and the winding that
sees the combined current as bc, the total length of the winding is then a.c. and winding portion ab considered to be
the primary of the transformer, winding portion bc is consiered to be the secondary of the transformer. The ampere-
turns NabI1 equal the ampere turns Nbc(I2–I1). This is in accordance with the relation N1I1 ≅ N2I2. In an autotransformer,
I´ is more nearly equal to I1 than in a normal transformer, because there is less inductive work to be performed, so
there is less Im current.
Ptr = (V1 − V2 ) / I1 = V2 ( I 2 − I1 ) (36.67)
Ptr = P1 (1 − 1/ k ) (36.68)
Pcond = P2 − p1 (36.69)
Example 36.21
An autotransformer is adjusted for an output voltage of 86.3 V when operated from a 117 V line. The variable power load
draws 3.63 kW at unity power factor at this setting. Determine the transformed power and the conduced power at this
setting.
Solution:
117/85.3 = k = 1.37
If we assume 100 per cent efficiency, the power input is 3.63 kW
Ptr = 3630(1 – 1/1.37) = 980 W
Pcon = 3630 – 980 = 2650 W
Note: In this situation
1. 73 per cent of the total output is directly conducted to the load.
2. 27 per cent of the power is transformed.
3. The ratio of transformed power to conducted power becomes small as k approaches unity.
4. The power handling ability of an autotransformer is misused if the k required is large.
Example 36.22
A normal 5 kVA, 2300/208 V step-down distribution transformation is connected as an autotransformer to step the line
voltage down from 2508 to 2300 V. The transformer is connected with the 208 V winding as ab and the 2300 V winding
as bc (Figure 36.37(a)). Assume that the transformer is working to its full 5 kVA rating. Assume unity power factor and
calculate the total power input.
Solution:
k = 2508/2300 = 1.090
Ptr 5000
P1 = = = 60555 W
1 − 1/ k 1/1.090
Note:
1. With a turns ratio not far from one, when connected for voltage adjustment, this transformer can handle a load of over
60 kW.
2. A distribution transformer with tapped windings, and with double-primary and double-secondary windings, can be
used to handle a wide variety of power-line voltage adjustments.
3. Very large levels of power can be handled with moderate-sized units and with very high efficiency.
4. An autotransformer is not suitable for large percentage voltage reductions as a distribution transformer.
36.23 POWER TRANSFORMERS

Power transformers are normally oil-immersed transformers used for substations and connection to large commercial and
industrial customers. Power transformer capacities vary over a wide range. Power transformers are designed for very high
efficiency and are routinely maintained. Power transformers are well protected both for safety and economy. Almost all large
power transformers are three phase as opposed to three single phase units. A power transformer one-line drawing with protection
is shown in Figure 36.38.
Power Circuit
transformer breaker
Fuse
Primary CB
Lightning Lightning
arrester Current arrester
Current
transformer transformer
and
potential
transformer
for
protective
relays
Figure 36.38 Power Transformer One-line Drawing with Protection
36.23.1 Parts of a Transformer

The design, type, and accessories of a power transformer, depend on its size, application and location. The principal
components and accessories are shown in Figure 36.39.
The steel tank is used for housing the core and windings and for mounting various accessories required for the operation of
the transformer. The core is constructed of insulated iron sheet laminations in order to keep iron losses low. The laminations
are interleaved at the ends to form the frame of the required shape and size. There is one primary and one secondary winding
in a single-phase transformer and three primary and three secondary windings in a three-phase transformer that are suitably
interconnected. The low-voltage winding is placed next to the core and the high-voltage winding is placed concentrically over
it. The tap changing switch (not shown) is used for changing the transformation ratio of the windings to allow for variations
on the primary side. The conservator is a small cylindrical tank mounted on top of oil-filled transformers to provide space
Conservator
Bushing tank
Steet tank
Insulating
oil
Cooling
tubes
Winding Silica gel
breather
Core
Wheels
Figure 36.39 Parts of a Transformer
for expansion and contraction of oil. The conservator is equipped with a sight glass at one end to indicate the level of oil.
The breather is the device through which all movement of air from and into the transformer takes place. The breather is
equipped with a dehydrator containing silica gel which absorbs moisture from the air passing through it. It can be reactivated.
In all transformers above 50 kVA rating, a thermometer is fitted to indicate the temperature of hot oil. In very large units,
temperature indicating devices are fitted in the winding itself to record temperature. A temperature sensitive alarm is also
incorporated to sound the alarm in the event of an abnormal temperature rise. Pressure relief, fitted on top of the transformer,
provides protection against pressure build-up inside a transformer. The transformer can explode in the absence of pressure
relief. A number of valves for the purpose of filling, drawing, filtering, sampling etc., are provided on each transformer.
Different methods of cooling of transformers are illustrated in Figure 36.40.
Water
Core
windings
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 36.40 Methods of Cooling Transformers (a) Tank with External Tube
(Natural Cooling) (b) Water Cooling (c) Air Blast Cooling
36.24 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

Transformers used in distribution include: power transformers, autotransformers, distribution transformers and
instrument transformers. Distribution transformers provide the final link with the customer. A typical high quality pole
top transformer has a life expectancy of up to 40 years. They are protected with a minimum of a primary fuse and a
lightning arrester at or near the transformer primary.
In direct current circuits, the useful range of meters may be extended beyond their self-contained capacities by the use of
calibrated resistors in the form of shunts in the current circuits and multipliers in the voltage circuits. These devices in gen-
eral, are unsuited to alternating current measurements, especially because they do not provide insulation of the meters from
the relatively high voltages so extensively used in alternating current circuits. Such circuits necessitate the use of auxiliary
apparatus to permit greater convenience in measurement to insulate the meters from the high-voltage circuits as a safeguard
to life. Instrument transformers are employed on all alternating current circuits which exceed predetermined voltage and
current limits for safe and economic operation of self-contained meters.
There are two distinct classes of instrument transformers: voltage or
potential transformers and current transformers. These two classes of
transformers differ only as to the method of use.
HV Bushings
36.24.1 Potential Transformers
The capacity of a potential transformer, as illustrated in Figure 36.41
is small compared to that of power transformers. The load on potential
Oil
transformers is relatively light and it is not necessary to have potential
transformers with a capacity greater than 100 to 500 VA.
Core
The high-voltage primary winding of a potential transformer has
the same voltage rating as the primary circuit. Let us assume that it is
Winding
required to measure the voltage of a 4600 V, single-phase line and the
ratio between the primary and secondary windings is 20:1. A voltme-
ter connected across the secondary of the potential transformer indi- Winding
cates 230 V. To indicate the actual reading on the high-voltage circuit,
the instrument reading (in this example), must be multiplied by 20. In
some cases, the voltmeter is calibrated to read the actual value of the
Figure 36.41 Potential Transformer
voltage on the primary side; thus, the possibility of errors is reduced.
All instrument transformers now manufactured have subtractive
polarity as shown in Figure 36.42. One of the secondary leads of the trans-
H1 Primary H2 former is grounded to eliminate high-voltage hazards. Potential transformers
have highly accurate ratios; generally, the error is less than 0.5 per cent.
36.24.2 Current Transformer

Secondary Current transformers, as shown in Figure 36.43 have very accurate ratios
x1 x2
between the primary and secondary current values. The error of most modern
current transformers is less than 0.5 per cent.
Meter The secondary circuit should never be opened when there is current in the
primary winding.
Figure 36.42 Principle of Operation
When the primary winding has a large current rating, it may consist of
of Instrument Trans-
a straight conductor passing through the centre of a straight hollow core as
formers
shown in Figure 36.43(b).
Secondary
Insulated
winding
primary
(N 2 turns)
(I turn)
5A
50 A
Connected in
series with Very low Higher
voltage voltage
circuit
Primary Toroidal ‘clock spring’
Secondary core
(a) (b)
Figure 36.43 (a) Connections for Current Transformer (b) Current Transformer with a Bar Primary
The secondary winding is wound on the core. This assembly is called a bar-type current transformer. All standard
current transformers with ratings of 1000 amperes or more are bar-type transformers.
36.25 PULSE TRANSFORMERS

A pulse transformer is a special type of wide-band transformer designed to transmit voltage or current pulses with specific
requirements on wave-shape fidelity. A pulse transformer is more like a transmission line than a conventional power
transformer. In general, the turns ratio of a pulse transformer must be low in order to provide good wave shape fidelity.
A thyristor-trigger transformer is a pulse transformer designed especially for gate-triggering applications. The trig-
gering and the impedance characteristics of thyristors and the inter-winding dielectric strength are the key factors in the
design. Most applications call for a step-down transformer, since the voltage required for effective triggering is relatively
low. Several secondaries may be needed for simultaneous triggering of thyristors.
Since trigger transformers usually interface between low-power sensitive control circuits and high-voltage high power
circuits, they need a high interwinding dielectric strength. An increase in dielectric strength causes an increase in trans-
former size which causes an increase in pulse rise time.
36.26 TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

The multiple-winding transformer, as seen in Figure 36.44 is really two complete sets of windings wound on one core.
There are two 2300 V primary coils and two 230 V secondary coils. Each coil can transfer the energy involved in 25 kVA at
any reasonable power factor. Normally, all coils are used in any one of the four possible connections. These combinations
are accomplished by series and parallel connections. Only coils having identical voltage may be paralleled.
H1 X1 H1 X1
H3 X3 H3 X3
2300 V
4600 V 460 V 460 V
H2 X2 H2 X2
H4 X4 H4 X4
(a) (b)
H1 X1 H1 X1
H3 X3 H3 X3
230 V 2300 V 230 V
4600 V
H2 X2 H2 X2
H4 X4 H4 X4
(c) (d)
Figure 36.44 Typical Distribution Transformer Showing Voltage Connections (a) 4600/460 V Series-Series
Connection (b) 2300/460 V Parallel-Series Connection (c) 4600/230 V Series-Parallel
Connection (d) 2300/230 V Parallel-Parallel Connection
Conventionally, the odd-number terminals have the same instantaneous polarity. This means that the coils, when
properly interconnected, will oppose each other so that there will be no circulating current. Therefore, H1 may be connected
to H3, and H2 to H4. The same situation holds for the secondary connections. In order that transformers may be successfully
and economically paralleled, some vital conditions must be met.
1. The voltage ratings of the primaries and secondaries and, therefore, the turns ratios should be identical.
2. The proper polarities must be observed at interconnection.
3. With different kVA rating transformers, the equivalent impedances should be inversely proportional to kVA ratings if
circulating currents are to be avoided.
4. The equivalent resistances and equivalent reactances should have the same ratio to avoid circulating currents and
operation at different power factors.
If the equivalent impedances are nearly inversely proportional to their kVA ratings, it is usually sufficient. If one unit
were to be of core construction and the other of shell construction, the probability of a successful match is much less, an
actual test would be needed to obtain the required data. The circulating current, Ic, is seen to be the difference between
secondary voltages divided by the sum of reflected secondary impedances:
(V − V2b )
I c = 2a (36.70)
V2 a + V2b
where,
Ic = circulating current
V2a and V2b = secondary voltages of transformers a and b
Ze2a and Ze2b = reflected equivalent secondary impedances of transformers a and b
When the transformation ratio is exactly similar and the secondary impedances are nearly inversely proportional to the
transformer load ratings, there is an acceptable load matching.
Example 36.23
A small 10 VA, 115 V primary transformer has two secondary windings, 6.3 V and 5.0 V, respectively, with impedances of
0.2 W and 0.15 W, respectively. Calculate
1. Rated secondary current when the L-V windings are connected in series aiding
2. Circulating current when the L-V windings are paralleled, and per cent overload produced
Assume that both impedances are at the same phase angle.
Solution:
1. Both coils must be series-connected and used to account for the full VA rating of the transformer. Hence, the rated cur-
rent is
100 VA 10 VA
I2 = = = 0.885 A
(6.3 + 5) V 11.3 V
2. When the windings are paralleled, the net circulating current is due to the net voltage applied across the total internal
impedance of the windings,
or
(63.5) V 1.3 V
Ic = = = 3.71 A
(0.2 + 0.15) W 0.35 V
3.17 A
The percent overload is = 420 per cent
0.835 A
Example 36.24
High side short circuit test data for the 20 kVA transformer shown in Figure 36.45
is 115 V, 87 A, 250 W. Calculate (1) equivalent impedance referred to the high
Vf
side when the coils are series-connected; (2) equivalent-impedance referred to
the low side when the coils are series connected; (3) rated secondary current
when the coils are series-connected; and (4) secondary current when the coils are Vr
short circuited and rated voltage applied to the high-voltage side, and the per cent
overload produced.
115 V a.c.
Solution:
4.5 V
1. Z eh = = 0.0517 Ω
87 A
20
2. Z eh = 0.0517 = 3.91 × 10−4 Ω
230
20 kVA × 1000
3. I 2 rated = = 1000 A = 1 × 103 A
20 V
20 V
I 2 sc = = 51 × 103
3.91 × 10−4
Example 36.25
A 15 kVA, 4600/208 V transformer with a secondary impedance of 0.0100 W is to be paralleled with a 10 kVA, 4600/208 V
transformer with a Ze2b = 0.0148 W. When the two transformers are paralleled and carrying a combined load of 21.5 kVA,
calculate; (1) the individual load currents, (2) the per cent load capacity used with each transformer.
Solution:
21500
1. The total load current for 21.5=
kVA = 93.5 A
230
The individual transformers being matched in voltage will carry a load current in inverse proportion to their reflected
secondary impedance
I 2b 0.0100 0.0100
= = ; I 2b I 2a
I 2a 0.0148 0.0148
0.0100
93.5 = I 2a + I 2a  I tot = I 2 a + I 2b
0 .0143
= =
I 2 a 55 .8 A, I 2b 37.7 A
15000 10000
rated ) =
I a (= =
65.2 A I brated = 43.5 A
230 230
55.8
2. Per cent rated current = × 100 = 85.6 per cent ( transformer a )
65.2
37.7
Percent rated current = × 100 = 86.6 per cent ( transformer b)
43.5
S UM M A RY
1. Alternating current can be more easily transformed. N1 E1 I1 V
2. The property of mutual inductance is associated with the 15. =
k = = = 1 .
N2 E2 I 2 V2
flux of one coil linking with the turns of a second coil.
16. Eav = 4φm f N .
3. M = µ0 µ r N1 N 2 Henrys.
17. There are losses (flux leakage, I 2R, hysteresis and eddy
4. M = L1 L2 . current) in a practical transformer.
5. If the coils are wound tightly—one on top of the 18. The secondary impedance can be reflected to the
other—on a common soft iron core, the leakage flux is primary and vice versa.
negligible. 19. Transformers are used for isolation and impedance
matching.
6. M = k1 L1 L2 .
20. An eddy current is a local current induced in a
7. LT = L1 + L2 ± 2 M . conducting body by a varying magnetic field.
21. The magnitude of eddy currents can be reduced by
8. 1/LT = 1/(L1 ± M) + 1/(L2 ± M). providing a high-resistance path.
9. Mutual inductance can be prevented by axis orientation, 22. Transformers are the most efficient devices ever invented.
physical separation and shielding. 23. Autotransformers are used where the transformation
10. Transformers change voltage and current levels. ratio is near unity.
11. The transformer primary and secondary are connected 24. Power transformers are designed for very high efficiency.
magnetically. 25. The tap-changing switch is used for changing the
12. The transformer construction is either core type or transformation ratio.
shell type. 26. Distribution transformers provide the final link with the
13. The magnetizing current is the only current during no load. customer.
14. I1′ N1 = I 2 N 2 . 27. Potential transformers have a highly accurate ratio.
28. In current transformers when the primary winding has a 30. Conventionally, the odd-number terminals have the
large current rating it may consist of a straight conductor same instantaneous polarity.
passing through the centre of a straight hollow core. 31. In order that transformers may be successfully connected
29. A pulse transformer is a wide-band transformer in parallel, some vital conditions must be met.
designed to transmit voltage or current pulses.
1. When the primary winding has more turns than the 9. The autotransformer may be used as a
secondary, the voltage in the secondary is (a) Power transformer
(a) Increased (b) Decreased (b) Current transformer
(c) Doubled (d) Halved (c) Potential transformer
2. In the coils of a transformer the motion of the flux is (d) Compensator motor starter
caused by 10. A transformer in which the secondary is part of the
(a) Direct current (b) Moving secondary primary is
(c) Rotating primary (d) Alternating current (a) A series parallel connection
3. Energy is transferred from the primary to the secondary (b) An autotransformer
(c) A double-wound transformer
coils, without a change of
(d) An isolating transformer
(a) Frequency (b) Current
(c) Voltage (d) Ampere-turns 11. Parallel operation of single phase transformers can be
4. Transformer efficiency averages accomplished when the
(a) 70 per cent (b) 97 per cent (a) Voltage and percentage impedance ratings are identical
(c) 50 per cent (d) 100 per cent (b) Voltage and current ratings are equal
(c) Cooling methods are identical
5. A transformer has a primary winding rated at 150 V, (d) Primary and secondary voltage ratings are equal
and a secondary winding rated at 300 V. The primary
12. Primary taps are designed to
winding has 500 turns. How many turns does the (a) Raise the voltage of the secondary
secondary have? (b) Drain the oil
(a) 250 (b) 1000 (c) Lower the voltage of the secondary
(c) 2500 (d) 10000 (d) Raise or lower the voltage of the secondary
6. A control transformer is a step-down transformer. 13. A slight voltage drop at the secondary terminals from no
Compared to the secondary winding, the primary load to full load is called
winding is (a) Reactance
(a) Larger in wire size (b) Regulation
(b) Smaller in wire size (c) Transformation
(c) The same size as the secondary (d) Taps
(d) Connected to the load
14. A transformer has subtractive polarity when the
7. The current in the secondary winding is (a) Two primary coil voltages oppose each other
(a) Higher than that in the primary (b) Two secondary coils have opposite polarities
(b) Is lower than that in the primary
15. A transformer has an additive polarity when
(c) Controls the current in the primary
(a) Two primary coils are in series
8. Double-wound transformers contain (b) Two secondary coils have aiding polarities
(a) One main winding
(b) A primary and a secondary winding
(c) One main winding with two coils
(d) A primary and double wound secondary
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. b 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. b 6. b 7. c 8. c 9. a 10. b 11. a 12. d 13. b 14. b 15. b.
1. Derive an expression for the induced e.m.f. in a 3. How does the leakage reactance affect the equivalent
transformer. circuit of a transformer?
2. How are the voltage and current transformation ratios 4. Define regulation of a transformer. Deduce the expres-
in a transformer related? sion for percentage regulation. Under what conditions is
it maximum?
5. Discuss in detail the losses in a transformer. On 25. A 2300 to 230 V, 60 Hz, 2 kVA transformer is rated at
what factors do they depend? Explain the method of 1.257 V/turn of its winding coils. Assuming an ideal
measuring these losses transformer, calculate (a) step-down transformation
6. How will you perform open-circuit and short-circuit ratio (b) total turns of the high-voltage coil (c) total
tests on a transformer? What is the significance of these turns of the low voltage coil.
tests? 26. A transformer has a turns ratio of k = 2. If its input
7. Write short notes on: voltage is 230 V and its output current is 8.70 A, what
(a) Rating of a transformer is (a) secondary voltage (b) load impedance (c) primary
(b) Cooling of transformers current (d) primary input impedance?
(b) Efficiency of a transformer 27. What is the current in the common winding portion of
(d) Impedance matching an autotransformer if its primary current is 22.3 A and
8. Draw the equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to its secondary current is 28.0 A?
primary. 28. An autotransformer is used as a step-up unit; its
9. Explain the construction of a transformer with the help input voltage is 2.08 V while its output is 230 V.
of a suitable sketch. If its load is 2 kV, what is the current in the common
10. What is an autotransformer? How can it be used as winding portion?
(a) a step-up transformer (b) step-down transformer? 29. A 1000 VA transformer is connected as an
What are its normal advantages and disadvantages over autotransformer to step 2530 V down to 2300 V. Its
a conventional transformer? normal 230 V secondary is connected to its normal
11. Explain transformer action. 2300 V primary. Under this situation, how much load
in volt amperes can be handled?
12. What advantageous use is made of transformers in
long-distance electric power transmission? 30. A potential transformer is desired to allow safe reading
on a 4600 V line. What voltage ratio transformer should
13. What is meant by mutual flux?
be specified?
14. Why is volts per turn a constant?
31. A current transformer is desired to handle 2000 A line
15. What is meant by reflected impedance? from a high powered alternator. What nominal current
16. Why is transformer efficiency normally at its highest at ratio is desired?
about one-half full load? 32. Paralleling is proposed between a 15 kVA, 4600/230 V
17. Why are transformers frequently built with two identical step-down transformer and a 10 kVA, 4600/208 V step-
primary and two identical secondary windings? down transformer. The reflected equivalent secondary
18. In using multiple-winding transformers, why must only impedance of the first is Z e2 = 0.0100 W, and that of the
windings with identical voltages be paralleled with second is Ze2b, = 0.0122 W. Determine their circulating
each other? secondary current at no load.
19. Why is the efficiency of an autotransformer normally 33. Two mutually coupled coils are joined in a series-aiding
higher than that of a standard transformer of similar arrangement if L1 = 4 H, L2 = 8 H, and the coupling
voltage ratio and kVA rating? factor is 0.6 (a) what is the total inductance (b) what is
20. How can a normal two-winding transformer be used as the total inductance if one of the coils is reversed?
an autotransformer? 34. The primary of an ideal transformer contains 500 turns,
21. Why is an autotransformer potentially unsafe for large and the secondary contains 20,000 turns. If the supply
voltage ratios? voltage is 15 mV, 2 kHz and the load resistance is 8
22. What is a potential transformer and how is it normally W, calculate (a) turns ratio (b) secondary voltage (c)
used? secondary current (d) primary current (e) secondary
power (f) primary power (g) reflected resistance.
23. What is a current transformer and how is it normally
used? 35. A transformer with coupling coefficient 0.9 has 10 turns
in the primary and 400 turns in the secondary. If the
24. A transformer has 120 primary turns and 720 secondary
supply voltage is 120 V and the supply current is 2 A,
turns. If its load current is 0.833A, what is its primary
calculate (a) turns ratio (b) output power.
current load component?
ANSWERS (CQ)
24. 5.0 A 25. (a) 10 (b) 1830 turns (c) 183 turns 31. 2000–to–5 or 400–to–l 32. .001 A 33. (a) 18.8 H (b) 2 H
26. (a) 115 V (b) 13.22 W (c) 4.35 A (d) 52.9 W 27. 5.7 A 34. (a) 0.025 (b) 0.6 V (c) 75 mA (d) 3 A (e) 45 mW
28. 0.919 A 29. 11 kVA 30. 38.33 to 1 (f) 45 mW (g) 5 m W 35. (a) 0.025 (b) 2.16 W.
Three-Phase Transformers 37
OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn about: Primary Primary Primary

phase 1 phase 2 phase 3
Understand the unique advantages that polyphase circuits

possess
Understand balanced polyphase voltages

 Understand the difference between a bank of three identical
1 5 9
single-phase transformers and polyphase transformers 6 10
2
having semi windings on a connective
3 7 11
Learn to solve simple problems on the per unit system
 4 8 12
Learn to raise or lower the voltage with a bank of

single-phase transformers connected in three-phase
arrangements
Understand the techniques used in paralleling three-phase
 Secondary Secondary Secondary
transformers phase 1 phase 2 phase 3
Learn to solve simple problems on the above topics
 Three-phase transformers
37.1 INTRODUCTION
The generation and transmission of electrical power
is more efficient in poly-phase systems employing a
combination of two, three or more sinusoidal voltages. In
addition, poly-phase circuits and mechines posses some
unique advantages, for example, power in a three-phase
circuit is constant rather than pulsating as in a single-phase
circuit. Also, three-phase motors start and run much better
(a) (b) than single-phase motors. The most common form of
poly-phase system employs three balanced voltages, equal
in magnitude and differing in phase by 360°/3 = 120° (see
Figure 37.1).
To transfer a three-phase voltage a bank of three identi-
cal single phase transformers are required or single-phase
transformer having six windings on a common core is
used. This is shown in Figure 37.2.
37.2 THREE-PHASE CONNECTIONS OF

(c)
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Figure 37.1 Balanced Three-phase Voltages
Most a.c. power is generated and distributed as three-
phase. The voltage is raised or lowered with a bank of
single-phase transformers connected in three-phase arrangements as shown in Figure 37.3. The current and voltage
relationships between phase and line values for a wye connection as illustrated in Figure 37.3(a) are
=Vline =
3 V phase and I line I phase (37.1)
(i) (ii) (iii)
(a)
(b)
Figure 37.2 (a) Three Identical Single-phase Transformers (i, ii and iii) Showing Polarity Markings and Rated at
1370/230 V, 10 kVA each (b) Three-phase Core-type Transformers
Figure 37.3 Three-phase Connections of Single-phase Transformers

The current and voltage relationships between phase and line values for a delta connection are
=I line =
3 I phase and Vline V phase (37.2)
The delta-delta bank shown in Figure 37.3(b) and in Figure 37.4(a) has the advantage of being able to operate continuously
with one of the three transformers disconnected from the circuit. This open-delta connection, also called a V-V connection,
provides a connection means for inspection, maintenance, testing and replacing of transformers one at a time, with only
a brief power interruption. The open-delta connection is also used to provide three-phase service in applications where a
possible future increase in load is expected. This increase may be accommodated by adding the third transformer to the
bank at a later date. Transformers selected for a delta-delta or open-delta connection must have the same turns ratio and the
same per cent impedance in order to share the load equally.
A phasor-diagram illustrating the current and voltage relationships for a delta-connected secondary is given in
Figure 37.4(b). The phase currents, also called coil currents are Iaa, Ibb, and Icc. The three line currents, determined by
applying kCL to the secondary junctions in Figure 37.4(a) are
I1 = I aa ′ , + I b ′ b (37.3)
I 2 = I bb ′ , + I c ′c (37.4)
I 3 = I cc ′, + I a ′a (37.5)
Performing the indicated operations in Figure 37.4(b), the magnitudes of the three line currents, as determined by geometry,
are shown to be equal to √3 or 1.73 times the phase currents.
Disconnecting one transformer as shown in Figure 37.4(c) does not change the secondary line voltages, V1–2 and V2–3
are the same as before and V3–1=Vcc+Vbb as determined from phasor addition is
V3–1=Vc ′c+Vb ′b (37.6)
Performing the indicated phasor additions in Figure 37.4(d) shows V3–1 to be the same whether connected delta-delta or
open-delta.
Since the three secondary line voltages are the same whether operating delta-delta or open-delta, and the load
impedance has not changed, line currents I1, I2 and I3 must also be the same when operating delta-delta or open-delta. As
evidenced in Figure 37.4(c), however, the coil currents in the two remaining transformers must increase to equal the line
current that is Ib'b →I1 and Icc'→I3.
Figure 37.4(d) shows the coil current Icc' increasing in magnitude and shifting its phase 30° to coincide with that of the line
current I3, and the coil current Ib'b, increasing in magnitude and shifting its phase 30° to coincide with that of line current I1.
Thus, if a delta-delta bank is operating at the rated load, and one transformer is removed, the current in the two remaining
transformer coils will increase to 1.73 times its normal rating. To prevent overheating and possible roasting of the wind-
ings when operating open-delta, the bank current and, hence, the bank apparent power must be rerated to reflect the lower
kVA capacity. Thus
I ∆ − ∆, rated
IV −V , rated = = 0.577 × I ∆ − ∆, rated (37.7)
3
Connecting the transformer bank open-delta did not change the three line voltages. Hence, the bank rating when connected
open-delta is
S ∆ − ∆, rated
SV −V , rated = = 0.577 × S ∆ − ∆, rated (37.8)
3
Example 37.1
Three 25 kVA, 480-120 V, single-phase, 60 Hz transformers are connected Δ–Δ. The total load on the bank is 50 kVA.
A fault in one transformer requires its removal, and the bank is operating in open-delta. Determine the maximum
allowable power that the open-delta bank can handle without overheating.
Solution:
The capacity of the delta-delta bank = 25 × 3 = 75 kVA
The capacity when operating open-delta = 75 × 0.577 kVA = 43.3 kVA
A C C
Primary
Primary
B B
1 b b′ 2 1 b b′ 2
a′ c c
Secondary Secondary
c′ c′
A a C C
I1 I3 I2 I1 I3 I2
3
Balanced 3-phase unity PF load Balanced 3-phase unity PF load
(a) (c)
Vcc′ = V2—3
Vcc′ = V2—3 Vb′b
Icc′ Ib′b I1
I3
I3 I1
30 Icc′ Ib′b
30 30
Ia′a 30
Iaa′ Va′a = V3—1
Vaa′ = V3—1
30
Ic′c 30
Ibb′
Vbb′ = V1—2 I2 Vbb′ = V1—2 I2 Vc′c
(b) (d)
Figure 37.4 (a) Delta-delta Bank (b) Phasor Diagram for (c)
Example 37.2
It is desired to use two transformers in open-delta to supply a balanced three-phase load that draws 50 kW at 120 V and
0.9 power factor lagging. The input voltage to the transformer bank is 450 V and 60 Hz. Determine the minimum power rating
required for each transformers.
Solution:
P= 3 Eline I line PF
50, 000 = 3 × 120 × I line × 0.9
I line = 267.2918 A
When operating open-delta, the transformer phase current equals the line current. Thus, the minimum apparent power
rating of each transformer is.
120 × 267.2918
= 32.1 kVA
1000
Example 37.3
A three-phase transformer has 420 turns on the primary winding and 36 turns on the secondary winding. The supply voltage
is 3700 V. Find the secondary line voltage on no load when the windings are connected as (1) star/delta (2) delta/star.
Solution:
1. Primary phase voltage = 3700 /1.73 = 1908 V
1908 × 36
Secondary phase voltagge = = secondary line voltage = 163.54 V
420
2. Primary phase voltage = 3700 V
3300 × 36
Secondary phase voltage = 283 V
420
Secondary line voltage = 283 × 1.732 = 490 V
37.3 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Three-phase transformers have all three-phases wound on a single magnetic core, as shown in Figure 37.5(a) for shell-type
construction and in Figure 37.5(b) for core-type construction. The core-type transformer is simple in construction, and limits
third-harmonic fluxes and, hence, third-harmonic voltages have a relatively small value.
Three-phase transformers use much less material than three single-phase transformers for the same three-phase power
and voltage ratings. Hence, they weigh less and cost much less to produce. Furthermore, since all the three-phases are in
one tank, the wye or delta connections can be made internally, reducing the number of external high-voltage connections
from six to three.
The principal disadvantage of a three-phase transformer compared with its three-transformer counterpart is that the
failure of one phase puts the entire transformer out of service. A decision whether to use a three-phase transformer or
three single-phase transformers, however, depends on many factors, including initial cost, cost of operation, cost of
spares, cost of repairs, cost of down time, space requirement, and need for continued operation in case one phase is
disabled.
(a) (b)
Figure 37.5 Basic Construction of Three-phase Transformer: (a) Shell-type and (b) Core-type
37.4 PARALLELING THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANKS

There is an angular displacement called phase shift between the corresponding primary and secondary line voltages in the
Y-Δ bank and with Δ-Y bank, as shown in Figure 37.6(b), with the low voltage lagging the high voltage by 30°. There is no
angular displacement between corresponding primary and secondary line voltages in a Y-Y bank, Δ-Δ bank, or V-V bank.
Because of the phase shift inherent in the Y-Δ and Δ-Y banks, they must not be paralleled with Y-Y, Δ-Δ, or V-V banks; to do
so would cause large circulating currents and severe over-heating of the windings, even in no load conditions. Only banks
with the same phase shift should be operated in parallel. The bank ratio (ratio of line voltages) for Y-Y, Δ-Δ V-V banks is
equal to the respective turns ratios. This may be deduced from Figure [37.6 (a), (b) and (c)].
Figure 37.6 Paralleled Three-phase Transformer Banks Whose Corresponding Output

Voltages are 30° Out of Phase (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram
Showing One Set of Corresponding Output Voltages (c) Simplified Circuit
37.5 HARMONIC SUPPRESSION IN THREE-PHASE CONNECTIONS

The magnetizing current that produces a sinusoidal flux and, hence, a sinusoidal output voltage is itself non-sinusoidal,
containing many odd harmonic components. Suppressing any one of the harmonic components will result in a non-
sinusoidal flux and, hence, a non-sinusoidal secondary voltage.
Figure 37.7(a) shows a wye-connected generator supplying a wye-wye transformer bank, with the neutral of the trans-
former bank connected to the neutral of the generator. The fundamental and third harmonic components of the magnetizing
currents for phases A, B, and C are shown in Figure 37.7(b).
The three phases are separated vertically for easier viewing and are placed on the fundamental time axis. The correspond-
ing phasor diagrams are shown in Figure 37.7(c). The waves representing the respective fundamentals are 120° apart, but
the corresponding third harmonics are in phase with each other.
The third harmonic currents and their multiples, called triplen harmonics, have zero phase sequence and they are not
three-phase quantities. The three-third harmonics (one from each transformer) are in phase with each other, the three-ninth
harmonics (one from each transformer) are in phase with each other. Non-triplen harmonics, however, such as the second,
fourth, fifth and seventh, are three-phase quantities and must be treated as such.
Since the respective triplen harmonic currents of each phase of a wye-connected transformer bank are all in phase—all
going in or all going out—they require a neutral line to the wye-connected source, as has been shown in Figure 37.7(a),
only the third-harmonic currents are indicated. If the neutral is not connected, the third-harmonic currents will be sup-
pressed, the flux will not be sinusoidal. The secondary output will have an appreciable third-harmonic voltage that may
result in a resonance rise in voltage and overcurrent due to partial series resonance between the capacitive reactance of the
lines and leakage reactance of the transformer at the third-harmonic frequency. For this reason, a wye-wye bank without
a line connecting the neutral of the wye primary to the neutral of a wye source is not desirable for distribution systems.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 37.7 Harmonic Suppression in Three-phase Connections: (a) Y-Y Bank with Neutral Connection to
Primary (b) Waves of Fundamental and Third Harmonic (c) Phasors of Fundamental and Third Harmonic
S UM M A RY
1. The generation and transmission of electrical power is 7. Transformers selected for a delta-delta or open-delta
more efficient in a poly-phase system. connection must have the same turns ratio and the same
2. To transfer a poly-phase voltage a bank of three iden- per unit impedance in order to share the load equally.
tical single-phase transformers or a single poly-phase 8. The core-type three-phase transformer is simpler in
transformer having six windings on a common core is construction and limits third harmonic fluxes to a rela-
required. tively very small value.
3. The per-unit system yields several advantages over 9. Three-phase transformers weigh less and cost much
other types of power calculations. less to produce.
4. All per unit functions are written since they are ratios 10. Failure of one phase puts the entire three-phase trans-
of the same units. former out of service.
5. One of the advantages of the use of per unit quantities 11. Only banks with the same phase shift should be oper-
is that three-phase circuits are treated identically as d.c. ated in parallel.
or single-phase systems. 12. A wye-wye bank without a line connecting the neutral
6. The open-delta (V-V) connection provides a conve- of the wye-primary to the neutral of a wye source is not
nient means for inspection, maintenance, testing and desirable for distribution systems.
replacement of transformers, one at a time, with only a
brief power interruption.
M U LT IP LE C H O I C E Q UE S TI O NS ( M C Q )
1. The voltage transformation ratio of a transformer de- (c) Transformer 1, wye/delta, transformer 2, delta/wye
pends on (d) none-of the above
(a) ES /EP (b) EP /ES 8. With peaked e.m.f. with transformer windings the hys-
(c) NS /NP (d) NP /NS teresis loss is
2. The rating of a transformer is expressed in (a) Reduced (b) Increased
(a) W (b) kVA (c) Constant (d) None of the above
(c) kW (d) None of the above 9. The oil used in transformer is
3. The power factor of a transformer is (a) Natural oil (b) Vegetable oil
(a) Always leading (b) Very close to unity and leading (c) Animal oil (d) None of the above
(c) Very close to unity and lagging 10. Oil used in transformers helps in
(d) Dictated by the power factor of the load (a) Dissipating heat
4. For their protection, transformers are normally equipped (b) Improving dielectric strength of the insulation
with (c) Neither (a) nor (b) (d) Both (a) and (b)
(a) Breather (b) Conservator 11. The magnetizing current in a transformer is
(c) Bocholt’s relay (d) All of the above (a) Third harmonic
5. Wye-delta connection for three-phase transformers is (b) Fifth harmonic
very common for (c) Seventh harmonic
(a) Low voltage, large rating transformers (d) Ninth harmonic
(b) Power supply transformers 12. Two transformers of identical voltage but of
(c) Low voltage, large rating transformers different capacities are operating in parallel. For
(d) Distribution transformers satisfactory loads having
6. The most suitable connection for three-phase distribu- (a) Impedance must be equal
tion transformers is (b) Per-unit impedance must be equal
(a) delta/wye (b) delta/delta (c) Per-unit impedance and (X/R) ratio must be equal
(c) wye/delta (d) wye/wye (d) Impedance and (X/R) ratio most be equal
7. Which of the following three phase transformers
cannot be operated in parallel?
(a) Transformer 1, wye/wye; transformers 2, delta/delta
(b) Transformer 1, wye/delta, transformer 2, delta/delta
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (c).
CON V E N TI O NA L Q UE S TI O NS ( C Q )
1. When paralleling transformers, why must turns ratios 13. Paralleling is proposed between a 15 kVA, 4,600/230 V
be identical, or very nearly so? step-down transformer and a 10 kVA, 4,600/208 V
2. Why must the correct polarities be strictly observed step-down transformer. The reflected equivalent sec-
while-paralleling transformers. ondary impedance of the first is Ze2 or = 0.0100 Ω, and
3. What feature will allow transformers with different that of the second is Ze2b = 0.0122 Ω. Determine their
kilovolt-amperes ratings but the same turns ratios to be circulating secondary current at no load.
paralleled? 14. A 4 kVA, 2300/20 BV transformer with a secondary
4. What features are necessary for matching parallel impedance Ze2a = 0.0310 Ω is to be paralleled with a
transformers? 3 kVA, 2300/208 V transformer with Ze2b = 0.0450 Ω.
When a combined load of 6.25 kVA is carried, calcu-
5. Name some features that must be identical, or nearly so
late the individual load currents.
in a three-phase transformer bank.
15. In an open-delta transformer bank the load power fac-
6. What might determine whether three separate trans-
tor is 0.803, what are the individual transformer power
formers or three sets of windings in a single three-
factors?
phase transformer might be chosen for a three-phase
application? 16. Industrial plant draws 1004 at 0.7 PF lagging from the
secondary of a 2300/230 V, 60 kVA, Y-Δ distribution
7. What type of three-phase transformer connection is nec-
transformer bank. Calculate
essary in order to have a neutral connection available?
(a) Power connected by the plant in kW and apparent
8. Why is the neutral point of a wye transformer connec- power in kVA
tion usually grounded? (b) Rated secondary phase and line currents of the
9. Name two advantages of a Δ-Δ transformer connection. transformer bank
10. What is the principle type of use for a Y-Δ transformer (c) Percent load on each transformer
connection? (d) Primary phase and line current drawn by each
11. What other type of the three-phase connection may be transformer
paralleled with a Y-Δ connection? (e) The kVA rating of each transformer
12. Name two advantages of the V-V or open delta three-
phase connection?
ANSWERS (CQ)
13. 991 A 15. PF1=0.993 PF2=0.397
14. I2a=17.76 A, I2b=12.24 A 16. (a) 27.9 kW, 39.8 kVA (b) 87 A, 150.6 A,
(c) 66.4 per cent, (d) 104, (e) 20 kVA.
Synchronous
Generators — Alternators 38
OBJECTIVES

The difference between d.c. generators and alternators

 The physical construction of a.c. machines

Slot structure in a.c. dynamos

Coil and pole group connections

Stator windings

Pitch factor and distribution factor

Alternator performance at various load power factors

Voltage regulation of an alternator at various power

factors
Winding resistance and synchronous impedance

Equivalent circuit of a synchronous alternator

Basic voltage generation formula

Requirements for parallel operation of alternators

How to meet these requirements

Different methods of synchronization
 Slot structure in alternators
38.1 INTRODUCTION
Alternating current dynamos are visually different from d.c.
machines of comparable sizes. The difference in appearance
has a fundamental basis because the machines are inside out in
relation to d.c. machines. Most a.c. machines have the armature
in the field or stator position and the field in the moving or rotor
position. This arrangement is the natural order of things for a
few very good reasons (see Figure 38.1).
1. The high voltage, high current and, therefore, high power-

handling element is the armature on any a.c. or d.c. ro-
tating electrical machine. Armatures coils are, therefore,
larger than field coils.
2. Since no alternate switching of coil polarities is needed
on an a.c. machine, no commutator function is needed.
Thus, the high-power windings may be made stationary
for direct connection. The universal motor is an exception
to this condition.
3. The field structure and coils are not ordinarily required to
handle more than a fraction of the total power. Thus, their Figure 38.1 A Cylindrical Rotor
Synchronous Generators — Alternators 733
rotating electrical connection may be made smaller. Since no polarity switching is required, collect rings are usually
used.
4. The armature and field coils are both placed in slots in the punched magnetic structure, but the stationary armature
structures can be conveniently made with deeper slots to handle the required larger coils.
5. It is easier to cool the stator than the rotor, which is an advantage of the normal a.c. construction.
38.2 PHYSICAL CONSTRUCTION OF D.C. MACHINES

Except for specialized types, such as the universal a.c. - d.c. motor, which appears much like a d.c. series motor, almost all
a.c. motors and generators are built to take advantage of the natural relation of having the armature fixed and surrounding
the field and the field moving and inside of the armature.
38.2.1 Fixed Armature or Stator

The fixed and outside armature has a complete ring of teeth and slots on
its inner face. In the usual machine, all the slots are filled with similar and
symmetrical coils. As a result, it may not be at all obvious how many poles or
phases are present in the winding. In the field rotor, the constructions may be
much like that of a d.c. armature with a complete circular magnetic structure
having a continuous group of slots and teeth on the outer surface. Again,
these slots are filled with similar and symmetrical coils and it is not readily
apparent how many poles or phases are present in the machine. With salient
pole field construction, the number of poles is visible, as in a d.c. machine.
A salient pole machine is illustrated in Figure 38.2.
If the winding slot sides are parallel to each other in a single slot,
which is a frequent construction, it may be seen from Figure 38.3 that
the stator tooth structure becomes stronger as it grows deeper. On the other Figure 38.2 A Salient Pole Machine
hand, Figure 38.3 shows that a rotor tooth becomes weaker as it grows
deeper. This tooth structure advantage for the stator is used in the a.c. stator.
Figure 38.3 Typical Magnetic Lamination Slot Structure in an a.c. Dynamo

Parallel side slots are not necessary in small sizes. However, on large sizes, where the coils are wound with large cross-
sectional wire and where the insulation must be most carefully distributed, the parallel side slot is required. Since large
coils are preformed, bound with insulation and impregnated with varnish and baked, they cannot readily change shape after
installation in the magnetic coil.
Smaller a.c. machines are wound with loose coils of round wire, which may be slipped down into the slot turn by turn
during winding or installation. In this fashion, almost any slot shape may be used. Full use of the slot cross-section secures
to require parallel side slots in larger sizes. In any shaped slot, some provision must be made to capture and hold the wind-
ings in place. As a result, the slot will have some provision for a covering wedge, even if parallel sided.
In the a.c. machine stator, the current is continually varying at the frequency repetition rate. The resulting magnetic
flux then varies cyclically, and there are hysteresis and eddy current losses in the magnetic structure. Minimizing these
losses requires the use of a laminated magnetic structure. The structure is built up of thin plates of silicon steel alloy that
are readily punched to shape in press dies built for the task. The punched stator laminations usually cover full circle in
small- and-medium sized machines. Since punch dies are expensive, only a few different numbers of slots and teeth are
provided for a basic size.
The larger-sized machines are built up with laminations in segments of reasonable sizes. The size depends on the avail-
able stock width and press die size.
Lamination stock thickness is dictated by eddy current loss considerations. Thin lamination has less eddy current loss
but becomes difficult to handle and the teeth will bend too easily. A stock thickness of about 0.35 mm has long been used
for 60 Hz a.c. machines.
The numbers of slots are standardized around 36, 48, 60 and 72 slots, and so on, for good mechanical reasons. These
will become more apparent when actual windings are discussed.
38.2.2 Rotating Field Structure

The mechanical construction of the rest of an a.c. motor or generator follows closely that for d.c. machines except for the lack of
a commutator with synchronous alternators and synchronous motors, slip rings—which are used to carry d.c. power into and out
of rotating field—are used in a similar location to a commutator.
A slip ring as illustrated in Figure 38.4 is a copper alloy ring that is insulated from the rotor shaft and connected to the
rotor windings. A carbon brush is supported in a brush carrier rigging to complete the connection. Since there is no require-
ment for a particular internal resistance to aid commutation, the slip ring brush is harder and denser than a commutator
brush. It has a lower voltage drop and is therefore responsible for less power loss than its d.c. counterpart.
(a) (b)
Figure 38.4 In an a.c. Generator the Rotating Conductor is Connected to the

Load Through the Slip Rings and Brushes (a) Electrical Parts of an
a.c. Generator (b) Simplified Sketch of the Conductor Loop
When the rotor windings carry three-phase a.c. power, three slip rings are used. In some cases regarding larger
synchronous motors, multiple windings are used and five or mover slip rings may be present.
The high-power armature windings are placed on the stator structure, which has relatively larger winding space.
Overall, an a.c. machine can usually be smaller than its d.c. counterpart with the same power rating. The lack of a commu-
tator also contributes to size reduction. An a.c. machine averages about 50 per cent more power within the same frame size.
38.3 ALTERNATOR WINDINGS

The types of windings used in a.c. machinery are closely
related to d.c. windings. Both lap and wave windings
are used, but lap winding is much more common owing
to shorter coil connections. In single phase machines, a
winding form called concentric coils is used not because
of any circuit advantage, but because it lends itself to
prepared coil structure that can be put in place rapidly.
Here the economics of construction dominate.
Since three-phase machines require three identical
groups of windings spaced 120 electrical degrees apart,
and since poles must exist in pairs, certain rules affect
windings and magnetic structure slot spacing.
Electrical degrees refer to the cycle angle of the re-
peating sine wave, where one full cycle is 360 electri-
cal degrees. Since opposite magnetic poles produce op-
posite voltages in a moving coil to pole situation, the
maximum voltage difference along a sine wave is found
180 electrical degrees apart. This 180 electrical degrees (a)
shift takes place between each successive field pole.
The total electrical degrees in a 360 mechanical degree
(Figure 38.5) rotation is then simply 180 times the num-
ber of poles or the
total electrical degrees in one revolution = 180 P
(38.1)
where, P is the number of poles.
For example, take a three-phase four-pole machine.
Let us assume that 36 slots are available in the stator
lamination stock. There are 36/4 = 9 slots per pole posi-
tion and 9/3 = 3 slots per phase per pole. These 36 slots
would allow twice as many or six, per phase per pole for
a two-pole machine, and similarly, two slots per pole per (b)
phase for a six-pole machine.
Figure 38.5 Electrical and Mechanical Degrees
(a) Four-pole Magnetic Field
(b) 720 Electrical Degrees Per Revolution
38.3.1 Chording of Windings

One design factor is the chording of the pole windings. If, on the
36 slot, four-pole machine an individual coil enters slot 1 and
comes back from slot 9 (see Figure 38.6); it will have spanned 90
mechanical degrees of the stator circular structure. Since there are
four poles by definition, in this case, 90 mechanical degrees is 180
electrical degrees (Eq. 38.1). Thus, the two sides of the coil are
in the same relative position on the adjacent north and south pole
positions. This is a full-pitch coil construction (see Figure 38.6).
The more usual a.c. machine coil will cover less of the periph-
ery of the machine and is then said to be fractional pitch. A typical
coil situation might have a coil enter slot 1 and leave slot 7.
This then covers six out of a possible nine slot pitches and is
a 6/9 or 66.7 per cent pitch. The majority of a.c. machine coils
Figure 38.6 Four-pole a.c. Stator with Full are of fractional pitch type, for which there are a few important
Pitch Coils advantages.
1. The ends of the coil are shorter, which means less copper loss due to less total length.
2. The ends of the coil can be formed more compactly. The end bells will need less winding space, resulting in a shorter
unit.
3. There is a distinct reduction in machine harmonics due to cancellation of higher harmonics. Since all a.c. equipment
is designed to operate on a pure sine wave, the generation of harmonics is to be avoided.
38.3.2 Coil Group Connections

Figure 38.7 illustrates the manner in which the coils are laid into the slots. A vast majority of lap or wave-wound
machines use this double-layer winding arrangement. This is very similar to the manner of winding a d.c. armature.
This interconnection of the coils will result, in this 36-coil situation, in 12 groups of the coils per group. Each group
is then involved with one phase and one pole. Since there are four poles in this simple but real situation, there are four
coil groups in each phase. This is the usual situation, even when more slots or coils are used.
Figure 38.7 Double-layer Coils in a.c. Stator
A 72-slot, six-pole machine, when wound for three phase, would have 72/6 = 12 slots per pole and 12/3 = 4 slots per
phase per pole. Here the coils would be connected in groups of four, and there would be six of these four-coil groups per
phase.
Many varieties of coil group connections are possible, but only a relatively few are used today. In a three-phase machine,
the coil groups per phase are connected for all the poles, and this larger grouping is usually divided into two parts. On the
36-slot machine, 2 three-coil groups are permanently connected. There are then two of these six coil connections per phase.
If they are series connected, then the motor or generator will be set for operation on the higher of its two rated voltages. If
parallel connected, the lower of the two rated voltages may be accommodated. In this way, a motor or generator may be
operated on either 110 V or 220 V or perhaps 220 V or 440 V and so on. Great installation flexibility is inherently obtained.
As these coil groups are gathered together, the direction of winding or connection on opposite poles must be op-
posite. Thus, each adjacent series connected per phase per pole group must be reversed for proper polarity, as shown in
Figure 38.8 for typical coil interconnection.
A three-phase machine, when gathered into phase coil groups, is then connected either in wye or in delta, and also in series
or parallel as shown for wye connections in Figure 38.8. Three-phase motor stator coil group ends are normally numbered
from 1 to 9 as shown, and the points 10,11,12, are normally buried unless specially needed.
38.3.3 Winding Distribution

Since coils are usually laid in the manner shown in Figure 38.6, they are seen to be spaced uniformly around the periphery
of the machine stator. Returnning to the 36-coil, four-pole situation, it can be seen that in this specific case any one-pole has
three phase groups of three series connected coils per pole. The voltages generated in coils of single-phase groups of three
coils are not simply additive. Since each coil is not swept or cut by the same intensity of magnetic flux at the same time,
they are not in the same time phase relation even though they are a part of the same phase winding. The individual coil
voltages must be combined as phasors. All these factors, which make up a multi phase, two level, chorded or whole-pitch
distributed winding, are applicable for a variety of a.c. generators and motors, both large and small.
Figure 38.8 Typical Coil and Pole-group Connections
38.4 SYNCHRONOUS ALTERNATOR

The synchronous alternator is the basic a.c. generator. It is called synchronous because its generated frequency is directly
related to its number of armature and field poles and to its rotative speed. An individual coil of winding generates a full
cycle of a.c. voltage each time it is swept by a pair of magnetic poles. The generated frequency is converted from cycles
per pole pair to a machine basis by the following relation.
PS
f = (38.2)
120
where, f = frequency in hertz

P = number of poles
S = speed in rpm
This relationship is of fundamental importance and can be easily followed if constructed from its basics.
cycle
1. One full cycle of alternating current is developed for each pair of magnetic poles swept by a winding:
poles 2 poles
2. There are a fixed number of poles in a full circle of construction or one revolution:
rev
Note: There must be an even-integer number of poles, as in a d.c. machine.
3. The rotative speed is measured in revolutions per minute: rev
min
4. There is 1 minute for each 60 seconds: min
60sec
Gathering and cancelling, we have
cycle poles rev min PS cycle
×P ×S × → f = × (38.3)
2 poles rev min 60 sec 120 sec
P ω cycles
f = × (38.4)
4π sec
Note: cycle/sec = Hertz
If the rotative speed is given in radians per second or w, then
ω rad (38.5)
S rpm =
sec
There are only a few recognized and used a.c. power frequencies. These are 25, 50, 60 and 400 Hz, with 50 Hz and 60
Hz by far the most common. 400 Hz is used almost exclusively for aircraft a.c. power because it allows small high speed
machines which also require less magnetic structure size and weight. Any prime mover inherent rotative speed can be
matched by a combination of pole and frequency combination.
Example 38.1
A large hydroelectric power plant is under consideration. Its hydraulic head or water level difference above and below the dam
and its power requirement dictate its water turbine or runner must turn at from 137.00 rpm (14.387 rad/sec) to 140.00 rpm
(14.661 rad/sec) to reach peak efficiency. Power required is 60 Hz.
1. How many poles must a direct-connected alternator have?
2. What rotational speed must be used?
Solution:
PS 4 π f
1. P= =
120 ω
4π 60
P= = 52.5 poles
14.347
or
4π 60
P= = 51.4 poles
14.661
Poles can only exist in even integer numbers. So we must have P = 52 poles
2. Using 52 poles, we have
PS 120 f 120(60)
=f = or S = = 138.46 rpm
120 P 52
Checking with rpm
rpm = 138.46 × 0.10472 = 14.500 rad/sec.
38.5 STATOR WINDINGS

In a synchronous machine, the stator winding is the armature winding in which the operating e.m.f. is induced. Two
types of windings namely: single-layer winding and double layer winding are considered.
38.5.1. Single-layer Winding

The main difficulty with single-layer windings is to arrange the end connections so that they do not obstruct one another.
Figure 38.9 illustrates one of the most common methods of arranging these end connections for a four-pole, three-phase
synchronous machine having two slots per pole per phase, i.e., six slots per pole or a total of 24 slots.
Figure 38.9 End Connections of a Three-phase Single-layer Winding
In Figure 38.9 all the end connections are shown

bent outward for clearness. In actual practice, the end
connections are usually shaped in the manner shown in
Figure 38.10 and in section in Figure 38.11. This method
has the advantage that it requires only two shapes of end
connections, namely, those marked (in Figure 38.11 which
Figure 38.10 End Connections of a Three-phase

Single-layer Winding Figure 38.11 Sectional View of End Connections
are brought straight out of the slots and bent so as to lie on a cylindrical plane, and those marked D. The later, after being
brought out of the slots, are bent roughly at right angles, before being bent again to form an arch alongside the core.
The connections of the various coils are more easily indicated by means of the developed diagram of Figure 38.12.
Figure 38.12 Three-phase Single Layer Winding
The solid lines represent the Red phase, the dot/dash lines the Y<ellow phase and the dashed lines the %lue phase. The width of
the pole face has been made two-thirds of the pole pitch, a pole pitch being the distance between the centers of adjacent poles.
The poles in Figure 38.12 are assumed to be behind the winding and moving towards the right from the right hand rule, bear-
ing in mind that the thumb represents the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the flux, namely, to the left in Figure
38.12, the e.m.f.s in the conductors opposite the poles are as indicated by the arrow heads. The connections between the groups
of coils forming any one phase must be such that all the e.m.f.s are assisting one another.
Since the stator has six slots per pole (in this case) and also since the rotation of the poles through one pole pitch
corresponds to half a cycle of the e.m.f. wave or 180 electrical degrees, it follows that the spacing between two adjacent
slots corresponds to 180/6, or 30 electrical degrees. Hence, if the wire forming the beginning of the coil occupying the
first slot is taken to the red terminal R, the connection to the yellow
terminal Y must be a conductor from a slot four slot-pitches ahead,
namely, from the fifth slot, since this allows the e.m.f. in phase Y
to lag the e.m.f. in phase R by 120º. Similarly, the connection to
the blue terminal B must be taken from the ninth slot in order that
the e.m.f. in phase B may lag the e.m.f. in phase Y by 120º. Ends
R1, Y1 and B1 of the three phases can be joined to form the neutral
point of a star-connected system. If the windings are to be delta
connected, end R1of phase R is joined to the beginning of Y, end
Figure 38.13 Delta Connection of Windings Y1, to the beginning of B1 and the end B1 to the beginning of R, as
shown in Figure 38.13.
38.5.2. Double-layer Winding

Consider a four-pole three-phase machine with two slots per pole per phase and two conductors per slot. Figure 38.14
shows the simplest arrangement of the end connections of one phase, the thick lines representing the conductors
(and their end connections) forming, say, the outer lines, and the thin lines representing the conductors forming
the inner layer of the winding. The coils are assumed full-pitch, i.e., the spacing between the two sides of each
turn is exactly a pole pitch. The main feature of the end connections of a double-layer winding is the strap X1 which
enables the coils of any one phase to be connected in such a way that all the e.m.f.s of that phase are assisting one
another.
Since there are six slots per pole, the phase difference between the e.m.f.s of adjacent slots is 180/6, namely, 30 electrical
degrees. Since there is a phase difference of 120º between the e.m.f.s of phases R and Y, there must be four slot pitches be-
tween the first conductor of phase R and that of phase Y. Similarly, there must be four slot pitches between the first conductors
of phase Y and B. Hence, if the outer conductor of the third slot is connected to terminal R, the corresponding conductor in
the seventh slot, in the direction of rotation of the poles, is connected to terminal Y and that in the eleventh slot to terminal B.
Figure 38.14 One Phase of a Three-phase Double-layer Winding
In general, the single-layer winding is employed where the machine has a large number of conductors per slot, whereas
the double-layer winding is more convenient when the number of conductors per slot does not exceed eight.
38.5.3 Winding Pitch

A fractional-pitch double-layer winding coil does not have the same voltage being generated at the same time in each
side of the coil. The coil winding distribution and the flux intensity distribution are both arranged in such a way that
a sine-wave voltage results from a pole-phase group of windings. The individual coil side voltages must then be
combined as phasors. The pitch factor is the ratio of the voltage generated by a fractional-pitch coil to the voltage generated
by a full-pitch coil and is always less than 1. This is trigonometrically the sine of one half the coil span angle in electrical
degrees.
k p = sin ( p /2 ) (38.6)
where, kp = pitch factor ( dimension less ) but ≤ 1

p = coil span in electrical degrees when full pitch is 180 electrical degrees.
Since coil spans can only be constructed by integer number of lamination slots, and only a relatively few slots and re-
sulting slot pitches are practical kp may be tabulated (see Table 38.1). Coil spans below two-thirds of the available slots are
not normally used since they are of no advantage.
Table 38.1 contains all the likely pitch factors for a.c. motors and generators that have an integer number of slots per
pole per phase.
Example 38.1
Find the pitch factor to be used in calculations involving a six-pole, three-phase alternating current generator. It has a total
of 54 winding slots in the stator, and the coils span seven slots.
Solution:
The 54 total slots divided by six poles gives 9 slots per pole. Nine slots per pole divided by three phase’s yields 3 slots per
pole per phase. With nine slots per pole and a coil span of 7 slots, the factional pitch is 7/9. In electrical degrees, this is
180 (7/9) = 140 = p.
k p = sin 70ο = 0.93969
If a full pitch coil voltage is unity then this generator has a pitch factor of kp = 0.93969. This can be checked from
Table 38.1. If a coil enters one slot and leaves the core at the eighth slot away, connecting the entering slot, then it has a
coil span of seven slots.
38.6 DISTRIBUTION FACTOR

When several coils in a pole group are connected in series, their individual coil voltages are not directly additive unless two
or more coils lie in the same slot. The distribution factor is related to but not identical to the pitch factor. The distribution
factor is determined by the phase angle differences due to the individual coil placement, so its formulation is also based on
Table 38.1 Pitch Factor kp for All Possible Slot Combinations for Three-Phase Alternators having 3 to 15
Slots Per Pole
Fractional pitch or slots used per slot per pole
10 9
5
15, 12
Slots Slots Per 6
Full 14 11 8 13 12 7 9 11 6 4
per Pole Per or ,
pitch 15 12 9 15 15 9 12 15 9 6
pole Phase 10
2
12 or
3
180º 168º 165º 160º 156º 150º 144º 140º 135º 132º 120 º
3 1 1.000 0.866 03
6 2 1.000 0.965 93 0.866 03
9 3 1.000 0.984 81 0.939 69 0.866 03
12 4 1.000 0.991 44 0.965 93 0.923 88 0.866 03
15 5 1.000 0.994 52 0.978 15 0.951 06 0.913 55 0.866 03
phasor summation. The distribution factor is really related to the number of slots per pole per phase (n) and the number of
electrical degrees between these slots (α).
In Figure 38.15, four slots per pole per phase are involved. The segments labelled coil voltage (Ec) are proportional
to individual coil voltages whether or not they are chorded or one of fractional pitch. The long phasor (Epg) is the
desired voltage for a phase group of coils. The relationship desired is then
E pg phasor sum of coil voltages per phase

kd
= =
Ec arithematic sum of coiil voltages per phase
Figure 38.15 Coil Distribution Factor

which reduces to
sin ( n2α )
kd = (38.7)
n sin ( α2 )
where Egpp refers to the voltage generated per pole per phase. This voltage can then be directly expanded by however many
pole-phase groups are connected in series to get the full voltage per phase. This is because each pole-phase group is in time
phase with other poles of the same phase. A typical four-pole machine would have all the four poles connected in series
for its highest designed voltage. The other choice is usually two in parallel and two parallel groups in series for one half
the e.m.f. of higher voltage connection.
The final generated voltage per phase must be corrected for the type of three-phase connection. If delta connected
(D) the phase voltage is the line-to-line voltage. If it is wye-connected (Y or star), the phase voltage must be multiplied by
3 to find the line-to-line voltage. Many industrial and commercial locations will take advantage of the relation and use
the individual phase voltages or line to neutral as 120 V, and use the resulting wye-connected line-to-line voltage 208 V as
a low to medium power three-phase combination. This 208/120 V common combination takes advantage of the 3 factor.
Example 38.3
A small three-phase synchronous alternator can be connected in series wye for nominal 440 V line-to-line loads or parallel
wye for nominal 220 V line to line loads. It has a total of 36 slots and is connected as a four-pole machine. Each of the
36 coils has 15 turns and is formed to span 8 slots (from 1 to 9). The field coils are adjusted to produce a flux of
0.006 Wb/pole. What is the line to line voltage at open circuit when connected parallel wye and turning at 1800 rpm
(188.50 rad/sec)?
Solution:
With 36 slots and 4 poles there are 9 slots/pole and 3 slots/pole/phase. Also ∝ = 180/9 = 20 electrical degrees/slot and
with a span of 8 slots there are 160 electrical degrees/coil. From Table 38.1, kp= 0.98481 and from Table 38.2 kd = 0.95980.
The turns per coil, N=15 is also given. A pole-phase group is made of three coils, n=3, so Nn=15×3. For parallel, Wye
connections each phase will have two permanently connected pole phase groups in series and two of these series connected
groups in parallel. The connections will resemble Figure 38.8. As a result, Eq (38.6) voltages will be multiplied by 2 to get
the per phase voltage. This, in turn, will be multiplied by 3 to get the final line to line voltage.
PS 4 (1800 )
f = = = 60 Hz
120 120
Egpp = 4.44 ( 0.006 )15 ( 3) 60 ( 0.98481) 0.95980
= 68.031V per pole group
Table 38.2 Distribution Factor kd for Three-Phase Alternators
Slots per pole Slots per pole per phase (n) Electrical degrees per slot (α) Distribution factor (kd)
3 1 60 1.000 00
6 2 30 0.965 93
9 3 20 0.959 80
12 4 15 0.957 66
15 5 12 0.956 68
Since n is slots per pole per phase, n can only be an integer unless uneven coil groups are chosen. Similarly, ∝ in
a three phase situation can only be 180/3n or, in general, 180/slots per pole. Then as in the case of kp, kd can also be
tabulated.
Example 38.4
An eight-pole three-phase alternator is wound on a 72-slot core. Find the distribution factor of the winding.
Solution:
72slots
= 9slots per pole
8 poles
slotes
9
pole
= 3 slots per pole per phase
3 phases
Since there are 9 slots per pole and each pole is 180 electrical degrees. 180/9. α = 20 electrical degrees between adjacent
slots. Thus, ∝ = 20o and n = 3
sin (n α / 2) sin 30° 0.5
kd = = = = 0.95980
n sin(α / 2) 3 sin 10° 0.520 94
kd can be checked in Table 38.2
38.7 BASIC VOLTAGE GENERATION FORMULA

ω
E v s ω (38.8)
where,
w is the angular velocity in radians/second
 is the flux in webers
N is the number of turns per coil
s is the relative speed in revolutions per second
A per phase per pole coil group is normally a permanent group of windings. Therefore, N turns per coil is modified to
become Nn, where n is the number of coils per phase per pole. The above relation now becomes
Eav /pp = 4 φ N n f
f can be substituted for 2p rad/sec
For the full voltage developed in a per pole per phase group of coils
E gpp = 4.44 φ Nn f k p kd (38.9)

Egpp (2)( 3 ) = 68.031(2) 3 E1 = 235.67 V
The same line-to-line voltage will hold in either unit.
38.8 ALTERNATOR PERFORMANCE

When an alternator is in operation, a number of conditions have to be satisfied.
1. The alternator must be connected to a prime mover and driven at its synchronous speed so that the proper a.c. fre-
quency may be delivered. This is usually an exact requirement rather than approximate.
2. The alternator must be properly synchronized before it is paralleled with any other alternators on the bus line. Steps 1
and 2 are quite simplified if the alternator runs by itself, a relatively rare situation.
3. The voltage that the alternator is to deliver must be properly set by the adjustment of the rotating field excitation cur-
rent. The field excitation is direct current to produce a steady magnetic field flux.
When there is no load on the alternator, its generated voltage per phase Egp, and its terminal voltage per phase Vp remain
the same. The terminal voltage is reduced by the IR drop through the winding resistance.
The terminal voltage is also affected by the armature winding inductive reactance. Reactance and resistance effects
are combined as phasors. The terminal voltage is also affected by the armature reaction, which is the result of the stator
ampere turns acting across the main field an in effect more complex than that of a d.c. armature. The armature reaction
has a variable effect since—depending on the load power factor—it can act to demagnetize the field or to increase the
field magnetization.
As a result, the voltage regulation of an alternator is both variable and large. The same alternator may display substantial
voltage drop or significant voltage rise, depending upon its load power factor. Voltage is controlled by external regulating
circuits that vary rotating field winding current so that a constant voltage is delivered to the load.
38.9 ALTERNATOR PERCENTAGE REGULATION

The voltage regulation percentage for an a.c. alternator is figured in the same manner as for a d.c. generator.
Egp − V p
Percentage voltage regulation = ×100 (38.10)
Vp
Egp = internal generated voltage per phase at no load
Vp = terminal voltage per phase at no load
While in service the field current in a synchronous alternator under constant adjustment under the load power factor
happens to be the small leading power factor that results in zero percent regulation for the generalized circuit it would be
about 0.88 to 0.90 leading PF. Regulation depends upon the armature circuit inductive reactance or on the various modifi-
cations of the field magnetization due to the particular armature reaction.
Example 38.5
A typical Y-connected three-phase alternator is adjusted to its rated line-to-line voltage of 230.0 V while under its rated load
and 80 per cent lagging power factor. The same field excitation current results in a load line-to-line voltage of 328.6 volt.
What is its regulation?
Solution:
328.6
Voltage generated per phase, Egp = = 189.7 V
3
230.0
Vp
= = 132.8 V
3
189.7 − 132.8
η= × 100 = 42.8 per cent
132.8
Example 38.6
The three phase alternator in Example 38.5 has a rated load voltage of 100 per cent while carrying an 80 per cent
lagging power factor load at 100 per cent current. If the no-load voltage is 142.8 per cent of its rated voltage, what is its
regulation?
Solution:
142.8 − 100
× 100 = 42.8 per cent regulation
100
Note: The per-unit method is a convenient way of comparing machines that are rated under different conditions.
38.10 RELATION BETWEEN GENERATED VOLTAGE AND TERMINAL VOLTAGE OF

AN ALTERNATOR AT VARIOUS LOAD POWER FACTOR
There are two causes of voltage drop from no-load to full-load in separately excited d.c. generators: (1) armature circuit
voltage drop; and (2) armature reaction. There are three causes of voltage drop in the (separately excited) synchronous
alternator: (1) armature circuit voltage drop; (2) armature reactance; and (3) armature reaction. While the first two factors
always tend to reduce the generated voltage, the third factor (armature reaction) may tend to increase or decrease the
generated voltage. The nature of load affects the voltage regulation of the a.c. synchronous alternator.
As was the case in d.c. generators, if there is no-load on the (separately excited) alternator, the terminal voltage and the
generated voltage are the same. The magnitude of the three causes of voltage drop in the synchronous alternator is solely
a function of the load current Ia .
38.10.1 Unity Power Factor Loads

At unity power factor, the phase current in the armature Ia is in phase with the terminal phase voltage Vp by definition.
The voltage drop per phase across the effective resistance of the armature Ia Ra is also always in phase with the armature current
Ia. The inductive voltage drop due to armature reactance, Ia Xa, is always leading with respect to the current through it, since
the current lags the voltage by 90º in a circuit possessing inductive reactance only. At unit PF, the armature reaction voltage
drop Ear leads the armature current Ia which produced it, and is, therefore, always in phase with the armature reactance voltage
drop Ia Xa. The basic generator equation may now be written for the unity power factor loads in complex form as the phasor sum
Egp = (V p + I a Ra ) + j ( I a X a + Ear ) volts (38.11)
From the diagram of Figure 38.16(a) and Eq. 38.11, it may be seen that the terminal voltage Vp is always less than the
generated voltage per phase by a total impedance drop Ia (Ra +j Xa), where jXa is the quadrature synchronous reactance
voltage drop, or the combined voltage drop due to armature reactance and armature reaction.
38.10.2 Lagging Power Factor Loads

If the armature phase current lags the terminal voltage Vp by source angle θ as a result of an external load (primarily
inductive) across the synchronous alternator, the voltages may be represented by the diagram shown in Figure 38.16(b).
The Ia Ra drop is still in phase with the armature phase currents, and the quadrature reactance and armature reaction
voltage drops lead the armature current by 90º. It is simpler to indicate the value of Egp in terms of its horizontal and
vertical components.
Egp = (V p cos θ + I a Ra ) + j (V p sin θ + I a X s ) volts (38.12)
(a) (c)
(b) (d)
Figure 38.16 Relation Between Generated (No-load) and Terminal (Full-load) Voltages of
a Synchronous Alternator for Three Types of Load Conditions (a) Unity PF Loads (b) Lagging
PF Loads (c) Leading PF Loads (d) Negative Regulation at Leading PF Loads
To obtain the same rated terminal voltage per phase (Vp), a higher induced voltage per phase (Egp) is required at lagging
power factor than at unity power factor.
Example 38.7
A 1000 kVA, 4600 V, 3φ, V-connected alternator has an armature resistance of 2 Ω per phase and a synchronous armature
reactance of 20 Ω per phase. Find the full-load generated voltage per phase at (1) unity power factor and (2) 0.75 power
factor lagging.
Solution:
VL 4600 V
V
= p = = 2660 V
3 1.73
kVA × 1000 1000 × 1000
Ip = = = 125 A
3V p 3 × 2660
Ia Ra drop per phase = 125 A × 2 Ω = 250 V
Ia Xs dropper phase = 125 A × 20 Ω = 2500 V
1. At unity PF
Eg = (Vp + Ia Ra) + j Ia Xs
= (2660+250) + j 2500
= 2910 + j 2500 = 3836 V/phase
2. At 0.75 PF lagging
Egp = (V p cos θ + I a Ra ) + j (V p sin θ + I a X s )
= ( 2660 × 0.75 ) + 250  + j ( 2660 × 0.66 ) + 2500 
= 2245 + j 4259 = 4814 V/phase

Note:
1. At unity PF and a lagging PF, the generated voltage per phase is greater than the terminal voltage per phase at
all times.
2. The voltage regulation is always positive.
3. The solution is performed on a per phase basis because the definition of power factor is in these terms.
38.10.3 Leading Power Factor Loads

If the armature phase current Ia leads the terminal phase voltage Vp by some angle θ as a result of external load
(containing a capacitor component) across the a.c. synchronous alternator, the voltages may be represented as shown in
Figure 38.16(c). The Ia Ra drop is always in phase with the phase current in the armature, and the quadrature synchronous
reactance drop Ia Xs leads the armature current by 90º. By indicating Egp in terms of the horizontal and vertical components,
we find
Egp = (V p cos θ + I a Ra ) + j (V p sin θ + I a X s ) (38.13)
It can be seen that for the same rated terminal phase voltage, less generated voltage is required for a leading power factor
than for a lagging power factor.
Example 38.8
Repeat Example 38.7 to determine the generated voltage per phase at full load for: (1) a load of 0.75 PF leading; and
(2) a load of 0.40 PF leading.
Solution:
From Example 38.7
V p = 2660 V
I a R a /phase = 250 V
I a X s /phase = 2500 V
1. At 0.75 PF leading
Egp = (V p cos θ + I a Ra ) + j (V p sin θ + I a X s )
= ( 2660 × 0.75 ) + 250  + j ( 2660 × 0.66 ) + 2500 
= 2245 – j 742 = 2364 V/phase

Eg = ( 2660 × 0.4 ) + 250  + j ( 2660 × 0.9165 ) − 2500 
= 1314 – j 62 = 1315 V/phase

Note:
1. At both leading PFs, the generated voltage per phase is less than the terminal voltage per phase.
2. At the given PFs, the voltage regulation is negative.
38.10.4 Voltage Regulation at Various Power Factors

Examples 38.7 and 38.8 illustrate two aspects of the effect of leading or lagging loads on alternator generated voltage and
in turn, voltage regulation, namely,
1. The lower the leading power factor, the greater the voltage rise from no load (Egp) to full load (Vp).
2. The lower the lagging power factor, the greater the voltage decrease from no load (Egp) to full load (Vp).
Figure 38.17 provides the data of the above two examples. It may be noted that: (a) raising the power factor of a
lagging load to unity power factor is still insufficient to produce zero per cent voltage regulation; (b) the terminal volt-
age will still drop as a purely resistive load is applied to the alternator; (c) at leading loads, the armature reaction is
magnetizing and tends to produce additional generated voltage as load is applied, producing a negative regulator; and
(d) at lagging loads, the armature reaction is demagnetizing and its effect in reducing the generated voltage, coupled
with the internal armature resistive and reactive voltage drops, results in a rapid decrease in terminal voltage as load is
applied.
5
4814 V
4 0.7
5P
3836 V Fl
og
gin
Uni g
ty P
F
3
2660 V (Rated voltage)

Voltage per phase (kV)
2660 V
leading
2364 V 0.75 PF
g
din
2
F lea
0P
0.4
1315 V
Rated load
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

Armature current per phase (A)
Figure 38.17 Voltage Regulation of an Alternator at Various Power Factors with

Field Current Adjusted to Provide Rated Voltage at Rated Load
Example 38.9
Calculate the voltage regulation at the four PFs computed in Examples 38.7 and 38.8, and as shown, respectively, in
Figure 38.17.
Solution :
1. At 0.75 PF lagging
4814 − 2660
η= × 100 = 84 per cent
2660
2. At unity PF
3836 − 2660
η= × 100 = 44.2 per cent
2660
2364 − 2660
η= × 100 = −11.13 per cent
2660
1365 − 2660
η= × 100 = −50.6 per cent
2660
38.10.5 A.C. Generators: A Comparison

The regulation of a separately excited d.c. generator (whose voltage drops with the application of load because of armature
resistance and armature reactance) is inherently better than that of a separately excited a.c. synchronous alternator. Since commercial
electrical loads are generally loads of a lagging nature, the voltage of a separately excited a.c. alternator will drop because of
armature resistance, armature reactance and armature reaction. The effect of armature reaction in a d.c. generator is, primarily,
cross magnetizing and slightly demagnetizing, whereas in an alternator, its demagnetizing component is the armature flux, φa sinθ.
The effects of armature reaction are usually compensated in a d.c. dynamo. The alternator’s inherently poor regulation
is ignored and its output maintained at a constant terminal voltage by means of external voltage regulators. These automati-
cally increase or decrease the field excitation from a d.c. generator (exciter) with changes in electric load and power factor.
The exciter is usually on the same shaft as the prime mover and the alternator. Its characteristics are usually closely related
to the alternator regulators.
38.10.6 Load Power Factor

Equations 38.12 and 38.13 can be stated in a combined fashion that holds for any power factor
(V p cosθ + I a Ra ) + (V p sin θ ± I a X s )
2 2
Egp = (38.14)
or alternatively, in complex form,
(
Egp = V p cos θ + I a Ra + j V p sin θ ± I a X s ) (38.15)
For unity power factor cos θ is one, and sin θ is zero and Vp sin θ drops out. By comparing this with Eq. 38.12, it can be seen
that Eq. 38.14 is a special case of Eq. 38.12 with cos θ = 1 and sin θ = 0.
( )
Egp = V p + I a R a ± I a X s (38.16)
with plus sign for unity or lagging power factor and minus sign for leading power factor.
38.10.7 Winding Resistance

The effective a.c. resistance of a particular winding is usually determined by using direct current and the voltmeter-ammeter
method. A d.c. current is passed from terminal to terminal of either two of the three leads of a three phase winding or a complete
single-phase winding. If the voltage drop from terminal to terminal is recorded at the same time as the current used, the d.c.
resistance is R = E/Ia, Multiple readings are averaged for accuracy. This resistance is usually that of two phases, since the neutral
point of a wye winding is usually not accessible. A test circuit is shown in Figure 38.18. In the less common delta wound
alternator, the windings are usually permanently spliced together at the delta points. The resulting per phase resistance is
Voltage drop  1  V
Wye Rd.c. =  = (38.17)
Current reading  2  2 A
3V
Delta Rd.c. = (38.18)
2A
Since there are harmonics generated in the individual coils of the alternator windings, some high frequencies are also
present even though their combined effect in a phase is minimal. High-frequency currents travel next the surface of a
conductor (skin effect). The effective a.c. resistance is greater than the d.c. resistance. The factor of difference varies
according to the base frequency at the alternator as well as the winding configuration, and is from 1.2 to 1.8. Resistance
of the winding to the passage of alternating current is usually taken as 1.5 times the d.c. resistance for 60 Hz machines.
R a = 1.5 R d.c. (38.19)
Wye
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 38.18 Winding Resistance and Synchronous Impedance Test Circuits
(a) Per Phase Resistance Test (b) Open Circuit Test (c) Short Circuit Test
Ra is usually a very low resistance, particularly on large machines where it is an extremely small part of an ohm. Accurate
determination of Ra is important in efficiency calculations. Voltmeter ammeter methods are usually used.
38.10.8 Synchronous Impedance

The phasor relation in Figure 38.19 holds for any power factor situation. All the sides of the diagram illustrated in
Figure 38.19 contain the armature current as a multiplier. If Ia is divided into each side, a similarly shaped impedance
triangle results, with Ra and Xa as the orthogonal sides and Xs as the hypotenuse. These values are, respectively, as follows.
1. Ra is the effective a.c. resistance of the winding in whatever series
and parallel coil combination is used.
2. Xs is the effective combined winding reactance and reactance
effect of the armature reaction. These effects operate together
and Xs is the synchronous reactance, a per phase value.
3. Zs is the phasor sum of Ra and Xs, and is defined as the synchronous
impedance of the armature winding on a per phase basis.
The determination of the values of the Zs and Xs components of this
impedance triangle is known as the synchronous impedance method.
This procedure is widely used as well as universally recognized.
38.10.9 The Open-circuit Test and

The Short-circuit Test
Two specific tests are necessary to determine the Zs or effective winding
impedance. These are the open-circuit test and the short-circuit test.
From these two tests and Ohm’s law for a.c. circuits, the impedance is
determined where,
E open-circuit per phase Egp Figure 38.19 Alternator Impedance Rela-
=Zs = (38.20) tions, Impedance Triangle
I short-circuit I sc
The open-circuit voltage test is comparable to the d.c. machine open-circuit saturation curve. The alternator is driven at
its synchronous speed. Field current is varied from a low value up to that sufficient for a voltage reasonably beyond the
rated voltage. Data are recorded in suitable steps. If the alternator is a three-phase wye unit—as is usually the case—the
line-to-line voltage E1 is divided by 3 to find the per phase voltage. This step is not applicable to a single-phase unit.
However, since the resistance Ra, the reactance Xs, and the impedance Zs are all per phase units, the data used to determine
these values must be per phase also. The test circuit for open-circuit test is given in Figure 38.18(b).
For the short circuit test as shown in Figure 38.18(c), the machine is shut down and reconnected as shown. Ammeter protec-
tion switches are not shown, since the test will controllably build up and then reduce current. The ammeters for large machines
require heavy shunts or suitable current transformers, since these currents may be in thousands of amperes in a larger unit.
It is not a simple thing to connect and drive a large alternator. Many large hydro electric units are not rotated at all until they
are built into their location because of the magnitude and expense of a suitable prime-mover drive. On a large alternator, the
only suitable load is the combined industrial, business, and domestic electrical customers of an entire city. The difficulty of
performing a full-scale test with a controllable load is the real reason for the synchronous impedance test. Much less power is
consumed in the prime mover since only the internal losses of the machine must be overcome. No external power is delivered
either during the open-circuit or the closed-circuit test. As a result, only a small percentage of the full-load torque is needed.
The alternator is brought to its synchronous speed while short-circuited through the ammeters, as can be seen in
Figure 38.18(c). Initially, the field current If is very low, zero, so that no abnormal short circuit currents are generated. Then,
as the field current is increased, the short circuit currents are watched and recorded as Isc and its simultaneously corresponding
If. A current at substantially beyond the normal rated current may be briefly reached with safety as long as the lines are not
switched open. The data will show a straight line because the load is almost entirely inductive. As a result of the demagnetiz-
ing effect of the armature reaction, the machine is operating in the linear region of its saturation curve during this test. It is ac-
tually a situation where only the normal load currents and reasonable overload currents are carefully and controllably applied.
Since the currents and magnetic paths per phase are not identical, the Isc value used is the average of the three ammeter
readings:
I s1 + I s 2 + I s 3
I sc = (38.21)
3
Example 38.10
A 1000 kVA, 2300 V, three phase, wye-connected synchronous alternator is tested to determine its synchronous impedance.
The d.c. resistance between the two lines averages 0.412 Ω. The open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit current are
determined to have the relation shown in Figure 38.20. Find the values of Ra, Zs and Xs assuming that Ra effective resistance
is 1.5 lines the d.c. resistance.
Solution:
0.412
R dc = = 0.206 Ω
2
R a = 1.5 × 0.206 = 0.309 Ω
From Figure 38.20, at the open circuit per phase voltage corresponding to the rated line to line voltage, find the corresponding
field current.
El
E=
gp = 1328 V
3
The corresponding field current If = 73 A

At the same If, Is = 400 A
Egp 1328
= and I s = 3.32 Ω
I sc 400

X s = Z s2 − R 2a
= ( 3.32 )2 − ( 0.309 )2
= 3.31 Ω
Note: Xs has very nearly the value Zs because of the comparatively small value of Ra.
Example 38.11
With the same alternator described in Example 38.10, calculate the percent regulation for full-load lagging power factor
of 0.8.
Solution:
kVA(1000) 1000000
Il = = = I a = 251.0 A
3V 3 × 2300
Vl
Vp = = 1328 V
3
I a Ra = 251.0 × 0.309 = 77.6 V
I a X s = 251.0 × 3.31 = 831 V
cos θ = 0.8 so that
θ = 36.870ʺ and sin θ = 0.6
(V ) + (V )
2 2
E gp = p cos θ + I a Ra p sin θ + I a X s
= [1328(0.8) + 77.6]2 + [1328(0.6) + 831]2

= (1140)2 + (1628)2 = 1299 600 + 2699 700
= 3949300 = 1987 V
1987 − 1328
η= × 100 = 49.6 per cent
1328
38.11 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Little difference exists between the equivalent circuits of a single-phase a.c. synchronous alternator, as represented in
Figure 38.21(a) and that of a three-phase a.c. synchronous alternator, as seen in Figure 38.21(b). Each phase winding
Figure 38.21 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Alternator (a) Single Phase

(b) 3-Phase, Wye Connected Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Alternator
of a three-phase alternator is assumed to have an effective armature resistance per phase of Ra, an effective armature
reactance per phase of Xa, and a generated per phase voltage of Egp. Furthermore, if the load is balanced, it may be
assumed that the voltage drop due to the effect of armature reaction is the same in each phase.
38.12 PARALLEL OPERATION

The old proverb of ‘not putting all one’s eggs in one basket’ is the fundamental principle governing parallel operation. A utility
system usually consists of several generating stations, as shown in Figure 38.22, with all operating in parallel. At each of
the stations, there may be several a.c. alternators and/or d.c. generators, operating in parallel. There are numerous advantages
to the subdivision of a generating station into smaller stations, from an economic as well as strategic point of view.
These advantages also apply to the use of several smaller generating units rather than a single larger dynamo, although the
latter is more efficient when loaded to its full capacity.
The reasons for parallelling generating sources have been discussed in Chapter 32. The same basic reasons for parallel-
ling d.c. machinery hold for a.c. machinery also. Parallelling reasons may be summarized as follows.
1. Local or regional power use may exceed the power of a single available generator.
2. Parallel alternators allow one or more units to be shut down for scheduled or emergency maintenance, while the load
is being supplied with power.
3. Generators are inefficient at part load, so shutting down one or more generators allows the remaining load to be
carried with less number of machines that are efficiently loaded.
4. Loaded growth can be handled by added machines without disturbing the original installation.
5. Available machine prime movers and generators can be matched for economic first cost and flexible use.
The requirements for parallelling include those for d.c. machines in addition to a few others.
6. The voltages must be the same at the parallelling point or junction even though it is not the same in the case of the
alternators.
7. The phase sequence for any multiple phase must be the same at the parallelling point.
8. The incoming machine must be in phase at the moment of parallelling. It will continue to stay in phase under
normal conditions after parallelling. It is important to recognize that phase sequence and in phase are not the same
things.
9. The line frequencies must be identical at the parallelling point. In the vast majority of cases, this means the same fre-
quency at the generator because frequency changing is not economic. Mixed frequencies must be paralleled through
some frequency conversion means for compatability at the point of interconnection.
10. The prime movers must have relatively similar and drooping speed load characteristics. This is to prevent a
machine with a rising speed-load characteristics from taking more and more of the load until it fails as a result of
overload.
Violation of these requirements for parallelling would result in circulating currents between the machines varying from
uneconomic, to serious, to disastrous.
38.12.1 Parallel Voltage Requirements

When one electrical device is in parallel with another, their voltages are identical at the parallelling point. If the devices
are d.c. generators and set to different generating voltages Eg, a circulating current will exist between them. These currents
will cause voltage drops through the armature resistances sufficient for the parallel point voltages to be identical, as they
must be. This amounts to an I2R power loss. These losses heat the machines and in the case of a higher voltage machine
additionally load the prime mover. Obviously, a mismatch is to be avoided.
In the synchronous alternator parallelling situation, it is the line-to-line voltage at the parallelling point that is forced to
be the same, Ve1 = Ve2. As a result, in three phase the Vp of one generator must be matched to the other Vp. The machines
may be of different rated voltages and connected through transformers. In fact, over a widespread regional grid, the inter-
connection path may be through quite a few transformers. As a result of intervening transformer action, the alternators may
not have the same Vp voltages, but the effective transformed voltage will be the same; thus, the machines to be paralleled
will have identical Vp voltages after parallelling.
The entering machine Vp, which at the moment is also its Egp, must match the bus voltage perhaps. Then the entering
machine will need to be readjusted so that its total phasor situation will match the bus.
Figure 38.22 Single Line Diagram of a Typical a.c. Power System Showing Generation, Transmission, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy
Synchronous Generators — Alternators
755
38.12.2 Phase Sequence Considerations

Phase sequence implies phase time sequence. Each alternator—as it is presented to a parallelling switch—must have
the same phase sequence as the line at that point. If the bus has the sequence, say, A-B-C, and the incoming alternator
has some other possible sequence, say, A-C-B a disastrous short-circuit condition exists. The resulting short-circuit
current is alternately limited by the combined synchronous impedances of the windings involved. At the moment
of switch closure, the current is still more because the armature reaction cross magnetization takes time to be fully
established. Obviously, the out-of-phase sequence situation is to be most carefully avoided. This is easy to avoid with
proper precautions.
Generator action involves motor action when current flows.
The torque of any motor action is proportional to the armature
circuit currents. Thus, an extremely high short circuit current
involves extremely high transient torque. In the larger sizes, an
out of phase parallelling attempt is nearly explosive and disas-
trous. Fortunately, a wrong sequence is easily corrected, once
detected, by interchanging any two of the three phase leads.
In phase and in-phase sequence are different situations.
Once a circuit is wired and tested, its phase sequence will not
change unless some repair or component change causes an
inadvertent interchange between two of the three phases. On
the other hand, whether or not two alternators are in phase
or out of phase must be determined each time alternators are
(a) paralleled.
If two identical-frequency, sine wave varying voltages are
in phase it means that each voltage is at the same absolute value
at any instant of time. This is shown in Figure 38.23(a). One of
the many out-of-phase conditions is shown in Figure 38.23(b),
where the two otherwise identical sine waves are 45 electrical
degrees out of phase. If synchronous alternators are paralleled
under these initial conditions, there are substantial circulating
currents between machines with accompanying large torques.
If the out-of-phase condition is small, the machines will
usually pull into synchronism. When this takes place, there are
mostly a few cycles of hunting while the condition damps out.
Under normal conditions, with care and proper instrumenta-
tion, the transient is scarcely noticeable. The transient may
(b) cause an audible mechanical shock to the machines involved
and the ammeters may flicker briefly. The difference between
Figure 38.23 In-phase Conditions (a) In Phase
out of phase and out-of-phase sequence is very pronounced.
(B) 45 degrees Out of Phase
Synchronizing and parallelling of machines that are out of
phase sequence cannot be achieved.
The trouble does not subside. The least that can be expected is that breakers will violently open the circuit. To conclude,
these synchronous alternators must be in phase or nearly in phase to accomplish parallelling.
38.12.3 Identical Frequency Requirement

When in parallel, the various machines must have identical frequencies. The ideal design in this case is 60 Hz, and it is
held very closely. The entire grid may drift to 60.01 or 59.99 Hz or more, very briefly, but it very, very closely achieves
the following ideal:
60 cycles 60 sec 60 min 24 hours cycles
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 5184000 (38.22)
sec min hour day day
As a result, 60 Hz synchronous motor driven clocks and timing devices do not require resetting for days at a time. The
only exception is loss of time during a power failure.
The frequency of a large system is held closely to its ideal. The machine-to-machine frequency differences are
held absolutely to zero. An individual machine or a group of machines may move slightly back or ahead in phase as
an individual area load changes. It is by a small phase change that an individual machine may change its load current.
However, when in parallel, a synchronous alternator does not pull far enough out of phase to slip or cycle and thus have
generated a different frequency. The torque required to do so would normally exceed that available in the prime mover
that drives the machine.
The period just before a parallelling switch is closed, the incoming alternator should be very closely at the same fre-
quency as the bus. The acceptable difference between small 60 Hz machine frequencies is of the order of a small part of
a cycle per second. On large public utility machines the difference is even smaller as some difference in frequencies may
reasonably exist before parallelling.
In the period of time immediately after parallelling, the inertia of the incoming machine tends of keep the slightly
different speed that it had when entering the parallel. However, the machine generated frequency has a fixed relation to
its numbers of poles and its speed. As a result, the slightly different frequency of the incoming machine tends to cause a
progressive phase difference, resulting in a retarding torque for the faster machine or an accelerating torque for the slower
speed. If, as is usual the synchronized machines already on the bus have substantially more inertia, the incoming machine
will be slowed to or accelerated to absolute synchronous speed. This process takes place in a relatively few cycles.
To conclude, the frequency of an alternator must be very closely matched to the bus to which it is to be paralleled.
38.12.4 Prime-Mover Torque Speed Relation

On a major public utility system, prime-mover speeds are kept so nearly constant that they can be safely identified as
having that particular speed characteristic.
Each machine in a parallel combination must be driven with a suitable prime-mover characteristics. In the usual sense,
a governed gasoline engine, diesel engine, reciprocating steam turbine, steam turbine, or gas turbine will all have droop-
ing speed-load characteristics, meaning that as the torque load increases the speed droops or decreases. Each basic type of
prime mover has given characteristics, some have 3 per cent, some 10 per cent and so on. Any parallelling combination
should have a similar percentage speed droop to match a similar per cent load. This allows the alternators to share the load
equitably.
If one prime mover has a substantially different speed-load relation than the other successful parallelling can only be ac-
complished in a narrow range of load. Since the alternators must run in synchronism, the one with soft speed characteristic
(greater droop) will not carry its share of the load. With a number of parallel machines, an increase of load may actually
overload one unit while only slightly increasing the load on the others.
A machine combination having a rising speed, load characteristic will soon assume all the load and continue to drive
still more forcefully. As a result, the affected alternator is driven ahead in space and motorizes the others. While this lasts,
the alternator with the rising-speed characteristic will carry all the outside load plus motorizing the other alternators. Their
prime movers will rise in speed as they are unloaded, so synchronization is maintained. However, the affected rising speed
characteristic will be so severely overloaded that it would be better not to have attempted paralleling.
The alternators that are to be paralleled must have similar prime mover speed characteristics. This speed characteristic
must be drooping, since a rising speed characteristic is destructive.
38.13 ALTERNATOR SYNCHRONIZING PROCEDURE

Having understood the requirements for parallelling synchronous alternators, let us see how these required conditions are
detected and applied.
38.13.1 Voltage Matching

The matching of voltage is easily determined in a straight forward manner. This is done with either one voltmeter switched
from one to the other or with matched voltmeters.
38.13.2 Phase Sequence Matching

Phase sequence is determined by various simple procedures. It is not absolute phase sequence that is desired; rather, it is
desired to know that the phase sequence of the bus and the entering alternator is the same. There are two very simple and
very reliable circuits that show if the phase sequence is correct. There are the dark lamp circuit and the bright lamp circuit.
Figure 38.24(a) shows a typical dark lamp circuit with the synchronizing switch open, and the incoming alternator
not yet turning, there is no opposing voltage for the lights. They will glow dimly and, steadily since they each see 1/ 3
of the line-to-line voltage across two phases of the operating generator Figure 38.24(b) shows the bright lamp circuit.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 38.24 Lamp Methods of Synchronization (a) Dark Lamp Synchronizing Lamps
(b) Bright Lamp Synchronizing Lamps (c) Two Bright One Dark Synchronizing Lamps
As the incoming alternator is brought up to speed, it has voltage and speed of its own. The lamps then see the difference
of the voltage between alternators. The desired phase sequence condition is shown by whether the lamps go bright and
dark together. If they twinkle on and off separately, there is a phase sequence error that must be corrected. The remedy
is for any two of the three phase leads between the alternator and switch to be interchanged. The interchange must be
the phase power leads. If the lamp leads are interchanged to produce a version of Figure 38.24(c), the lamps would
come and go together and conceal a real wiring error. The bright lamp synchronizing system gives the same indication
of phase sequence in that all lamps go bright, then dark, together with the correct phase sequence.
The two bright, one dark synchronizing lamp system shown in Figure 38.24(c) gives the opposite phase sequence in-
dication. The lamps twinkle back and forth when the phase sequence is correct. Obviously, one must know which system
is in use.
38.13.3 In-Phase Determination

The in-phase condition is shown (dark lamp) when all the lamps are dark. This condition is approached as the incoming
machine speed approaches the bus frequency. Initially, the lamps will glow faintly. As the incoming machine is built up
to voltage, but is not yet near the bus in frequency, the lamps glow quite brightly and steadily. As the frequencies are
approaching matching condition, all the lamps go bright and dark together. The flashing frequency becomes longer and
longer and longer and may become many seconds per second. Finally, the lamps go dark and stay dark for a few seconds.
The middle of the dark period is the point of actual in-phase condition. When this point has been identified satisfactorily,
the parallelling switch may be closed and the lamps will stay dark.
The last lamp synchronizing technique is known as two bright one dark synchronization, the rotating lamp synchroniza-
tion, or the Siemen-Halske method. This circuit twinkles when the phase sequence is correct. Like both dark and bright
lamp methods, it shows the approach of matching of the frequencies by longer and longer cycle change periods. The cor-
rect synchronizing point is shown by one dark light and the other two of the same brightness. Each lamp has the same range
of bright and dark as in the other methods. However, no two lamps reach full brightness at the same out-of-phase angle. As
the in-phase condition is approached, one light is out, one light slowly dims from full brightness and one light increases
in brightness from a dim situation. When the two illuminated bulbs (or pairs) reach the same brightness, the switches are
closed.
Note: If large voltages are present, no reasonable lamps can be used. In high-voltage units transformers are used to reduce
lamp voltages. In medium installations, multiple series lamps are used as in Figure [38.24 (b) and (c)]. Only very low-
voltage units would use the single lamp and resistor connection of Figure 38.24(a).
38.13.4 Frequency Synchronization

In all of the above methods, an interpretation of whether frequency synchronization is being approached can be made.
With any of the systems, the lamps will appear continuously and dimly lit if the incoming frequency differs from the bus
frequency by as much as 20 Hz. As the frequency of the incoming alternator is raised very nearly to that of the bus, the
flashing rate becomes apparent. As synchronism is approached, the rate becomes a slow increase and decrease of brightness.
At synchronous frequency, there is no change of light aspect. The individual circuit determines the lamp appearance that
signifies the actual in-phase condition. If the incoming machine speed is increased and the lamp blink cycle gets longer,
the first speed was below synchronous speed. If an increase in speed causes the lamp cycle to get shorter in time, the speed
was already above synchronism and must be reduced.
38.13.5 Synchroscope Synchronization

In large central station installations, a device called a Synchroscope is used. A synchroscope has a rotating hand and a
dial labelled with slow and fast direction arrows to show the incoming machine speed relation. In addition, an index
point shows the actual in-phase position. During synchronization, as the incoming machine rotational speed approaches
near synchronism, the speed of the synchroscope hand drops enough to become visible. The hand speed is proportional
to the difference in speeds. The slow indication is accompanied with an arrow showing that counter clockwise hand
rotation means below synchronous speed. Similarly, clockwise rotation means above synchronous speed. When the speeds
are matched so that the hand speed is very slow, the hand is watched until it points to the index mark, whereupon the
parallelling switch may be closed.
There are three types of synchroscopes: the polarized vane, the moving vane and the crossed coil. All are used
similarly. They are used as a convenient and accurate means of routinely achieving synchronous speed and in-phase
indications.
S UM M A RY
1. The construction of a.c. machines is inside out in rela- 17. The majority of a.c. machine coils are of fractional
tion to d.c. machines. pitch type.
2. No commutator function is needed. 18. The majority of machines use double-layer winding ar-
3. Armature coils are larger than field coils. rangement.
4. Most a.c. machines have armature in the stator position 19. In a synchronous machine the stator winding is that
and field in the rotor. winding in which the operating e.m.f. is induced.
5. Since no polarity switching is required collector rings 20. The single-layer winding is employed where the ma-
are usually used. chine has a large number of conductors per slot.
6. The armature and field coils are both placed in slots in 21. The double-layer winding is more convenient when
the punched magnetic structure. the number of conductors per slot does not exceed
7. It is easier to cool the stator than the rotor which is an eight.
advantage of a.c. construction. 22. Egp = 4.44φ Nnk p kd V
8. The fixed and outside armature has a complete ring of Egp − V p
teeth and slots on its inner surface. 23. Percentage voltage regulation = × 100
Vp
9. All the slots are filled with similar and symmetrical coils.
10. With salient pole machine construction the number of 24. The nature of load affects the voltage regulation of the
poles in visible. a.c. synchronous alternator.
11. The stator tooth structure becomes stronger as it grows 25. Each phase winding of a three-phase alternator is as-
deeper. sumed to have an effective armature resistance per
12. A rotor tooth structure becomes weaker as it grows phase of Ra , an effective armature reactance per phase
deeper. of Xa, and a generated per phase voltage of Egp.
26. In the synchronous alternator parallelling situation:
13. A thin lamination has less eddy current but is difficult
(1) The line-to-line voltage at the parallelling point must
to handle.
be the same. (2) The out-of-phase sequence is to be care-
14. A stock thickness of 0.35 mm has long been used for 60 fully avoided. (3) The frequency of an alternator must
Hz a.c. machines. be very closely matched to the bus to which it is to
15. In an a.c. generator, the rotating conductor is con- be paralleled.
nected to the load through slip rings and brushes. 27. Phase sequence matching is performed by taking re-
16. Lap winding is much more common with a.c. machines sort to the lamp methods of synchronization or with the
owing to shorter coil connections. help of a synchroscope.
M U LT IP LE C H O I C E Q UE S TI O NS : (M C Q )
1. In an alternator terminal voltage will rise 5. The standard practice of construction now a days is to
(a) When a unity power factor load is thrown off have
(b) When a leading load is thrown off (a) Rotating armature
(c) When a lagging load is thrown off (b) Rotating field
(d) None of the above (c) Either of the above
2. To have two alternators in parallel, which of the (d) None of the above
following factors should be identical for both? 6. In an alternator, the armature reaction influences the
(a) Voltage (b) Phase sequence magnitude of
(c) Frequency (d) All of the above (a) No load loss
3. At leading power factor operation, an alternator (b) Speed of the machine
(a) Is over excited (c) Terminal voltage per phase
(b) Is under excited (d) Wave form of generated voltage
(c) Has residual magnetism 7. What will happen if a stationary alternator is connected
(d) Has negative torque angle to a live bus bar?
4. When an alternator feeds a resistive or inductive load, (a) It will decrease bus bar voltage
regulation is (b) It is likely to run as a synchronous motor
(a) Always positive (b) Always negative (c) It will get short circuited
(c) All of the above (d) None of the above (d) It will disturb generated e.m.f. of other paralleled alternators
8. The dark and bright lamp method is used in an alterna- 12. With reduction of load on an alternator
tor for (a) The frequency increases
(a) Balancing of load (b) Phase sequence (b) The frequency decreases
(c) Transfer of load (d) Synchronizing (c) The frequency oscillates
(d) The frequency remains constant
9. Voltage generated per phase in an alternator is propor-
tional to 13. If the field of one of the alternators running in parallel
(a) Flux per pole is adjusted it will
(b) Frequency of waveform (a) Reduce its speed (b) Change its load
(c) Number of turns in armature (c) Change its power factor (d) Change its frequency
(d) All of the above 14. Why hydrogen is used in a large alternator?
(a) To cool the machine
10. In a cylindrical rotor, how much portion of the rotor is
(b) To reduce eddy current losses
waved? (c) To reduce distortion of waveform
(a) Half (b) Full
(d) To strengthen the magnetic field
(c) One-third (d) Two-third
15. When the voltage rating of an alternator is low, it is
11. Conventional rotating exciter is basically a comparatively
(a) d.c. shunt generator (b) d.c. series generator (a) More efficient (b) Operating of high rpm
(c) d.c. series motor (d) d.c. shunt motor (c) More costly (d) Larger in size
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d).
CON V E N T I O NA L TY P E Q UE S TI O NS (C Q )
1. What is meant by saying that most a.c. machines are 12. What frequency is generated by a six-pole alternator
inside out in relation to d.c. machines? that rotates at 1200 rpm?
2. Why is a commutator not necessary in usual a.c. 13. What frequency is generated by a 10-pole alternator
motors and generators? that rotates at 62.83 rad/sec?
3. What is meant by the terms rotor and stator as distinct 14. A large diesel engine is to be used as a prime mover in
from the terms armature and field? a standby or emergency power plant. Its normal rated
4. What is meant by chorded windings? speed is 440 rpm and it can be adjusted to operate a
5. There is hierarchy of windings, starting with an indi- small range above or below this point.
vidual armature winding coil and ending with a com- (a) How many poles should be specified in a directly
pletely connected armature circuit. What part of this coupled alternator?
succession is a pole-phase group? (b) What operating speed should be used to produce
6. If each pole-phase group of coils is gathered into total 60 Hz?
phase groups, all poles of a particular phase are inter- 15. What is the difference between a salient pole and a dis-
connected. In what manner can this phase interconnec- tributed pole field structure?
tion be performed so that two different voltage levels 16. Why is rms voltage wanted rather than average voltage?
can be accommodated? 17. Describe the meaning of pitch factor kp.
7. In addition to voltage-level consideration, what other 18. Why is kp never larger than unity?
major precautions must be taken in connecting a phase 19. Describe the meaning distribution factor kd?
group of coils that connect various poles? 20. Why is distribution factor always less than unity if
8. Why is a normal d.c. generator called a synchronous there is more than one coil and the coils do not lie in
alternator? the same slots?
9. How many electrical degrees are passed in one revolu- 21. Why is the per pole per phase group a convenient quantity?
tion of a six-pole synchronous alternator? 22. What is the effect of stator winding impedance on the
10. How many cycles of alternating current are generated voltage regulation of an alternator?
in one revolution of a 14-pole synchronous alternator? 23. What is the effect of armature reaction on the voltage
11. If a four-pole, three-phase winding is placed in a stator regulation of an alternator?
that has 48-slots. 24. Why is the simple d.c. resistance of the armature phase
(a) How many slots are there per phase? windings modified by a factor of 1.5 to achieve effec-
(b) How many slots per pole per phase? tive d.c. resistance?
25. Why is the short circuit test portion of the synchro- 30. How is being in phase different from being in phase
nous impedance test not damaging to the alternator? sequence?
26. A wye-connected, three-phase a.c. generator is 31. Why do synchronous alternators stay in phase after
delivering power to a three-phase line. The line-to-line parallelling?
voltage is 460 V. The line currents are 7.73 A and the 32. Why is it necessary that a prime mover have a drooping
total voltage as 5.12 kW. What are the following: speed characteristic?
(a) Phase voltage, 33. Why cannot bright lamp synchronizing achieve exact
(b) Phase current, and three phase synchronizing?
(c) Load power factor? 34. Why can two bright, one dark lamp synchronization
27. What is (a) the Egp and (b) the voltage regulation of achieve very close in phase synchronism when other
an alternator that has Ra = 0.152 Ω, and Xs = 9.33 Ω lamp methods cannot?
and delivers 230 V line-to-line at 9.5 A pealine? Use uni- 35. Why is it difficult to determine if a close but not exact
ty power factor. synchronization is above or below speed with the vari-
28. Why must voltages be the same at the parallelling junc- ous lamp methods?
tion point? 36. Why is one of the forms of synchroscopes used in large
29. Describe the meaning of phase sequence. unit parallelling?
ANSWERS (CQ)
… 13. 50 Hz
9. 1080 electrical degrees 14. (a) 16 poles; (b) 450 r.p.m.
10. 7 cycles …
11. (a) 16 slots per phase, 26. (a) 265.6V, (b) 7.738, (c) 83.1 per cent
(b) 4 slots per pole per phase 27. (a) 160.9V, (b) 21.13 per cent.
12. 60 Hz
Synchronous Motors
39
OBJECTIVES

 The uniqueness of synchronous speed
Factors controlling synchronous speed

Constructional features of synchronous motors

Amortisseur winding

Methods of starting synchronous motors

Effect of changing field excitation

 Synchronous motors V-curves
 Synchronous capacitors
Power factor correction

Simple problems on the above topics

Synchronous motors
39.1 INTRODUCTION
The synchronous motor operates either in step or in synchronism with the frequency of the a.c. line voltage. Actual motor
speed depends on the number of poles. The synchronous motor is an alternator (a.c. generator) used as a motor.
Synchronous motors are used principally in large power applications because of their high operating efficiency, reli-
ability, controllable power factor, and relatively low sensitivity to voltage dips. They are constant speed machines with
applications in mills, refineries, power plants and the like to drive pumps, compressors, fans, pulverizers and other large
loads, and to assist in power factor correction. Synchronous machines designed specifically for power-factor control have
no external shafts and are called synchronous condensers. They float on the bus, supplying reactive power to the system.
The direction of the reactive power and, hence, the power factor of the system is adjusted by changing the field excita-
tion of the machine. When discussing the behaviour of individual motors, it is assumed that the machine is connected to
an infinite bus. The terminal voltage and frequency of the infinite bus remain constant and are unaffected by any power
drawn from or supplied to the infinite bus. Large power systems in highly industrialized countries may be considered to
approximate those of the infinite bus.
39.2 GENERAL
All electric motors—d.c. and a.c.—act as generators when motor action is taking place. When a dynamo (d.c. or a.c.) is
connected in parallel with a bus or another source of e.m.f., it may act as: (1) a generator if it’s induced e.m.f. exceeds the
bus voltage (and it generates power to the bus); or (2) as a motor, if the induced e.m.f. is less than the bus voltage (in which
case it receives power from the bus).
Two factors would cause an alternator to motorize and receive power from the bus (or other alternators in parallel):
(1) A decrease of field current and generated e.m.f. (below the bus voltage); and (2) A decrease in the instantaneous
speed of the a.c. dynamo. When these conditions occur, the a.c. synchronous dynamo is operating as an a.c. synchronous
motor.
Not only does a synchronous motor require and receive a.c. current from the bus, but also, like any (doubly exited) a.c.
synchronous dynamo, it requires a d.c. excitation for its field (Figure 39.1). On large synchronous motors, the exciter (a d.c.
shunt generator) is placed on the same shaft as the motor, and a small portion of the motor torque is required to generate
Figure 39.1 D.c. Generator Used to Excite the Field of an a.c. Generator
the d.c. required for its field excitation. Due to the possibility of variation of field excitation, the a.c. synchronous motor
possesses a characteristic that no other a.c. motor has—the power factor at which it operates may be varied at will.
An unusual characteristic of the synchronous motor is that it is not inherently self starting. Like the a.c. alternator, it must
be brought up to speed by some auxiliary means and then connected across the line.
Yet another peculiarity of synchronous motors is their susceptibility to hunting, particularly when the loads are subject
to sudden changes or are not uniform over one revolution, as in the case of punch press shears, compressors or pumps. The
use of damper windings rotor construction has ended that problem and, at the same time, made it possible for the synchro-
nous motor to become self-starting.
Today, the synchronous motor is widely used, and its popularity has never been greater. In certain horse power sizes and
speed ranges, it outsells the poly-phase induction motor.
Poly-phase synchronous motors have the following specific advantages over poly-phase induction motors.
1. Synchronous motors can be used for power factor correction in addition to supplying torque to drive loads.
2. They are more efficient (when operated at unity power factor) than induction motors of corresponding horse power
and voltage rating.
3. The field pole rotors of synchronous motors can permit the use of the wider air gaps than the squirrel-cage designs that
are used in induction motors, requiring less bearing tolerance and permitting greater bearing wear.
4. They may be less expensive for the same horse power speed and voltage ratings.
39.3. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR CONSTRUCTION

Basically, the construction of an a.c. synchronous motor follows that of an alternator. The stator has a single phase or
poly-phase winding that is identical to that of the alternator. The rotor is generally a salient pole rotor, except in types of
exceedingly high speed.
In order to eliminate hunting and to develop the necessary starting torque when an a.c. voltage is applied to this stator,
the rotor poles contain pole-face conductors that are short circuited at their ends, as shown in Figure 39.2 (a). This amor -
tisseur or damper winding consists of solid copper bars embedded at the surface of the poly-phase and short circuited at the
end by means of shorting strip, as shown in Figure 39.2 (b).
39.4 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR OPERATION

The synchronous motor will not start by itself without a damper winding. An alternating current is applied to the stator
winding as illustrated in Figure 39.3. The instantaneous direction of current in the coil sides of a given armature coil, A
and B is shown.
Both the north and south poles will be subjected to an electromagnetic torque (the left hand motor rule) moving the
poles to the left (conductors to the right). The next instant, 1/120 of a second later, the frequency reverses the direction of
current in the coil and the poles receive a torque in the opposite direction, as shown in the Figure 39.4.
As a result of the high inertia of the rotor, the resultant torque produced in one second is zero since the rotor has, in
effect, been pushed alternately clockwise and counter clockwise, 60 times in that second, assuming a frequency of 60 Hz.
However, if by some means the rotor is moving clockwise at some speed near or at synchronous speed, as shown in
Figure 39.4, the torque will be developed by coil sides A and B to cause the motor to continue to move clockwise. The
space movement of the pole in electrical degrees at synchronous speed corresponds to 180º reversal of direction of current
in the armature coil, and the resultant torque produced is in the same direction.
Synchronous Motors 765
Figure 39.2 Pole of an a.c. Synchronous Motor Showing Damper Winding

(a) Pole of an a.c. Synchronous dynamo (b) Amortisseur, Damper,
Squirrel Cage or Starter Winding
Figure 39.3 Zero Resultant Torque Developed by Stator Conductors of a Synchronous

Motor Where Rotor is at a Standstill (a) Clockwise Torque at One Instant; Rotor
at Standstill (b) Counter Clockwise Torque, Next Instant; Rotor at Standstill
Figure 39.4 Rotor Torque in the Same Direction when Rotor is at Synchronous Speed
(a) Clockwise Torque at One Instant; Rotor at Standstill (b) Clockwise Torque
Produced by Instaneous Reversal of Current
The armature winding consists of many coils in series in each phase of a poly-phase synchronous dynamo. The three-phase
current in the armature conductors of the stator produces a uniform rotating magnetic field rotating at a speed S=120 f/p.
The relation between the rotating field of the stator and the rotor poles is shown in Figure 39.5 (a).
The north and south poles, respectively, of the rotor, rotating at a synchronous speed, are locked in synchronism with
the resultant armature synchronous rotating field of the stator. Thus, a rotor N pole is locked in synchronism with a stator
S pole and vice versa, both rotating clockwise in synchronism at the synchronous speed.
If a load is placed on the shaft of a synchronous motor, the counter torque created by the load will cause the rotor to drop
back momentarily, but it will continue to rotate at the same speed with respect to the rotating stator filed. The rotor speed
is still at synchronous speed, however, with respect to the rotating field, but the rotor flux mutual air-gap flux is reduced
slightly, as shown in Figure 39.5 (b) because of the increased air gap reluctance.
If the counter torque is so great that it exceeds the maximum torque developed, and if the rotor slips out of synchronism,
the synchronous motor will stop. Thus, a synchronous motor will either run at synchronous speed or not run at all.
As the rotor is slowing down, the rotating field of the stator slips by the rotor field poles so rapidly that it is unable to lock
synchronously or mesh with the rotating stator field. At one instant, a unit N pole of a rotor is attracted to an approaching
S pole, producing torque in a counter clockwise direction as shown in Figure 39.5 (b). The next instant, the same N pole is
attracted in the opposite direction by a passing rotor S pole, producing torque in a clockwise direction or a net torque of zero.
Figure 39.5 Rotating Magnetic Field of Constant Flux Produced by the Armature
Conductor of a Poly-phase Stator (a) Rotating Field of Stator with Respect to
Rotor (b) Effect of Load on Flux Distribution
39.5. STARTING SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

The synchronous motor must be brought up to a speed sufficiently close to synchronous speed in order to lock into synchronism
will the rotating field. The means by which it is brought up to speed are:
1. A d.c. motor coupled to the synchronous motor shaft
2. Using the field exciter generator as a d.c. motor
3. A small induction motor of at least one pair of poles less than that of the synchronous motor
4. Using the damper windings as a squirrel-cage induction motor
The first method is sometimes used in laboratories with synchronous motors not equipped with damper windings. Gen-
erally, the synchronous motor is intended as the constant, speed prime-mover for the d.c. generator. But in order to bring
the motor up to synchronism, the d.c. generator operates as a motor, and the a.c. synchronous dynamo is synchronized to
the a.c. supply as an alternator. Once in parallel with the supply, the synchronous dynamo operates as a motor. The d.c.
motor will now act as a generator if its field current is increased so that its generated e.m.f. exceeds that of the d.c. bus.
The second method is actually the same as the first, except that the synchronous motor excites (a d.c. shunt generator) and is
operated as a motor, and the a.c. synchronous dynamo is synchronized to the a.c. supply.
The third method—using an auxiliary induction motor with fewer poles—involves the same synchronizing procedure
for the a.c. synchronous motor as an alternator. At least one pair of poles fewer is required on the induction motor to com-
pensate for the loss in induction motor speed due to slip.
In all of the three methods, it is necessary that: (1) there is little or no load on the synchronous motor; and (2) the capac-
ity of the starting motor (d.c. or a.c.) is between 5 and 10 per cent of the rating of the synchronous coupled to it.
By far, the most common method of starting a synchronous motor, however, is as an induction motor using the damper
windings (fourth method). This method is the simplest and requires no special auxiliary machines.
39.5.1 Starting a Synchronous Motor as an Induction Motor by Means of its

Damper Windings
The shorting strip in the amortisseur or damper winding, as illustrated in Figure 39.2 (a) which short circuits the rotor
bars, contains holes for bolting to the next set of damper windings on the next pole. In this way, a complete squirrel-cage
winding is formed. Although the bars are not of the capacity to carry the rated current continuously, they are sufficient to
start the synchronous motor as an induction motor with little or no load on the motor.
It is customary to short circuit the d.c. winding during the starting period, whatever voltage and current are induced in it
may then aid the damper winding in producing induction motor action. In very large synchronous motors, field-sectionaliz-
ing or field-splitting switches are used to short circuit individual field windings to prevent cumulative addition of voltages
from pole-to-pole. Such induced high voltages may puncture the field insulation.
Among the advantages of synchronous motors over induction motors is the fact that the air-gap of a synchronous mo-
tor is greater. The induction winding of the rotor, therefore, develops on starting a fairly high ratio of rotor reactance to
resistance. It does result in improving the no-load slip speed of the synchronous motors. Thus, when the short circuit is
removed from the field and d.c. is applied to the rotor field winding, at or near synchronous speed, the rotor easily pulls
into synchronism with the rotating stator field.
To summarize, when an unloaded synchronous motor is started on its damper windings: (1) the d.c. field winding is
shorted, and a.c. is applied to the stator, bringing the motor up to no load-speed as an induction motor; (2) direct current
is applied to the field winding, and the current is adjusted to provide minimum a.c. line current; and (3) couple the load to
the motor shaft.
39.6 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR POWER FACTOR CONTROL

Synchronous motor will run and carry its load with a wide range of rotating field d.c. excitation. Since the relation between
the rotating field and stator coils is the same as in a synchronous alternator, the resulting generated voltage Eg p can also vary
over a wide range. The Eg p voltage exactly opposes the applied voltage per phase Vp if there were no requirement to supply
torque, and if Eg p were adjusted to Vp. However, even in running light there is some torque requirement. When running
with a normal load, there is the full normal torque requirement and, therefore, the full requirement for the stator current is
required to develop the needed strength of the rotating stator magnetic field.
Figure 39.6 shows the various phasor relations for different d.c. field excitation values. When the field is of such
strength that Eg p approximates Vp, the condition is called normal field excitation, as shown in Figure 39.6 (a). Under these
conditions, Eg p swings around just enough so that the phasor sum of Eg p and Vp, which is the resultant voltage Ev, is suf-
ficiently large to produce the required armature or stator current Ia. In a normal stator winding, the resistance Ra is held as
low as possible in order to reduce the I 2R losses. The dominant part of the winding impedance is the inductive reactance.
The angle between the ER and Ia phases is nearly but not quite 90º. The whole winding impedance triangle fits into this cor-
ner of the phasors and is suggested by the dotted line in Figure 39.6 (a). By adjusting d.c. excitation to the correct amount,
the armature current Ia may be made to be exactly in phase with the supplied voltage Vp. This is the situation for the unity
power factor, shown in Figure 39.6 (a).
Assuming the same motor load, which will mean the same required input power or Vp Ia cos θ, but with substantially less
d.c. field excitation, the situation shown in Figure 39.6 (b) arises. Since less field excitation means less Eg p, the phasor sum
of a normal Vp and a low Eg p will take a direction of Er, as represented in Figure 39.6 (b). Since the requirement is for the
same value of effective stator power. Ia must be larger in order that Ia cos θ matches the original value of Ia as represented
in Figure 39.6 (a). This means that the Er phasor must grow proportionately. For Er to increase with shorter Eg p, the angle
α2 must be larger than that of the original α1. The only way that a small Eg p can contribute to a larger Er is for this angular
relation to change. The same phase angle between Er and Ia will still hold, since the same winding impedance is effective.
Externally, under these conditions, the motor becomes a lagging power factor load on the power supply. The percentage of
lag or the cosine of angle θ depends on how short Eg p is allowed to become as the field excitation is reduced. Internally, the
phasor relation shown in Figure 39.6 (b) is created by the increased field magnetization that results from a lagging power
factor stator current.
The opposite situation holds if the d.c. field excitation is increased. This results an Eg p voltage greater than the Vp volt-
age, and creates the phasor relation as illustrated in Figure 39.6 (c). Under the same load condition, the stator power drawn
from the line must be the same, so that again Ia cosθ must match the original Ia as can be seen in Figure 39.6 (a).
The phases’ relation then becomes changed by the larger Eg p. The resultant phasor voltage, Er is pulled around counter
clockwise as shown in Figure 39.6 (c). Since the Er phasor has rotated, so must the Ia phasor, as the angle between them
is still set by the winding impedance triangle. The result is a strong leading load power factor with the over-excited field
adjustment.
Figure 39.6 Effect of Changing Field Excitation on Synchronous Motor Power Factor
(a) Normal Excitation Unity Power Factor Egp ≅ Vp (b) Under Excitation Lagging
Power Factor Egp < Vp (c) Over Excitation, Leading Power Factor Egp > Vp
When the synchronous motor is deliberately adjusted this way, it draws a leading Ia current from the line by contribut-
ing an internal Ia sin θ reactive current component. At comparable leading and lagging power factors, the Ia stator current
is the same. The benefit is that the created Ia sin θ component is opposite in phase to whatever Ia sin θ components may
exist with the rest of the installation that the synchronous motor serves. Substantial system power factor improvement is
achieved commercially by the over-excited large synchronous motors while they work.
When a synchronous motor is used solely to produce a large leading Ia sin θ current component, it is called a synchro-
nous capacitor. This name comes from effect, which is the same as if a giant capacitor were placed across the line. When
the motor carries a normal mechanical load, it is also normally used as a synchronous power factor corrector when it is
deliberately over excited.
39.7 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR V CURVE

The power factor response of a synchronous motor under various d.c. field excitation currents while holding a
constant power is shown by the V-curve test. The curves are so named because of their distinctive shape when plotted.
A synchronous motor that is to be tested is connected to instrumentation and a variable load, as shown in Figure 39.7.
The two Wattmeter method is shown, but any of the acceptable Wattmeter circuits are applicable, bearing in mind that
the three-phase loads are balanced.
Figure 39.7 Circuit Connection for V Curves of Synchronous Motor
Three voltmeters are shown but only one reading is needed if the balance is shown. The motor is tested by applying a
load and varying the d.c. field excitation in logical steps. Data for all meters are recorded at each step so that volt-amperes
and power can be determined. This allows the power factor of the motor to be determined for each field current setting for
each load.
Figure 39.8 shows a typical family of V curves. The curves may be taken over more closely spaced increments to truly
define the curve shapes, depending on the ease of load control and the period of time available.
In Figure 39.8 (a) the no-load curve drops to a minimum but not zero. The minimum current can be related to a mini-
mum power necessary to overcome the fixed internal losses, such as the rotational losses that are always present. The
shape of the curves clearly shows that for each load, there is a distinct minimum armature phase current Ia at a specific
d.c. field current If. This specific field current is known as normal excitation. Unless otherwise specified, the labelled d.c.
field current for a synchronous motor will be the current that produces minimum armature winding current in the region
of 80 per cent to full load.
Figure 39.8 (b) shows the same data plotted as load power factor versus d.c. field current. These curves show that a syn-
chronous motor can be over excited and carry a substantial leading power factor. This process is limited by the maximum
current rating of the stator windings. Even though the increasing d.c. field current brings higher and higher leading power
factors, the main stator current is increasing at the same time. The current handling capability of the motor is fairly well
taxed for full-load currents at 100 per cent PF.
If it is desired to carry a strong leading PF for load power factor improvement of a factory, and at the same time, to power
the factory air compressors, conveyor systems, etc., the synchronous may well need to be a larger size. This is because a
synchronous motor may be rated at unity PF or pole at 80 per cent PF at a given load. The name plate usually states the load
and power factor conditions. If a more leading PF is desired, it can be met by a motor of one or more frame sizes larger than
the basic power requirement ordinarily needed.
The V-curve intersection with the normal excitation line in Figure 39.8 (a) illustrates the phasor relation in Figure 39.6 (a).
The V-curve intersection with 0.8 PF lagging dotted line in Figure 39.8 (a) illustrates a phasor relation like that shown in
Figure 39.6 (b). The intersection of a load curve with 0.8 PF leading line in Figure 39.8 (a) is illustrated as a phasor relation
in Figure 39.6 (c).
Example 39.1
A factory has an average total electrical load of 41300 kW at 0.810 PF lagging. Part of the load is incurred by a large
three-phase induction of 5073 kW, which operates at 0.730 PF lagging and at 92 per cent efficiency. The motor is in need
of rewinding and requires extensive mechanical rebuilding so that replacement is scheduled. Two different synchronous
motors are investigated, one to carry the same 6800 hp (5073 kW) load at unity PF and the same efficiency. The other one
is a larger frame unit and carries the same load at the
same efficiency and at 0.780 PF leading. Calculate the
following:
1. Overall system power factor using unity PF motor.
2. Overall system power factor using the 0.780 lead-
ing PF motor.
d
oa
tl
3. The difference in required kilovolt-ampere rating
en
rc
of the two motors.
pe
50
Solution:
1. The original system kilowatt power will be expected
to remain through these alternatives since the motor
load and efficiency remain the same. In that case the
kilovolt-amperes and kilovolt-amperes reactive are
41300 kW
= 50988 kVA originally
0.810 PF
cosθ = 0.810, θ = 39.9º, sinθ = 0.586

(50988) (0.586) =29 900 kVAr originally
The original motor kVA and kVAr are
6800 hp(0.746 kW )
= 5514 kW motor input
0.92 eff (hp)
cos θ = 0.730 (motor), θ = 43.1°, sin θ = 0.683
5514
= 7553 kVA motor input
t
0.730
en
rc 50
0p
e per (7953) (0.683) = 5159 kVAr motor
5 cen
t
The original and still factor load less than motor is
41300 kW – 5514 kW = 39790 kW
The kVAr component is
2990 kVAr = 5159 kVAr = 24740 kVAr
The unity PF motor will then create a total factory kW
the same as the original or 41300 kW, but no more
kVAr than the factory without the motor or 24740 kVAr.
The total factory power factor will then be
Figure 39.8 Synchronous Motor V Curves (a) Armature
24740
Current vs Field Current (b) Power Factor vs arc tan = 0.599
Field Current 41300
which corresponds to θ = 30.92º; thus
cos θ = 0.858 or 85.8 per cent PF
2. A synchronous motor with the same horse power (or kW) and a 0.780 PF leading will have the same kW as the other
motors, but will contribute a leading kVAr component
5514 kW
= 7069 kVA
0.780 PF
cos θ = 0.780, θ = 38.74°, sin θ = 0.626
(7069) (0.626) = 4424 kVAr leading
The total plant kW is the same 41300 kW, but the kVAr is less:
24740 kVAr – 4424 kVAr = 20316 kVAr
The total plant power factor is then

20316
arc tan = θ = 26.19°
41300
cos 26.19° = 9.897 or 89.7 per cent PF
3. Step (1) requires a kVA rating the same as its kW rating owing to unity PF:
5514 kVA. The step (2) situation requires 7069 kVA;
7069 – 5514 = 1555 kVA
The motor that produces the improvement in plant PF from 85.8 per cent to 89.7 per cent requires an additional kVA rating
of over 1500 kVA. This means a substantially large size is needed to decrease the added heat, since 100-92 or 8 per cent of
this difference is lost heat in the stator windings.
39.8 SYNCHRONOUS CAPACITORS

A number of specialized synchronous motors are
deliberately manufactured without any shaft extensions
at all. They are intended to be used solely for power
factory correction. Also, they are incapable of driving a
mechanical load. Any over-excited synchronous motor
that is not used to drive a load may be classed as a
synchronous capacitor.
Although there is no mechanical load on a synchro-
nous capacitor to contribute to the armature current, the Figure 39.9 Synchronous Capacitor Phase Relationships
V-curves of Figure 39.8 show that when over-excited,
even at no load, the stator armature current is high. This
is not a disadvantage, considering that the synchronous capacitor armature current may be raised to its rated value at an
extremely low leading PF for use in power factor correction.
As shown in Figure 39.9 when a synchronous motor is over-excited without load, the resultant phase impedance Er is
quite high, despite the very small torque angle a, producing a relatively large leading armature current Ia, which is practi-
cally at 90° with respect to the bus phase voltage.
Synchronous capacitors are preferred for power factor correction over commercial capacitors. The former can
be constructed much less expensively in extremely high kVA (and even MVA) ratings as well as in high voltages
(100 kV to 800 kV), as compared to fixed commercial capacitor of the same voltage and kVA rating. Such synchro-
nous capacitors, driving no mechanical load whatsoever, merely float on the transmission lines of a power system for
purposes of power factor improvement.
39.8.1 Power Factor Correction Advantages

Loads having moderate to low lagging or leading power factors (below 0.65) result in a severe loss of electrical power to the
utility supplying power to a given industrial or commercial occupancy. Lower power factors require the utility to increase
their capacity or apparent power in order to supply a higher current for the lower power factor loads. This added capacity
(and higher current) is needed all along the line, from the generating station, through the transformers and the transmission
lines, to the load. The cost of this additional added capacity is kept to a maximum by means power factor correction.
Many other advantages also emerge from power factor correction. These are:
1. Since the power capacity and line current are both lower, the power losses (I 2R) in the lines are reduced.
2. Similarly, the line volt drop across the line impedance is reduced, making the voltage regulation task easier in main-
taining rated voltage to occupancies supplied by the utility.
3. Transmission efficiency from source to load is increased.
4. Utility costs are decreased, reflecting a savings (theoretically) to the consumer.
Almost all commercial, industrial, and residential loads tend to have lagging power factors (i.e., current lags voltage)
due to inductive reactive loads (motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). Consequently, power factor correction consists of adding
capacitive loads in parallel with existing inductive loads to raise the power factor.
It is customary not to attempt any correction of the power factor of a system all the way to unity power factor. The
economic reason placing a limit on maximum power factor correction can be inferred from the data in Table 39.1 for a
10000 kVA system. A 10000 kVA system operating at 0.6 PF is capable of delivering only 6000 kW; whereas, at unity PF
it could deliver 10000 kW at the same current and at the same line drop. Any increase in output, however, is at the expense
of reactive kilovolt-ampere. In improving the PF from 0.65 to 0.70, for example, there is an increase in output of 500 kW at
a correction cost of 460 kVAr. In improving the PF from 0.80 to 0.85, the increase in 500 kW is made at a higher correction
cost of 730 kVAr. At each successively higher power factor level, the kVAr cost is greater for a further improvement of 0.05
in the power factor. In improving the power factor from 0.95 to unity, the 500 kW increase in output entails a correction
cost of 3120 kVAr. Thus, it is economically prohibitive generally to range the power factor beyond 0.85 lagging.
Table 39.1 Total Reactive Kilovolt-amperes of Correction Required at Various Power Factors
Kilovolts to Correct From Next Cumulative Total Kilovolts

System PF Output in kW Kilovolts Available
Lower PF Required in Correction
0.60 6000 8000 — —
0.65 6500 7600 400 400
0.70 7000 7140 460 860
0.75 7500 6610 530 1390
0.80 8000 6000 610 2000
0.85 8500 5270 730 2730
0.90 9000 4360 910 3640
0.95 9500 3120 1240 4880
1.00 10 000 0 3210 8000
Example 39.2
A 3-phase synchronous motor of 8000 Watt 1100 V has synchronous reactance of 8 Ω per phase. Find the minimum current
and the corresponding induced e.m.f. for full load condition. The efficiency of the machine is 0.8. Neglect armature resistance.
Solution:
The current in the motor is minimum when the power factor is unity,
That is, when cos θ = 1.
Motor input = (motor output) /efficiency
Pi= 8000/0.8=10000 W=10 kW
Pi = 3 VL I L cos φ
Pi 10 × 103
IL = = = 5.249 A
3VL cos θ 3 × 1100 × 1
2
2  1100  2
For unity factor V 2 + ( Ia X s ) =   + ( 5.249 ×8 )
 3 
Ef = 636.49 V per phase
Example 39.3
A 3-phase, 400 V synchronous motor takes 52.5 A at a power factor 0.8 leading. Determine the induced e.m.f. and the
power supplied. The motor impedance per phase is (0.25+j 3.2) Ω.
Solution:
For leading power factor E 2f = (V cos φ − I a Ra ) 2 + V (sin φ + I a X s ) 2
2 2
 400   400 
= × 0.8 − 52.5 × 0.25  +  × 0.6 + 52.5 × 3.2 
 3   3 
= (171.6 ) + ( 306 + 0.57 )
2 2
E f = 391.3 V
Line e.m.f. = 3 × 351.3 = 605.8 V
Power supplied = 3 VL I a cos φ

= 3 × 400 × 52.5 × 0.8 = 29098 W
Example 39.4
Find the three highest speeds at which synchronous motor generator sets could run to link up with a 25 Hz and a 60 Hz
system.
Solution:
f = (RPS) × pole pair
f 60 f
RPM = × 60 =
pole pair pole pair
60 × 25 60 × 60
= for 25 Hz and for 60 Hz
pole pair pole pair
Equating the two, we have
25 60 P25 25 1
= = or =
P25 P60 P65 60 2.4
That is, the pole pairs of 60 Hz = 2.4 pole pairs of 60 Hz; both must be integers. So, the first three values of P25 will be 5,
60 × 25 60 × 25 60 × 25
10 and 15 and the corresponding RPM will be = 300 RPM, = 150 RPM and = 100 RPM.
5 10 15
S UM M A RY
1. A synchronous motor is a machine that converts a.c. 10. A synchronous motor is not inherently self starting.
electric power, to mechanical power at a constant speed 11. The stator has a single phase or poly-phase winding
called synchronous speed. that is identical to that of the alternator.
2. A synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine. 12. The rotor is generally a salient pole rotor, except in
3. The synchronous motor is an alternator (a.c. generator) types of exceedingly high speed.
used as a motor. 13. In order to eliminate hunting and develop the necessary
4. Synchronous motors are constant speed machines. starting torque when an a.c. voltage is applied to the
5. Synchronous machines designed specifically for power stator, the rotor poles contain pole-face conductors that
factor correction have no external shafts and are called are short circuited at their ends.
synchronous condensers. 14. The synchronous motor will not start by itself without
6. The float on the bus supply reactive power to the a damper winding.
system. 15. The name plate usually states the load and power factor
7. The direction of the reactive power is adjusted by condition.
changing the field excitation of the machine. 16. Any over-excited synchronous motor that is not used to
8. When discussing individual motors, it is assumed that drive a load may be classed as a synchronous capacitor.
the machine is connected to an infinite bus. 17. Synchronous capacitors are preferred for power factor
9. The exciter (a d.c. shunt generator) is placed on the correction over commercial capacitors.
same shaft as the motor and a small portion of the 18. Power factor correction consists of adding capacitive
motor torque is required to generate the d.c. required loads in parallel with existing inductive loads to raise
for its field excitation. the power factor.
1. An alternator operates on the principle of 2. The starter core of a synchronous machine is built up of
(a) Electromagnetic induction (a) Stainless steel laminations
(b) Self induction (b) Silicon steel laminations
(c) Mutual induction (d) (c) or (b) (c) Cast iron laminations
(d) Cast steel laminations
3. In a salient pole field structure, the pole shoes cover about 12. A synchronous motor will deliver maximum power
(a) One-third of pole pitch when
(b) One-half of pole pitch (a) Load angle is equal to internal angle θ
(c) Two-third of pole pitch (b) Input power factor is unity
(d) Whole of the pole pitch (c) Load angle is 45° (d) Load angle is 0°
4. For a two-layer winding, the number of stator slots is 13. Synchronous motors when operated at power factor
equal to the number of ranging from lagging through unity to leading for volt-
(a) Poles (b) Conductors age control are called
(c) Coil sides (d) Coils (a) Voltage boosters
5. The rating of a universal machine is usually governed (b) Synchronous reactors
by the (c) Mechanical synchronizers
(a) Speed (b) Temperature rise (d) None of these
(c) Weight (d) None of these 14. Synchronous condenser means
6. The synchronous reactance of the machine is the (a) A synchronous motor with capacitor connected across
(a) Reaction due to armature reaction of the machine terminals to improve PF
(b) Reactance due to leakage flux (b) A synchronous motor operating at full load with leading PF
(c) Combined reactance due leakage flux and armature (c) An over-excited synchronous motor partially supply-
reaction ing mechanical load, and also improving the PF of the
(d) Reactance due to armature reaction or leakage flux system to which it is connected
(d) An over-excited synchronous motor operating at no
7. A poly-phase field is
load with leading PF used in large power station for
(a) Pulsating and stationary
improvement of PF
(b) Pulsating and rotating
(c) Constant amplitude and rotating at synchronous speed 15. A synchronous motor may fail to pull in synchronism
(d) Constant in amplitude and stationary in space owing to
8. When does a synchronous motor operate with leading (a) Excessive load (b) Low excitation
(c) High friction (d) Any of these
power factor current?
(a) While it is under excited 16. Which of the following used for synchronizing three-
(b) While it is critically excited phase generator is considered the best one?
(c) While it is over excited (a) Three dark lamp method
(d) While it is heavily loaded (b) Two bright and one dark lamp method
9. A salient pole synchronous motor is running on no-load. (c) Synchroscope (d) None of these
If it’s excitation is cut off, it will 17. An infinite bus bar has
(a) Continue running at synchronous speed (a) Constant voltage
(b) Continue running at a speed slightly less than synchro- (b) Constant frequency
nous speed (c) Infinite voltage (d) Both (a) and (b)
(c) Stop (d) None of these 18. Which of the following synchronous motors is cost
10. The speed of a synchronous motor can be varied by comparable to that of an induction motor?
varying its (a) High kW output high speed
(a) Excitation (b) Supply voltage (b) High kW output low speed
(c) Supply frequency (d) Load (c) Low kW output low speed
(d) Low kW output high speed
11. If the field of a synchronous motor is under excited, the
power factor will be
(a) Lagging (b) Leading
(c) Unity (d) More than unity
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (b).
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (d)
CON V E NTI O NA L Q UE S TI O NS (C Q )
1. Name two factors that will cause an alternator to 12. Is there an economic limit to improvement of PF? If so,
‘motorize’. what is it?
2. Give the equation that determines the average speed of 13. In addition to correction of PF and a source of me-
a synchronous motor. chanical power, give an additional application of the
3. Explain why a synchronous motor is not inherently self synchronous motor
starting. 14. What is meant by the torque angle of a synchronous
4. Explain why a synchronous motor will run at synchro- motor? What factors affect the magnitude of this angle?
nous speed or not at all. 15. Differentiate between pull-in torque, pull-out torque
5. Give four methods used for starting synchronous mo- and locked, rotor torque.
tors. Which of the four methods is the most commonly 16. Determine the speed of a 40-pole synchronous motor op-
used and why? erating from a 3-phase, 50 Hz, 4600 V system.
6. How can the speed of a synchronous motor be adjusted? 17. A 3-phase 50 hp, 2300 V, 60 Hz synchronous motor is
7. How does an amortisseur winding reduce hunting operating at 90 r.p.m. Determine the number of poles in
caused by pulsating loads? the rotor.
8. State how a synchronous motor can be started, stopped 18. Calculate (a) the frequency of the voltage that must be
and reversed applied to the stator of a 10 pole, three-phase, 40 V
9. What are the two components of synchronous motor synchronous motor, required to operate at 1200 r.p.m.
torque? What are they due to? (b) the number of pole required for a 220 V, three-phase
synchronous motor to operate at a speed of 500 r.p.m.
10. Give one inherent advantage of synchronous motor over
when 50 Hz is applied to the stator (c) The full load
an induction motor as a source of mechanical power
speed of 36 pole, 60 Hz, 220 V synchronous motor in
11. What is a synchronous capacitor and how can it be dis- r.p.m. and rad/second.
tinguished from a synchronous motor?
ANSWERS (CQ)
2. S = (120f)/P 17. 80 poles
16. 150 RPM 18. (a) 100 Hz (b) 12 poles (c) 16 poles, 20.9 rad/s.
Induction Motors (Three Phase)
40
OBJECTIVES

 Rotating magnetic fields

Direction of rotation
 S
Slip and its effect


Construction of a three-phase induction motor

 WRIM and SCIM
Losses and efficiency

 Maximum power
Slip
 Induction motor characteristics N sΩs
 Starting techniques for induction motors

Rotor
 Induction motor parameters
sΩs Stator
Simple problems on the above topics
 sΩs
 Induction motor with squirrel cage motor
Stator
Rotor
40.1 INTRODUCTION
The three-phase induction motor has a simple yet exceedingly robust construction which is comparatively cheap to
manufacture. It also has good operating characteristics that make it a suitable drive for many production machines such
as lathes or fans. These features are reflected by the fact that the induction motor is the most commonly used type of a.c.
motor. The induction motor is chosen for its simplicity, reliability and low cost. These features are combined with good
efficiency, good overload capacity and minimal or no service requirement. When the facts of very wide availability and
simple installation by relatively little trained personnel are added, the choice of an induction motor seems well founded.
The motor is supplied from a three-phase source and, therefore, it requires three supply conductors that are connected to
three windings attached to the stator. The rotor also has a conductor system but this is not connected to its supply. Instead,
the current in the rotor conductors is induced by a transformer action from the stator windings. As a result of this transformer
action, the stator windings are sometimes termed the primary windings and the rotor windings may be termed the secondary
windings. Thus, the three-phase induction motor is a sort of transformer with a rotating secondary winding.
There are two principal methods of connecting the rotor conductors together and this gives rise to two classes of
induction motor. These are: the cage-rotor induction motor and the wound-rotor inductor motor. In either case, the principle
of operation is essentially the same and this depends on the action of the stator windings which gives rise to a rotating
magnetic field.
Induction Motors (Three Phase) 777
40.2 THE ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD

The most simple form of three-phase stator winding is embedded in the inner surface of the cylindrical stator. This form of
construction is illustrated is Figure 40.1.
Figure 40.1 Simple Three–phase Stator Construction
The windings are spaced at 120° intervals around the stator surface. One may be tempted to think that there is only 60°
between the windings but when describing the angle, we consider the difference to be between the start of each winding
the start being the point at which the supply is connected. We can see that there is 120° between the external connection of
the R-phase and that of the Y-phase, whilst there is a further 120° to the connection of the B-phase. A further 120° remains
between the B-phase and R-phase, thus, completing a revolution of the stator surface.
The windings are inserted into the stator surface in a manner similar to that already described with the case of armature
winding in the d.c. machine. For convenience, each phase winding is shown to be distinctly separate from the winding
supplied by the next phase. This makes it easy to observe the different windings, but in practice, the windings would be
spread out to cover the entire surface of the stator.
Each winding has a distinct beginning and an end. Such windings are called phase windings, and are not to be confused
with the commutator windings which form closed loops tapped by means of commutators. The start terminals of the phase
windings are connected to the supply lines. In the case shown in Figure 40.2, the finish terminals are connected together.
Thus, the windings are star connected but there is no reason why the windings should not have been delta connected instead.
Each winding sets up a flux which acts along the axis of the winding. This action is shown in Figure 40.2, showing the
field arrangement for only one winding. By considering different instants during a cycle of alternating current flowing in
the coil, we can see that the flux always acts in the same axis but with varying magnitude and with alternating direction.
In the three-phase system there are three windings, each producing a flux and each acting in a different direction within
the stator. If we combine the three fluxes, we find that a similar magnetic field is set up within the stator except that the
magnitude of the total field is bigger than that associated with any one winding. Actually, it is 50 per cent larger and for
the arrangement shown in Figure 40.1, we can see in Figure 40.3 the manner in which the three fluxes add together to give
the larger total flux.
This diagram has been drawn for the instant at which the R-phase current is at its maximum value. It follows that the
currents in other two phases at the same instant are half the maximum value and flowing in opposite directions. By applying
our observations of Figure 40.3, the R-phase winding produces its maximum flux and the axis of the field is shown by an
arrow which indicates the direction of the field. The fields of the other two windings act in relatively opposite directions to
that of the first winding because the currents in these other windings are flowing in ‘negative’ directions. Effectively, the
Figure 40.2 The Pulsating Flux Due to Alternating Current in a Single Coil
Figure 40.3 Field Distribution in a Three-phase Stator with Three-phase Windings

three separate fields are similar, although not in identical directions and their combined effect is to produce a field greater
than that of the R-phase winding and acting in the direction of its field. We can use the Right Hand Grip Rule to confirm
the direction of the separate phase fields and, hence, the direction of the combined field.
With one winding we could obtain a certain field. With three windings, we have only increased the resultant field by
50 per cent, which is not a particularly substantial increase. The importance of this arrangement only becomes apparent
when we consider subsequent instants.
In Figure 40.4, for example, we can once again look at the flux arrangement as was considered in Figure 40.3, but at an
instant 30° later in supply cycle. At this instant, the current in the R-phase has fallen to 0.87 of its maximum value, while
that in the Y-phase is zero. The current in the B-phase has risen in value to 0.87 of its maximum value and it is again flowing
in the negative direction. Figure 40.4 shows the separate phase windings fields and the resultant combined field.
Figure 40.4 Field Distribution in a Three-phase Stator with Three-phase Windings at an

Instant Later than that of Figure 40.3
In this case, we again produce a somewhat bigger resultant field than is produced by one winding but the important
observation is that the axis of the resultant field has shifted from that seen in Figure 40.3, the field axis has been shifted
by 30°. We have seen that a field set up by three windings fixed in space produces a magnetic field whose axis has shifted
relative to the windings.
It should be sufficient to draw the resultant field only for a selection of instants throughout the supply cycle. This has
been illustrated in Figure 40.5 and, by taking instants throughout the complete cycle, it will be seen that the resultant field
rotates one complete rotation. We conclude that a system of windings fixed in space and excited from a three-phase a.c.
supply produces a rotating field.
Note: It has been assumed that the construction of the three-phase machine is symmetrical, i.e., the windings are identical and
displaced at equal angles from one another. It has also been assumed that the supply is symmetrical and, subsequently, the phase
currents have all been of equal maximum instantaneous values. This symmetry is implicit to all rotating machine studies.
40.3 SPEED OF THE ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD

Spaces have been left between the conductors of one phase winding and the conductors of the next phase winding. This
failure to use all the surface space of the stator is wasteful and in practice, conductors cover the entire stator surface area,
as indicated in Figure 40.6(a). However, drawing the individual conductors is time consuming and it is usual to indicate
the winding groups of conductors by shaded areas as shown in Figure 40.6(b).
Figure 40.5 Rotating Magnetic Field
Figure 40.6 Three-phase, Two Pole Winding Arrangement
Each phase winding has been shown to set up its own field, which acts from one side of the stator across to the other.
This has been shown in Figures 40.7 and 40.8. Seen from the rotor, it would seem that the field emanates from a N-pole
at one side and terminates in a S-pole at the other. The same observations may be made of the resultant field, and for this
reason, the winding arrangement is described as a two-pole winding.
By using six windings instead of three, it is possible to have a four-pole machine, while nine windings give a six-
pole machine, and so on; although unusual, it is quite practical to have a machine with about a 100 poles. The winding
arrangements of four-pole and six-pole machines are shown in Figure 40.8.
Figure 40.7 (a) Elementary Three-phase Induction Motor (b) Three-phase Flux Waves
and (c) Instantaneous Direction of Resultant Stator Flux
Figure 40.8 Four- and Six-pole, Three-phase Stator Windings
One cycle of the supply causes the field to rotate through one revolution. The field axis starts half way between the
R-phase conductors and after half a cycle rotates past one set of R-phase conductors, i.e., one side of R-phase windings to
reach a position again half way between the R-phase conductors yet acting in the opposite direction. A further half cycle
completes the movement to reach the original relationship in space between the conductor position and the field axis.
In the four-pole machine, the movement of the field past one set of conductors is only sufficient to rotate the field
through 90° and the completion of the cycle only rotates the field through 180°. At this instance, the field system appears
again to be the same as the field system when it started to move and this is because there are two possible situations which
are identical, i.e., when the field system is in its initial position and when it is upside down.
Developing this argument, the four-pole machine requires a further cycle of the supply to rotate the field back to its
original position. Thus, a four-pole machine requires two cycles of the supply in order that the field rotates through one
revolution. The six-pole machine can, similarly, be shown to require three cycles of the supply for the field to rotate
through one revolution. We can observe that the number of cycles of the supply required for one revolution of the magnetic
field is always half the number of poles. However, poles in such machines always come in multiples of two, i.e., in pairs
of poles. It follows that the number of pole pairs is equal to the number of cycles of the supply required for one complete
revolution of the magnetic field.
If the number of pole pairs is p and the supply frequency is ƒ hertz, then the number of revolutions of the magnetic field
per second is
N = ƒ/P (40.1)
where, ‘n’ is the rotational speed in revolution per second. since ‘n’ revolutions per second is equivalent to N revolutions
per minutes.
N = 60 ƒ/P (40.2)
Example 40.1
A six-pole, three-phase, 50 Hz induction motor sets up a rotating field. At what speed does it rotate?
Solution:
n = ƒ/P = 50/3 = 16.7 rev/s
N = 60 ƒ/P = (60 × 50)/3 = 1000 rev/min

The speed at which the rotating magnetic field revolves is termed the synchronous speed. In most machines, the supply
frequency and the number of poles are fixed and it follows that the synchronous speed is constant for any given machine.
However, it is possible to produce variable frequency supplies, and even to change the number of poles, in either of which
cases the synchronous speed can be changed, but these cases are relatively unusual.
The relationship between the speed of the rotating flux and the number of stator poles may be visualized by comparing
the mechanical degrees of circular arc travelled by the flux in motors with different numbers of stator poles. This is shown in
Figure 40.9, where the circular arc travelled by the rotating field of a four-pole motor is twice that of an eight-pole motor,
assuming the same frequency and the same time period; the centre line of flux rotates 60° (phase A to phase C) for a four-
pole winding and 30° (A to C) for an eight-pole winding, as illustrated in Figures [40.9(a) and (b)], respectively.
The synchronous speed of an induction motor operating from a fixed frequency system can be changed by changing the
number of poles in the stator, and by using a frequency converter to change the frequency or both.
Figure 40.9 Coil Spans for the Four-pole Winding (a) and Eight-pole Winding (b)
Example 40.2
Determine the synchronous speed of a six-pole, 460 V, 60 Hz induction motor if the frequency is reduced to 85 per cent
of its rated value.
Solution:
120 ( 60 × 0.85 ) 120 × f s
ns = =
6 P
= 1020 rev/min
40.4 DIRECTION OF ROTATION

If the supply connections to any two windings are reversed, then the phase sequence of the stator current is reversed. The
result of this change is to cause the field to rotate in the opposite direction, as indicated in Figure 40.10.
Figure 40.10 Direction of Rotation of the Magnetic Field

As a common application of the three-phase induction machine is to serve as a motor and since the rotor turns in the
same direction as the rotating flux, it follows that the direction of rotation of a motor can be reversed simply by interchang-
ing any two of the three supply conductors.
40.5 SLIP AND ITS EFFECT ON ROTOR FREQUENCY AND VOLTAGE

The difference between the speeds of the rotating flux and the speed of the rotor is called slip speed and the ratio of slip
speed to synchronous speed is called slip. Expressed mathematically
N = ns – nr (40.3)
ns − nr
s= (40.4)
ns
Where, n = slip speed (rev/min)
ns = synchronous speed (rev/min)
nr = rotor speed (rev/min)
s = slip (pu)
The slip, as expressed in Eq. 40.4, is called per-unit slip. The slip depends on the mechanical load connected to the rotor
shaft (assuming a constant supply voltage and a constant supply frequency). Increasing the shaft load decreases the rotor
speed, thus, increasing the slip. If the rotor is blocked to prevent turning nr = 0, and Eq. (40.4) reduces to
ns − 0
s= =1 (40.5)
ns
Releasing the brake allows the rotor to accelerate. The slip decreases with acceleration and approaches zero when all
mechanical load is removed.
If operating with the no shaft load and if the windage and friction are sufficiently small, the very low relative motion
between the rotor and the rotating flux of the stator may cause the rotor to become magnetized along an axis of minimum
reluctance. If this occurs, the rotor will lock in synchronization with the rotating flux of the stator; the slip will be zero,
no induction motor torque will be developed and the motor will act as a reluctance-synchronous motor. However, the
application of a small shaft load will cause it to pull out of synchronism, and the induction-motor action will again occur.
Solving Eq. (40.4) for nr expresses the rotor speed in terms of slip:
nr = ns (1 – s) (40.6)
40.5.1 Effect of Slip on Rotor Frequency

The frequency of the voltage induced in a rotor loop by a magnetic field is given by
P×n
fr = (40.7)
120
where, ƒr = rotor frequency (Hz)
P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rev/min)
substituting Eq. (40.3) into Eq. (40.7)
P(ns − n r )
fr = (40.8)
120
From Eq. (40.4)
ns– nr = sns
Substituting in Eq. (40.7)
sPns
fr = (40.9)
120
If the rotor is blocked so that it cannot turn, s = 1, and Eq. (40.9) becomes
Pn s
f BR = (40.10)
120
where, ƒBR = frequency of voltage generated in the blocked rotor (BR)
Substituting Eq. (40.6) into Eq. (40.9) results in the general expression for rotor frequency.
Thus,
ƒr = sƒBR (40.11)
At blocked rotor, also called locked rotor, there is no relative motion between rotor and stator, the slip is 1.0, and the
frequency of the voltage generated in the rotor is identical to the frequency of the applied stator voltage. That is
ƒBR = ƒstator (40.12)
40.5.2 Effect of Slip on Rotor Voltage

The voltage generated in a rotor loop, as illustrated in Figure 40.11 (formed by two rotor bars and end connections), as it
is swept by the rotating stator flux is given by
Er= 4.44 Nƒr φmax (40.13)
Figure 40.11 (a) Rotating Field Sweeping a Rotor Bar (b) Direction of Flux Generated
Around Rotor Bar and (c) Direction of Rotor-bar Current
Substituting Eq. (40.11) into Eq. (40.13)
Er = 4.44 NsƒBR φmax (40.14)
At blocked rotor, s = 1, Eq. (40.14) becomes
EBR = 4.44 NƒBR φmax (40.15)
Substituting Eq. (40.15) into Eq. (40.13)
Er = sEBR (40.16)
Equation (40.16) is the general expression for voltage induced in a rotor loop at any rotor speed in terms of blocked-rotor
voltage and slip.
Example 40.3
The frequency and induced voltage in the rotor of a certain six-pole wound-rotor induction motor, whose shaft is blocked,
are 60 Hz and 100 Hz, respectively. Determine the corresponding values when the rotor is running at 1100 rev/min
Solution:
120 f s 120 × 60
ns = = = 1200 rev/min
P 6
ns − n r 1200 − 1100
s= = = 0.0833
ns 1200
f r = s f BR = 0.0833 × 60 = 5.0 Hz
Er = sEBR = 0.0833 × 100 = 8.33 V
Example 40.4
A four-pole induction motor operating at a frequency of 60 Hz has a full-load rotor slip of 5 per cent. Calculate the rotor
frequency:
(1) At the instant starting; and (2) At full load.
Solution:
1. At the instant of starting
ns – nr
s= n
s
where, nr is the rotor speed. Since the rotor speed ns at that instant is zero, s =1, or unity slip. The rotor frequency is
ƒr = sƒBR = 1.0 × 60 = 60 Hz
2. At full load the slip is 5 per cent (given) and, therefore,
s = 0.05 and ƒr = s × ƒ = 0.05 × 60
Rotor frequency = 3 Hz
Example 40.5
A three phase two pole induction motor is connected to a 50 Hz supply. Determine the synchronous speed of the motor in
rev/min.
Solution:
ns= 50/l rev/s
= 50 × 60 rev/min = 3000 rev/min
Example 40.6
A stator winding supplied from a three-phase 60 Hz system is required to produce a magnetic flux rotating at 900 rev/min.
Determine the number of poles.
Solution:
900
Synchronous speed = = 15 rev / s
60
Since, ns = f / p then p = f /ns = 60/15 = 4
Example 40.7
A three-phase two pole motor is to have a synchronous speed of 6000 rev/min. Calculate the frequency of the supply voltage.
Solution:
since, ns = f / p, then f = ns p
6000 2
= × = 100 Hz
60 2
40.6 CONSTRUCTION OF A THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Many a.c. motors are classified as induction motors. An induction motor is a motor that has no electric connections between
the power sources and the rotor, yet the rotor has conductors which carry current. The current in the rotor conductors is an
induced current. It is induced by the magnetic field created by the stator windings.
A wound-rotor induction motor, as shown in Figure 40.12, has a regular three-phase winding similar to that of the stator
and is wound with the same number of poles. The phases are usually wye-connected and terminate at the slip rings. A wye-
connected rheostat with a common lever is used to adjust the resistance of the rotor circuit. The rheostat provides speed
control, torque adjustment at locked rotor and current limiting during starting and acceleration.
Figure 40.12 Cutaway View of Wound-rotor Induction Motor
The stator core is an assembly of thin laminations stamped from silicon-alloy sheet steel; the use of silicon steel for
the magnetic material minimizes hysteresis losses. The laminations are coated with oxide or varnish in order to minimize
eddy-current losses.
Insulated coils are set in slots within the stator core and the overlapping coils are connected in series or parallel arrange-
ments in order to form phase groups and the groups are connected in wye or delta. The connections wye or delta, series or
parallel, are dictated by voltage and current requirements.
The rotors are of two basic types (squirrel cage and wound rotor). Small squirrel-cage rotors use a slotted core of lami-
nated steel into which the molten aluminium is cast to make the conductors, end rings, and fan blades. Large squirrel rotors,
as shown in Figure 40.13, use brass bars and brass end rings that are brazed together to form the squirrel cage. There is
no insulation between the iron core and the conductors, and none is needed; the current induced in the rotor is contained
within the circuit formed by the conductors and end rings also called end connections. Skewing the rotor slots helps avoid
crawling and reduces vibration.
A wound-rotor induction motor uses insulated coils that are set in slots and connected in wye arrangement. The rotor
circuit is completed through a set of slip rings, carbon brushes and a wye-connected rheostat. The three-phase rheostat is
composed of three rheostats connected in a wye; a common lever is used to simultaneously adjust all three rheostat arms.
The transfer of energy occurs in a manner similar to that in a transformer. The stator is often referred to as the primary
and the rotor as the secondary. The air gap is made quite small so as to offer minimum reluctance.
Each coil of an induction motor stator spans a portion of the stator circumference equal to or slightly less than the pole
pitch. The pole pitch is equal to the stator circumference divided by the number of stator poles, it may be expressed in terms
of stator slots or arc. If the span is less than a pole pitch, it is called a fractional pitch winding.
Figure 40.13 Conductor Arrangement in a Squirrel-cage Rotor
40.7 ROTOR IMPEDANCE AND CURRENT

When an induction motor is stationary, the stator and rotor windings form the equivalent of a transformer, as illustrated in
Figure 40.14(a), which represent one phase of an inductor-motor rotor. The power and torque developed by a three-phase motor
is three times that developed by one of its phases. It will be assumed that the stator is an ideal stator in that it produces a rotating
magnetic field of constant amplitude and constant speed, and that it has no core losses, no copper losses and no voltage drops.
The rotor is represented by an electrically isolated closed circuit containing resistance and reactance acted on by an induced
rotor voltage Er. The rotor voltage is generated at a frequency ƒr by the rotating flux of the stator. The model shows one phase
of a wound rotor, or one phase of an equivalent wound rotor, if the rotor is squirrel cage.
The rotor resistance is dependent on the length, cross-sectional area, resistivity and the skin effect of the rotor conduc-
tors as well as external rheostat resistance if it is a wound rotor like that shown in Figure 40.12.
The inductive reactance Xr of the rotor, called leakage reactance, is caused by leakage flux and is dependent on the shape
of the rotor conductors, its depth in the iron core, the frequency of the rotor voltage and the length of the air gap between
the rotor and the stator iron.
The leakage reactance of the rotor expressed in terms of rotor frequency and rotor inductance is
Xr= 2pƒrLr (40.17)
Substituting Eq. (40.11) into Eq. (40.17) and simplifying
Xr = 2p (sfBR) Lr = s (2p fBRLr) = sXBR (40.18)
Replacing Xr, Er and ƒr in Figure 40.14(a) with their equivalent values in terms of slip results in Figure 40.14(b): the rotor impedance
as determined from the associated impedance diagram in Figure 40.14(c) is
Zr = Rr + jsXBR (40.19)
Applying Ohm’s law to the rotor circuit in Figure 40.14(b)
sEBR sEBR
Ir = = (40.20)
Zr R r + jsX BR
Dividing both numerator and denominator by s,
E EBR
I r = BR = (40.21)
Zr s Rr /s + jX BR
A modified equivalent circuit and associated impedance diagram corresponding to Eq. (40.19) are shown in
Figures [40.14(d) and (e)], respectively. The constant blocked-rotor voltage in Figure 40.14(d), combined with an equi-
valent rotor resistance that varies with slip provides a convenient tool for analysis of induction-motor behaviour.
Expressing the rotor current in terms of magnitude and phase angle,
EBR 0° EBR
Ir = = −θ r (40.22)
Z r /s θ r Z r /s
Figure 40.14 Equivalent Circuits and Corresponding Impedance Diagrams for an

Induction Motor with an Ideal Stator and a Real Rotor
The magnitude of the rotor current is

EBR
Ir = (40.23)
Z r /s
Expressing Zr /s and θr in terms of their components, as shown in Figure 40.14(e)
EBR (40.24)
Ir =
( Rr / s) 2 + X BR 2
X BR
θr = tan −1 (40.25)
R r /s
Example 40.7
The frequency of the supply of an eight-pole induction motor is 50 Hz and the rotor frequency is 3 Hz. Determine (1) the
slip, and (2) the rotor speed.
Solution:
1. ƒr= sƒ
Hence, 3 = s × 50 = 0.06 or 6 per cent
2. Synchronous speed, ns = ƒ/p = 50/4 = 12.5 rev/s
12.5 × 60 = 75 rev/min
ns – nr 12.5 – n
s = ns = 0.06 = 12.5 r
(0.06) (12.5) = 12.5 – nr
Rotor speed nr = 12.5 – 0.75
= 11.75 rev/s or 705 rev/min
Example 40.8
The rotor of a certain 25 hp, six-pole, 60 Hz induction motor has equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance per phase
of 0.10 Ω and 0.54 Ω, respectively. The blocked rotor voltage/phase (EBR) is 150 V. If the rotor is running at 1164 rev/min,
determine (1) synchronous speed, (2) slip, (3) rotor impedance, (4) rotor current, (5) rotor impedance if changing the shaft
load resulted in 1.24 per cent slip, (6) speed for the conditions in (5).
Solution:
120 f 120 × 60
1. ns = = = 1200 rev/min
P 6
ns − nr 1200 − 1164
2. s = ns
=
1200
= 0.030
Rr 0.010  
3. Z r = + JxBR = + j 0.54 = 3.3768 9.20 = 3.38 9.20 Ω
s 0.030

EBR 150 0  
4. I r = =  = 44. 421 − 9. 2 = 44 . 4 − 9 . 2 A
ZR 3.3768 9.20
Rr 0.10  
5. Z r = + JxBR = + j 0.54 = 8.09257 3.83 = 8.093.83 Ω
s 0.0124
6. nr = ns (1 − s ) = 1200(1 − 0.0124) = 1185 rev/min
40.8 LOCUS OF THE CURRENT

The changes that take place in rotor impedance angle qr and rotor-current magnitude Ir, as an unloaded induction motor
accelerates from standstill (blocked rotor) to synchronous speed are illustrated in Figure 40.15(a). The curves are plots of
Eqs. (40.23) and (40.24), respectively. It can be seen that the rotor current and the rotor impedance angle have their greatest
values at blocked rotor both decrease in values as the rotor accelerates and both approach zero as the rotor approaches
synchronous speed. For low values of slip (s < 0.05), the rotor current is proportional to the slip.
A phasor diagram representing the magnitude and phase angle of the rotor for values of slip from s = 1 to s = 0 is shown
in Figure 40.15(b). The current phasor changes in both magnitude and phase angle as the machine accelerates from blocked
rotor (s = 1) to synchronous speed (s = 0). The locus of the current phasor is a semicircle. Proof of its semicircle character
is obtained by expressing Zr /s in terms of sin qr and then substituting into Eq. (40.23). Thus, from Figure 40.14(e),
Zr X
= BR (40.26)
s sinq r
Substituting Eq. (40.26) into Eq. (40.23) and simplifying
EBR
Ir = sinθ r (40.27)
X BR
Equation (40.27) is the polar equation for a circle that is tangent to the horizontal axis at the origin and whose diameter is
EBR /XBR .
Figure 40.15 (a) Rotor Current and Rotor Impedance Angle Versus Speed for Repre-
sentative Induction Motor (b) Locus of Rotor-current Phasor
40.9 LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

Calculations involving overall motor efficiency must take into account the losses that occur in both the stator and the rotor.
The stator losses include all hysteresis losses and eddy-current losses in stator and rotor (called core losses), I 2R losses in
the stator winding (called stator copper losses). Given the input power to the stator, and the stator losses, the net power
crossing the air gap is
Pgap= Pin – Pcore – Pscl (40.28)
where, Pin= total three-phase power input to stator
Pcore = core loss
P scl = stator conductor loss or stator copper loss
Figure 40.16 shows the flow of power from stator input to shaft output and accounts for the loss in both stator and rotor.
The power flow diagram is a useful adjunct to problem solving. It suggests a convenient method of solution.
Figure 40.16 Shows the Flow of Power from Stator Input to Shaft Output and
Accounts for the Losses in Both Stator and Rotor Power
Power P = 2p nT where T is the torque in Newton metres; hence, torque T = P/(2pN). If P2 is the power input to the rotor
from the rotating field, and Pm is the mechanical power (including friction losses), then
P2 Pm
=T = (40.29)
2 pns 2 pn r
P2 Pm Pm nr
From which = = or
ns nr P2 ns
1 − Pm nr
Hence, =1−
P2 ns
P2 − Pm ns − n r
= =s (40.30)
P2 ns
But P2 – Pm is the electrical or copper loss in the rotor, i.e.,

P2 – Pm = Ir2R2
rotor copper loss I r 2 R2
Hence slip s= =
rotor output P2
Or power input to the rotor

I r 2 R2
P2 = (40.31)
s
See Figures 40.16 and 40.17
As has been shown in Figure 40.17(a), when an induction motor is stationary, the stator and rotor windings form the
N 
equivalent of a transformers and E2 =  2  E1 (40.32a)
 N1 
As can be seen in Figure 40.17(b), when running, the induced emf is proportional to the slip, s. Hence, when running,
 NRr 
the rotor emf per phase = Er = sE2 = s  E1 (40.32b)
 E1 
(a) (b)
Figure 40.17 Rotor e.m.f., Frequency, Impedance and Current (a) When Stationary (b) When Running
output power  Pm 
Motor Efficiency, η = =  × 100 per cent (40.33)
input power  P1 
Example 40.9
The power supplied to a three-phase induction motor is 32 kw and the stator losses are 1200 w. If the slip is 5 per cent,
determine (1) the rotor copper loss, (2) the total mechanical power developed by the rotor, (3) the output power of the
motor if friction and windage losses are 150 w and (4) the efficiency of the motor neglecting rotor iron loss.
Solution:
1. input power to rotor = stator input power-stator losses
32 kw – 1.2 kw = 30.8 kw
rotor copper loss
Slip =
rotor input
5 rotor copper loss
=
100 30.88
Rotor copper loss = (0.05) (30.8) = 1.54 kw

2. Mechanical power developed by the rotor = rotor input power – rotor losses
= 30.8 – 1.54 = 29.26 kw
3. Output power of motor = power developed by the rotor – friction and windage losses
= 29.26 – 0.75 = 28.51 kw
 output power 
4. Efficiency of inductor motor =   × 100 per cent
 input power 
 28.51 
=  × 100 per cent = 8 9.10 per cent
 32 
Example 40.10
The speed of induction motor in Example 40.9 is reduced to 35 per cent of its synchronous speed by using external rotor
resistance. If the torque and rotor losses are unchanged, determine (1) the rotor copper loss, and (2) the efficiency of motor.
Solution:
1. Slip
 n − nr 
s= s × 100 per cent = ( ns − 0.35ns ) ×100 per cent
 ns 
= ( 0.65 ) (100 ) = 65 per cent
Input power to rotor = 30.8 kw

Since,
rotor copper loss
s= ; rotor copper loss = ( s ) ( rotor input )
rotor input
 65 
Rotor copper loss = 
 100 
( 30.8 ) = 20.02 kw
2. Power developed by rotor = input power to rotor – rotor copper loss

= 30.8 – 20.02 = 10.78 kw
Output power of motor = power developed by rotor-friction and windage losses
= 10.78 – 0.75 = 10.03 kw
Efficiency,
output power  10.03 
η = × 100 per cent =   × 100 per cent = 31.34 per cent
input power  32 
40.10 AIR GAP POWER

The power transferred electromagnetically across the air gap between the stator and rotor is called air-gap power or gap-
power.
Sgap= EBR Ir cos qr + j EBR Ir sin q r (40.34)
The active and reactive components of gap power are

(Active power) Pgap = EBR Ir cos qr (40.35)
(Reactive power) Qgap = EBR Ir sin qr (40.36)
where, EBR = blocked rotor voltage
Ir = magnitude of rotor current
qr = rotor impedance angle
cos qr = power factor of rotor
Active component Pgap: Supplies the shaft power output as well as friction, windage, as well as heat losses in the output.
Reactive component Qgap supplies the reactive power for the alternating magnetic field about the rotor current. Component
Qgap is not dissipated. It follows a sinusoidal pattern as it see-saws across the gap between the stator and the rotor.
Components Pgap and Qgap may be represented in a power diagram as the two sides of a right triangle whose diagonal is
Sgap as illustrated in Figure 40.18
Sgap= Pgap+ j Qgap (40.37)
Figure 40.18 Power Diagram for Air Gap Power
Example 40.11
For the motor operating at 1164 rev/min in Example 40.8, determine the total three-phase apparent power crossing the air
gap its active and reactive components, and the rotor power factor.
Solution:
S gap = 3 × 190 0 × 44.421 +9.2 = 19.989 9.2 VA
Converting to rectangular form

S gap = (19732 + j 3197) VA
Pgap = 19732 W, Qgap = 3196 Var
PF = cos 9.2 = 0.99
40.11 MAXIMUM TORQUE

Torque
Pα  1   I r2 R2 
T = =
2πns  2πns   s 
from Eq. (40.31)

I r2 R2 s ( N 2/ N1 )E1
P2 = and Ir = (40.38)
s R 2 2 + ( sX 2 )
2
 1   s 2 ( N 2 /N1 ) E12   R2 
2
Hence, torque per phase T =    
 2πns   R 2 2 + ( sX 2 )2   s 
Or
 1   s ( N 2 /N1 ) E12 R2 
2
T =   (40.39)
 2πns   R 2 2 + ( sX 2 )2 
 m   s ( N 2 /N1 ) E12 R2 
2
If there are m phases, then torque T =    (40.40)
 2πns   R2 2 + ( sX 2 )2 
 m ( N 2 /N1 )2   sE12 R2 
T =  2 2
(40.41)
 2πns   R 2 + ( sX 2 ) 
 sE 21 R2 
T = K 2  where, K is a constant for a particular machine. (40.42)
 R 2 2 + ( sX 2 ) 
 sE 21 R2 
i.e., torque T∝ 2
(40.43)
 R 2 2 + ( sX 2 ) 
Under normal conditions, the supply voltage is usually, constant; hence, Eq. (40.43) becomes
 sR2   R2 
T ∝ 2  ∝ 2  (40.44)
(
 R2 + sX 2 2 )   R s + ( sX )2 
2 2
The torque will be a maximum, when the denominator is a minimum and this occurs when
R22 / s = sX 22 i.e., when s = R2 / X 2 or
R2 = sX 2 = X r (40.45)
Thus, the maximum torque occurs when rotor resistance and rotor reactance are equal
i.e., R2 = X2 (40.46)
Example 40.12
A 415 V, three-phase, 50 Hz, four pole star connected induction motor runs at 24 rev/s on full load. The rotor resistance
and reactance per phase are 0.35 Ω and 3.5 Ω, respectively, and the effective rotor-stator turns ratio is 0.85:1. Calculate:
(1) the synchronous speed; (2) the slip; (3) the full load torque; (4) the power output if mechanical losses amount to 770 W;
(5) the maximum torque; (6) the speed at which maximum torque occurs; and (7) the starting torque.
Solution:
f 50
1. Synchronous speed, n=
s = = 25 rev/s or 1500 rev / min
p 2
ns − nr 25 − 24
2. Slip, s = = = 0.04 or 4 per cent
ns 25
3. Phase voltage
 m ( N 2 / N1 )2  sE 21   3 ( 0.85 )2   0.04 ( 239.6 )2 ( 0.35 ) 

E1 =   =  
 2πns   R 2 2 + ( sX 2 )
2
  2π ( 25 ) ( )
  0.352 + ( 0.04 × 3.5 )
2


 803.71 
= ( 0.01380 )  = 78.05 V
 0.1421 
4. Output power, including friction losses, Pm= 2p nrT

(2p) (24) (78.05) = 1170 W
Hence, power output = Pm – mechanical losses
1170 – 770 = 11000 W = 11 kW
5. Maximum torque occurs when R2 = Xt = 0.35 Ω
R2 0.35
Slip, s= = = 0.1
X2 3.5
 sE 21 R 2 
Hence, maximum torque, T m = ( 0.01380 )  
 R 2 2 + ( sX 2 )
2

 ( 0.1 ) ( 239.6 )2 ( 0.35 ) 

= (0.01380)  
 ( 0.35 )2 + 0.352
 ( 
)
 2009.29 
= ( 0.01380 )   = 113.18 Nm
 0.245 
6. For maximum torque, slip s = 0.1

n − nr 25 − nr
s= s i.e., 0.1 =
ns 25
Hence, (0.1) (25) = 25 – nr and nr= 25 – (0.1) (25)
The speed at which maximum torque occurs nr = 22.5 rev/s = 1350 rev/min
7. At the start (at stand still), slip s = 1
Hence, starting torque
 m ( N 2 / N1 )2   E2 R   ( 239.6 )2 ( 0.35 )   ( 2009.86 ) 
=   2 1 2 2  = ( 0.01380 )   = ( 0.01380 )  
 2π ns   R 2 + X 2   ( 0.35 )2 + ( 3.5 )2   ( 12.3725 ) 
Starting torque = 22.41 Nm
40.12 INDUCTION MOTOR TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

The normal starting torque may be less than the full load torque. The speed at which maximum torque occurs is determined
by the value of rotor resistance. At synchronous speed, slip s = 0 and torque is zero. From these observations, the torque-
speed and torque-slip characteristics of an induction motor can be drawn (Figure 40.19).
The rotor resistance of an induction motor is usually small compared with its reactance, so that the maximum torque
occurs at a high speed, typically about 80 per cent of the synchronous speed. Curve P in Figure 40.19(a) is a typical char-
acteristic of an induction motor. The curve P cuts the full-load torque line at X, showing that at full load the slip is 4–5 per
cent. The normal operating conditions are between O and X. It can be seen that for normal operation the speed variation
with load is quite small the induction motor is an almost constant speed machine. Redrawing the speed torque character-
istic between O and X gives the characteristic shown in Figure 40.19(b), which is similar to that of the d.c. shunt motor.
If maximum torque is required at starting, then a high resistance rotor is necessary, which gives characteristic Q in
Figure 40.19(a), however, the motor has a full load slip of over 30 per cent which results in a drop in efficiency. Also, such
a motor has a large speed variation with variation of load curves R and S, as seen in Figure 40.19(a), are characteristic for
values of rotor resistance between those of P and Q. Better starting torque than for curve P is obtained but with lower ef-
ficiency and with speed variations under operating conditions.
A squirrel-cage induction motor (SCIM) would normally follow characteristic P. This kind of machine is highly effi-
cient and about constant speed under normal running conditions. However, it has a poor starting torque and must be started
off load or very highly loaded. Also, on starting, the current can be four or five times the normal full load current due to the
motor acting like a transformer with secondary short circuited.
A wound-rotor induction motor (WRIM) would follow characteristic P when the slip rings are short circuited, which is
the normal running condition. However, the slip-rings allow for the addition of resistance to the rotor circuit externally and
(a)
(b)
Figure 40.19 (a) Torque-speed Characteristics (b) Figure 40.19(a) Redrawn
as a result for starting, the motor can have a characteristic similar to curve Q in Figure 40.19(a). The high starting current
experienced by the squirrel cage induction motor can be overcome.
In general, for three-phase induction motors, the power factor is usually between about 0.8 and 0.9 lagging and the full-
load efficiency is usually about 80–90 per cent. As torque is proportional to the square of the supply voltage, any voltage
variations, therefore, would seriously affect the induction motor performance.
40.13 WRIM AND SCIM: A COMPARISON

The advantages of the WRIM compared with the SCIM are as follows.
1. They have a much higher starting toque.
2. They have a much lower starting current.
3. They have a means of varying speed by use of external rotor resistance.
The advantages of the SCIM compared with WRIM are as follows.
1. They are cheaper and more robust.
2. They have slightly higher efficiency and power factor.
3. They are explosion proof, since the risk of sparking is eliminated by the absence of slip rings and brushes.
40.14 STARTING TECHNIQUES FOR INDUCTION MOTORS

Induction motors of almost any horse power may be started by connecting them across full voltages, as shown in
Figure 40.20, and most are started that way. In many cases, however, the high in rush current associated with full-voltage
Figure 40.20 Starting by Connecting Induction Motors Across Line
starting can cause large voltage dips in the distribution system. Lights may dip or flicker, and unprotected control systems may
drop out due to low voltage. The impact torque that occurs when starting at full voltage can damage the driven equipment.
The methods commonly used for reducing in-rush current are reduced voltage starting using auto transformers
current limiting through wye-delta connections of stator windings, part winding connections, series impedance and
solid-state control.
Auto Transformer Method: Auto transformer reduces the stator voltage and, thus, the starting current. However the
the starting torque is seriously reduced, so the voltage is reduced only sufficiently to give the desired reduction of the
starting current.
A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 40.21. A double-throw switch connects the autotransformers in the circuit for
starting and when the motor is up to speed the switch is thrown to the run position which connects the supply directly to
the motor.
Figure 40.21 Auto Transformer: Starting of Induction Motors
Wye-delta Starting Method: This method is used for starting the connections to the stator that are wye-connected, so
that the voltage across each phase winding is 1/ 3 (i.e., 0.577) of the line voltage for running the windings are switched
to delta connections. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 40.22. This method of starting is less expensive than that
by autotransformer.
Part Winding Method: The part-winding method uses a stator with two identical three-phase windings, each capable
of supplying one-half of the rated power. The power circuit for starting a part-winding motor is shown in Figure 40.23.
Contacts 1 are closed first, energizing one winding. After a brief time delay, contacts 2 are closed energizing both
windings. The part winding starter is one of the least expensive starters but is limited to dual-voltage motors that are
operated on the low-voltage connections.
Figure 40.22 Wye-delta Starting of Induction Motors
Figure 40.23 Part-winding Starter
Series Impedance Starter: The series impedance starter shown in Figure 40.24(a) uses a resistor and inductor in series
with each phase of the stator windings to limit the current during start-up. The running contacts (R) are open when
starting, to limit the in-rush current and are closed to short out the impedance when the motor is near rated speed. The
Ohmic values of the resistor or reactor are selected to provide approximately 70 per cent rated voltage at the motor
terminals when starting. The series impedance stator provides smooth acceleration and is the simplest method of starting
induction motors.
At each step, the motor operation will transfer from one characteristic to the next so that the overall starting characteristic
will be as shown by the bold line in Figure 40.24(b).
Solid-state Starters: A solid-state starter, shown in Figure 40.25, uses back-to-back thyristors to limit the current. The
control circuit (not shown) allows a gradual build up of current. The smooth build up permits a soft start with no impact
loading and no significant voltages dips. Solid-state starters can be designed to incorporate many special features such as
speed control, power factor control, protection against overload and single phasing.
40.15 DETERMINATION OF INDUCTION MOTOR PARAMETERS

In those cases where induction motor parameters are not readily available from the manufacturers, they can be approximated
from a d.c. test, a no-load test and a blocked-rotor test.
(a)
(b)
Figure 40.24 (a) Series Impedance Start (b) At Each Step the Motor Characteristic
Transfers from One to the Other
Figure 40.25 A Solid-state Starter

40.15.1 D.c. Test

The purpose of the d.c. test is to determine R1. This is accomplished by connecting any two stator leads to a variable voltage
d.c. source as shown in Figure 40.26(a). The d.c. source is adjusted to provide approximately rated stator current and the
resistance between the two stator leads is determined from voltmeter and ammeter readings. Thus, from Figure 40.26(a)
Figure 40.26 Circuit for d.c. Test to Determine R1
Vd.c.
Rd.c. = (40.47)
I d.c.
If the stator is wye-connected, as shown in Figure 40.26(b),

Rd.c.= 2R1wye and R1 wye = Rd.c. /2 (40.48a)
If the stator is delta connected, as shown in Figure 40.26(c)
R1, ∆ .2R1.∆ 2
Rd.c. = = R1, ∆ and R1, ∆ = 1.5 Rd.c. (40.48b)
R1, ∆ + 2R1, ∆ 3
40.15.2 No-load Test

The no-load test is used to determine the magnetizing reactance XM and the combined core, windage, and friction losses.
These losses are essentially constant for all load conditions.
The connections for the no-load test are shown in Figure 40.27. The rotor is unblocked and allowed to run unloaded at
both rated voltage and rated frequency. At no-load, the operating speed is very close to synchronous speed and the slip = 0,
causing the current in R2 /s branch to be very small. For this reason, the R2 /s branch is drawn with dotted lines as shown in
Figure 40.27, and omitted from the no-load current calculations. Since IM >> Ife , I0 ≈ IM; thus, the Rfe branch is also drawn
with dotted lines and omitted from the no-load current calculations.
Referring to the approximate equivalent circuit shown in Figure 40.28 for the no-load test the apparent power input per
phase is
SNL = VNL.INL (40.49)
The reactive power per phase is determined from
SNL= P2NL + Q2NL (40.50)
Figure 40.27 Basic Circuit for No-load Test and Blocked-rotor Test
Solving for QNL,

QNL = S 2NL– P 2NL (40.51)
Expressing the reactive power in terms of current and reactance, and solving for the equivalent reactance at no-load
QNL= I 2NL.XNL and XNL = QNL /I 2NL (40.52)
where as indicated in Figure 40.28
XNL = X1 + XM (40.53)
Substituting X1 as determined from blocked rotor test, into Eq. (40.53) permits the determination of XM.
The input power per phase at no load includes the core loss, stator copper loss, windage loss and friction loss (all
per phase).
That is
PNL= I 2NLR1 + Pcore +PW, f (40.54)
Separation of friction and windage losses from the no-load loss may be accomplished by plotting the no-load power versus
voltage squared for low values of voltage and extrapolating to zero voltage.
Figure 40.28 Equivalent Circuit Per Phase for No-load Test
40.15.3 Blocked-Rotor Test

The blocked-rotor test is used to determine X1 and X2. When combined with data from the d.c. test, it also determines R2. The test
is performed by blocking the rotor so that it cannot turn, and measuring the line voltage, line current, and three-phase power input
to the stator. Connections for the test are shown in Figure 40.29. An adjustable voltage a.c. supply (not shown) is used to adjust
the blocked-rotor current to approximately rated current. If instrument transformers and single-phase Watt meters are used,
the effect of transformer ratios and the direction of Watt meter readings (whether a positive or negative) must be considered.
Since the exciting current (I0) at blocked rotor is considerably less than the rotor current (I2) the exciting current may
be neglected, enabling a simplification of the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 40.29, where Xm and Rfe are drawn with
dotted lines and omitted when making blocked-rotor calculations.
IBR.15 R1 jX1 R2/s jX2
I0
PBR.15 ZBR.15 Rfe jXM

VBR.15
Figure 40.29 Equivalent Circuit Per Phase for Blocked-rotor Test
The IEEE test code recommends that the blocked-rotor test be made using 25 per cent rated frequency with the test volt-
age adjusted to obtain approximately rated current. Thus, a 60 HZ motor would use 15 Hz test voltage. The total reactance
calculated from the 15 Hz test is then corrected to 60 Hz by multiplying by 60/15. The total resistance calculated from the
15 Hz test is essentially correct, however, and must not be adjusted Referring to Figure 40.29, when all values are per phase
R1 + R2 = RBR.15 (40.55)
VBR.15 PBR.15
Z BR.15 = and R BR.15 = (40.56)
I BR.15 I 2 BR.15
Resistance R2 is obtained from RBR.15 by substituting R1 from the d.c. test into Eq. 40.55
Thus R2= RBR.15 – R1 (40.57)
From Figure 40.29
Z BR.15 = R 2 BR.15 + X 2 BR.15 (40.58a)
And
X BR.15 = Z 2 BR.15 − R 2 BR.15 (40.58b)
Converting XBR.15 to 60 HZ
60
X BR.60 =
15X BR.15 (40.59a)
where,
XBR.60 = X1 + X2 (40.59b)
S UM M A RY
1. The induction motor is the most commonly used type 7. The difference between the speed of the rotating flux
of a.c. motor. and the speed of the rotor is called slip speed.
2. The current in the rotor conductors is induced by trans- 8. The ratio of slip speed to synchronous speed is called slip.
former action. 9. The slip decreases with acceleration and approaches
3. The number of cycles of the supply required for one zero when all mechanical load is removed.
revolution of the magnetic field is always half the 10. At blocked rotor the slip is 1.0.
number of poles. 11. The connections wye or delta, series or parallel are
4. The speed at which the rotating magnetic field revolves dictated by voltage and current requirements.
is termed the synchronous speed. 12. The rotors are of two basic types: squirrel cage and
5. The synchronous speed is constant for any given machine. wound rotor.
6. The direction of rotation of a motor can be reversed by 13. The stator is often referred to as the primary and the
interchanging any two of the three supply conductors. rotor as the secondary.
14. The rotor current and the rotor impedance have their 16. The power transferred electromagnetically across the
greatest values at blocked rotor; both decrease in value air gap between the stator and rotor is called the air-gap
as the rotor accelerates and both approach zero as the power or gap power.
rotor approaches synchronous speed. 17. The maximum torque occurs when rotor resistance and
15. The stator losses include all hysteresis losses and rotor reactance are equal.
eddy current losses in the stator and rotor (called core 18. The induction motor parameters are determined by d.c.
losses). test, no-load test and blocked rotor test.
1. The speed at which the rotating magnetic field, pro- 6. The no-load current of a three-phase induction motor in
duced by the stator current rotates is terms of its full-load current is of the order of
(a) Rotor speed (a) 10 per cent (b) 20 per cent
(b) Synchronous speed (c) 50 per cent (d) 25 per cent
(c) Greater than synchronous speed 7. The efficiency of a three-phase induction motor as
(d) Less than synchronous speed compared to that of a transformer is
2. The no-load slip of a three-phase induction motor is of (a) Lesser (b) Much less
the order of (c) Higher (d) Much higher
(a) 1 per cent (e) Comparable
(b) 2 per cent 8. The nature of the PF of a three-phase induction motor
(c) 6 per cent is
(d) 4 per cent (a) Leading
3. The rotating field of the rotor rotates relative to the (b) Unity
stator core at a speed equal to (c) Lagging
(a) sns (b) ns (d) May be leading or lagging
(c) n (d) sn (e) Always lagging
4. The stator of a three-phase induction motor is lami- (f) Always leading
nated to 9. The slip of a three-phase induction motor under blocked
(a) Reduce eddy current losses rotor test is
(b) Reduce copper losses in the stator winding (a) 1.0 (b) 0.5
(c) Reduce hysteresis losses (c) Zero (d) 0.2
(d) All of the above 10. The starting torque of three-phase squirrel cage induc-
5. In a three-phase induction motor iron losses occur in tion motor is
(a) Stator winding (a) High
(b) Rotor winding (b) Zero
(c) Stator core and teeth (c) Low
(d) Rotor core and teeth (d) Equal to full-load torque
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (e) 9. (a) 10. (c).
1. What is meant by a doubly excited motor? 7. What is the utility of the blocked rotor test?
2. How does a uniform strength of a rotating magnetic 8. Why is it desirable to know the resistance of the stator
field induce voltage in a.c. induction motor rotor? winding?
3. How do voltages that are induced in rotor produce a 9. Why is induction motor rotor current related to slip?
rotating magnetic field? 10. What is the difference between gross developed torque
4. What is slip in an induction motor? and net output torque?
5. Why must some slip be present for motor action? 11. Why is maximum torque called breakdown torque?
6. Why does running an induction motor unloaded enable 12. What is the synchronous speed of an induction motor
the rotational losses to be determined? with six poles operating on 60 HZ?
13. What is the synchronous speed of an induction motor 16. An induction motor is tested in the blocked – rotor test.
with four poles operating on 400 HZ? Its rated line current of 8.5 A is drawn when the line
14. An induction motor operates at 4.45 per cent slip and voltage is 16.6 V and the total voltage is 48.8 W. Under
has four poles. What is its r.p.m. on 60 HZ? these conditions what is
15. A three-phase induction motor draws 4.5 A from its (a) The equivalent resistance reflected to the stator per
lines at 230 V line-to-line at a power factor of 0.153 phase?
while running at no load. Its d.c. resistances line to line (b) The equivalent impedance per phase?
between two phases of the stator is 1.863 Ω. What is its (c) The equivalent inductive reactance per phase?
rotational loss?
ANSWERS (CQ)
12. 1200 r.p.m. 13. 12000 r.p.m. 14. 1720 r.p.m. 15. 204 W 16. (a) 0.255 Ω (b) 1.13 Ω (c) 1.11 Ω.
Induction Motors
(Single Phase) 41
OBJECTIVES Squirrel-cage
Shading Shading
coils coils
rotor
 Phase-splitting circuits
 Pole–speed relationship
 Single-phase induction motor Magnetic
core Magnetic
 The shaded-pole motor
core
 The universal motor
Field coil Field coil
 The synchronous motor Main coils
 Getting the motor started
 Centrifugal switch
 The capacitor start split-phase motor
 Resistance start split-phase motor Squirrel-cage
rotor
 Quadrature windings: running and starting To
line
 Torque-speed characteristic
 Two-value capacitor motors
 Permanent-split capacitor motors Shading
coills
 Reversing single-phase induction motors
 Dual-voltage operation
Single-phase induction motors
41.1 INTRODUCTION
Single-phase induction motors are used extensively in industrial, commercial, and domestic applications. They are used
in clocks, fans, blowers, pumps, washing machines, and machine tools, as well as range in size from a fraction of a horse
power (HP) to about 15 HP.
Large single-phase induction motors are split-phase machines that have two separate windings physically displaced by
ninety electrical degrees and phase-splitting circuits are those that cause the current and associated flux of one winding to
lag or lead the current and associated flux of the other winding (Figure 41.1). The net effect is the production of a rotating
magnetic field that sweeps a squirrel-cage rotor developing induction motor action. Smaller single-phase induction motors
use a much simpler device called a shading coil to provide the phase-splitting effect.
Figure 41.1 Single-Phase Induction Motor (a) The Squirrel-cage Rotor (b) Rotor and
Starting Switch of a Split-phase Motor
Phase-splitting circuits are also used to operate three-phase induction motors from a single-phase source. This enables
larger motors to be operated in isolated areas where three-phase sources are not available.
Note: Generally, the term small motor means a motor of less than 1 HP, i.e. fractional HP motor.
41.2 CLASSES OF INDUCTION MOTORS

There are four basic classes of single-phase motors that are used roughly in equal quantities, which are as follows:
1. Single-phase induction motors are used for personal and small business tasks; furnace oil burner pumps, hot water
circulators, or hot air circulators are some of their typical uses. Refrigerator compressors and power tools, such as
lathes and bench-mounted circular saws are also powered with induction motors. Their power outputs usually range
from about 1/6 HP (0.125 kW) up to ¾ HP (0.560 kW), although higher ranges are also used. Four-pole motors are
usually used, with lesser quantities of two and six poles. The pole–speed relationship is similar to that of two three-
phase motors, because the operation of the motor is essentially the same.
S = 120 f / p r.p.m. or ω = 4π f / p rad/sec (41.1)
2. Shaded-pole motors, as shown in Figure 41.2, are used in smaller sizes for quiet, low-cost applications. Typical uses
are in small fans and blowers with less power ratings than those described in (1). There is, of course, an overlap in
use. The shaded-pole motor is simple and reliable but has a low starting torque and efficiency relative to that of the
induction motor.
Figure 41.2 Shaded-pole Motor (the Copper Strap is Necessary for Starting the Motor)
3. The universal motor closely resembles a d.c. series motor and, as its name implies, will operate on any a.c. frequency
or on direct current. They are widely used because they can develop very high speed while loaded and very high
power for their size. Any service that requires a speed beyond that possible with a two-pole induction motor, where
S = 3600 r.p.m., is a normal use for a universal motor.
SInduction Motors (Single Phase) 807
4. The last basic type of single-phase motor is the synchronous motor. The single-phase synchronous motor, as shown
in Figure 41.3, is one of the various forms of magnetized but unwound motors. Consequently, they do not have the
ability to control power factor. The exact speed relation of a synchronous motor is used in electric clocks and various
cycle-timing devices. These motors are built in the smallest of sizes, where the power output is only a few Watts.
Figure 41.3 Synchronous Motor
The relative quantities of these four basic types of single-phase motors are almost evenly distributed on a one-for-one
basis in modern homes. The single-phase induction motor usually has a very high power rating compared with the other
types mentioned here; they collectively develop as much power as the aggregate of the other three put together.
The split-phase motors employ two separate windings having different reactance resistance ratios. The current reaches its
maximum with high-reactance winding at a later time and the rotor experiences a shift in magnetic field, providing the neces-
sary starting torque. When the motor is nearly up to speed, the high-resistance winding is disconnected by a centrifugal switch.
The capacitor motor shown in Figure 41.4 employs a capacitor in series with an auxiliary winding to provide the neces-
sary phase shift. For improved performance, two capacitors are used. The larger capacitor provides good starting torque
and it is then switched out by a centrifugal switch. The smaller one remains in the circuit to provide better operating ef-
ficiency and power factor.
Figure 41.4 Single-phase Induction Motors (a) Shaded Pole (b) Split Phase (c) Capcitor
41.3 GETTING THE ROTOR STARTED
The problem in single-phase induction motor design is to get the rotor started. There are several ingenious methods of
doing this. In the shaded-pole motor, Figure 41.4(a), a heavy copper coil is wound around one half of each salient stator
pole. Induced circuits in the shorted turn delay the build-up of magnetic flux in that region of the pole. The magnetic flux
vector appears to shift as a function of time and the rotor experiences the effect of a partially rotating field.
The running winding consists of insulated copper wire. It is placed at

the bottom of the stator slots. The wire size in the starter winding is smaller
than that of the running winding. These coils are placed on top of the run-
ning winding coils in the stator slots closest to the rotor.
Both the starting and running windings are connected in parallel to the
single-phase line when the motor is started. After the motor accelerates to
speed (approximately two-thirds to three quarter of the rated speed), the
starting winding is disconnected automatically from the line by means of a
centrifugal switch.
The rotor for the split-phase motor is similar to that of the squirrel-cage in-
duction motor, that is, the rotor consists of a cylindrical core, assembled from
steel laminations. Copper bars are mounted near the surface of the rotor. The
bars are brazed or welded to two copper endings. In some motors, the rotor is
a one-piece cast aluminium unit. The rotor fans are a part of the squirrel-cage
rotor assembly. These rotor fans maintain air circulation through the motor to
prevent large increase in the temperature of the rotor windings.
The centrifugal switch is mounted inside the motor as shown in Figure 41.5,
and disconnects the starting winding after the rotor reaches a predetermin-
ed speed. The switch consists of a stationary part and rotating part. The sta-
Figure 41.5 Operation of a Centri- tionary part is mounted on one of the end shields and has two contacts
fugal Switch that act like a single-pole single-throw switch. The rotating part of the cen-
trifugal switch is mounted on the rotor.
A simple diagram illustrating the operation of the cen-
trifugal switch is given in Figure 41.5. When the rotor is at
a standstill, the pressure of the spring on the fibre ring of
the rotating part keeps the contacts closed. When the rotor End-bell
reaches approximately three-quarters of the rated speed, the
centrifugal action of the rotor causes the rotor to release its Switch
pressure on the fibre ring and the contacts open. As a result,
Centrifugal
the starting winding is disconnected from the line. mechanism
41.4 CONSTRUCTION
The split-phase induction motor consists of a stator, a rotor, a
centrifugal switch located inside the motor (Figure 41.6), two
end shields housing the bearings that support the rotor shaft
and a cast steel frame into which the stator core is pressed. The
two end shields are bolted to the cast steel frame. The bearings
housed in the end shields keep the rotor centred within the stator
so that it rotates with a minimum of friction and without striking Figure 41.6 Cut-away View of a Split-Phase Motor
or rubbing the stator core.
The stator for a split-phase motor consists of two windings held in place in the slots of a laminated steel core. The two
windings consist of insulated coils distributed and connected to make up two windings spaced 90o apart. One winding is
the running winding and the second one is the starting winding.
41.5 PHASE SPLITTING

Initiating a rotating magnetic field from a single-phase source, without resorting to mechanical means, requires the use
of two stator windings and a phase splitting circuit. The physical layout of the windings for an elementary two-pole
split-phase motor is shown in Figure 41.7(a), and the corresponding equivalent circuit diagram of the motor is shown
in Figure 41.7(b). The main winding supplies the direct-axis flux (φd) and an auxiliary winding displaced at ninety
electrical degrees from the main winding supplies the quadrature flux (φq).The auxiliary winding is also called the
starting winding.
The phase splitter is connected in series with the auxiliary winding, causing the current in the auxiliary winding to be out
of phase with the current in the main winding. As the magnetic field due to a current is in phase with the current that pro-
duces it, the quadrature field and the main field will be out of phase, resulting in a rotating flux and induction motor action.
Figure 41.7 (a) Elementary Two-pole Single-phase Motor with Phase Splitter
(b) Equivalent Circuit Diagram
Phase splitting may be accomplished through the use of capacitance or resistance. If accomplished through the use of
capacitance, the motor is called a capacitance-start split-phase motor; if it is accomplished through the use of resistance,
it is called a resistance-start split-phase motor. Regardless of the means used to start the rotor turning (be it phase-
splitting or mechanical action), once it starts turning, self-excitation will maintain the quadrature field, and the auxiliary
winding with its phase splitter may be disconnected.
41.6 LOCKED-ROTOR TORQUE

The locked-rotor torque of a split-phase motor is proportional to the magnitudes of the locked-rotor current in each winding
times the sum of the angle of phase displacement between the two currents. Expressed mathematically,
Tlr = k sp ⋅ I mw ⋅ I aw sin α (41.2)
α = θi , mw − θi , aw (41.3)
where, ksp = machine constant, split-phase motor

Iaw = current in auxiliary winding (A)
Imw = current in main winding (A)
qi, aw = phase angle of current in auxiliary winding
qi, mw = phase angle of current in main winding
α = phase displacement between Iaw and Imw.
Example 41.1
The main and auxiliary windings of a hypothetical 120 V, 60 Hz, split-phase motor have the following locked-rotor
parameters:
Rmw = 2.00 Ω Xmw = 3.50 Ω
Raw = 9.15 Ω Xaw = 8.40 Ω
The motor is connected to a 120 V, 60 Hz system. Determine the (1) locked-rotor current in each winding; (2) phase
displacement angle between the two currents; (3) locked-rotor torque in terms of the machine constant; (4) external
resistance required with the auxiliary winding to obtain a 30º phase displacement between the two currents; (5) locked-
rotor torque for the conditions in (3); and (6) per cent increase in torque due to the addition of external resistance.
Solution:
The circuit for the original conditions is shown in Figure 41.8(a)
Zmw = 2.00 + j 3.50 = 4.03311 − 60.2551° Ω
Zaw = 9.15 + j 8.40 = 12.4211 − 42.5530° Ω
120 0°
I mw = = 29.7688 − 60.2551° A
4.0311 60.2551°
1. 120 0°
I aw = = 9.6110 − 42.6° A
12.4211 42.5530°
2. α = θ i , mw − θ i , aw = −60.2551 − (−42.5530) = 17.7021°

= 17.7°
3. Tlr = k sp I mw I aw sin α
= k × 29.7688 × 9.6610 × sin 17.7021
= 87.45k sp
4. The circuit for the new condition, with a resistor in series with the auxiliary winding, is shown in Figure 41.8(b). A
phasor diagram showing the respective currents for the old condition and the desired location of the new, auxiliary
winding current I ′aw is shown in Figure 41.8(c). The required phase angle for I ′aw is as follows:
θi, aw = −60.2551° + 30° = −30.2551°

Applying Ohm’s law to the auxiliary branch in Figure 41.8(b), we obtain
VT VT 0°
I ′aw = = I ′aw − 30.2551° =
Z ′aw Z ′aw θ ′z , aw
θ ′z , aw = 30.2551°
From the impedance diagram for the new auxiliary circuit branch in Figure 41.8(d), we obtain
X aw
′ =
tan θ aw
R aw + R x
X aw
Rx = − R aw
tan (θ aw
′ )
8.40
= − 9.155 = 5.25 Ω
tan ( 30.2551° )
VT 12.0 0 °
5. ′ =
I aw = = 7.1979° − 30.2551° A
Zaw′ 9.15 + 5.2508 + j8.40
Tlr = k sp I mw I aw sin α
= k sp × 29.7668 × 7.1979 × sin 30°
= 107.1 k sp
Figure 41.8 For Example 41.1(a) Original Circuit (b) Modified Circuit (c) Phase Diagram
for Determining the Required Phase Angle of Auxiliary Current for New
Conditions (d) Impedance Diagram for the New Auxiliary-Circuit Branch
107.1− 87.45
6. × 100 = 22.5% increase
87.45
Note: The added resistance in the auxiliary winding circuit decreased the auxiliary winding current, but increased the
locked-rotor torque.
Example 41.2
Carry out a graphical analysis for Example 41.1
Solution:
Because only the auxiliary winding has series-connected elements to provide phase splitting, the current in the main
winding may be assumed to be constant, permitting Equation 41.2 to be written as
Tlr α I aw sin α (41.4)
Graphs of Іaw, µ1 and (Іaw sin α) as a total resistance of the auxiliary winding circuit in Example 41.4, as Rx is increased
from 0 Ω to 20 Ω, are shown in Figure 41.9. Note the following:
1. The current in the auxiliary winding decreases with increasing resistance.
2. Angle α increases with increasing resistance.
3. The locked-rotor torque Iaw sin α1 reaches a peak value with an auxiliary circuit resistance of approximately 14.2 Ω and
decreases with increase in resistance.
Note: For every split-phase motor there is an optimum value of auxiliary circuit resistance that will maximize the locked
rotor torque. The phase displacement for this optimum value of resistance is generally between 25º and 30º.
41.7 RESISTANCE-START SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS

The circuit diagram for a general-purpose resistance-start split-phase motor is shown in Figure 41.10(a). The auxiliary
winding is wound with a smaller diameter than the main winding, causing the auxiliary winding to have a higher ratio of
Figure 41.9 Graphs of Auxiliary Winding Current, Phase-displacement Angle α, and Locked-rotor
Torque Represented by Iaw Sin α, for the Split-phase Motor in Example 41.1
resistance to reactance than the main winding. The switch with auxiliary circuit is a magnetic relay, a solid-state switch, or a
centrifugally operated switch. The centrifugally operated switch, as shown in Figure 41.10(a), is closed when the motor is
at rest and open when the rotor is at 75–80 per cent synchronous speed. A solid-state switch, called a triac, is shown with
broken lines in Figure 41.10(a); the switch closes when starting and is set to open at approximately 75 per cent synchronous
speed. A magnetic relay (not shown) is closed by a high motor-staring current, and springs open when the acceleration of the
motor reduces the current to approximately 80 per cent of the locked-rotor current. A representative phasor diagram for the
motor (when starting) is shown in Figure 41.10(b).
A typical torque-speed characteristic for a resistance-start split-phase motor is shown Figure 41.10(c).
This motor is adaptable to loads such as centrifugal pumps, oil burners, blowers and other loads of similar characteristics that
require moderate torques and constant speed. This motor offers no means for speed control from a fixed frequency source other
than that obtained by recounting for different pole arrangements.
Figure 41.10 Resistance-start Split-phase Motor (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Phase Diagram
(c) Torque-speed Characteristic
41.8 CAPACITOR-START SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS

A capacitor-start split-phase motor develops a much larger (Іaw, sin α), and hence a much larger locked-rotor torque, than
does the resistance-start split-phase motor. The value of capacitance that produces the greatest locked-rotor torque in a
capacitor-start split-phase motor causes a phase-displacement angle α of between 75° and 88° compared with the 25° and
33° phase-displacement angle of the resistance-start split-phase motor. The circuit diagram and phase relationships for the
capacitor-start split-phase motor are shown in Figure [41.11(a, b)], respectively.
A typical torque-speed characteristic for the motor is shown in Figure 41.11(c). The starting curve shows the motor
characteristics, with both the auxiliary and main windings energized. The running curve shows the characteristic behaviour
after the auxiliary winding is disconnected. A comparison of the characteristic with that of the resistance start split-phase
motor in Figure 41.10(c) shows that the running characteristics of both machines are essentially the same. The significant
difference between the two machines is the starting torque; about 130 per cent rated for the resistance-starts split-phase
motor and 300 per cent rated for the capacitor-start split-phase motor. The high starting torque and good speed regulation
of the capacitor-start motor make it well suited for applications in stokers, compressors, reciprocating pumps and other
loads of similar characteristics. This motor offers no means for speed control from a fixed frequency source other than that
obtainable by reconnecting for a different number of poles.
Figure 41.11 Capacitor Motors (a) Circuit for Capacitor-start Motor (b) Phase Diagram
Corresponding to (a) (c) Torque-speed Characteristic for Motor in (a)
(d) Permanent-split Capacitor Motor (e) Two-value Capacitor Motor
Neither the resistance-start split-phase motor nor the capacitor-start split-phase motor can attain synchronous speed.
The rotating flux depends on current in the rotor to produce the quadrature field. As the rotor approaches synchronous
speed, the speed-voltage is induced in the rotor, the associated current in the rotor and the quadrature flux approaches zero.
Hence, the accelerating torque will become zero at slightly below synchronous speeds. However, permanent-split capaci-
tor motors and two-value capacitor motors are in effect two-phase motors, and at no load could attain synchronous speed.
41.8.1 Permanent-split Capacitor Motors

A permanent-split capacitor motor utilizes a permanently connected auxiliary circuit containing a capacitor. There is no
switch in the auxiliary circuit, and its operation is smoother and quieter than a capacitor-start or resistance-start motor of
the same power rating. The values of capacitance for this type of motor are smaller than the one used in the capacitor-start
motor and is a compromise between the best starting and best running performances. The primary field of application for a
permanent-split capacitor motor is for shaft-mounted fans used in heaters and for ventilating fans. Its speed may be varied
by a tapped or slide-wire autotransformer in the main line, as shown in Figure 41.11(d); by using an external resistor or
reactor in series with the main winding or in series with both windings or by adjusting the number of turns in the main
winding through the use of taps and a selector switch or by solid-state control.
41.8.2 Two-value Capacitor Motor

A two-value capacitor motor, shown in Figure 41.11(e), provides a greater amount of capacitance for starting than for
running. This provides a greater locked-rotor torque than is obtainable with the permanent-split capacitor motor, and a
reduced capacitance when running results in improved power factor, improved efficiency and higher breakdown torque.
41.9 REVERSING SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

The reversing of the direction of rotation of the motor is accomplished by stopping the machine, interchanging the leads to
the auxiliary circuit and then restarting. This reverses the quadrature-axis flux, causing flux rotation to be in the opposite
direction. This is illustrated in Figure 41.12.
Figure 41.12 Reversing the Direction of Rotation of a Split-Phase Induction Motor
41.10 DUAL-VOLTAGE OPERATION

Single-phase motors often have dual-voltage ratings. To obtain these ratings, the running winding consists of two sections.
Each section of the winding is rated. With reference to Figure 41.13, the motor is rated at 115/230 V. One section of the
running winding is marked T1 and T2 and the other section is marked T3 and T4. If the motor is to be operated on 230 V, the
two 115 V windings are connected in series across the 230 V line. If the motor is to be operated on 115 V, then two windings
are connected in parallel across the 115 V line. This is illustrated in Figure 41.13.
The starting winding, however, consists of only one 115 V winding. The leads of the starting winding are generally
marked T5 and T6. If the motor is to be operated on 115 V, both sections of running winding are connected in parallel with
the starting winding, as shown in Figure 41.13(a).
For 230 V operation, the connection jumpers are changed with the terminal box so that the two 115 V sections of the running
winding are connected in series across the 230 V line. This is shown in Figure 41.13(b). The 115 V starting winding is connected
in parallel with one section of the running winding. If the voltage drop across this section of the running winding is 115 V, then the
voltage across the starting winding is also 115 V.
Some dual-voltage split-phase motors, as shown in Figure 41.14, have a starting winding with two sections and a running
winding with two sections. The running winding sections are marked T1 and T2 for one section and T3 and T4 for the other
section. One section of the starting winding is marked T5 and T6 and the other section of the winding is marked T7 and T8.
Figure 41.13 shows the winding arrangement for a dual-voltage motor with one starting winding and two running wind-
ings. The correct connections for 115 V operation and for 230 V operation are given in the table shown in Figure 41.14.
Figure 41.13 Dual-voltage Operation of Single-phase Motors: (a) Motor

Connected for 115 V (b) Motor Connected for 230 V
Figure 41.14 Winding Arrangement with Two Starting and Two Running Windings
Example 41.3
Using the given data for the split-phase motor windings in Example 41.1, determine (1) the capacitor required in series
with the auxiliary winding to obtain a 900 phase displacement between the current in the main winding and the current with
auxiliary winding at locked rotor; (2) locked-rotor torque in terms of the machine constant.
Solution:
1. The winding impedances in Example 41.1 are
Zmw = 2.00 + j 3.50 = 4.03311 − 60.2551° Ω
Zaw = 9.15 + j 8.40 = 12.4211 − 42.5530° Ω
The circuit for original conditions is shown in Figure 41.15(a)
120 0°
I mw = = 29.1688 − 60 2551° A
4.0311 60.2551°
120 0°
I aw = = 9.6610 − 42.5530° A
12.4211 42.5530°
The circuit diagram for the new condition (with a capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding) is shown in Figure 41.15(b),
and a phasor diagram showing the respective currents for the original condition and the desired location of the new auxiliary-
winding current is shown in Figure 41.15(c). The required phase angle for I ′aw is
θi,′ aw = 90° − 60.26° = 29.74°
Applying Ohm’s law to the auxiliary branch in Figure 41.15(b), we get
VT 0°
Z ′aw = Z ′aw θ z′, aw =
′ 29.74°
I aw
Figure 41.15 For Example 37.3 (a) Original Circuit (b) Modified Circuit (c) Phasor Diagram
for Determining Required Phase Angle of Auxiliary Current for New Conditions,
(d) Impedance Diagram for New Auxiliary-circuit Branch
Thus θ z′, aw = −29.74°
From the impedance diagram shown in Figure 41.15(d) for the new auxiliary circuit branch, we get
X aw − X c
( )
tan θ z′, aw =
Raw
; (
X c = X aw − Raw tan θ z′, aw )
X c = 8.40 − 9.15 × tan ( −29.74° ) = 13.628 Ω
1 1
Xc = = = 194.6 µ F
2 π f c 2 π × 60 × 13.628
120 ∠0°
2. ′ =
I aw = 11.387 29.74°
9.15 + j 8.40 − j 13.628
Tlr = k sp I mw I aw , siin α = k sp × 29.7688 × 11.387 × sin 90°
Tlr = 338.9 k sp
Note: The per cent increase in locked-rotor torque obtained by capacitor start in Example 41.3 with respect to the locked-
rotor torque obtained by resistor start in Example 41.1 is
338.9 − 107.1
× 100 = 216 per cent
107.1
Example 41.4
Carry out a graphical analysis of Example 41.3.
Graphs of Іaw, α and (Іaw sin α), plotted against Xc for

Example 41.3, are shown in Figure 41.16. The current in
the auxiliary winding increases and then decreases with
increasing capacitive reactance (resonance phenomena);
angle α increases with increasing capacitive reactance
and the locked-rotor torque, represented by Іaw sin α,
increases to some peak value and then decreases with
increasing capacitive reactance. Note that for the given
winding parameters, the optimum value of capacitive re-
actance that resulted in a phase displacement angle of
approximately 75° produced the greatest locked-rotor
torque.
A comparison with the Іaw sin α curve for the
capacitor motor in Figure 41.16(c) with that of the split-
phase motor in Figure 41.9(c) shows that with the same
windings, phase shifting with capacitance can produces
significantly greater locked-rotor torques than can phase
shifting with resistance.
41.11 SHADED-POLE MOTORS

The starting methods employed so far are generally based
on the principle of producing a rotating magnetic field to
initiate rotor rotation. Split-phase motors employ stators
with uniform air gaps with respect to their rotor and stator
windings, which are uniformly distributed around the
periphery of the stator.
The shaded-pole motor, illustrated in Fig-
ure 41.17(a), utilizes a short-circuited coil or cop-
per ring, called a shading coil, to provide the starting
torque. The shading coil is wound around a part of
the pole face and acts as the short-circuited second-
ary of a transformer.
Figure 41.17(a) shows the general construction of a
salient two-pole shaded-pole motor. The special pole
pieces are made up of laminations, and a short-circuited
Figure 41.16 For Example 41.4 Graphs of Auxiliary
shading coil is wound around the smallest segment of
Winding Current, Phase Displacement
the pole piece. The shading coil, separated from the
Angle α, Locked-Rotor Torque Represent-
main a.c. field winding, serves to provide a phase-split-
ed by Iaw sin α, for the Capacitor Start
ting of the main field flux by delaying the change of flux
Motor in Example 41.3
with the smaller segment.
As shown in Figure 41.17(b), when the flux with field poles tends to increase, a short-circuit current is induced in
the shading coils, which by Lenz’s law opposes the force and flux producing it. Thus, as the flux increases in each
field pole, there is a concentration of flux in the main segment of each pole, while the shaded segment opposes the
main field flux.
At point C, as shown in Figure 41.17(e), the rate of change of flux and current is zero, and no voltage is induced in the
shaded coil. Consequently, the flux is uniformly distributed across the poles. When the flux decreases, the current reverses
in the shaded coil to maintain the flux in the same direction. The result is that the flux now crowds in the shaded segment
of the pole.
An examination of Figs. 41.17(b, c, d) will reveal that at intervals b, c, and d, the net effect of the flux distribution in the
pole has been to produce a sweeping motion of flux across the pole face representing a clockwise rotation. The flux with
the shaded-pole segment is always lagging the flux in the main segment in time as well as in physical space (although a
true 90° relation does not exist between them). The result is that a rotating magnetic field is produced, sufficient to cause
unbalance in rotor torques (double-revolving field theory) such that the clockwise torque exceeds the counter-clockwise
torque (or vice versa) and the rotor always turns in the direction of the rotating field.
Figure 41.17 Shaded-pole Motor Construction, Operation and Characteristics
The electrical characteristics of shaded-pole motor are shown in the torque-slip curve of Figure 41.17( f ). The staring torques
are very small and nominally about 25 per cent of the full-load torque. Rated torque, depending on the horse power occurs
nominally at about 10–25 per cent slip. Maximum breakdown torque is slightly higher than rated and occurs at slips between
30 and 40 per cent. Efficiencies vary from 5 to 35 per cent.
Split-phase induction motors are manufactured in both fractional and integral HP motor sizes. The shaded-pole motor
is usually a small fractional HP motor not exceeding 1/10 HP, but motors up to ¼ HP have been produced. The great ad-
vantage of this motor lies in its utter simplicity – a single-phase rotor winding, a cast squirrel-cage rotor and special pole
pieces. No centrifugal switches, capacitors, special starting windings or commutators are used.
41.11.1 Reversing Shaded-pole Motors

To reverse the direction of rotor rotation, it would be necessary to unbolt the pole structure and reverse it physically. To eliminate
such a slow and complicated process, newer techniques have been devised for producing reversible shaded-pole motors.
The first of these techniques is to connect the shading coils in series on corresponding shading segments and short-
circuit them through a switch. As shown in Figure 41.18(a), the shading coils on trailing salient pole tips on one side are
short-circuited for CW rotation and those on trailing pole tips on the opposite side of the pole are short-circuited for CCW
rotation. At no time, however, are both sets of trailing-pole tips short-circuited.
The second method is generally used with non-salient pole stators. Two separate distributed windings, 90o in space
with respect to the short-circuited shaded poles, are shown as windings A and B in Figure 41.18(b). When winding A, not
shown as distributed, is energized, the flux pattern is in a CW order: winding A, shaded pole A', winding A (in the loca-
tion of B) and shaded pole B'. When winding B is energized, the flux pattern is CCW. Winding B, shaded coil A', winding
B distributed at A and shaded coil B'.
The third method, as shown in Figure 41.18(c), also employs a single continuous distributed winding with appro-
priate taps at the 90° points. When the taps of one set are energized by the double-pole double-throw, switch, the rotor
rotates clockwise. When the taps of a second set, displaced by 90° with respect to the shading coils, are energized the
motor rotates in the counter-clockwise direction.
Note: While the shaded-pole motor using the methods described in Figure 41.18 is a reversible motor, it is not a reversing
motor. Once started in a specified direction of rotation, it must be brought to a standstill before the motor direction is reversed.
Two pairs of shading coils alternately 1 φ a.c. supply

short circuited by switch Two individual distributed
(main winding not shown) main fields at 90° Tapped distributed winding method
Figure 41.18 Methods of Reversing Shaded-pole Motors
S UM M A RY
1. The stator of single-phase induction motors has a start- 11. The capacitor limits the starting surge current to a
ing winding and a running winding. lower value than is developed by the standard split-
2. The rotor of a single-phase induction motor is similar phase motor.
in construction to the rotor of a two-phase squirrel-cage 12. The capacitor is used to improve the starting torque and
motor. does not improve the power factor of the motor.
3. The centrifugal switch disconnects the starting winding 13. The capacitor-start induction-run motor is used in those
after the rotor reaches a predetermined speed, usually applications where there are relatively few starts in a
two-third or three-quarter of the rated speed. short period of time.
4. The motor is called a split-phase motor because it 14. In a capacitor-start capacitor-run motor, the starting
starts like a two-phase motor from a single-phase line. winding and the capacitor are connected in the circuit
5. The motor must have both the starting and running at all times.
winding energized at the instant the motor circuit is 15. The capacitor-start capacitor-run motor has a very good
closed to create the necessary starting torque. starting torque.
6. If the mechanical load is too great when a split-phase 16. The problem in single-phase induction motors is to get
motor is started, or if the terminal voltage is too low, the rotor started.
then the motor may fail to reach the speed required to 17. The auxiliary winding has a higher ratio of resistance
operate the centrifugal switch. to reactance.
7. To reverse the direction of rotation of the motor, simply 18. For dual-voltage operation, the running winding con-
interchange the leads of the starting winding. sists of two sections.
8. The speed regulation of a split-phase induction motor 19. The shaded-pole motor utilizes a short-circulated coil
is very good. or copper ring called a shading coil.
9. The starting torque of the split-phase motor is compar- 20. The shading coil acts as the short-circuited secondary
atively poor. of a transformer.
10. In a capacitor-start induction-run motor, the capaci- 21. While a shaded-pole motor is a reversible motor, it is
tor provides a higher starting torque than is obtainable not a reversing motor.
with a standard split-phase motor.
1. The starting torque in a single-phase induction motor is a) Higher b) Much higher
a) High b) Very high c) Lower d) Much lower
c) Low d) Very low 3. The no-load current of a single-phase induction motor
e) Zero is of the order of
2. The efficiency of a single-phase induction motor as com- a) 30 per cent b) 45 per cent
pared to that of a three-phase induction motor of the same c) 60 per cent d) 75 per cent
power rating is
4. The centrifugal switch closes when the rotor reaches c) Two stator windings and a phase splitting circuit
approximately d) None of the above
a) One-fourth of the rated speed 6. Shaded-pole motor is a
b) Two-third of the rated speed a) Reversible motor
c) Three-fourth of the rated speed b) Reversing motor
d) Rated speed c) None of the above
5. Initiating a rotating magnetic field from a single-phase
source requires
a) Two stator windings
b) A phase-splitting circuit
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (e) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a).
1. What prevents a single-phase induction motor from 8. What circuit change enables a resistance split-phase or
being self-starting unless it has special starting circuit capacitor-start induction motor to be reversed?
provisions? 9. What advantage does a capacitor-start capacitor-run
2. Describe the basis of the double-revolving field theory. motor have over a capacitor-start motor?
3. How does the creation of a second artificial phase en- 10. How does an auto transformer enable a capacitor
able a single-phase-motor to develop starting torque? to perform as two different values of capacitor in a
4. How is the required phase shift accomplished in a re- capacitor-start capacitor-run motor?
sistance split-phase motor? 11. What future limits the utility of a permanent-split
5. What is the function of the centrifugal switch in a sin- capacitor motor?
gle-phase motor? 12. Why is a single-phase induction motor less efficient
6. What happens when the centrifugal switch fails to open? than a comparable power three-phase induction
7. How is the required phase shift accomplished in a motor?
capacitor-start induction motor?
Specialized Motors
42
OBJECTIVES
Rotor
 The reluctance principle Stator cup A
 Reluctance-start induction motors

 Hysteresis motors
Coil A
 Reluctance torque and hysteresis torque
Stepper motors for precise positioning of

mechanical systems Coil B
 Types of stepper motors and their applications

Stator cup B
 Step angle per input pulse
 Permanent magnet stepper motors Output shaft
 Variable-reluctance stepper motors Permanent magnet stepper motor
 Hybrid stepper motors

 Linear induction motors
Unrolling conventional squirrel-cage induction

motor to produce a linear induction motor
 Universal motors
42.1 INTRODUCTION
A.c. and DD .c. machines and combinations of these machines are used, in general, for the conversion of mechanical energy
to electrical energy and vice versa. There are, however, other kinds of dynamos and combinations of dynamos that perform
similar energy conversion and are more specialized in nature and in application.
Machines, such as reluctance motors and hysteresis motors, are used for timing devices, tape recorders, tachometers,
and other such devices with constant speed requirements. They are used extensively in process industries, such as the man-
made fibre industry, where many components of the process line must operate in sync.
Stepper motors are used in conjunction with pulse-driving circuits for precise positioning of mechanical systems. They
are essential components of disk drives, printers, plotters, and other applications that require step-by-step positioning.
Linear induction motors (LIMs) are used to apply mechanical forces and to cause movement in a straight or curved line.
They are used in conveyer systems, door openers, aircraft launchers, electromagnetic guns, liquid metal pumps for nuclear
reactors, high-speed rail transportation, etc.
Universal motors have applications in low-power apparatus, such as vacuum cleaners, small-power tools, and kitchen
appliances.
42.2 RELUCTANCE-START INDUCTION MOTOR

The reluctance motor is an induction motor with a modified squirrel-cage rotor such as that shown in Figure 42.1. The
notches, flats, or barrier slots provide equally spaced areas of high reluctance. The sections of rotor periphery between
the high-reluctance areas are called salient poles; the number of salient poles must match the number of slots. The stator
winding may be three phase or single phase.
Specialized Motors 823
Figure 42.1 Types of Rotor Laminations Used in Reluctance Motors
According to the reluctance principle, mechanical force is exerted on a sample of magnetic material located in a magnetic
field. The force tends to act on the material in such a way as to bring the material into the portion of the magnetic field that
has the greatest density. If the sample is irregularly shaped, it will tend to be aligned in such a way as to produce minimum
magnetic reluctance, and, consequently, maximum flux density. Thus, particles of iron filings are aligned in the presence
of a magnetic field parallel to the field direction.
The reluctance-start induction motor whose starting is initiated by the reluctance principle is not the same as a non-
excited synchronous motor. The reluctance principle states that where the air gap is small, the self-inductance of the field
winding is high, causing the current in the field winding to lag the flux that produced it; conversely, where the air gap
is high, the self-inductance is reduced and the current is more exactly in phase with the flux. The mutual air gap flux is
delayed, therefore, in the vicinity of air gap, producing a sweeping effect similar to that produced in the shaded-pole motor.
Since the fluxes are displaced somewhat in time and also in space, a rotating magnetic field is produced at all field poles at
instants t1, t2, and t3 successively, as shown in Figure 42.2.
Figure 42.2 Reluctance-start Induction Motor and Development of Rotating Field
The running torque characteristics of the salient-pole reluctance-start induction motors are not as good as those of the
non-salient-pole shaded-pole motor. This is evident because, in order for the speed e.m.f. to develop a rotating magnetic
field once rotation has been initiated, the air gap must be fairly uniform. Furthermore, similar to the shaded-pole motor,
the starting torque of the reluctance-start motor is also poor. Other than reversing the poles on the stator, there is no way of
changing the direction of rotation of the reluctance-start induction motor. Operation is always in the direction from high to
low air gap, i.e. to maximize the field.
The shaded-pole motor is generally preferred over the reluctance-start induction motor since it is less expensive to
manufacture, has higher efficiency and better running torque characteristics and it is reversible. Speed control is the same
for both the motors.
42.3 HYSTERESIS MOTORS

Single-phase cylindrical (non-salient-pole) synchronous induction or shaded-pole motors are classified as hysteresis
motors. The difference between this motor and the reluctance motor is in (1) the shape of the rotor and (2) the nature of
torque produced.
The reluctance motor is pulled into synchronism and runs on reluctance torque, whereas the hysteresis motor pulls into
synchronism and runs on hysteresis torque. Hysteresis-type laminations are made of hardened high-retentivity steel rather
than commercial low retentivity dynamo steel.
The stator of the hysteresis motor is the same as that for an induction motor. The rotor, however, consists of a smooth
cylinder made of very hard permanent-magnet alloy material and a nonmagnetic support as shown in Figure 42.3(a).
Rotating magnetic field produced by phase splitting or a shaded-pole stator induces eddy currents in the steel of the
rotor and travel across the two bar paths (Figure 42.3(b)). A high-retentivity steel produces a high hysteresis loss, and an
appreciable amount of energy is consumed from the rotating field in reversing the direction of the rotor.
At the same time, the rotor magnetic field set up by eddy currents causes the rotor to rotate. A high starting torque is
produced as a result of the high rotor resistance (proportional to the hysteresis loss). As the rotor approaches synchronous
speed, the frequency of current reversal in the crossbars decreases and the rotor becomes permanently magnetized in one
direction as a result of the high retentiveness of the steel rotor. With two field poles, the rotor shown in Figure 42.3(b) develops
a speed of 3600 r.p.m. at 60 Hz. The motor runs as a hysteresis motor on hysteresis torque because the rotor is permanently
magnetized.
(a)
(b)
Figure 42.3 (a) Rotator for Hysteresis Motor (b) Hysteresis-type Laminations of Hardened
High-retentivity Steel
The principle of hysteresis motor action is further explained using the elementary hysteresis motor shown in Figure 42.4.
The magnets represent the stator flux, which serves to induce opposite magnetic polarity in the hardened alloy rotor. With
the magnets stationary, as shown in Figure 42.4(a), the magnetic axis of the rotor poles is coincident with the magnetic axis
of the stator. Spinning the stator magnets, with the rotor blocked as shown in Figures 42.4(b, c), provides a rotating magnetic
field that exerts a torque on the induced magnetic poles of the rotor. As the stator poles rotate, the induced magnetic poles
in the rotor constantly reform in new positions, following the rotating flux. Because of hysteresis, the rotor poles always lag
the stator poles by angle δh. The constant lag angle results in a constant force of attraction, and hence a constant accelerating
torque. Releasing the rotor, and assuming no overload, the constant torque will accelerate the rotor to synchronous speed.
Figure 42.4 Hysteresis Motor Behaviour: (a) Magnets and Rotor Stationary (b) and (c)
Rotor Blocked and Magnets Rotating
The amount of torque produced as a result of this magnetization is not as high as that of a reluctance torque. However,
hysteresis torque is extremely steady in both amplitude and phase despite fluctuations in supply voltage; hence, it is widely
used in high- quality cassette players, compact disk players, record players, and tape recorders. As reluctance torque can be
produced more cheaply than hysteresis torque for the same fractional horse power, high-torque hysteresis motors are more
expensive than reluctance synchronous motor of the same rating.
Because of their low inertia, smaller single-phase hysteresis motors accelerate to their synchronous speed in a few
cycles of input. These motors find great application in timing and clock mechanisms (Figure 42.5), where the synchronous
speed (for two poles) is 3600 r.p.m. This speed lends itself quite well to high-torque gear reductions, i.e., 1 r.p.m. for the
second hand and/or 1 r.p.m. for the minute hand. Yet another important application of the polyphase hysteresis motor is
found in inertial guidance and gyroscope rotors, which require absolutely constant speed as a function of line frequency.
The following are some unique features of the hysteresis motor:
1. The constant-hysteresis torque (Figure 42.6) from locked rotor to synchronous speed permits the hysteresis motor to
synchronize any load that it can accelerate; no other motor can perform in this manner.
Figure 42.5 Timing Clock Figure 42.6 Torque–speed Characteristic of the Hysteresis Motor
2. The smooth rotor provides quiet operation. It does not suffer from magnetic pulsations caused by slots and/or salient
poles that are present in the rotors of other motors.
3. The relatively high resistance and high reactance of the hysteresis rotor limit the starting current to approximately 150
per cent rated current. This contrasts significantly with the reluctance rotor, whose low reactance and low resistance
result in a locked-rotor current of approximately 600 per cent rated current.
42.4 STEPPER MOTORS

Stepper motors, also called stepping motors are highly accurate pulse-driven motors that change their angular position
in steps, in response to input pulses from digitally controlled systems. Stepper motors are used for precise positioning of
mechanical systems and may be used without feedback. Examples of their applications include head positioning in computer
disk drives, positioning of carriage, ribbon, point head and paper feed in typewriters, as well as printers, robots, etc.
The step angle per input pulse depends on the construction of the stepper motor and the control system used. Stepper
motors with a 45° step angle provide a resolution of 360/45 equal to eight steps per revolution; stepper motors with a 1.8
step angle provide a resolution of 360/1.8 equal to 200 steps revolution etc. The total angle travelled by the rotor is equal
to the step angle times the number of steps. It can be expressed mathematically as follows:
360°
Resolution = steps/rev = (42.1)
β
θ = β×steps (42.2)
where, β = step angle (deg/pulse)

θ = total angle travelled by rotor (degree)
The speed of a stepper motor is a function of the step angle and stepping frequency (called the pulse rate). Thus,
b× fp
n= (42.3)
360
where, n = shaft speed (rps)

ƒp = stepping frequency (pulses/s)
Example 42.1
A stepper motor has a 2.0° step angle. Determine (1) resolution, (2) number of steps required for the rotor to make
20.6 revolutions, (3) shaft speed if the stepping frequency is 1800 pulses/s.
Solution:
1. Resolution = steps/rev
= 360/2.0=180
2. θ = β × step
= 20.6 × 360 = 2.0 × steps
20.6 × 360
Steps = = 3708
2.0
β × fp 2.0 × 1800
3. n= =
360 360
= 10 rev /s
42.4.1 Types of Stepper Motors

In all types of stepper motors, rotation is produced by switching suitably connected windings in some predetermined
sequence to produce angular discrete rotation steps that are essentially uniform in magnitude. The three most popular types
of stepper motors are as follows:
1. Variable-reluctance (VR) type, also known as reactive-rotor type.
2. Permanent magnet (PM) type, sometimes called active-rotor type.
3. Hybrid type, a combination of PM and VR.
42.4.2 Variable-reluctance Stepper Motors

The toothed stator and toothed rotor of a variable-reluctance stepper motor, as shown in Figure 42.7, are constructed from
soft steel that retains very little residual magnetism. Coils wound around the stator teeth provide the magnetic attraction
that establishes the rotor position. The reluctance of the magnetic circuit formed by the rotor and stator teeth varies with
the angular position of the rotor. Energizing one or more stator coils causes the rotor to step forward, or to step backward,
to a position that forms a path of least reluctance with the magnetized stator’s teeth.
Figure 42.7 Variable-reluctance Stepper Motor Showing Different Step Positions

Corresponding to the Switching Sequence in (f)
A simple circuit arrangement for sequencing current to the stator coils is shown in Figure 42.7(f). The eight stator coils
are connected in two-coil groups to form four separate circuits called phases. Each phase has its own independent switch.
Although shown as mechanical switches in Figure 42.7, in actual practice, switching of phases is accomplished with solid-
state control.
Figure 42.7(a) illustrates the position of the rotor with SW1 closed, energizing phase A; the rotor is in a position of
minimum reluctance with rotor teeth 1 and 4 aligning with stator teeth 1 and 5, respectively. Closing switch SW2 and
opening switch SW1 energize phase B, causing rotor teeth 3 and 6 to align with stator teeth 4 and 8, respectively, as
shown in Figure 42.7(b), for an angular step of 15º. Closing switch SW3 and opening switch SW2 energize phase C,
causing rotor teeth 2 and 5 to align with stator teeth 3 and 7, respectively, as shown in Figure 42.7(c). As each switch is
closed and the preceding one opened, the rotor moves an additional step angle of 15º. The stepping sequence, as shown in
Figure 42.7(a, c), follows the sequence of switches repeating 1 through 4, over and over, until the desired number of revolu-
tions or a fraction of a revolution is achieved.
The direction of rotation for 1–4 switching sequence (shown in Figure 42.7) results in clockwise (CW) stepping of the
rotor. Reversing the sequence of pulses by closing the switches in the order 4.3.2.1 will cause counter-clockwise stepping.
The relationship between step angle and the number of teeth in the rotor and the number of teeth in the stator is
Ns − Nr
β= × 360 (42.4)
Ns Nr
where, β = step angle in space degrees

Ns = number of teeth in stator core
Nr = number of teeth in rotor core
42.4.3 Permanent-magnet Stepper Motors

A simplified diagram of a permanent-magnet stepper motor is shown in Figure 42.8. The rotor shown in Figure 42.8(b) has
two toothed sections separated by a permanent magnet. The two sections are offset from each other by one-half of a tooth
pitch. The magnet provides opposite polarity to each section, developing north poles in one section and south poles in the
other section. Figures 42.8(a, c) show the two end views of the combined rotor and stator. All north poles are on one end
and all south poles are on the other end. The stator coils shown in Figures 42.8(a, c) span both rotor sections. An axial view
of the assembled stepper motor is shown in Figure 42.8(d).
Figure 42.8 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor: (a) Stator and South Section of Rotor
(b) Rotor (c) Stator and North Section of Rotor (d) Axial View of Assembled Motor
Each rotor section contributes to the development of torque. In effect, the sections are in parallel. The net effect is that
of a five-tooth rotor with a four-tooth stator (in this illustration). The step angle for the stepper in Figure 42.8 is
Ns − Nr 4−5
β= × 360 = × 360 = 18° (42.5)
Ns Nr 4×5
The principle of operation of a permanent magnet stepper motor is developed using the circuit diagram, switching
table, and the corresponding rotor positions in Figure 42.9. For simplicity, only the south section of the rotor is shown.
The rotor positions are keyed to the switching sequence for clockwise rotation; phase A is energized by SWI and phase
B is energized by SW2.
Figure 42.9 Circuit Diagram of a Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor with Rotor Positions
Keyed to Switching Sequence for Clockwise Rotation
42.4.4 Hybrid Stepping Motors

The hybrid stepper motor is a combination of the PM and the VR types. Typically, most hybrid stators have eight poles and
each pole has between two and four teeth.
Two phases are wound on the eight poles, i.e., there are four poles per phase. The rotor always has a permanent magnet
along with soft-iron pole structure containing an even number of teeth (typically 18). The PM or stepper motors, along with
the stepping angle, is independent of the number of phases and is purely a function of the number of rotor teeth. For each
change of stator excitation, the stepping angle is
90°
β= degrees (42.6)
P
where, P is the number of rotor teeth.
Example 42.2
A hybrid stepper motor has fifty variable-reluctance teeth. Calculate the stepping angle in degrees.
Solution:
90° 90°
β= = = 1.8°
P 50
42.4.5 Comparison of Stepper Motor Types

The major advantage of hybrid motors is their small stepping angle. This is important whenever high-resolution angular
positioning is required. The torque produced by hybrids is greater than that for VR and/or PM types for a given motor
volume. Consequently, whenever high torque and small stepping angles are required and space is limited, the hybrid
stepping motor is used.
VR stepping motors are chosen for the following two major applications:
1. The VR motor is used whenever the load must be moved by a considerable distance requiring several revolutions of
the motor. As the stepping angle is greater, fewer steps and correspondingly fewer excitation changes are needed to
reach the required distance. This results in less time to produce the change.
2. The inertia of the V/R motor is lower because it does not carry a permanent magnet. This reduced inertia enables the
VR motors to accelerate the load faster and reduces the possibility of overshoot or oscillation at the end of a step.
PM stepper motors exhibit the highest inertia and the highest rotational speed because they usually rotate at higher step-
ping angles. Because of their inherently higher speed, the torque for a given hp rating is lower. Production of PM stepper
motors is, therefore, limited to the smallest power ratings.
42.5 LIM
The major difference between conventional induction motor (producing rotary motion) and a linear induction motor
(producing linear motion) is the difference in their respective air gaps. The rotating induction motor has a closed air gap,
whereas the linear induction motor has an open air gap with an entry end and exit end.
Figure 42.10(a) shows the cross-section of a conventional squirrel-cage induction motor. Primary con-
ductors are embedded in the stator core and secondary conductors are embedded in the rotor core. The air
gap is closed upon itself. If we imagine that the conventional squirrel-cage induction motor in Figure 42.10(a) is
unrolled to the left and right, as shown in Figure 42.10(b), we obtain the LIM. In effect, the magnetic rotor core may
now be considered as a magnetic strip and the secondary rotor conductors as a conductive strip. The primary con-
ductors embedded in a magnetic flat-slotted bed still continue to produce a moving (gliding) flux as a result of their
polyphase currents.
If we assume that the primary winding in Figure 42.10(b) is stationary and produces a gliding flux continuously from
left to right, the secondary conductive and magnetic strip will also move from left to right, but not at the same speed as the
flux. There must be some slip theoretically in order to develop force on the secondary.
Figure 42.10 Unrolling Conventional Squirrel-cage Induction Motor to Produce a Linear

Induction Motor
Figure 42.11(a) shows one common form of LIM with a short primary and relatively long secondary magnetic sheet
and conductive sheet. In this short primary single-sided linear induction motor (SLIM), the secondary is stationary
and the primary is capable of motion. In this mode, SLIM is used for long operating distances, because it would be
too expensive to design a full-length primary winding. As the secondary is stationary and fixed, the induced secondary
currents produce flux to propel the primary along the conductive strip. This design is typically used in cranes, where the
three-phase power is available in the crane cab, and the secondary is a steel I-beam.
Figure 42.11(b) shows the short-secondary single-sided SLIM, in which the secondary conductors are embedded in a
flat-slotted core.
This type of LIM is suitable for limited distances but develops relatively high thrust forces.
Figure 42.11(c) shows the double-sided primary LIM with a coreless secondary. The double-primary construction pro-
vides a more definite magnetic circuit. It is essentially the design used with a railway car LIM. The secondary sheet shown
in Figure 42.11(c) may be either a magnetic or a non-magnetic material.
Figure 42.11 Flat Three-phase Linear Induction Motors
42.6 UNIVERSAL MOTORS

Universal motor is a name given to a type of motor that can operate either on a.c. or d.c. with about the same speed
characteristics. This is a series-connected motor, in which the armature and the field coils are connected in series.
An elementary universal motor (Figure 42.12(b, c)) has its rotating part, called the armature, connected in series with the
series-field winding. The rotating commutator and stationary brushes constitute a rotary switch that reverses the direction
of the current in the armature coil as the coil rotates. The equivalent circuit diagram is shown in Figure 42.12(d).
The direction of developed torque, and hence the direction of armature rotation, is independent of polarity of the a.c.
source. This is shown in Figure 42.12(b, c) for the respective alternations of the a.c. source. The direction of the mechanical
force exerted on each conductor is determined by the flux bushing rule.
The torque developed by the universal motor is proportional to the flux density of the series field and the current in the
armature conductors. That is,
TDα Bp Ia (42.7)
where, TD = developed torque
Bp = flux density due to current in series-field winding
Ia = armature current
As indicated in Figure 42.12(d), however, the current in the series-field is the armature current. Hence, neglecting magnetic
saturation effects,
Bp α Ia (42.8)
Substituting into Equation (42.7)
TD α Ia2 (42.9)
Series-field winding
Rotation
F
Conductor B
B
A
Brush
Commutator
bar
To
a.c. source
(a)
Series-field winding
Rotation F
N S Conductor B
B
A
Brush
Commutator
bar
I
– +
To
a.c. source
(b)
Series field
To a.c. source Armature
(c)
Figure 42.12 Universal Motor and its Equivalent Circuit
Hence, the torque developed by a universal motor is approximately proportional to the square of the armature current.
Universal motors can develop higher torques, can accelerate to higher speeds, and have a higher power-to-weight ratio
than induction motors of the same power rating.
Reversing the direction of rotation of a universal motor is achieved by reversing the direction of current in series field
or in the armature, but not in both. Speed adjustment is accomplished by using an auto transformer or solid-state control
to reduce the voltage applied to the motor; reducing the applied voltage reduces the armature current, which reduces the
developed torque, and hence reduces the speed.
The torque and speed characteristics of the universal motor are essentially the same, whether operating on a.c. or d.c.
Furthermore, because of its relatively small dimensions, no load speeds in excess of 12,000 r.p.m. are achieved without
damage.
Universal motors have applications in vacuum cleaners, portable power tools, and kitchen appliances. Series motors,
operating from a 25 Hz single-phase system, are used for traction purposes on some electrified railroads.
S UM M A RY
1. The reluctance motor is an induction motor with a 9. Spinning the stator magnets with the rotor blocked
modified squirrel cage. provides a rotating magnetic field.
2. Where the air gap is small, the self-inductance of the 10. Hysteresis torque is steady in both amplitude and phase.
field winding is high. 11. Stepper motors change their angular position in steps.
3. Where the air gap is high, the self-inductance is 12. The total angle travelled by a stepper motor is equal to
reduced. the step angle multiplied by the number of steps.
4. The mutual air gap flux is delayed in the vicinity of the 13. Hybrid stepper motors have a small stepping angle.
air gap. 14. VR stepper motors have a greater stepping angle.
5. Operation is always in the direction from high to low 15. PM stepper motors have the highest inertia and the
air gap. highest rotational speed.
6. The reluctance motor runs on reluctance torque. 16. LIMs produce linear motion.
7. The hysteresis motor runs on hysteresis torque. 17. Universal motors can operate either on a.c. or on d.c.
8. With the magnets stationary, the magnetic axis of the 18. The torque developed by a universal motor is approx-
rotor poles is coincident with the magnetic axis of the imately proportional to the square of the armature
stator. current.
1. The synchronous speed of a linear induction motor 6. Which of the following motors do not have a winding on it?
does not depend on a) Repulsion motor b) Reluctance motor
a) Supply frequency c) Hysteresis motor d) Universal motor
b) Width of pole pitch 7. Which motor will make least noise?
c) Number of poles a) Shaded-pole motor b) Hysteresis motor
d) Any of the above c) Universal motor d) Reluctance motor
2. The secondary of a linear motor normally consists of 8. Which of the following motors is used in mixies?
a) Distributed single-phase winding a) Hysteresis motor
b) Solid conducting plate b) Reluctance motor
c) Distributed three-phase winding c) Universal motor
d) Concentrated single-phase winding d) Repulsion motor
3. Which of the following motors can be run on both a.c. 9. The direction of rotation of a universal motor can be
and d.c. supply? reversed by reversing the flow of current in
a) Repulsion motor a) Armature winding b) Field winding
b) Reluctance motor c) Either (a) or (b) d) Neither (a) nor (b)
c) Universal motor
10. For which of these applications is reluctance motor
d) Synchronous motor
preferred?
4. Which motor has a rotor with no teeth or winding? a) Electronic shavers
a) Hysteresis motor b) Lifts and hoists
b) Universal motor c) Refrigerators
c) Split-phase motor d) Signalling and timing devices
d) Reluctance winding
11. Which stepper motor has the least stepping angle?
5. Which of the following applications use a universal a) VR b) PM
motor? c) Hybrid
a) Oil expellers
12. Which stepping motor has the greatest stepping angle?
b) Portable tools
a) VR b) PM
c) Lathe machines
c) Hybrid
d) Floor-polishing machines
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (b).
1. Explain the principle of reluctance-motor operation: 5. Explain why any rotary motor principle may have a
how does it start, accelerate, and synchronize? linear counterpart?
2. Explain the principle of hysteresis motor operation: 6. Explain the principle of linear-induction-motor opera-
how does it start, accelerate, and synchronize? tion, and state how a LIM may be reversed?
3. Will the overall accuracy of a stepper motor be greater 7. Explain why the torque developed by a universal motor
at 100 steps than at 10 steps? Explain. varies as the square of the armature current.
4. Name and briefly explain the three types of stepper motors. 8. How may the speed of a universal motor be adjusted?
Servos and Synchros 43
OBJECTIVES

 Important characteristics of servos Antenna
 Angular displacement
 Operational amplifier characteristics
 Transfer function
 Operational amplifier specifications
 Different types of d.c. servomotors Gearing Elevation axis
 A.c. servomotors Transducer
 Magnetic damping
 Types of synchros
 Self-synchronous system
Elevation angle sensing
 Advantages of self synchronous units (tracking system)
43.1 INTRODUCTION
Servos are closed-loop control systems used to determine the position, velocity, or acceleration of mechanical loads. There
are four important characteristics of servos, which are as follows:
1. A servo is actuated by an error; this error is the difference between the desired output and the actual output.
2. A servo’s output power is larger than that available from the input information; for instance, a potentiometer control
knob takes only a finger touch for control, but an antenna weighing many kilos may be controlled by this potentiometer
as a part of a servo.
3. The power applied to the load is proportional to a combination of the error signal its derivatives and its integrals.
4. Practical servos are stable.
Two basic areas of servo performance characteristics are servo accuracy as represented by a number of errors and the time
it takes for transients to settle down after a change in command has taken place.
A special type of small motor or generator is the synchro. These synchros are motors or generators that use alternating
current synchros, which are basically used for the transmission of rotational or angular-position information to remote points.
For example, in the rotation of a device, such as a rudder aboard ship or a rotating antenna, there are two synchros:
one is used at the rotating device and the other is remotely located where the operator is. Every time the rudder or antenna
moves (in this example), the synchro that is attached or geared, also moves. This angular displacement is transmitted by
means of wires to the receiving synchro; the receiving synchro indicates the exact angular position of the original device.
43.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

With remarkable advances in electronics and integrated circuits (ICs), the requirement to implement design from discrete
components has given way to easier and more reliable methods of signal conditioning. Many special circuits and general-
purpose amplifiers are now contained in IC packages, producing a quick solution to signal conditioning problems together
with small size, low power consumption, and low cost.
In general, the application of ICs requires familiarity with an available line of such devices and their specifications and
limitations before they can be applied to a specific problem. Apart from these specialized ICs, there is also a type of amplifier
that finds wide application as the building block of control system. This device, called an operational amplifier (op amp) has
been in existence for many years. It was first constructed from tubes, then from discrete transistors, and now as integrated
circuits. Although many lines of op amps with diverse specifications exist from many manufacturers, they all have common
characteristics of operation that can be employed in basic designs relating to any general op amp.
43.2.1 Op Amp Characteristics

An op amp is a circuit composed of resistors, transistors, diodes, and capacitors. It typically requires connection of bipolar
power supplies one, that is both +Vs and –Vs with respect to ground. When considered as a functional element of some
larger circuit, however, we need to know only its input and output signals. Hence, the op amps are usually used in a larger
circuit using their own schematic symbol, as shown in Figure 43.1. The power supply connections are not shown; only two
input terminals and an output terminal is depicted in the figure.
(a) (b)
Figure 43.1 The Schematic Symbol and Response of an Operational Amplifier
One input is labelled with a minus (-) sign and is called the inverting input. The other input is labelled with a plus (+) sign
and is called the non-inverting input. The sign labels are part of the symbol and must always be included.
43.2.2 Transfer Function

Figure 43.1(b) shows the relationship between the two input terminals and the resulting output voltage. The output voltage,
Vout, is plotted against the difference between the two input voltages, (V2 − V1). This input is called the differential input
voltage. Figure 43.1(a) shows that there is no ground connection directly in the op amp. However, the voltages shown are
with respect to ground. We have applied V1 to the non-inverting input and V2 to the inverting input terminal.
When V2 is much large than V1, so that (V2 − V1) is positive, the output is saturated at some negative voltage −Vsat;
conversely, when V1 is much larger than V2, the output is saturated at some positive voltage +Vsat. Hence, the terminals
are called inverting and non-inverting, respectively. When the voltage on the (–) terminal is more positive, the output
voltage is negative (i.e., the sign is inverted).
There is a narrow range of differential input voltage, labelled ΔV in Figure 43.1(b), within which the output changes
from +saturation to –saturation. For most op amp, this input voltage range is less than (a milli volt) where the saturation
voltages are typically on the order of 10 V. Thus, the slope of the transition between saturation levels is very large, typically
exceeding 100,000 V/V.
Other characteristics of the op amp are: (a) the input impedance is very high (typically exceeding 1 MΩ); (b) the output
impedance is very low (typically less than 100 Ω). The device is always used with feedback; such feedback permits
implementation of many special relationships between input and output
voltage.
43.2.3 Ideal Inverting Amplifier

Consider the circuit in Figure 43.2. Resistor, R2, is used to feedback
the output to the non-inverting input of the op amp and R1 connects the
input voltage Vin to the same point. The common connection is called the
summing point. Figure 43.2 Inverting Op Amp
43.2.4 The Op Amp Inverting Amplifier

With no feedback in the (+) grounded, Vin > 0 saturates the output negative and Vin < 0 saturates the output positive. With
feedback, the output adjusts to a voltage such that: (a) the summing point voltage is equal to the (+) op amp input level, zero
in this case and (b) no current flows through the op amp input terminals because of the assumed infinite input impedance.
In this case, the sum of the currents at the summing point must be zero.
І1 + I2 = 0 (43.1)
where, І1 is the current through R1
І2 is the current through R2
By Ohm’s law we have
Vin Vout
+ =0 (43.2)
R1 R2
From the Eq. 43.2, we can write the circuit response as
R2
Vout = Vin (43.3)
R1
The circuit in Figure 43.2 is an inverting amplifier with gain R2/R1 that is shifted 180° in phase (inverted) from the input.
This device is also an attennator by virtue of making R2 < R1. This example suggests two rules that can be applied to analyze
the ideal operation of any op amp circuit. In most cases, such an analysis will provide the circuit transfer function. The
design rules are: (a) assume that no current flows through the op amp input terminals – that is the inverting and noninverting
terminals and (b) assume that there is no voltage difference between the op amp input terminals – that is V + = V-.
43.2.5 Non-ideal Effects

Analysis of op amp circuits with non-ideal response is performed by considering the following parameters:
1. Finite open-loop gain: The design rules presented here assume the op amp has infinite open-loop gain. Of course, a
real op amp does not have an infinite open loop gain as shown in Figure 43.1(a) and again in Figure 43.3(b). The gain
is defined as the slope of the voltage-transfer function:
∆Vout 2Vsat
A (43.4)
∆ (V2 − V1 ) ∆V
For a typical op amp Vsat 10 V and ΔV 100 μv, so AΔ 200,000.
2. Finite input impedance: A real op amp has finite input impedance and consequently a finite voltage across and cur-
rent through its input terminals.
3. Nonzero output impedance: A real op amp has a non-zero output impedance, although this low-output impedance is
typically only a few ohms.
(a) (b)
Figure 43.3 Non-ideal Input/Output Characteristics of an Op Amp Include Finite Gain, Finite
Impedance, and Offsets
In most modern applications, these non-ideal effects can be ignored in designing op amp circuits. For example, consider the
circuit in Figure 43.3(b) where the finite impedances and gain of the op amp have been included. We can employ standard
circuit analysis to find the relationship between input and output voltages for this circuit.
Summing the currents at the summing point, gives

I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 (43.5)
Then, each current can be identified in terms of circuit parameters to give
Vin − Vs Vo − Vs Vs
+ − =0 (43.6)
Ri R2 Z in
Finally, V0 can be related to the op amp gain as
 V − Vs 
V0 = AVs −  0  Z0 ,
 R2 
R2  1 
Combining the equations V0 = − −  Vin (43.7)
R1  1 − µ 
Where,
 Z 0   R2 R2 
1 + R  1 + R + Z 
µ= 1 1 in (43.8)
 Z0 
 A + R 
2
If we assume that µ is very small compared with unity, then Eq. (43.7) reduces to the ideal case given by Eq. (43.3). Indeed,
if typical values for an IC op amp are chosen for a case when R2/R1 = 100, we can show that  << 1. For example, a common
general-purpose IC op amp shows:
A = 200,000 Z0 = 75 Ω Zin = 2 MΩ
If we use a feedback resistance R2 of 100 kΩ and substitute the aforementioned values into Eq. (43.8) we find μ = 0.0005,
which shows that the gain from Eq. (43.7) differs from the ideal by only 0.05 per cent. In most cases, a similar analysis
shows that the ideal characteristics may be assumed.
43.2.6 Op Amp Specifications

There are certain characteristics of op amps other than those discussed so far that are considered in design applications.
These characteristics are given in the specifications for particular op amps together with open-loop gain and input and
output impedance. Some of these characteristic are as follows:
1. Input offset voltage: In most cases, the op amp output voltage may not be zero when the voltage across the input is
zero. The voltage that must be applied across the input terminals to drive the output to zero is the input offset voltage
Vios. This voltage is shown in Figure 43.3(a).
2. Input offset current: Just as a voltage offset may be required across the input to zero the output voltage so a net
current may be required between the inputs to zero the output voltage. Such a current is referred to as an input
offset current. This is taken as the difference of the two input offset currents.
3. Input bias current: This is the average of the two input currents required to drive the output voltage to zero.
4. Slew rate: If a voltage is suddenly applied to the input of an op amp the output will saturate to the maximum. For a
step input, the slew rate is the rate at which the output changes to the saturation value. This is typically expressed as
volts per micro second (V/μS).
5. Unity gain frequency bandwidth: The frequency response of an op amp is typically defined by a Bode plot of
open-loop voltage gain versus frequency. Such a plot is very important for the design of circuits that deal with a.c.
signals. The overall frequency behaviour can be found by determining the frequency at which the open-loop gain
of the amplifier has become unity, thus defining the unity gain frequency bandwidth.
Example 43.1
Specify the circuit and components for an op amp circuit with a gain of – 4.5.
Solution:
As the gain is negative, we can use an inverting amplifier to provide the solution.
Gain = – 4.5 = –R2/R1
Thus, only two resistors with a ratio of 4.5 can be used.
Suppose we consider R1 = 1 Ω and R2 = 4.5 Ω. This satisfies the design equations; however, it is impractical for the
following reason. If the input voltage were 2.0 V, then the output would be expected to be Vout = – 4.5 (2.0) = – 9.0 V. However,
this also means that the feedback current would have to be I2 = (–9 V/4.5) = 2A. The poor op amp can provide only about
20 mA; hence, the circuit would not work. Thus, we think in terms of mA and kΩ and select for example R1 = 1 kΩ and
R2 = 4.5 kΩ or any combination with a ratio of 4.5, but in kΩ.
43.3 PRACTICAL ISSUES

There are several practical issues associated with op amp applications that appear as extra components in op amp circuits
but that does contribute to the circuit transfer function. The following paragraphs summarize the issues.
In general, op amps require bipolar power supplies, +Vs and –Vs, of equal
magnitudes, which are connected to the designated pin of the IC. Typically,
the values of these supply voltages are in the range 5–15 volts although op
amps are available with many other supply requirements. Figure 43.4 shows
the inverting amplifier with the power supply connections.
Approximate input offset current compensation can be provided by
making the resistance feeding both terminals approximately the same. In
Figure 43.4 for the inverting amplifier, this has been provided by a resistor on
the non-inverting terminal whose value is the same as R1 and R2 in parallel,
as that is the effective resistance seen by the inverting terminal.
Compensation for input offset voltage can be provided in one of two
ways. Many modern IC op amps provide terminals to allow input offset
compensation. This has been shown in Figure 43.5 as a variable resistor
Figure 43.4 Some Op Amps Provide connected to two terminals of the op amp. The wiper of the variable
Connections for an resistor is connected to the supply voltage, either +V or –V , according to
Input Offset Compensa- the specifications of the op amp. This resistor needss to be sadjusted only
tion Trimmer Resistor once, unless the particular op amp used is changed.
The concept here is that the transfer function for the op amp circuit,
Eq. (43.3) in this case, will be incorrect for d.c. signals if there is
input offset voltage. In this case, if the input is set to zero, Vin = 0, then
the output by Eq. (43.3) should be zero, but it will not be because of
the input offset voltage. Thus, the variable resistor is adjusted, until
the output is zero, thereby compensating for input offset voltage.
Now the transfer function of Eq. (43.3) will be correct. As long as
the op amp is not replaced or the circuit components are not changed,
further adjustments of the resistor are not required.
Some op amps do not provide terminals for input offset compensation
in the manner described. In these, a small bias voltage must be placed on
the input to provide the required compensation. Figure 43.5 shows one
way to do this in the case of the inverting amplifier.
Another practical issue in the application of op amps involves the
current drive capability. General-purpose IC op amps can source or sink Figure 43.5 Input Offset can also be
no more than about 20 mA, which includes the current in the feedback Completed Using External
circuit; this leads to a general design criterion to be applied to design with Connections and Trimmer
op amps. Think of mA and kΩ when designing circuits that use op amps. Resistors
43.4 D.C. SERVOMOTORS

D.C. servomotors are d.c. motors driven by a current from d.c. electronic amplifiers or a.c. amplifiers with internal or
external demodulators, saturable reactors, thyratron or silicon-controlled rectifier amplifiers. D.C. servomotors vary in size
from 0.05 hp to 1000 hp. The fundamental characteristics to be sought in any servomotor (d.c. or a.c.) are as follows:
1. The motor output torque is roughly proportional to its applied control voltage (developed by the amplifier in response
to an error signal).
2. The direction of the torques is determined by the instantaneous polarity of the control voltage.
Four types of servomotors are used: (a) the field-controlled shunt motor, (b) the armature-controlled shunt motor;
(c) the series motor, and (d) the permanent-magnet (fixed field excitation) shunt motor.
43.4.1 Field-Controlled d.c. Servomotor

This motor and this type of control are illustrated in Figure 43.6. The
torque produced by this motor is zero when no field excitation is supplied
by the d.c. error amplifier. As the armature current is always constant,
the torque varies directly as the field flux and also as the field current
up to saturation (T = KФIa). If the polarity of the field is reversed, the
motor direction reverses. The control of field current by this method is
used only in small servomotors because (a) it is undesirable to supply
a fixed and larger fixed armature current as would be required in large
d.c. servomotors and (b) its dynamic response is slower than that of the Figure 43.6 Field-controlled d.c.
armature-controlled motor because of the longer time constant of the Servomotor
highly inductive field circuit.
43.4.2 Armature-Controlled d.c. Servomotor

This motor employs a fixed d.c. field excitation furnished by a constant-current
source as shown in Figure 43.7. This type of control possesses certain dynamic
advantages not possessed by the field control method. A sudden larger small
change in armature voltage produced by an error signal will cause an almost
immediate response in the torque because the armature circuit is essentially
resistive compared with the highly inductive field circuit.
Figure 43.7 Armature-controlled The field of this motor is normally operated well beyond the knee of the
d.c. Servomotor saturation curve to keep the torque less sensitive to slight changes in voltage
from the constant-current source. In addition, a high field flux increases the
torque sensitivity of the motor (T = KΦIa) for the small change in armature current. D.c. motors up to 1000 hp are driven
by armature voltage control in this manner. If the error signal and the polarity of the armature voltage are reversed, the
motor reverses its direction.
43.4.3 Series Split-field d.c. Servomotors

Small fractional-horsepower, series split-field d.c. servo motors may be operated as separately excited field-controlled
motors, as shown in Figure 43.8(a). One winding is called the main winding and the other winding is called the auxiliary
winding, although they are generally equal in magnetomotive force (MMF) and are wound about the field poles in such
a direction as to produce reversal of rotation with respect to each other. As shown in Figure 43.8(a), the motors may be
separately excited, and the armature may be supplied by a constant-current source.
(a) (b)
Figure 43.8 D.c. Servomotors, Series Split-field Type
The advantages of the split-field method of field control are: (a) the dynamic response of the armature is improved as the
fields are always excited (there is no delay due to inductive time constant) and (b) a finer degree of control is obtained
because the direction of rotation is more responsive to extremely small differences in current between the main and
auxiliary windings.
Larger series motors are operated using the configuration as shown in Figure 43.8(b), because separate armature
excitation using large constant current is difficult to obtain. In this configuration, the armature current of the series
split-field motors is the sum of the auxiliary and main winding currents. But when these series field currents are equal and
opposite, no torque is produced. A slight increase or decrease in the auxiliary winding current will produce instantaneous
torque and rotation in either direction. The series servomotor produces a high starting torque and a rapid response to slight
error signals. The speed regulation is poor with this type of motor, but this drawback is not a major consideration in a servo
system as the load is usually fixed. The use of two windings in opposition reduces motor efficiency somewhat, although
this is not much of a problem in smaller motors.
43.4.4 Permanent Magnet Armature-

Controlled d.c. Servomotor
This type of extremely popular servomotor uses magnets (either alnico or
ceramic) for constant field excitation, as shown in Figure 43.9. The field
structure of this type of motor usually consists of alnico VI alloy casting
in the form of a circular ring, completely surrounding the armature and
Figure 43.9 Armature-controlled providing a strong constant flux.
Permanent Magnet d.c. The permanent magnet d.c. servomotor is used in two modes of
Servomotor operation: position control and velocity control. Servomotors used
for position control are sometimes called torque motors because they
develop extremely high torque at standstill on low speeds. Conversely at high speeds, the developed torque is extremely
small. The developed torque is also a function of the voltage applied to the armature.
When permanent magnet d.c. servomotors are used in velocity control, the motors are continuously running to maintain
some predetermined desired velocity. As long as speeds and torques are relatively small, the power developed and power
dissipated is small. Such servomotors are usually totally enclosed and have large frame sizes to permit adequate heat dissipation.
43.5 A.C. SERVOMOTORS

A.C. servomotors are of the a.c. two-phase or shaded-pole induction motor type. Figure 43.10(a) shows the schematic
diagram of the two-phase servomotor. This motor is a true two-phase motor, having two stator windings displaced 90° in
space on the stator. The reference winding is constantly and usually excited through a capacitor by the fixed a.c. supply.
With no error, the squirrel-cage rotor is at standstill. A small error signal of some particular instantaneous polarity with
respect to the reference winding is amplified by the a.c. amplifier and fed to the control winding. Motor rotation is produced
in such a direction as to reduce the error signal, and the motor ceases to rotate when a null (zero error signals) is produced
at the control winding.
(a) (b)
Figure 43.10 A.c. Servomotor
The shaded-pole servomotor, shown in schematic form in Figure 43.10(b), employs a phase-sensitive relay to activate
those contacts that will produce a short circuit of the shaded-pole winding to develop rotation in the desired direction.
As with all shaded-pole windings, a single-phase a.c. field winding is connected to the a.c. supply. In the presence of
an error signal sufficient to activate the relay, one pair of shaded-pole windings is shorted; thereupon, the servomotor
rotates until the null is produced (at which point the relay opens out) and the motor stops. An error signal in the opposite
polarity will actuate the relay to short circuit a different pair of windings, causing rotation of the servomotor in the reverse
direction.
The two-phase motor design of Figure 43.10(a) is the better of the two types as it is capable of responding to small error
signals. A shaded-pole servomotor will respond only when the amplified error signal is of sufficient magnitude to cause
the relay to operate.
The response of the two-phase servomotor to very small control signals is further improved by reducing the weight and
inertia of the motor in a design known as a drag-cup servomotor. These low-torque a.c. servomotors, as shown in Figure 43.11(a),
lend themselves extremely well to a.c. instrument servo systems. Since all of the iron for the magnet is stationary, the rotor
consists only of a thin cylindrical shell of copper or brass, and its shaft is held in a single bearing. Because of its low inertia
the drag-cup motor is capable of starting even when extremely small signals are applied to its control winding.
(a) (b)
Figure 43.11 Drag-cup Servomotor and Magnetic Damping
The drag-cup principle is also used to damp or slow down d.c. and a.c. servomotors so that they stop instantly when the
error signal is at null; in this way, they reduce hunting or overshooting whenever an error signal occurs. As shown in
Figure 43.11(b), a low-weight, low-inertia, drag cup is coupled to the motor. The drag cup surrounds a permanent magnet
and is, in turn, surrounded by soft-iron keepers to preserve the retentivity of the permanent magnet. Any change in speed
(i.e., starting, stopping, or reversal) will produce damping action. The advantages of this method of damping are its long
life and its resistance to wear.
43.6 SYNCHROS
In its basic form, each synchro unit consists of a rotor and three stators, as shown in Figure 43.12. The two synchro units
shown are connected in parallel and the two rotors are fed with a.c. Whenever the rotor (R1) of the generator is turned, it
produces a voltage in each of the stator windings; because the rotor of the generator is connected in parallel to the rotor
of the motor, there is a corresponding action in the motor. Every voltage induced in the generator stator is transmitted to
the motor stator. In this way, the rotor of the receiver motor is forced to turn an amount equal to the original turning of
the generator rotor. Thus, these two devices will stay in step and as they are self-synchronizing, they are named synchro.
The rotor of a synchro is made from a laminated magnetic material and there may be several coil windings on the rotor.
These windings are considered as the primary windings of a transformer. The secondary windings are normally wound on
the slotted stator, which is the part of the device that does not move. In operation the rotor is placed inside the stator, and
as in any other motor or generator the rotor is free to move continuously. The rotor connections are brought out by means
of slip rings and brushes.
Generator Motor
Figure 43.12 Diagram of Synchro

43.6.1 Types of Synchros

There are four different types of synchros. Each of these synchros is
specifically designed for a particular purpose.
The synchro generator or transmitter is a device that sends or transmits
an electrical signal to another synchro. There is a signal produced by
this device, and this signal is a voltage that is proportional to the angular
displacement of the rotor from its original position of electrical zero.
The synchronous receiver or motor receives a signal sent out by the
generator and it translates the signal into angular motion. The synchro
motor and generators are electrically the same type of device with one
exception — the rotor of the synchro motor has a damper attached to it,
which prevents the rotor from spinning freely as shown in Figure 43.13.
The rotor of the receiver rotates only when the motor receives an electrical
Figure 43.13 Servo-controlled a.c. signal from the transmitter.
Synchronous Motor
The synchro control transformer is an intermediate

device that is placed between a synchro transmitter
and a synchro receiver. In the control transformer,
the stator is the primary winding and it receives the
excitation from the synchro generator. In this unit, the
rotor is the secondary winding and this rotor is not
connected to any sort of excitation voltage.
Figure 43.14 Diagram of Selsyn Motors Showing the

Interconnected Stator and Rotor Windings
Connected to an Excitation Source
In operation, the rotor of the synchro control transformer produces

an error signal. This error signal is proportional to the original
displacement of the transmitter rotor. The magnitude and the phase
of the signal depend on the position of the control transformer rotor
and on the voltage that is applied to the stator windings.
The synchro differential generator is different from the
ordinary synchro generator. The differential generates the sum
of two signals. One of these signals is fed in electrically; the
other signal is introduced into the device mechanically. This type
of generator is usually used between a synchro generator and a
synchro receiver.
43.6.2 Differential Self-synchronous

System
Figure 43.15 shows a diagram of the connections of a
differential system consisting of a transmitter, a receiver, and a
differential unit. This system produces an angular indication of
the receiver. The indication is either the sum or the difference of
the angles existing at the transmitter and differential selysyns.
If the two selsyn generators connected through a differential
selsyn are moved manually to different angles, the differential
selsyn will indicate the sum or difference of their angles.
A differential selsyn, as shown in Figure 43.15, has a primary
Figure 43.15 Schematic Diagram of winding with three terminals; otherwise it closely resembles a
Differential Selsyn Connections standard selsyn unit. The three primary leads of the differential selsyn
are brought out to collector rings. The unit appears similar to a miniature wound-rotor, three-phase induction motor. The
unit, however, normally operates as a single-phase transformer.
The voltage distribution in the primary winding of the differential selsyn is the same as that in the secondary winding of
the selsyn exciter. If any one of the units is fixed in position and the second unit is displaced by a given angle, then the third
unit, which is free to rotate, will turn through the same angle. The direction of rotation can be reversed by interchanging
any pair of leads on either the rotor or stator winding of the differential selsyn.
If any two of the selsyns are rotated simultaneously the third selsyn will turn through an angle equal to the algebraic
sum of the movements of the two selsyns. The algebraic sign of this value depends on the direction of rotation of the
rotor of the two selsyns as well as the phase relation of their windings.
The excitation current of the differential selsyn is supplied through connection to one or both of the standard selsyns
to which the differential selsyn is connected. In general, the excitation current is supplied to the primary winding only.
In this case, the selsyn connected to the differential stator supplies this current and must be able to carry this extra load
without overheating. A particular type of system known as exciter selsyn is used to supply the current. The exciter selsyn
can function in the system either as a transmitter or as a receiver.
43.6.3 Advantages of Selsyn Units

Selsyns are compact and rugged and provide accurate and very reliable readings. Because of the comparatively high torque
of the selsyn unit, the indicator pointer does not oscillate as it swings into position. Internal mechanical dampers are used
in selsyn receivers to prevent oscillation during the synchronizing procedure and to reduce any tendency of the receiver
to operate as a rotor. The operation of the receiver is smooth and continuous and is in agreement with the transmitter. In
addition, the response of the receiver to changes at the transmitter is very rapid. In the event of power failure, the indicator
of the receiver resets automatically with the transmitter when power is restored. Calibration and time-consuming checks
are unnecessary. A number of advantages are offered by selsyn units, which are as follows:
1. The indicators are small and compact and can be located where needed.
2. The simple installation requires running a few wires and bolting the selsyn units in place.
3. Selsyn units can be used to indicate either angular or linear movement.
4. Selsyn units control the motion of a device at a remote point by controlling its activating mechanism.
5. One transmitter may be used to operate several receivers simultaneously at several distant points.
S UM M A RY
1. Servos are closed-loop control systems used to determine 6. Synchros are used for the transmission of rotational or
the position, velocity, or acceleration of mechanical loads. angular position information to a remote point.
2. A servo is activated by an error. 7. Op amps have a finite open-loop gain, very high input
3. A servo’s output power is larger than that available impedance and a nonzero output impedance.
from the input information. 8. A selsyn system consists of two three-phase induction
4. The power applied to the load is proportional to a combi- motors.
nation of the error signal, its derivatives, and its integrals. 9. A differential selsyn system produces an angular
5. Practical servos are stable. indication of the receivers.
1. Selsyn transmitters and receivers resemble 3. A differential selsyn unit differs from a selsyn receiver
(a) Repulsion-induction motors or transmitter in that it requires
(b) Three-phase four-pole induction motors (a) Three-phase power for excitation
(c) Three-phase two-pole induction motors (b) d.c. on the rotor winding
(d) Synchronous machines (c) An a.c. line connected to the stator winding
2. When the primary excitation circuit is closed, a.c. volt- (d) Three connections to the rotor winding
age is impressed on the 4. Selsyn units are also referred to as
(a) Transmitter and receiver primaries (a) Synchros
(b) Transmitter rotor and receiver stator winding (b) Wound-rotor motors
(c) Transmitter rotor and transmitter stator windings (c) Induction motors
(d) Stator windings of both instruments (d) All of the above
5. In the transmitter and receiver system, the a.c. excita- 6. Servomotors are motors driven by a current from
tion is applied to the (a) A d.c. source (b) An a.c. source
(a) Stator winding (c) An error signal (d) None of these
(b) Rotor winding 7. The supply voltage of an op amp normally ranges from
(c) Stator and rotor windings (a) 5–10 V (b) 5–15 V
(d) None of the above (c) 5–20 V (d) 5–25 V
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (b)
1. Explain the concept of a closed-loop system. Describe 2. Explain in system terminology how highway traffic is
the manner in which it differs from an open-loop regulated?
system. 3. What information on system response is provided by
step function?
Open-Loop and
Closed-Loop System 44
OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn about: Summing
Junction
 The difference between open-loop and closed-loop
Setpoint Error Output
systems Σ Controller Amp
How feedback signals are compared with input

signals to give the error signal
Sensor
To have an appreciation of transients and the

concept of damping
To explain the setting time for a signal
 Feedback
To understand open-loop gain and closed-loop gain
 Feedback control system
and the relations between the two
To understand the importance of integration

44.1 INTRODUCTION
All the elements necessary to accomplish the control objective are described by the term control system. Control means
methods to force parameters of the system to have specific values. The basic strategy which a control system operates is
logical and natural. In fact, the same strategy is employed in living organisms to maintain temperature, fluid flow rate, and a
host of other biological functions. This is a natural process control. The technology of artificial control was first developed
using a human as an integral part of the control action. The term automatic control came into use after we learned how to
use mechanics, electronics and computers to replace the human functions.
We often use feedback to improve the performance of a system. Feedback systems consider the output of the system and
use this information to modify the input signal to achieve the desired result. Such techniques are very widely used and form
the basis of most forms of automatic control systems. The use of feedback often simplifies the system design and reduces
the importance of linearity and accuracy in many of the key components.
44.2 CONTROL SYSTEM

A control system is one that performs some function, checks
its success, and takes further action until the objective is
attained, and if in the meantime the objective varies, then the
system will respond to the change.
In process control, the basic objective is to regulate the val-
ue of some quantity. The term regulate indicates maintaining
that quantity at some desired value regardless of external val-
ues. The desired value is called the reference value or set point.
As an example, in Figure 44.1 liquid is flowing into a tank
at some rate, Qin, and out of the tank at some rate Qout. The
liquid in the tank has some height or level h. It is known that
the output flow rate varies as the square root of the height,
Qout=K√h. The higher the level, the faster the liquid flows
out. If the output flow rate is not exactly equal to the input Figure 44.1 The Objective is to Regulate the Level
flow rate, the level will drop if Qout>Qin or rise if Qout<Qin. of Liquid in the Tank h to the Value H
This process has a property called self-regulation. This
means that for some input flow rate, the height will rise un-
til it reaches a height for which the output flow rate match-
es the input flow rate. A self-regulating system does not
provide regulation of a variable to any particular reference
value. If we want to maintain the level at some particular
value, H (as shown in Figure 44.1), regardless of the in-
put flow rate, then something more than self-regulation is
needed.
Figure 44.2 illustrates a modification of the tank system
to allow artificial regulation of the level by a human. To
regulate the level so that it maintains the level H, it will
be necessary to employ a sensor. This has been provided
via a sight tube S, as shown in Figure 44.2. The actual
Figure 44.2 A Human can Regulate the Level Using
liquid level or height is called the controlled variable. In
a Sight Tube S to Compare the Level h,
addition, a value has been added so that the output flow
to the Objective H and Adjust Values to
rate can be changed by the human. The output flow rate
Change the Level
is called the manipulated variable or controlling variable.
The human measures the height in the sight tube and
compares the value with the set point. By a succession of
incremental opening and closing of the valve, the human
can bring the level to the set point value, H, and maintain
it, thereby continuously monitoring the sight tube and ad-
justing the value. The height is thus regulated.
To provide automatic control, the system is modified
as shown in Figure 44.3 so that machines, electronics, or
computers replace manual intervention. An instrument
called sensor is added that can measure the level and con-
vert it to a proportional signal, s; this signal is provided
electronically as input to a machine, circuit or computer
called the controller. The controller performs the function out
of the human in evaluating the measurement and providing
an output signal, that is, to change the valve setting via an
Figure 44.3 An Automatic Level Control System
actuator connected to the valve by a mechanical linkage.
Replaces the Human with a Control and
When automatic control is applied to systems similar to the
Uses a Sensor to Measure the Level
one in Figure 44.3, which are designed to regulate the value
of some variable to a set point, it is called process control.
44.3 SERVOMECHANISMS
Yet another commonly used type of control system that has a slightly
different objective from process control is the servomechanism. In this
case, the objective is to force some parameter to vary in a specific
manner. This may be called a tracking control system. Instead of
regulating a variable value to a set point, the servomechanism forces
the controlled variable value to follow the variation of the reference
value.
For example, in an industrial robot arm, similar to the one
shown in Figure 44.4, servomechanisms force the robot arm to
follow in a path from point A to point B. This is carried out by
controlling the speed of motors driving the arm and the angles of
the arm parts.
Figure 44.4 Servomechanism-type Control The principle of servomechanisms is similar to that for process
System is Used to Move a control systems; however, the dynamic differences between regula-
Robot from Point A to Point B in tion and tracking result in differences in the design and operation of
a Controlled Manner the control system.
Open-Loop and Closed-Loop System 849
Note: Control systems depend on the quantities that we can measure. The five basic quantities are as follows:
1. Displacement,
2. Force,
3. Pressure,
4. Temperature, and
5. Velocity.
There are other more complete quantities, such as (1) light intensity, (2) chemical compositions, (3) rate of flow, and
(4) conductivity.
44.4 OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS

An ammeter is an example of a useful open-loop device. To obtain the desired accuracy, the magnet is carefully formed
and patiently aged the moving coil is exactly designed and the mechanism is precisely fabricated. After the instrument is
calibrated, it is assumed that the output deflection is an accurate indication
of the input current.
There are two approaches to controlling the temperature of a room.
The first is to use heaters that have a control that varies the heat output.
The control is accordingly set in the heater to produce a certain amount of
heat output to obtain the desired temperature. An approximate setting will
gradually be learned by experience. If the setting is too low, the setting
will not reach the desired temperature, whereas if the setting is too high Figure 44.5 An Open-loop System
the temperature will rise above the desired value. If an appropriate setting
is chosen, the temperature of the room should stabilize at the right temperature, but will become too hot or too cold if
the external factors, such as the outside temperature or the level of ventilation, are changed. Such a system, as shown in
Figure 44.5, is called an open-loop system.
An alternative approach is to use a heater equipped with a thermostat. The user then sets the thermostat to the temperature
required and it then increases or decreases the heat output to achieve and then maintain the temperature of the room even
if external factors, such as the outside temperature or the level of
ventilation change. Such a system, as shown in Figure 44.6, is called
a closed-loop system.
The user is simply the person using the system, the goal is the de-
sired result and the output of the system is the achieved result. The for-
ward path is the part of the system that converts the input to the output.
Closed-loop system also has a feedback path through which the output
is fed back for comparison with the goal. The difference between the
output and the goal is represented by an error signal, which is used as
an input to the forward path.
In open-loop systems, the goal is not an input to the system but
Figure 44.6 A Closed-loop System simply to guide the user in his input to the system. In closed-loop
systems, the goal is the primary input to the system. In both cases,
the forward path may have secondary inputs, for example, electrical energy. Such inputs are simply assumed to be present.
44.5 AUTOMATION
Many automatic control systems are used daily, but most of the sophisticated control systems are found in industrial
applications. These applications are often referred to as automation. The following are some of the many advantages of
automation:
1. Consistent production,
2. Release of production operators for some useful work, or
3. Improved conditions for the operators.
If the work is more complex, other advantages would include:
1. Improved accuracy of manufacture, or
2. Economic use of an expensive plant.
44.6 COMPONENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

The basic control system, (as shown in Figure 44.7), has the following four significant features:
1. Input signal: This sets the intended condition. It is sometimes called the reference signal or even the set signal.
2. Output signal: This represents a measurement of the outcome achieved and hence provides the feedback signal. It is
sometimes called the reset signal.
3. Comparator: This is the part of the system in
which the input and output signals are com-
pared. The differences are the error that is fed
to controller as shown in Figure 44.7.
4. Controller: This is the device that causes the re-
quired activity to happen. This path is like that
in the amplifier in that the controllers control
the supply of energy from a separate power
supply.
Figure 44.7 Basic Control System
Many control systems need to operate not only
on the error but also on the rate of reaction neces-
sary. This introduces a further complication. If the feedback circuit detects a change of error, it may be that it will not prop-
erly reflect this because it does not respond directly. We can describe this indirect response in terms of the transfer function.
44.7 TRANSFER FUNCTION

A feedback circuit comprising a resistor R and a capacitor C is shown in Figure 44.8(a). Let
us assume the introduction of a sudden error as shown in Figure 44.8(b); this type of signal
is described as a step change. The output signal will take the form shown in Figure 44.8(c).
We can predict such a reaction; therefore, we should be able to specify it by the
same function. In fact, we can specify the reaction by means of a transfer function.
The transfer function is the ratio of the output signal to the input signal, making due
allowance for the (time) element.
A step change is one that rises from zero to a finite value instantaneously. We
could also have predicted the outcome in response to, say, a sinusoidal input. The
output would be sinusoidal, of a smaller peak value and would lag the input by up to
a quarter of a period.
For a step change, the time variation can be considered in two parts: (1) the tran-
sient period and (2) the steady-state period. On the basis of the RC circuit shown in
Figure 44.8, we can illustrate these periods as shown in Figure 44.9.
It is not just the RC network that can provide the responses shown in Figure 44.9,
an alternative would be the sudden application of an electromagnetic field to a rotat-
ing coil. Switching on the current to create the field as shown in Figure 44.10 does
not immediately create the field, instead it builds up exponentially. It follows that the
Figure 44.8 Signal Transfer in e.m.f. induced in the rotating coil also builds up; thus, the transfer function is of the
an RC Network same form as that for the RC circuit.
Proceeding a step forward, the circuit details can be replaced by a block diagram.
The significant factor is the transfer function, which relates the output to the input; the manner in which the transfer is af-
fected is of little importance.
Figure 44.9 Response Periods Figure 44.10 A Basic Regulator System

Similar to amplifiers, we assume that the system will not saturate and that the relation is derived from linear compo-
nents. This is not always the case, especially in devices with ferromagnetic cores. This involves hysteresis, which has to be
minimized to obtain an almost linear performance.
Note: More complex signals require the application of Laplace transform.
44.8 REGULATORS AND SERVOMECHANISMS

Automatic control systems usually require some outcome that is not electrical. Most outcomes are mechanical in nature
and these can be divided into the following two groups:
1. Regulators, and
2. Servomechanism [also known as remote position controllers (rpcs)].
The difference between the two groups is the form in which the error appears. For steady-state conditions regulators
require an error signal, whereas servomechanisms require zero error. A system incorporating servomechanism is known
as a servo system.
In either case, the mechanism will have inertia to be overcome, if motion is required. This infers that the mass of the
mechanism has to be accelerated to produce movement and this will probably be followed by deceleration so that the
mechanism stops at the required position. This is especially the case in servomechanisms, but regulators also have to re-
spond to the demand for movement.
To induce motion, we have to introduce a motor in the system to drive the mechanism we refer to as load. Having added
these components, a regulator system takes the form shown in Figure 44.10.
Example 44.1
The regulator is a speed controller. The load is driven at a constant speed set by an input of 80 V. Steady-state
condition is assumed, i.e., the load is driven at constant speed. For the feedback transducer, the transfer function is 40 mV
per r/min load; for the amplifier the transfer function is 20 volt per volt for the motor load the transfer function is 100 r/min
per volt. Explore the effect of the error.
Solution:
The error signal fed into the amplifier is the difference between the input signal and the output signal supplied by the
feedback transducer. If the steady-state speed is Nr, then the feedback signal is (40×10 –3× Nr). Given that the input voltage
is 80 V, the error signal is
80 – (0.04 Nr)
The amplifier transfer function is 20 V per volt, hence the amplifier output voltage is 20 (80 – (0.04 Nr) =1600 – 0.8 Nr.
The motor speed is given by the transfer function being applied to the amplifier output; hence:
Nr=100 (1600 – 0.8 Nr ), 81 Nr=160 000
Nr=1975.3 r/min
The desired load speed to produce a feedback 80 V is 2000 r/min. The error voltage is 0.988 V. The regulator requires an
error of 24.7 r/min to ensure steady speed. To attain a steady speed of 2000 r/min, we require offsetting the input signal by
the error voltage; thus, an input signal of 80.988 V would cause the load to be driven at a constant speed of 2000 r/min.
The difference between the feedback and the input signal is the error not only under steady-state conditions but also dur-
ing the transient period. Once the system has settled down, the difference between the desired speed and the actual speed
developed under steady-state conditions is called the accuracy, usually expressed as a percentage of the desired speed,
which in the situation just investigated is 1.2–35 per cent.
In the regulator, to obtain a different speed, it would be necessary to adjust the input signal voltage. This can be per-
formed simply by deriving it from a potentiometer, as illustrated in Figure 44.11. Yet another potentiometer can be used
for positioning the load and the two
potentiometers aligned for zero error.
With zero error, there will be no drive Supply
to the motor from the amplifier. If there
is an error signal, it will be amplified to
drive the motor and produce the desired
movements.
Once the load is aligned with the po-
sition determined by the input signal, Figure 44.11 Simple Servomechanism or RPC
no further motion will occur unless the input signal is varied. Should it be varied, then further action will be required to
reposition the load.
In the RPC or servomechanism, the steady-state condition occurs when the error is zero, which is distinctly different
from the regulator that requires an error.
44.9 TRANSIENT PERIODS

There are two transient conditions. First is the situation that arises when the system is switched on. If we consider the
constant speed drive shown in Figure 44.10 at the time of switching on the motor will be at rest. Therefore, it has to
accelerate towards the operational speed required. In practice, it accelerates and still continues gaining speed even after it
reaches the operational speed; the result is that it accelerates beyond the desired speed and subsequently has to slow down.
This response is shown in Figure 44.12.
It is quite likely that the deceleration will produce a
further overshoot and the speed may fluctuate several
times before a steady state is reached.
In the RPC, a similar situation can arise. Here, the
load has an inertia that carries it beyond the desired
position. As soon as it has passed the desired position,
the error reverses and the motor is thrown into reverse.
This helps stop the load, but starts it often in the op-
posite direction. Again an overshoot can take place, but
each time it is smaller until the load stops in the desired
position, there being no error signal to drive the motor
further.
The other transient condition occurs if there is a
change in condition after the steady state in the condi-
tion has been achieved. Typically, the constant speed
regulator might be disturbed if the torque of the load
were to change, say it were increased, the motor would
slow down, creating an error signal. This would in-
Figure 44.12 Transient Response of a Simple Regulator
crease the speed back to the original value, but this
would give rise to a transient variation in speed for a
short period of time.
Regulators quite often have to chase a continuously varying objective. For example, the load always varies in a genera-
tor as consumers switch on and off the loads.
Servo systems can also experience similar problems if the input signal is continuously varying, thus causing the load to
be continuously chasing the desired moving target. It can also be difficult if the load experiences a force trying to displace
it, thus causing it to move from the desired position and hence an error is detected. This causes the motor to produce a force
seeking to return the load to the desired position. However, a point of stability is achieved when the displacement force is
equal but opposite of the driving torque. This is not at the desired position but one at which the error causes the motor to
offset the displacement force.
44.10 DAMPING
In the transient response, the output position moves towards the
required objective until it is reached and then the objective is
passed, i.e., there is overshoot. The output then approaches the
objective from the other side, again resulting in overshoot. This
happens two, three, or more times. Such a response, as illustrated
in Figure 44.13, is said to be undamped.
We can reduce the overshoot by introducing a second form of
feedback. This depends on the velocity of approach of the load
position to the objective. For instance, at the point where the error
is zero, there will be a feedback signal due to the overshoot of
the position characteristic. The feedback, therefore, has to oppose Figure 44.13 Undamped System Response to
the error positional signal so that at the given instance it will cause Step Change
the load to be braking. On introducing sufficient velocity feedback, the

characteristic would take the form shown in Figure 44.14.
In this response, sufficient velocity feedback has been introduced to ensure
that no overshoot takes place. The velocity feedback ceases when the steady-
state condition has been reached, the velocity being zero.
This introduction of velocity of feedback is known as damping. When
sufficient velocity feedback ensures that there is no overshoot, it is known
as critical damping. A slight reduction in velocity feedback would result in
overshoot and the system would be under-damped. An increase in velocity
feedback would not result in overshoot, but the transient would be even lon-
ger. Such a system is said to be over-damped.
System responses that are under-damped, over-damped, and critically Figure 44.14 Response with Critical
damped are illustrated in Figure 44.15. Damping
Care has to be undertaken when introducing velocity damping; if too much
is introduced, a system can become unstable, i.e., instead of approaching a
steady-state condition the overshooting exceeds the initial error and progressively the errors become larger as the load
swings backward and forward as shown in Figure 44.16.
Figure 44.15 System Responses: Under-damped,

Critical, and Over-damped Figure 44.16 The Response of an Unstable System
A control system should not only be stable but also respond as quickly as possible. Critically damped or over-damped
systems are slow to move the load to the desired objective. The under-damped system arrives at the objective more quickly,
but it produces overshoot.
Most systems can afford a degree of overshoot and therefore
most control systems are designed with under-damping. This
necessitates two design parameters: the tolerance limits and the
settling time.
The relationship between these two parameters is shown in Fig-
ure 44.17. The tolerance limits define the extent to which we can
expect variation between the load position and the objective posi-
tion. This is usually expressed as a percentage of a step function
giving rise to the change. Values of 5 or 2 per cent are common.
The settling time is the time taken from the start of the step
change until the output finally remains within tolerance.
The response characteristics are usually sinusoidal in form
except that the peaks are being decremented. The decrement is
the ratio of one peak to the next. As an example, let us assume
the first peak of the sinusoid to be 100 V and let there be a decre-
ment factor of 4. This means that the next peak that occurs half Figure 44.17 Settling Time and Tolerance Limits
a cycle later will be 100/4 volts, i.e., 25 V. Applying the same
approach, it follows that the next peak is 25/4 = 6.25 V, etc. This is illustrated in Figure 44.18.
A common decrement is 10 so that the first overshoot is limited to 10 per cent of the step change. If the tolerance is also
10 per cent, this provides a very quick response by the system yet remaining within a reasonable proximity of the objective.
Furthermore, the return motion will be limited to a 1 per cent overshoot. Similarly, decrements of 5 will take just over two
half-cycles before the setting time is achieved for a tolerance limit of 1 per cent.
44.11 THE BASIC FEEDBACK CONTROL

SYSTEM
One approach to design is to synthesize a possible system,
analyze its performance, and compare its performance with the
specifications. The performance in terms of accuracy and stability
may be deduced from the response of the system to various
inputs. In predicting the response, it is convenient to assume
that the system is linear and the input is an impulse, a step, or
a sinusoid. The basic control system with negative feedback is
shown in Figure 44.19, called the standard diagram. Equations
Figure 44.18 A Decremented Response (44.1–44.5) describe the performance of this closed-loop system.
(Decrement Equal to 4)
Equations:
C = G∈ (44.1)
∈ = R–C (44.2)
Therefore, C = G (R–C) = (GR–GC) (44.3)
Or C+GC = GR C(1+G) = GR (44.4) Figure 44.19 The Standard Diagram
C G
And = = G′ (44.5)
R 1+ G
The input to the system is R, which stands for the reference variable; the output is C, the controlled variable; and ∈ is
the error. It is the error times the loop gain G that gives the controlled variable output C. Equations (44.1–44.5) are quite
specific in describing the operation of this loop. Table 44.1 shows the general performance of Eq. (44.5), i.e., this table
defines the closed-loop gain. C/R of the standard diagram in Figure 44.19 for different values of open-loop gain G. For the
magnitude of the open-loop gain G >>1, the denominator of Eq. (44.5) becomes essentially G; therefore, the closed-loop
gain is 1; this indicates that when open-loop gain is high, the closed-loop gain is unity. For an open-loop gain G <<1, the
denominator becomes essentially one; therefore, the closed-loop gain is effectively G. This is shown in Figure 44.20.
Table 44.1 Closed-Loop Gain as a Function of Open-Loop Gain
Open-Loop Gain Closed-Loop Gain
G C G
G′ = =
R 1+ G
>1 1
<1 G
1
≈1 + to + ∞
2
Figure 44.20 is a diagram of an assumed gain function that slopes from the upper left to the lower right. When the open-loop
gain function G >1, the closed-loop gain C/R is equal to unity. When the open-loop gain function G <1, then the closed-loop
gain C/R is essentially the same as the open-loop gain.
The third case in Table 44.1 occurs when the open-loop gain is approximately unity. For the open-loop gain equal to
unity, the closed-loop gain is an unknown value ranging from ½ to ∞; if the open-loop phase is zero, then the denominator
has a value of 2 and the closed-loop gain is ½; if the open-loop phase is 180º then the denominator is zero and the gain
is – ∞. Stability is of concern when open-loop gain is close to unity, because as long as the gain is much greater than one
the closed-loop gain is close to unity; as long as the gain is much less than one, the closed-loop gain is roughly equal to the
gain itself. The only region where instability can possibly occur is where the gain is approximately unity. Recognizing this
fact makes the servo stability problem relatively easy to handle.
Another aspect of the standard diagram, Figure 44.19, is its error gain characteristics. Equations (44.6–44.9) describe
this error-gain performance.
Figure 44.20 Closed-Loop Gain and Open- Figure 44.21 Error Gain (∈/R) and Open-loop
Loop Gain as a Function of Gain G Versus Frequency (ω)
Frequency
C
Î= (44.6)
G
G
C=R (44.7)
1+ G
G 1 R
= R × = (44.8)
Therefore, 1+ G G 1+ G
 1
or = (44.9)
R 1+ G
The development of these equations is straight forward. Equation (44.6) states that the error is equal to the controlled
variable divided by the gain. Equation (44.7) shows that the controlled variable is equal to the reference variable twices
G/(1+G) from Eq. (44.5). Combining Eqs. (44.6) and (44.7), Eq. (44.8) is obtained. Equation (44.9) restates this in error
gain form.
To summarize the characteristics of Eq. (44.9), for the open-loop gain greater than one, the error gain is essentially 1/G;
for the loop gain less than one the denominator becomes essentially unity, and so the error gain is unity. For the third case
where the gain is approximately unity, the error gain can range from ½ to α. Figure 44.21 demonstrates the characteristics
of this error gain expression and of those tabulated in Table 44.2.
Table 44.2 Error Gain as a Functional Open-loop Gain
Open-Loop Gain Closed-Loop Error Gain

G ∈ 1
=
R 1+ G
>1 1/G
<1 1
1
≈1 + to + ∞
2
To obtain good error performance (small errors), the open-loop gain of a servo should be large. This is indicated in Table
44.2, where it is shown that for G greater than one, the error gain is equal to 1/G; therefore, the errors decline as the open-
loop gain increases. As the open-loop gain is increased in a servo, a point is reached where oscillations occur. In general,
the performance of a servo is improved by increasing gain, but only to the point where instability becomes intolerable.
Example 44.2
For an open-loop gain of 99, calculate (1) the closed-loop gain G of a fully feedback system (standard diagram) and
(2) the error gain for this system.
Solution:
G
1. Closed-loop gain = G =
1+ G
99
= = 0.99
1 + 99
ε 1
2. = Error gain = = 0.01
R 1 + 99
Note: (1) An amplifier with an open-loop gain of 99 with a 1-V input would provide a 0.99-V output.
(2) In the above amplifier, the error between the input and output would be 0.01.V.
Example 44.3
Calculate the closed-loop gain (G) and error gain (∈/R) for each of the following open-loop gains:
G1 = 1 0°; G2 = 1 −90°; G3 = 1 −175°; G4 = 1 −180°
Solution:
1
G1′ = = 0.5 0°
1+1
−j
G2′ = = 0.707 −45°
1− j
1 −175°
G3′ =
1 − 0.9962 − j (0.087)
1 −175° 1 −175°
= =
0.00.8 − j (0.087) 0.0879 −87.5°
= 11.4 −87.5°
−1
G4′ = = −∞
1−1
1 1
= = 0.5 0°
R 1+1
2 1
= = 0.707 +45°
R 1− j
3 1
= = 11.4 +87.5°
R 0.088 −87.5°
4 1 1
= = = +∞
R 1−1 0
44.11.1 The Frequency-response Approach

To describe the performance of servos simply and directly, the frequency–response point of view is generally used.
Figure 44.22 demonstrates the frequency–response approach.
An input signal A sin ωt is fed into a gain block [described as G ( jω)] and the output of this block is B( jω)sin (ωt + q ).
In the frequency–response approach, G( jω) may be defined
as the relation between the output signal and the input sig-
nal (also called the transfer function). The magnitude of
G( jω) may be described as B( jω)|A| and the phased G( jω) is
q. Therefore G( jω) may be described as B( jω)|A|∟ q where q is
Figure 44.22 The Frequency–response Approach a function of frequency.
Figure 44.23 demonstrates the above relationship in phasor
representation. The input is A sin ωt (along the real axis) and the output is the phasor B sin (ωt + q ) which is counter-
clockwise from A sin ωt by angle q from the real axis.
44.11.2 Frequency–response Testing

The input to an amplifier or servo is a sinusoidal signal. The output of
the amplifier or servo is a sine wave of the same frequency, having an
amplitude and phase different from the amplitude and phase of the input. (ωt + θ )
The relationship between output and input amplitude and phase defines the
gain. It is assumed that the system is linear, and thus no harmonics appear
at the output. This linearity assumption is satisfactory for practical servos.
Frequency–response testing is accomplished as suggested in Figure
44.24(a). Figure 44.24(b) shows a servo whose input has a sine wave
angle variation. This angle command coming into the servo varies Figure 44.23 The Phasor Relation-
sinusoidally with twice and the output of the servo therefore also varies ship Between Input and
sinusoidally with time; the relative amplitude and phase of the two sine Output Sine Waves
waves (output and input) define the gain of the servo.
(a) (b)
Figure 44.24 Frequency–responses Tests
44.12 THE INTEGRATOR

Integrators are very important, because every servo behaves as if it contained an
integrator inside the loop. The best first-order approximation of the open-loop gain
of a servo is an integrator. Figure 44.25 shows a block diagram of an integrator
that has a sine wave input. The input to the integrator is A sin ωt and the output is
Figure 44.25 Frequency–response
B sin (ωt + q ). A is arbitrary. B is related in amplitude to A and q is the phase angle
Test of an Integrator
due to the integration, where
− ACos cot
B sin( ωt + θ) = ∫ A sin ωtdt =
ω
− A sin ( ωt + 90°) − A sin ωt 90° (44.10)
= =
ω ω
=
( A sin ωt ) −90°
ω
Equation (44.10) develops the relationship between the output and the input and defines the integration process. Using
Eq. (44.10), the gain of this integrator is expressed in Eq. (44.11):
 A sin cot 
 ∠ − 90°
  −j 1
Gain = = = (44.11)
A sin   j
Equation (44.11) shows that an integrator has the

property of causing a 90° phase lag and causing a
change in gain inversely proportional to frequency.
This is shown in Figure 44.26, where the frequency
is plotted as the abscissa and the magnitude of gain is
plotted as the ordinate; the lower part of the diagram
gives the phase angle (–90°) plotted against frequency.
Figure 44.26 illustrates the logarithmic plot (Bode
plot) of the gain function for an integrator as expressed
in Eq. (44.12).
G =1/ jω (44.12) Figure 44.26 Frequency–response Plot of an Integrator
Equation (44.13) demonstrates why the bode plot of an integrator is a straight line.
1 1
log G = log = log   = 0 − log ω (44.13)
jω ω 
In Figure 44.27, the abscissa is log ω (the logarithm of the angular frequency in radianes per second) and the ordinate is the
logarithm of the magnitude of the gain function. The Bode plot, therefore, represents the logarithm of the gain function plotted
against the logarithm of the frequency. The gain function as expressed in Eq. (44.12) shows that the gain magnitude changes
according to the reciprocal of frequency. By taking the logarithm of this expression, Eq. (44.13) can be written. Equation
(44.14) expresses and summarizes the relationship that the logarithm of the magnitude of the gain is equal to –log ω.
Log |G| = –logω (44.14)
The plot of Eq. (44.14) is a straight line with a slope of –1, as shown in Figure 44.27. The phase plot is shown in the lower
part of Figure 44.27. It can be seen that the phase is a constant –90°.
Figure 44.28 illustrates asymptotic plots of some of the typical mathematical functions encountered in servo design and
analysis. These are all straight lines having various slopes.
Figure 44.27 Logarithm Plot (Bode Figure 44.28 Bode Gain Plots of Several Functions
Plot) of an Integrator
44.12.1 Integration in the Time Domain

A clear understanding of the integration process from several points of view is fundamental to obtaining a physical
visualization of the operation of servos. Figure 44.29 shows an input signal consisting of two step functions of constant
magnitude in sequence. The integrals of these input step
function signals are ramps, because the time integral of a
constant value is a time-increasing value. Yet another way
of considering it is that the total area under any constant
function increases linearly with time.
All servo motors and servo drives exhibit the integration
characteristic, because a constant command signal input to a
motor or drive system results in a constant velocity output.
Of course, the output velocity changes as a function of load
torques and other disturbances, but this does not alter the fact
Figure 44.29 Time Integral of an Input
that a motor drive acts as an integrator. From a first-order-
Function
approximation standpoint, it is valid to consider a servo drive
device as simple integration.
Figure 44.30 illustrates the torque–speed characteristics of an electric motor for a servo drive. This may be a two-phase
a.c. servo motor or a hydraulic servo device system. For load torques less than T1, the velocity of the motor is essentially
unaffected by the load torque and it is proportional to the input voltage. As the torque required from the motor increases
from T1 to Tst (the stall torque), the velocity falls off markedly. If it is assumed that no torque greater than T1 is demanded
of the motor, then the torque–speed characteristic of the drive is essentially flat as shown in the Equation in Figure 44.30.
The motor velocity is directly proportional to the motor voltage.
The motor shown in Figure 44.30 may be considered as a position integrator as shown in Figure 44.31 and by
Eqs. (44.15–40.17). The potentiometer supplies the voltage em to the motor through the power amplifier; the output angle
of the motor as a function of the input angle to the potentiometer is

now determined as
k1θin ER
θ m = Ωm = k1em = = Kθm (44.15)
2Π
d  m / dt = k  m (44.16)

m = ∫ indt (44.17)
k
Equation (44.15) gives the motor velocity in terms of the motor

voltage and in terms of the potentiometer angular setting. It is assumed
that the potentiometer in Figure 44.30 has an angular travel of 2π rad
(360°). The motor displacement angle qm is equal to a constant k
times the time integral of qm. .The motor acts as an integrator; this
integral characteristic is a very important characteristic.
Figure 44.30 Torque–speed Curve of an
Example 44.4 Electric Motor
Find the integral of the time function shown in Figure 44.32.
Solution:
Integral = area
5(1) + 3(1) + 3(0.5)
= 9.5 V.s
Figure 44.31 An Open-loop Motor Control (Integrator)
Figure 44.32 Voltage Regulator
To be useful a control system must be able to cope with changing conditions such as a sudden change in load or a
disturbance at some point in the system. In evaluating a system, an approach is to determine the dynamic behaviour
described by the complete response to a step function. An alternative approach is to consider the frequency response for
steady-state sinusoidal inputs. In either approach, we rely on the transfer function.
The purpose of a voltage-regulating system is to hold the controlled voltage within specified limits in spite of chang-
es in load or other operating conditions. The output voltage Vc of the unregulated, separately excited, constant-speed,
d.c. generator in Figure 44.33(a) varies with changes in load current because of the armature resistance voltage drop.
The variation can be reduced by closing the loop through a human operator with an eye on the voltmeter and a hand on
the rheostat (Figure 44.33(b)). The controller notes the error between the voltmeter pointer position and the reference and
takes necessary action to reduce the error to zero.
(a) (b)
Figure 44.33 Operation of a Manual Voltage Regulator
The voltage regulator in Figure 44.34 represents an improvement. Here, the output voltage is compared with a refer-
ence, and the difference is amplified and used to decrease the discrepancy. The operation is: A sudden increase in load
current, reduces output voltage υc and greatly increases the error voltage υc = V+ – Vc. The error voltage is then amplified
and applied to the field circuit tending to increase υf and restore the output voltage.
For linear operation, the governing equations are as follows:
e = Vr − Vc
F = Ae
E = KiF (44.18)
Vc = E − iA R A
diF
F = LF + RF iF
dt
When each of these relations is represented by an element, it produces the block diagram shown in Figure 44.34(b). In this
representation, VA=VARA is introduced as disturbance.
Note: In anticipation of a rapid response, the variables are shown as instantaneous values.\
(a)
l
sLF + RF
(b)
Figure 44.34 Wiring and Block Diagrams of Voltage Regulation
44.13 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF A COMPOUND GENERATOR

A constant-speed compound generator is shown in Figure 44.35. The effect of a load change is fed back by means of series
winding. If operation is on the linear portion of the magnetization curve and changes are slow, the governing equation is
Vc = E − I A RA = k ( N F I F + N ser I A ) − I A RA
= Vnp − � V = kN F I F − I A ( RA − kN ser ) (44.19)
where, N is the number of turns.

The corresponding block diagram is shown in Figure 44.35(b). For flat compounding, the term RA-kNser is made equal
to zero, ∆V=0; and Vc = Vnl. There are two inadequacies in this system; first is the feedback loop.
NS
kNF Σ
1
RL
∆V
RA − kNser
(a) (b)
Figure 44.35 Steady-state Operation of a Compound Generator (a) Circuit Method (b) Block Diagram
Steady-state operation of a compound generator contains an element RA that changes with temperature (and therefore with IA)
and factor k that changes with magnetic flux (and therefore with IA). The second inadequacy is there is no amplification in
the loop and the total error is incorporated in the output.
44.14 AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL

Power-generating stations should maintain their voltage and frequency to an inter-connected system and a power grid to
provide continuity of service and improved stability in the event of overload and/or outage.
As the system load fluctuates throughout the day, it is necessary for the prime movers of all the alternators on the system to
speed up or slow down. Consequently, some method of automatic control is required to bring the system frequency to the basic
system frequency (say 50 Hz). As both the alternators and their prime movers have a relatively high mass, and as fossil-fuelled
prime movers have a high thermal inertia, load fluctuations result in a relatively slow response to an automatic control system.
Figure 44.36 Automatic Frequency Control of Power System Frequency
Figure 44.36 illustrates a typical closed-loop system for correction of frequency. The bus voltage output frequency (ƒo )
is sensed by a frequency compartor, which also receives an input from a frequency reference standard (ƒr ) .In the event of a
frequency difference, an error signal (Δf ) is transmitted to a power amplifier that drives a servo motor (M). The servo motor
either opens or closes a steam valve, which in turn either increases or decreases the steam turbine input. If the output fre-
quency of the bus is too high, the error signal reduces the steam turbine input and the speed of the alternator. If the output fre-
quency of the bus is too low, the error signal increases the steam turbine input and the speed of the alternator automatically.
Because of the relatively slow system response, the generating control system is designed to correct all paralleled
alternators simultaneously, after the frequency error has accumulated to a gain (or loss) of up to 100 Hz. In a 24-hour
period, the alternators should generate a total of 5,184,000 Hz to maintain an average 24-hour frequency of 60 Hz. The
system shown in Figure 44.37 may be used to control one or motor alternators simultaneously and so maintain a rela-
tively constant frequency to the utilization portion shown in Figure 44.37.
Figure 44.37 Line Diagram of a Typical Utilization System
S UM M A RY
1. Control systems can be either open looped or closed 8. Regulators control speed.
looped. 9. RPCs control position.
2. An open-loop system does not recognize the output in 10. A change of input signal gives rise to a transient change
the belief that the input will be achieved. before a new steady-state condition being achieved.
3. A closed-loop system feeds back information of the 11. The steady-state condition is achieved with an er-
output to ensure that the intended input is achieved. ror that is not zero but is insufficient to cause further
4. The device that produces the feedback signal is called a change.
transducer. 12. To reduce the transient period, damping is introduced.
5. The error is produced by the comparator and supplied 13. Damping can be critical damping, over-damping or
to the controller. under-damping.
6. Control systems can be divided into regulators and RPCs. 14. Excessive damping can make the system unstable.
7. The controller causes a motor to cause the desired out- 15. The settling time is the time taken for the transient to
put movement. reduce within given tolerance limits.
1. The most commonly used input signal(s) in control (c) Reduces the effects of disturbance and noise signals in
system is (are) the forward path
(a) Ramp or velocity function (d) Increases the influence of component parameters on sys-
(b) Step function tem performance
(c) Accelerating function (d) All of the above 6. Which one of the following effects is not caused by
2. The system described by the Eq. Y = Ax = a + bx, negative feedback?
a > 0, b > 0 is (a) Reduction in gain
(a) Linear (b) Non-linear (b) Increase in bandwidth
(c) Dynamic (d) Time varying (c) Increase in distortion
(d) Reduction in output impedance
3. Linear systems obey
(a) Reciprocity principle 7. Damping in a control system is a function of
(b) Principle of super-position (a) Gain (b) 1/(gain)
(c) Principle of maximum power transfer (c) √gain (d) 1/V gain
(d) All of the above 8. In the time domain specification, the time delay is the
4. If the initial conditions for a system are in erentlyzero, time required for the response to reach
what does it signify? (a) 75 per cent of the final value
(a) The system stores energy (b) 50 per cent of the final value
(b) The system does not store energy (c) 33 per cent of the final value
(c) The system is working with zero reference input (d) 25 per cent of the final value
(d) None of the above 9. How can a steady-state error in a system be reduced
5. In a control system, the use of feedback (a) By increasing the system gain
(a) Increases the reliability (b) By decreasing the system gain
(b) Eliminates the chances of instability (c) By decreasing the static error constant
(d) By increasing the input
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (b) 2.(a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b).
1. Find the closed-loop gain G’( jω) and the error gain 4. Describe the essential components of a closed-loop
∈( jω)/R( jω) for the following values of G( jω): system with which you are familiar. What are the ad-
(a) 100∠0º (b) 10∠0º vantages and disadvantages associated with the use of
(c) 1∠0º (d) 0.5∠0º feedback in such a control system?
(e) 100∠–90º (f) 10∠–90º 5. Describe the settling time in a servo system.
(g) 1∠–90º (h) 0.5∠–90º 6. Explain the terms under-damped, over-damped and
(i) 1∠–135º (j) 1∠–175º critically damped.
(k) 1∠–180º 7. Explain the manner in which a transducer can produce a
2. Find the time integrals of the following functions and signal proportional to angular displacement.
state the units of the answers: 8. Why don’t power inputs appear in a control system
(a) 7 V from 0 to 35 block diagram?
(b) 8t V, where, t = time from 0 to 2.5 9. What information on system performance is provided
(c) 4e–5t V from 0 to 0.2 S by step response?
3. Explain the concept of a closed-loop system. Describe 10. Explain in system terminology how body temperature
the manner in which it differs from an open-loop is regulated?
system. 11. Define transform, transform function and step response.
ANSWERS (CQ)
1. (a) 0.99∠0° 0.0099∠0° (b) 0.91 ∠0°, 0.091∠0° (c) (h) 0.45∠–63.4°, 0.9∠+26.6° (i) 1.3∠–67.5°, 1.3∠+67.5
0.5 ∠0°, 0.5 ∠0° (d) 0.33∠0°, 0.67∠0° (e) 1∠–.57°, (j) 11.5∠+87.5° (k) –∞, +∞ (2.(a)) 21 V.s, (b) 16 V.s
0.01∠+89.43° (f) I∠+84.3° (g) 0.707∠–45°, 0.707∠+45° (c) 0.506 V.s.
Inverters and Converters
45
OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn about: Three-phase A.c. / d.c. D.c. / a.c. A.c.
a.c. input converter inverter motor
 The difference between converters
and inverters D.c. intermediate circuit
Various types of converters
 Lead washer
Insulating washer
Rectification-half-wave, full-wave
 Spring washer
and bridge
Rectifiers, single-phase and three-

Insulating washer
phase Copper disc
Uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
 Metal washer Copper oxide film
Bass connection
Single-phase inverters

Tin alloy
Three-phase inverters
 Selenium
Nickel plating
Six-step inverters
 Steel
Different types of converting

machinery
Metal spacing washers
Inverters and converters
45.1 INTRODUCTION
Despite the increasing use of alternating current (a.c.) for all industrial purposes, there are nevertheless many cases in
which the use of direct current (d.c.) is either necessary or advantageous to a degree sufficient to make it preferable. For
electric traction on suburban railways, for electrolysis, battery charging, and chemical processes; and for conditions where
extensive and economical control of speed control of motors are desired, d.c. is employed. Since economy and the need
for standardization have led to the use of a.c. for generation and transmission, some form of converting plant is necessary
when bulk supplies of d.c. are to be obtained from an a.c. network.
Since about 1920, conversion has become increasingly effected by rectification, and currently the importance of new
rotating converter plants is small. However, since large numbers of converters have been in service for a long time, they
are still of interest, and in any case can compete with rectifiers for low-voltage outputs.
One of the most widely used electronic circuits that is used to convert voltage is the rectifier circuit. Since the rectifier
circuit uses diodes to convert a.c. voltage to d.c., it is also called a converter circuit. Power that is supplied to a modern
factory is a.c.; hence, it is important to have circuits that convert the a.c. power to d.c. power to operate.
Some industrial applications such as a.c. variable-frequency motor drivers and welders will have a section where a.c.
voltage is converted to d.c. and yet another section where d.c. voltage must be converted back to a.c. voltage. The circuit
that changes d.c. voltage back to a.c. voltage is called an inverter. The inverter circuit is required to change the d.c. voltage
back to a.c. voltage because the frequency of commercial a.c. mains is fixed at 50 Hz and the output section of the drive
needs to be able to provide the frequency of the output voltage in the range of 0–100 Hz.
45.2 CONVERTING MACHINES

There are various designs of converting machines designed as per conditions and they fall into three classes—motor
generators, synchronous (or rotary) converters and motor converters.
Inverters and Converters 865
Motor generators consist of an a.c. motor (usually of the synchronous, but sometimes of the induction, type) and a direct-
coupled d.c. generator. This is the simplest and most obvious converting unit. When a synchronous machine and d.c. machine
are combined, the resulting machine is termed a synchronous converter, a type that has been widely developed. Motor converters
are a combination of the induction motor-generator and the synchronous converter, where the conversion of energy takes place
partly mechanically through the shaft and partly electrically by the interconnection of the motor and converter windings.
A comparison between the three machines is provided in Table 45.1. The choice of a converting machine for a given case will
be influenced primarily by economic considerations and secondly by technical matters, although the two are, of course, mutually
dependent to a great extent.
Table 45.1 Comparison of Converting Machines
Machine Advantages Disadvantages
Induction motor-generator Self-starting Low efficiency
Any frequency Low power factor unless
Operates directly on moderately high voltages compensated
Reliable and simple Not readily reversible
Wide regulation of d.c. voltage possible (i.e. a.c. to d.c. only)
Free from reversal of polarity and flashover
No limit to d.c. voltage
Synchronous motor-generator Any frequency Low efficiency
Operates directly on moderately high voltages Requires special starting gear
High power factor Liable to fall out of step
Wide d.c. voltage regulation
Operation reversible
Free from reversal of polarity and flashover
No limit to d.c. voltage
Synchronous converter High efficiency Requires step-down transformer
High power factor D.c. voltage regulation limited
Cheap Liable to flashover and reversal
of polarity
D.c. voltage (1200–1500 V)
Motor converter Self-starting Low speed, therefore expensive
Any frequency D.c. voltage (1700–2000 V)
Operates directly on moderately
high voltages
Reliable and simple
High power factor
Wide regulation of d.c. voltage possible
Relative freedom from reversal of
polarity and flashover
45.3 RECTIFIERS: A.C. TO D.C. CONVERSION

One of the most widely used electronic circuits to convert voltage is the rectifier circuit. Since the rectifier circuit uses diodes
to convert a.c. voltage to d.c., it is called a converter circuit. Power that is supplied to a modern factory is a.c., so it is important
to have circuits that can convert the a.c. power to d.c. power, since most solid-state devices require d.c. power to operate.
45.3.1 Single-phase Rectifier Circuits

Single-phase rectifier circuits have been used since the advent of vacuum-tube diodes. When vacuum tubes were first
introduced to control voltage and current, they required various d.c. power supplies. Since d.c. power supplies originate
from a.c. voltage, vacuum-tube diode rectifiers were used to convert a.c. voltage to d.c. voltage. After solid-state devices
were developed, one of their first uses was to provide rectification of a.c. voltages to provide the necessary d.c. voltages.
45.3.2 VI Characteristics of Rectifiers

Rectifiers can be of copper oxide, selenium, silicon or germanium. The maximum peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of
copper oxide rectifiers is about 2 V and that of selenium rectifiers about 10 V. Copper oxide and selenium rectifiers can
handle only limited amounts of current. The PIV rating of germanium rectifiers is about 300 V and these rectifiers can
handle currents of up to 100 mA. The PIV rating of silicon rectifiers is 1000 V and these rectifiers can safely handle
currents of up to 500 mA. Silicon and germanium rectifiers are invariably used in modern electronic equipments.
The VI characteristic of rectifiers is non-linear as shown in Figure 45.1. Ideal rectifiers should have zero resistance in the
forward direction and an infinite resistance in the reverse direction. The forward resistance of practical rectifiers is not zero,
it is minimum. Similarly, the reverse resistance of practical rectifiers is not infinite, though it is maximum. To deliver high
current, these rectifiers should have a very low forward resistance. The current through the rectifier in the reverse direction,
often referred to as leakage current, should be extremely low. Rectifiers and their characteristics, both in the forward and
reverse direction, are shown in Figure 45.1.
Figure 45.1 VI Characteristic of Rectifiers
45.3.3 Rectifier Operation

Figure 45.2 shows a circuit that uses a single solid-state diode rectifier. This type of power supply uses a transformer to
increase or decrease the voltage from a 220-V a.c. supply voltage. The secondary supplies the requisite voltage to the rectifier.
A resistor is shown to indicate a typical load. The diagram also shows the typical waveforms for input voltage and rectified
voltage. Since only one diode is used, the half-wave in the output waveform occurs when the a.c. input voltage is positive
between 0° and 180°. No output voltage will be supplied during the point from 180° to 360°, where the a.c. voltage is negative.
Figure 45.2 Rectifier Power Supply. The Waveforms Show a.c. Voltage Supply and
Half-wave d.c. at the Load Resistor. (a) Diode Circuit Converts its a.c.
Input to Fluctuating d.c. Output (b) A Single-diode (Half-wave)
The average d.c. voltage read with a d.c. voltmeter is called the d.c. voltage for the rectifier. For a single-diode
(half-wave) rectifier, it is as follows:
VP
Vd.c.av = = 0.318 VP
π
where, VP = r.m.s. volts × 1.414 (45.1)
The diode in this circuit will drop approximately by 0.7 V . In larger-power diodes, the drop may be as much as 2 V.
VP − 0.7
Vd.c. av = (45.2)
π
Example 45.1
Calculate Vd.c.av voltage for a single-diode half-wave rectifier that has an input voltage of 220 V a.c. r.m.s. (including the
0.7 V d.c. drop for the diode).
Solution:
VP = Vr.m.s. × 1.414 = 220 × 1.414 = 310.08 V
VP − 0.7 310.08 − 0.7 310.62

Vd.c.av = = = = 98.83 V
π π π
A drawback of the single-diode half-wave rectifier is that it produces only a half-wave d.c. output. If a second diode is
added to this circuit and a centre-tapped transformer is used, the output waveform will be two positive half-waves. The first
diode provides an output half-wave when the supply voltage is between 0° and 180°, and the second half-wave output is
provided by the second diode when the supply voltage is between 180° and 360°. Figure 45.3 shows the electrical diagram
of the two-diode full-wave bridge circuit. This diagram also shows the sine wave for the single-phase input voltage and the
waveform of the two positive half-waves for the output.
Figure 45.3 (a) Single-phase Rectifiers (b) Full-wave Rectification

Another circuit that provides a full-wave output uses four diodes and a regular transformer without the centre tap. This
circuit uses two diodes at a time to rectify each half of the sine wave. Figure 45.4 shows an example of this type of circuit.
The input sine wave and the output full wave (two half-cycles) are also depicted.
Figure 45.4 The Current Path of the Positive and Negative Half-cycles of the Sine Wave as
it is Rectified Through the Bridge
A.c. voltage from the bottom terminal of the transformer is applied to the bridge where the cathode of the diode 1 and
the anode of diode 4 are connected and from the top terminal of the transformer where the cathode of diode 2 and the
anode of diode 3 are connected. This indicates that the a.c. is connected where the anode of one diode is connected to the
cathode of the second diode. The output for the bridge circuit will have its positive d.c. voltage terminal at the point where
the cathodes of diode 3 and diode 4 are connected. The negative point of the circuit will be where the anodes of diode 1
and diode 2 are connected. This point is also grounded.
When a.c. voltage is applied to the four-diode full-wave bridge rectifier, the positive half of the sine wave is rectified by diodes
1 and 3 and the negative half by diodes 2 and 4, as illustrated in Figure 45.4. The path the electrons would travel through the
bridge is also shown. Electron flow is always against the arrows of the diode.
In some industrial power supplies, the four-diode full-wave bridge rectifier is drawn slightly differently even though
it operates exactly as in the previous circuit. Figure 45.5 shows an example of the full-wave bridge drawn with the diode
bridge turned on its side so that it looks like a square rather than a diamond.
The bridge is illustrated in this way because the six-diode three-phase
bridge rectifier uses a similar pattern.
The equation for calculating the d.c. average voltage by the two-diode
full-wave bridge rectifier is derived in two steps after the peak secondary
voltage is determined. Since this is a centre-tapped transformer, the Vout (peak)
can be calculated in either of the two ways: using X1−X2 as the full second-
ary voltage divided by 2 or using X1-CT as the amount of voltage for half
the transformer. It should however be ensured that the voltage drop for each
diode is subtracted from the secondary voltage.
 Vsecondary (x1 − x2 ) 
Vout (peak) = 1.414 ×   − 0.7 Vsecondary (x1 − x2 ) (45.3a)
 2
Or Vout (peak) = 1.414 × ( Vsecondary (x1 − CT ) ) − 0.7 V (45.3b) Figure 45.5 Electrical Diagram of the
Next, the d.c. average voltage is calculated. Since now there are two diodes Four-diode Bridge where
in the circuit, the output voltage will include voltage from both half-waves, the Diodes are Shown in
which can be represented as follows: a Box Formation Rather
than as Diamonds. The
2V p
Vd.c.av = (45.4) Circuit Function is Exactly
π Similar to the Bridge
where, Vp is Vout (peak) from either of the previous equations. Shown in Figure 45.4
Example 45.2
Calculate the Vd.c.av voltage for a two-diode full-wave rectifier that uses a centre-tapped transformer. The secondary voltage
is 110 V a.c. r.m.s., as measured between X1 and X2 exactly similar to the single-diode rectifier circuit, and the voltage from
X1 to the CT is 55 V.
Solution:
The secondary peak voltage Vp = 155.54 (X1−X2) needs to be divided by 2 to obtain Vp for the value of voltage from one
line to the centre tap (X1-CT), Vp = 77.77 V and this value can be used directly in the equation. The answer is ~49.06 V.
The slight difference in voltage is because of the voltage drop of the second diode.
2 V p ( X 1 − CT )  − 0.7 2 ( 77.77VD − 0.77 )

Vd.c.av = = = 49.06 Vd.c.
π π
The equation for calculating the d.c. average voltage at the output of the four-diode bridge rectifier is similar to the two-
diode full-wave bridge except that the equations for the four-diode bridge must account for a 0.7 V drop in each of the two
diodes used to rectify the positive and negative half-cycles. The equation to calculate the Vd.c.av must be calculated in two
steps. The first step will use an equation to determine the peak voltage (<1.4 V drop for the two diodes), which is as follows:
V p = ( V-secondary r.m.s. × 1.414) − 1.4 V (45.5)
The second equation is as follows:
2 Vp
Vd.c.av = (45.6)
π
Example 45.3
Calculate Vd.c.av for a four-diode full-wave rectifier that is connected to the secondary of a transformer that provides 110 V
a.c. r.m.s.
Solution:
V p = (Vsecondary r.m.s. × 1.414) − 1.4 V
V p = (110 × 1.414) − 1.4 = 154.14 V
2 Vp 308.28
Vd.c.av = = = 98.12 V
π π
45.4 THREE-PHASE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS

Most industrial power supplies from motor drives and welding applications use three-phase a.c. voltage. This means
that the rectifier for these circuits must use a three-phase bridge, which has six diodes to provide full-wave rectification
(two diodes for each line of the three phases). Figure 45.6 shows the electrical diagram of a three-phase bridge rectifier. The
secondary winding of the three-phase transformer is shown connected to the diode rectifier. Phase A, which is connected
to the point where the cathode of diode 1D is connected in the anode of diode 2D. Phase B is connected to the point where
the cathode of diode 3D is connected to the anode of diode 4D, and phase C is connected to the point where the cathode of
diode 5D is connected to the anode of diode 6D. The anodes of diodes 1D, 3D and 5D are connected together to provide
a common point for the d.c. negative terminal of the output power. The cathodes of diodes 2D, 4D and 6D are connected
together to provide a common point for the d.c. positive terminal of the output power.
A good rule of thumb for determining the connection on diode rectifiers is that the a.c. input voltage will be connected to
the bridge where the anode and cathode of any two diodes are joined. As this occurs at two points in the bridge, in a four-diode
bridge the two a.c. lines will be connected there without respect to polarity. As the incoming a.c. voltage does not have a specific
polarity, the positive terminal for the power supply will be connected to the bridge where the two cathodes of the diodes are
joined and the negative terminal will be connected to the bridge where the two anodes of the diodes are joined.
As the six half-waves overlap, the d.c. voltage does not have a chance to reach the zero point; thus, the average d.c. output
voltage is very high. The three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier is used where the required amount of d.c. power is high and
Figure 45.6 A Three-phase Bridge Rectifier: (a) Three-phase a.c. when Rectified Produces a Smoother d.c.
(b) Electrical Diagram of the Three-phase Bridge Rectifier that is Connected to the Secondary
Winding of a Three-phase Transformer (c) Three-phase Input Sine Waves (d) Six Half-waves for
the d.c. Output
the transformer efficiency must be high. Since the output waveforms of the half-waves overlap, they provide a low ripple
percentage. The output voltage is usable without much filtering.
45.5 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES (UPS)

Power failures, load shedding, and low voltage have become a common occurrence nowadays. Over the years, the situation
has worsened, instead of improving. Business and work schedules get affected, students lose precious study time, and families
miss out on entertainment time, not to mention the inconvenience during the winters. The problem is compounded with the
usage of PCs becoming very common in modern households.
Commercial power supply is not capable of providing clean and consistent supply of power of correct specifications for
critical load operations. Hardware protection, continuity of process, storage and transfer of information, safety of personal
computer, network communication links, electronic medical equipment, industrial process control, remote installations such
as offshore operations, online applications such as airline reservations, and so on are examples of such critical loads. Hence,
undoubtedly, the installation of an uninterrupted power supply (UPS) system is nowadays accepted as being a vital element
in the protection of sensitive equipment. The components of a typical UPS system are shown in Figure 45.7.
45.5.1 Types of UPS: UPS Systems Can Be: (1) Online, (2) Offline or (3) Hybrid
(1) Online UPS systems function even under normal supply conditions. The main supply drives the rectifier battery
charger. D.c. power is applied to the inverter and to the backup battery (for float charge). When the main’s supply fails,
Figure 45.7 The Block Diagram of an Uninterrupted Power Supply
the inverter draws power from the backup battery. The inverter supplies a highly stable low distortion. A supply to the
critical loads in a network environment where the file-server is supporting many users. Online UPS is used for power
and the task is mission-critical, on-line UPS is used. This system gives better performance but it is expensive.
(2) OfflineUPSsystems start functioning only in the event of power failure. Under normal power conditions, the load is
driven directly by the mains. When the supply fails or varies from the nominal value, the inverter provides the required
supply to the load. There is no automatic voltage regulation; therefore, the output voltage does not remain constant. As
compared to online UPS systems, offline UPS systems are economical.
(3) Hybrid UPS systems are basically offline units. The inverter is in parallel with the mains all the time, supplying
power to the load continuously. The battery is not floated across the rectifier but charged from a small battery charger.
When the supply fails, the battery is connected to the input of the inverter.
45.5.2 Battery Life of the UPS System

The most critical part of the UPS system is its battery. The battery often represents half the original cost of the UPS system.
An incorrect selection of the battery type may reduce the initial cost but would adversely affect the overall life of the system.
The battery life is determined by the UPS service conditions for online UPS systems, and the battery remains on floating
charge for a longer time. Float performance characteristic has a strong influence on battery life.
Prolonged breakdowns can cause the battery to deep discharge several times in a week, if not in a day. This in turn
affects battery life drastically. As a rule of thumb, a deep discharge below 80 per cent battery capacity reduces the life of
the battery by 25 per cent.
45.6 INVERTERS CHANGING D.C. VOLTAGE TO A.C. VOLTAGE

Inverters are circuits specifically designed to change d.c. voltage to a.c. voltage. Systems such as variable-frequency
motor drives and uninterrupted power supplies convert a.c. power to d.c. and then convert the d.c. back to a.c.. They
may sound like a strange way to provide an a.c. output voltage if a.c. voltage is the original supply, but in the case of
variable frequency drive, the frequency of the supply voltage will be 50 Hz or 60 Hz and the output a.c. supply voltage
needs the possibility of frequencies between 1 Hz and 120 Hz. In the case of UPS, the a.c. supply voltage needs to
be changed to d.c. so it can be stored in a battery for later use if the power supply is interrupted. Since the voltage is
changed to d.c. and is stored in a battery, it must be changed back to a.c. to be usable. In UPS, the output frequency will
be a constant (50Hz or 60 Hz).
The earliest use of converting d.c. voltage was in circuits specifically designed for providing variable frequency a.c. voltage
for single- and three-phase a.c. motors. Today, converter circuits similar to the original ones are used to provide three-phase
voltage from single-phase voltage sources, provide three-phase voltage with variable frequency, provide variable voltage
from a fixed three-phase power source, and provide isolation by using batteries as buffers or storage. Modern industrial
circuits use one of the three types of inverters: variable voltage input, pulse-width modulation, and current-source input.
It is vitally important to understand that inverter circuits may be found in equipment as one part of the total system or
they may be a stand-alone circuit. In factories today, a large variety of expensive equipment exists that may come from
different parts of the world. Therefore, requirements for voltages and frequencies may not match what is available in the
factory. In some cases this equipment is one of a kind and must be installed and used as is, which necessitates circuits that
can change voltage and frequency easily.
45.6.1 Single-phase Inverters

The simplest inverter to understand is the single-phase inverter, which takes a d.c. input voltage and converts it to single-
phase a.c. voltage. The main components of the inverter can be either four silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) or four
transistors. Figure 45.8 shows a typical inverter circuit that uses four SCRs. SCR1 and SCR4 are fired into conduction at
the same time to provide the positive part of the a.c. waveform and SCR2 and SCR3 are fired into conduction at the same
time to provide the negative part of the a.c. waveform. The waveform of the a.c. output voltage is also shown in the figure.
It can be seen that the output is an a.c. square wave. A phase-angle control circuit is used to determine the firing angle,
which provides the timing for turning each SCR on, so that they provide the a.c. square wave. The load is attached to the
two terminals where the a.c. square wave voltage is supplied.
Figure 45.8 (a) Electronic Diagram of a Typical Inverter Circuit that Uses Four SCRs
(b) Output Waveform for SCR Inverter
Figure 45.9 shows the electrical diagram of an inverter that uses four transistors instead of four SCRs. Since the
transistors can be biased to any voltage between saturation and zero, the waveform of this type of inverter can appear more
complex, similar to the traditional a.c. sine wave.
The waveform shown in Figure 45.9 is a six-step sine wave. Two of the transistors will be used to produce the top (posi-
tive) part of the sine wave and the other two transistors will be used to produce the bottom (negative) part of the sine wave.
When the positive part of the sine wave is being produced, the transistors connected to the positive d.c. bus voltage
are biased in three distinct steps. During the first step, the transistors are biased to approximately half-voltage for
one-third of the period of the positive half-cycle; then these transistors are biased to full voltage for the second-third
of the period of the positive half-cycle. The transistors are again biased at the half-voltage for the remaining third of
the period. The sequence is repeated for the negative half-cycle. This means that the transistors that are connected to
the negative d.c. bus are energized in three steps that are identical to the steps used to make the positive half-cycle.
This type of inverter is called a six-step inverter. The a.c. voltage for this inverter will be available at the terminals marked
M1 and M2 in Figure 45.9. Even though the a.c. sine wave from this inverter is developed from six steps, the motor or other loads
identify this voltage and react to it as they would for a traditional smooth a.c. sine wave. The timing for each sine wave is 6 no’s,
indicating it will have a frequency of 60 Hz. The frequency can be adjusted by adjusting the period for each group of six steps.
45.6.2 Three-phase Inverters

Three-phase inverters are much more efficient for industrial applications where large amounts of voltage and current are
required. The basic circuits and theory of applications are similar to the single-phase transistor inverter. Figure 45.10 shows
the diagram of a three-phase inverter with three pairs of transistors.
Figure 45.9 Electronic Diagram of a Transistor Inverter, with the Output Waveforms for
the a.c. Voltage (a) Inverter Circuit (b) Output Waveform
Figure 45.10 Electrical Diagram of a Three-phase Inverter that Uses Six Transistors
The operation of each pair of transistor is similar to the pairs used in the single-phase six-step inverters. This means
that the transistor of each pair that is connected to the positive d.c. bus voltage will conduct to produce the positive
half-cycle and the transistor that is connected to the negative d.c. bus voltage will conduct to produce the negative
half-cycle.
The timing for these transistors is much more critical since they must biased at the right time to produce the six
steps of each sine wave; they must also be synchronized with the biasing of the pairs for the other two phases so
that all the three phases will be produced with correct sequence with the proper number of degrees between each
phase.
S UM M A RY
1. One of the most widely used circuits to convert voltage 10. The VI characteristic of rectifiers is non-linear.
is the rectifier circuit. 11. Rectifiers provide switching action: closed in the
2. It is important to have circuits that convert a.c. power forward direction and open in the reverse direction.
to d.c. power to operate. 12. Rectifiers are classed as half-wave or full-wave. Yet
3. The circuit that changes d.c. voltage back to a.c. voltage another classification is single-phase or multi-phase
is called an inverter. rectifier.
4. Converting machines fall into three classes: motor 13. Full-wave rectifiers use two diodes to rectify each half
generators, synchronous (or rotary) converters and of the sine wave.
motor converters. 14. Electron flow is always against the arrows of the
5. The motor generator is the simplest and most obvious diodes.
converting unit. 15. Three-phase full-wave rectifiers use a total of six
6. It is possible to combine synchronous a.c. and d.c. diodes (two diodes per phase).
machines in a motor-generator set, the armature of 16. The installation of an UPS system is nowadays accepted
which is arranged with slip-rings at one end for the as being a vital element in the protection of sensitive
a.c. connections and a commutator at the other end for equipment.
connections to the d.c. side. Such a machine is called a 17. UPS systems can be online, offline or hybrid.
synchronous or rotary converter.
18. The most critical part of the UPS is its battery.
7. The motor-converter is a combination of the induction
19. Inverter circuits may be found in equipment as one part
motor generator and the synchronous converter.
of the total system or they may be a stand-alone circuit.
8. The rectifier circuit uses diodes to convert a.c. voltage
20. A phase-angle control circuit is used to determine the
to d.c. voltage.
timing for turning each SCR on.
9. The first uses for solid-state diodes were to provide
21. In six-step inverters, the transistors are biased in three
rectification of a.c. voltages to provide the necessary
distinct steps.
d.c. voltages.
1. Which rectifier is the least efficient? 5. Inverters are designed to
(a) Half-wave (b) Full-wave (a) Change d.c. voltage to a.c. voltage
(c) Bridge (b) Change a.c. voltage to d.c. voltage
2. The bridge rectifiers gives a (arc) 6. The frequency of a six-step inverter can be adjusted by
(a) Smooth d.c. output adjusting the period of
(b) Almost smooth d.c. output (a) Each group of six steps
3. Three-phase full-wave rectifiers need (b) Each group of three step groups
(a) Two diodes per phase (c) Each group of two step groups
(b) Three diodes per phase 7. What type of filters are used in the output of rectifiers?
4. The most critical part of the UPS is (a) Choke-input filter (b) Capacitor-input filter
(a) The rectifier (c) Either (a) or (b) (d) Both (a) and (b)
(b) Inverter 8. Which diodes are preferred for use as rectifiers
(c) Electronic switch (a) Selenium (b) Silicon
(d) Battery (c) Germanium (d) Copper oxide
1. Explain the operation of a two-diode centre-tapped 5. List three types of converters and briefly explain them.
rectifier that produces a full-wave output and draw its 6. Draw the diagram of a six-phase star rectifier circuit
input and output waveforms. and explain its operation.
2. Explain the operation of a four-diode full-wave bridge 7. Illustrate a single-phase star rectifier circuit. Briefly
rectifier and draw its input and output waveforms. explain the same.
3. Draw the diagram of a three-phase, double-wave 8. Illustrate 12 diodes connected in parallel as a six-phase
rectifier with an inter-phase transformer. Also, draw the full-wave bridge rectifier.
output waveform of the rectifier. 9. Illustrate 12 diodes connected in series as a six-phase
4. Explain the operation of an UPS. full-wave bridge rectifier.
ANSWERS (CQ)
Figure 45.12 Answer for CQ7

Controlled Rectifiers
46
OBJECTIVES

 The difference between a diode and a thyristor
The operating states of a thyristor

How to trigger a thyristor

Basic thyristor circuits

Basic motor control

Controlled rectifiers

(a) Water
(b) Encapsulated cell
46.1 INTRODUCTION
Motor control adds to the value of all types of motors. In some industrial applications where motors drive the production
equipment, motor control is critical.
Figure 46.1 shows a basic type of primitive control where a thyratron
(gas-filled triode) is used. The control signal, by varying the time distribution of the
tube’s conduction, controls the current flow through the motor and this current flow
controls the speed of the motor.
Figure 46.2 illustrates a different type of controller, which provides for reversal
and speed adjustments of the motor. This controller has an adjustable transformer
input to a full-wave silicon bridge for the armature current and a half-wave
selenium rectifier with a capacitor filter for the field. The controller, by using
a Hi–Lo switch, operates a motor in the range of 0–2000 rpm or 0–4000 rpm.
The switch shorts out a resistor in the field circuit. The motor can be reversed,
however, it must be stopped or must be running at one-fourth the speed or less
before it is reversed. Figure 46.1 The Primitive
This controller has good regulation, because the forward resistance of the silicon Thyratron, a Gas-
rectifier is very low. The motor will start when the power switch is turned on; no filled Tube (Now
warm-up time is required for silicon or selenium rectifiers unlike the gas tubes. Obsolete) Forms
Other motor control systems that are used for precise control include more the First Stage
complex servo amplifiers. in the Evolution
Solid-state controllers use diodes transistors, thyristors (SCRs) triacs, and other of Controlled
solid-state devices in different configurations to start, stop, reverse, brake, provide Rectifiers
Controlled Rectifiers 877
Figure 46.2 Controlled Speed Circuit
soft starting, and adjust the speed of electrical machinery. Since solid-state devices have no moving parts, they require
considerably less maintenance than their magnetic counterparts. Furthermore, the absence of arcing and/or sparking makes
them attractive for applications in explosive atmospheres. Solid-state devices may be used effectively and efficiently for
the control of various types of machinery, starting from fractional horsepower units to tens of thousands of horsepower
units.
46.2 DIRECT THYRATRON CONTROL

Two important basic types of motor controls are thyratrons and silicon controlled rectifier (SCRs) or PNPN transistor
switch. The PNPN switch, depicted in Figure 46.4, is used for many applications, such as reversing and speed control of
both a.c. and d.c. motors. Although the PNPN switch has replaced the thyratron tube for power control in newer designs,
many thyratron systems still continue to be in use.
Thyratron control, in a simplified manner, can be represented
by the diagram in Figure 46.3. It shows one tube conducts for each
direction of motor rotation. Grid control, usually some sort of a.c.
phase-shifted signal, is not shown, but its function is to control the
amount of conduction or the firing angle as measured in degrees.
A complete a.c. cycle constitutes 360º.
V1 fires when the a.c. input signal is positive and V2 fires when
the a.c. input signal is negative; the motor can turn in either direc- Figure 46.3 Reversible Motor Speed Control
tion. When the grid of V1 is allowed to conduct for 180º (a full
alternation), the motor will run at full speed in one direction. The smaller the firing angle for V1, as controlled by its grid,
the slower the speed of the motor. V2 also acts in the same way to control the speed of the motor in the opposite direction.
46.2.1 Magnetic Amplifiers

The thyratron needs a device to trigger its grid, often a magnetic amplifier. A control signal is sent to the magnetic amplifier,
which, in turn, triggers the thyratron so that it starts conducting. The conduction of the thyratron controls the power to the motor.
Each stage in an amplifier makes the signal larger. In an industrial circuit, the signal, which passes from the input to the
output, controls the succeeding stage. The control signal can change its amplitude, shape, or even its timing, but its basic
purpose remains the same; it is designed to cause a specific output at a specific time.
46.3 THYRISTOR CONTROL OF MOTORS

The thyristor, shown symbolically in Figure 46.4, is a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) that acts as a combined switch and
rectifier. The SCR has two states, namely on and off. When in the off state, no current can pass in either direction. When
in the on state, the SCR acts as a diode, permitting a current only in the forward direction.
Figure 46.4 Silicon-controlled Rectifier (a) Symbol (b) Four-layer Structure (PNPN) (c) Similarity to Comple-
mentary Transistors (d) Transistor Equivalent
An SCR remains in the off state, called the blocking state, until its anode and gate are both positive with respect to the
cathode. When both these conditions are met, the SCR fires, thereby initiating the process of current conduction.
46.3.1 Controllable Semiconductor Diodes

Thyristors are identified as those solid-state devices that have two or more junctions and that can be switched from on
[Figure 46.4(a)] to off or from off to on between two conducting states. These devices can handle currents up to hundreds
of amperes. Consequently, they find wide application in power rectification, control, and switching. Thyristors are the
solid-state counterparts of thyratrons.
A diode has two connections or electrodes. The diode
has the property of letting current pass in one direction
(with one polarity) and of obstructing it in the other
direction (with opposite polarity). The two different
polarities constitute two operating states of the diode, as
shown in Figure 46.5. In the conducting state, the anode is
positive with respect to the cathode. In the blocking state,
the cathode is positive with respect to the anode.
The symbol of the thyristor, also called the silicon- Figure 46.5 Operating States of a Diode
controlled rectifier, is shown in Figure 46.4(a). It has an (a) Blocking (b) Conducting
additional element, the gate. The thyristor has an additional
operating state. Of the three states of the thyristor, two of these are identical to those of the diode. They are the conducting
state and the reverse blocking state, as shown in Figure [46.6(a) and (b)]. In Figure 46.6(c) despite the positive polarity of
the anode with respect to the cathode, the thyristor blocks the current in the forward direction. This, the third state of the
thyristor is called the forward blocking state. In the triggering process of the thyristor, transition occurs from the forward
blocking state to the conducting state.
Figure 46.6 Operating States of a Thyristor (a) Conducting State

(b) Reverse Blocking State (c) Forward Blocking State
46.3.2 Operating States of the Thyristor

The thyristor consists of a crystal of silicon consisting of four layers of silicon
with different types of conductivities, that is, four layers of p or n-type silicon.
Figure 46.7 shows the build-up of the layers schematically. There are two p-type
and two n-type layers positioned alternately and in direct contact with each other,
respectively. The thickness of the various regions are controlled to provide the
required voltage and trigger characteristics. The thyristors have three pn junctions.
As shown in Figure 46.8(a), there is no voltage across the thyristor, the anode
and the cathode are earthed, and the charge carriers are evenly distributed within the
layers. Although the carriers in the layers are free to move, there is no intermingling
of the two kinds of charge carriers. This is no current condition of the thyristor.
If the anode of the thyristor is now connected to the negative pole of the Figure 46.7 Thyristor Construction
supply battery and the cathode to the positive pole, displacement of charge
carriers occurs. The positive holes are attracted by the negative electrode; therefore, they move towards the anode.
Conversely, the negatively charged electrons are repelled by the anode and hence they move in the opposite direction
towards the cathode. The distribution of charge carriers at the three pn junctions will be as follows:
1. pn1 is starved of charge carriers; therefore, pn1 blocks under this polarity.
2. pn2 is enriched with charge carriers; therefore, pn2 is forward biased.
3. pn3 is also starved of charge carriers; therefore, pn3 blocks under this polarity.
Since pn1 is blocked, no current flows through the thyristor, which is in the reverse blocking state.
If the anode of the thyristor is now connected to the positive pole of the supply and the cathode to the negative pole, as
shown in Figure 46.8(c), the following charge displacements occur:
1. pn1 is flooded with charge carriers, and is forward biased.
2. pn2 is starved of charge and blocks.
3. pn3 is also flooded with charge carriers, and is forward biased.
Since pn2 does not allow any current to flow through the thyristor, this state of the thyristor is known as forward blocking.
As shown in Figure 46.8(c), pn1 and pn3 are forward biased and only pn2 is blocking. If, with this polarity, it is possible
to flood this pn junction with charge carriers, pn2 will also be conductive. This is the third operating condition.
This condition cannot be brought about by changing the polarity of the outer electrodes, the anode and the cathode, but it can
be brought about with the aid of the gate and the gate circuit.
Figure 46.8 Operating States of the Thyristor (a) The No Current Condition of the Thyristor (b) The Blocked
Condition of the Thyristor Due to Negative Voltage (c) The Blocked Condition of the Thyristor
Due to Positive Voltage
The transition from the forward blocking to the
conducting state can be brought about by triggering the
thyristor, as shown in Figure 46.9. To do so, a voltage has
to be applied to the gate electrode. A special circuit supplies
this trigger or the control voltage: the thyristor gate circuit.
In its simplest case, a battery is placed between the cathode
and the gate electrode. The triggering process is initiated
by connecting the positive pole of the battery to the gate
electrode and the negative pole to the cathode.
Figure 46.9 Triggering the Thyristor
46.3.3 Triggering
The SCR has become an important circuit device for motor control. Units capable of managing load currents up to 150
amperes with peak reverse voltage ratings of up to 500 volts are available for power control applications.
Power control is accomplished by switching the power on for a greater or smaller part of the a.c. half-cycle.
Figure 46.10 shows an increase in power supply to the load as the turn-on (firing point) is moved along the phase–time axis.
For full-wave control, the other half-cycle is treated in the same manner. The firing point is defined by the timing or position
of a spiked pulse. When applied to a thyristor grid or the gate of an SCR, this pulse is used to switch on the control device.
Gate
pulse
Phase delay 0º
max output
180º
0º Firing
Conduction
angle
angle
Phase delay 90º

half max output
Gate
pulse
90º
90º Firing Cond
angle angle
Gate
pulse
Phase delay 180º
no output
0º
180º Firing
Conduction
angle
angle
Figure 46.10 Phase Shift of Gate Pulse

By controlling the phase angle of the gate signal with respect to that of the supply voltage, the firing (delay) angle of an
SCR may be delayed to any point in the cycle up to 180º. By controlling the firing angles, the average power delivered to
the load can be controlled.
46.4 THYRISTOR CONTROL OF MOTOR

A basic circuit is shown in Figure 46.11(a); the gate firing circuit, called a triggering circuit, contains the complex circuiting
that determines when and for how long the gate is to be positive. When the gate firing circuit triggers the SCR, it is switched
to the on state, as shown in Figure 46.11(b). A pulse of only a few microseconds duration will switch on an SCR. Once fired,
the SCR will remain in the on state; even after the gate circuit is opened, the load current keeps it in the on state. In effect, the
SCR behaves like a latching contactor latching relay. In order for the gate circuit to regain control, the anode current must cease.
This may be accomplished by opening the switch in the anode circuit by using an a.c. driving voltage in the anode circuit, or by
using forced commutation using a reverse-voltage impulse in the anode circuit. The process of turning off the thyristor is called
commutation. Natural commutation occurs when the anode circuit is supplied by an a.c. driving. When using an a.c. driving
voltage, the SCR switches to the off state each time the anode becomes negative, enabling the gate circuit to regain control.
Figure 46.11 (a) Basic Thyristor Circuit and (b) Thyristor in Conducting State
46.5 UNIVERSAL MOTOR CONTROL

SCRs can be used to provide simple and direct control of a universal series motor using the phase-shift control of the rectifier.
During positive alternation, the SCR is allowed to conduct; during negative alternation no conduction is possible. When
the SCR fires early in the cycle, the motor turns at high speed; when the SCR fires late in the cycle, the motor speed is less.
In the basic circuit shown in Figure 46.12(a), an RC network for the rectifier is used to phase-shift the a.c. line voltage;
this voltage is used as the gate signal that controls the SCR conduction. The wave shapes depicted in Figure 46.12(b) can
help explain this circuit’s operation. During the negative alternation of input line voltage, capacitor C1 charges through
R1 and R2 to a peak value EM. After reversal of the line voltage, this capacitor discharges at a rate depending on the time
constant of R1–C1, since diode CR1 effectively removes R2 from the circuit by shunting it with a low forward resistance.
Figure 46.12 Motor Speed Control and Waveforms (a) Speed Control Circuit (b) Waveforms
When capacitor C1 swings positive, current flow passes through the SCR gate through diode CR2, and the rectifier fires, or
conducts. The wave shape of the motor voltage resulting from the conduction of the SCR is shown as the bottom waveform
in Figure 46.12(b). Adjusting R1 varies the charge and discharge times of the capacitor, which, in turn, varies the SCR firing
angle; hence, the motor speed changes. Since this circuit has no feedback, the series motor slows down with increase in load.
46.6 COMPLETE CONTROL SYSTEM

There are several advantages of using SCRs over other methods for motor control: (1) Power loss for a given load current
is reduced. (2) Flash-over and arcing problems are fewer because no tubes are used. (3) There is far less heat dissipation.
(4) Equipment using SCRs does not need delayed starts because filaments need not be preheated. (5) No standby power is
required. (6) Elimination of filament transformers and the small size of the SCR result in a small power unit. (7) The power
unit, in most applications, can be mounted on the pedestal of the machine being controlled. (8) Speed control, adjusted by a
low-powered potentiometer, is smooth and precise. (9) Speed regulation of the control is excellent. (10) Timed acceleration
control prevents damage to the power unit, the motor, and the load.
A basic motor control, as shown in Figure 46.13, consists of a full-wave SCR-type bridge rectifier for armature-current
supply, a full-wave semiconductor rectifier for field excitation, a magnetic trigger to control the SCR conduction, and an
error-sensing circuit to control the SCRs in accordance with the control signals received and the errors detected.
Figure 46.13 Basic Motor Control Circuit
The semiconductor bridge rectifier, using SCRs for control, delivers d.c. to the armature. The magnetic amplifier is phase
controlled to adjust the average output current according to commands received, such as start, stop, and speed setting. The
error-sensing circuit corrects for errors and changes detected in the system. Motor speed is sensed by measuring the voltage
developed across the armature of the motor. This armature voltage is compared against a Zener-diode reference voltage
applied across the speed-setting potentiometer. The error is fed as a signal to the magnetic trigger, which accordingly
adjusts the firing angle of the SCRs to eliminate the error. The IR compensating circuit is used to correct for the error in
sensing speed due to change in the armature current with load. An input signal to the current-limiting circuit is derived from
the IR compensating network. This signal is used to modify the reference voltage, thus preventing the armature current
from exceeding a specified limit.
S UM M A RY
1. In a thyratron control, the control signal, by varying 5. Thyristors have three operating states.
the time duration of the tube’s conduction, controls the 6. The third state can be brought about by triggering.
current. 7. The firing point is defined by the timing or the position
2. Thyratrons are used for reversible motor speed control. of a spiked pulse.
3. Thyristors act as a combined switch and diode. 8. By controlling the firing angle, the average power
4. Thyristors have an extra electrode, the gate. delivered to the load can be controlled.
9. Once fired, the SCR will remain in the on state, even 11. For the gate circuit to regain control, the anode current
after the gate circuit is opened. must cease.
10. The process of turning off a thyristor is called 12. Once fired, the SCR behaves like a latching relay.
commutation.
1. What is the additional operating state that distinguishes 5. When the polarity of thyristor is positive, two operating
the thyristor from the diode called? states occur. These are
(a) Conducting (b) Forward blocking (a) Reverse blocking and conducting
(c) Reverse blocking (b) Reverse blocking and forward blocking
2. The triggering process can be initiated from only one (c) Conducting and forward blocking
operating state of the thyristor. Which is it? 6. The thyristor structure is made up of p-type and n-type
(a) The reverse blocking state layers of silicon, consisting of a total of
(b) The conducting state (a) Three layers (b) Four layers
(c) The forward blocking state 7. Which charge carriers take part in maintaining the
3. How can the thyristor be tuned off? forward current?
(a) By interrupting the gate current (a) Electrons or holes
(b) By interrupting the anode current (b) Electrons and holes
(c) By reversing the polarity of the voltage in the anode 8. The triggering process can be initiated
circuit (a) Only in the reverse blocking state
4. From the following terms, select the three operating (b) Only in the forward blocking state
states of the thyristor. (c) At any time
(a) Triggering (b) Forward blocking 9. Because of its characteristic property, the method of
(c) Firing (d) Reversing blocking controlling a thyristor is called
(e) Conducting or on state (f) Regulating (a) Continuous control (b) Pulse triggering
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) & (c) 4. (b), (d) & (e) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b).
1. What property does the thyristor have that the diode 4. How many pn junctions does the thyristor have?
does not have? 5. Which current can cause the thyristor to change from
2. What is the additional electrode on the thyristor called? the forward blocking state to the on state?
3. Name the thyristor’s operating states? 6. What type of triggering is used for the thyristor?
Per-unit System
47
OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn about: Zeq,HS
 Per-unit calculations use simpler IHS Req,HS JXeq,HS

numbers and are less subject to errors
Per-unit fractions are unit-less, as they
 I0
are always the ratios of the same inputs Ife IM
Zpn is universally proportional to the

square of the base voltage and directly jXM Zload,HS = k2Zshort,LS
proportional to the base kVA VT
A per-line voltage is the same as a per-

unit phase voltage. The use of 3 in
three phase is almost eliminated
Per-unit values are usually less than
 Voltage regulation from per unit values
unity
Three-phase activities are treated iden-

tically as d.c. or single-phase systems
47.1 INTRODUCTION
No discussion of ratings of electric machinery would be complete without the mention of the per-unit (p.u.) system. Since
its introduction, it has been fairly extensively used by power engineers with the efficiency of dynamos, transformers,
transmission lines and complete transmission distribution systems. Because of its inherent simplicity, the p.u. system yields
several important advantages as compared to other types of power calculations.
1. Three-phase systems are treated no differently from the d.c. or single-phase systems. The use of 3 in three-phase
systems is almost completely eliminated.
2. Per-unit calculation uses simpler numbers; therefore, it is consequently subject to less errors.
3. In transmission-distribution systems, the various alternators, lines, transformers, protection devices and electric
machines may vary in size and capacity. Their volt drops and losses may also vary considerably. However, with a p.u.-
system using a common base, all p.u. voltage drops and losses are of the same order, thus reducing the entire system
into a simplified single circuit.
4. While dealing with systems containing several cascaded transformers of various kVAs and various transforma-
tion voltages, the p.u. system reduces such a network into a single-line diagram through the choice of a proper
voltage base.
There are various units of resistance, reactance, impedance, voltage, current, power and apparent power when dealing with
any kind of electrical equipment. Units of these quantities may all be expressed in p.u. values as a p.u. fraction of some
base or reference quantity. The p.u. fraction of any quantity (A) may be defined as follows:
Ap.u. = actual value of the quantity A (in any unit)/base value selected for the same quantity (in the same unit) (47.1)
All p.u. fractions are unit-less as they are always the ratio of the same units. Furthermore, p.u values are usually fractions
that are less than unity but they may exceed unity.
Per-unit System 885
47.2 RESISTANCE AS PER UNIT QUANTITY

From Eq. (47.1), p.u. resistance may be defined as follows:
R R R × I b2 R × I b2 (47.2)
R p.u . = = = =
Rb Vb / I b Vb I b Pb
where, R is the actual value of any resistance in ohms (Ω),

Rb is the base value of the resistance in Ω,
Vb is the base voltage in volts (V),
Ib is the base current in amperes (A),
Pb is the base power in Watts (W).
Example 47.1
A separately excited d.c. generator has a rated output voltage of 120 V and an output current of 100 A. The armature
resistance is 0.1 Ω. Find or calculate: (1) base voltage, (2) base current, (3) base resistance and (4) per-unit value of
armature resistance.
Solution:
1. = =
1.Vb rated voltage 120 V
2. I b = rated current = 100 A
3. Vb 120 V
Rb = = = 1.2 Ω
Ι b 100 A
4. R 0.1
R p=
.u . = = 0.083 p.u.
Rb 0.2
Note: While the per-unit resistance is unit-less, it is customary to always append the letter p.u. to the ratios to show that it
represents a per-unit quantity.
47.3 IMPEDANCE AS A PER-UNIT QUANTITY

The derivation of the per-unit impedance follows that of Eq. 47.2 with one notable exception. It is common to use the base
voltage Vb across the base impedance Zb rather than the base current in the impedance. We may first write the base apparent
power in volt-amperes as follows:
V2
VAb = b
Zb
from which the base impedance Zb is
Vb2 V
Zb = = b ohms(Ω) (47.3)
VAb Ib
But by definition, any actual impedance Z in ohms must have a per-unit value of
Z (Ω) VAb kVA b (1000) MVAb ZI

=Z 2 =Z =Z = b (47.4)
Z b (Ω ) Vb Vb2 ( kVb ) Vb
2
With respect to Eq. 47.4 note the following:

1. The p.u. impedance Z p.u. is inversely proportional to the square of the base voltage and directly proportional to the
base kVA.
2. When the units of apparent power are less than 1 kVA, the second term may be used; when the units are in kVA, the
third term may be used.
3. Frequently, in dealing with large commercial equipment rated in MVA, the fourth term may be used, with base voltage
expressed in kilovolts.
4. The fourth term is used to find the Z p.u. of any equipment whose actual impedance is Z, rated voltage is V and rated
current is I. This relation is useful whenever another base current and base voltage have been selected for a given
system as a common base kVA for the entire system (see Example 47.3).
Example 47.2
A single-phase, 500 V, 20 kVA alternator has a rated current of 40 A, an armature resistance of 2 Ω and an armature
reactance of 15 Ω’. Calculate the per unit values of (1) armature resistance, (2) armature reactance and (3) armature
impedance by two methods.
Solution:
R × Ib 2 × 40
1. R p.u. = = = 0.16 p.u.
Vb 500
X × I b 15 × 40
2. jX p.u. = = = j 1.2 p.u.
Vb 500
3. Z p.u. = R p.u + jX p.u. = 0.16 + j 1.2 = 1.211 82.4° p.u.

40 A
Z p.u. = ( 2 + j15 ) = 1.211 82.4° p.u.
500 V
Note: All per-unit ohmic values are found by dividing the actual resistance, reactance or impedance by the base impedance.
Example 47.3
The single-phase alternator of Example 47.2 is to be added to a complete power distribution system whose common base
kVA is 100 kVA and whose voltage is 5000 V. Calculate its new p.u. impedance.
Solution:
2
kVA new  Vorig 
1. Z p.u. (new) = Z p.u. (orig ) ×
kVA orig  Vnew 
2
100  500 
= 1.211 × × 
20  5000 
= 0.06055 p.u.
Note: Assume that we know the original per-unit impedance (Z p.u.[orig]) of a given piece of equipment, along with its
original rated (base) kVA orig. and its original rated (base) V (orig). Also, assume that this equipment is to be added to
a system for which we have selected a new common base voltage and a new kVA, Vnew and kVAnew, respectively. From
Example 47.3, we know that the p.u. impedance varies as the kVA and inversely as square of the base voltage. From this
insight; using the ratio method, we may write the new p.u. impedance as follows:
2
kVA new  Vorig 
Z p.u. (new) = Z p.u. (orig ) (47.5)
kVA orig  Vnew 
47.4 PER-UNIT QUANTITIES FOR THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

One of the advantages of using p.u. quantities is that three-phase circuits are treated identically as d.c. or single phase
circuits. This is because a p.u. line voltage is similar to a p.u. phase voltage. This is shown by Example 47.4.
Example 47.4
A three-phase distribution system has a line voltage of 2300 V and a phase voltage of 1328 V. If the common-baseline
voltage is 69 kV and the common base system phase voltage is 39.84 kV; calculate (1) distribution system p.u. line voltage
and (2) distribution system p.u. phase voltage.
Solution:
V 2.3 kV
1. V p.u. = = = 0.03 p.u.
Vb 69 kV
Vp 1.328 kV
2. V p.u. = = 0.03 p.u.
V pb 39.84 kV
Per-unit System 887
Note: (1) It is customary to use line voltage quantities while working with three-phase systems. (2) It is also customary to
use phase quantities in working with resistance, reactance, impedance and admittance of three-phase alternators, motors,
transformers, and transmission lines—As phase quantities are being compared to common-base phase quantities, there are
no resulting errors, as shown in Example 47.5.
Example 47.5
A 50 MVA, 25 kV, 60 HZ three-phase Y-connected alternator has a synchronous reactance of 1.3 p.u. and a resistance
of 0.05 p.u. Calculate the (1) base impedance of the alternator by two different methods, (2) actual value of synchronous
reactance per phase, (3) actual value of armature stator resistance per phase, (4) synchronous impedance per phase by two
methods and (5) full-load copper losses for all three phases.
Solution:
Vb2 (25 kV) 2
1. Zb = = = 12.5 Ω (from Eq. 47.3)
VAb 50 MVA
S 50 MVA V 25 kV
Ib = b = = 2 kA and Zb = b = = 12.5 Ω
Vb 25 kV Ib 2 kA
2. X S = Z p.u. × Z b = 1.3 × 12.5 = j16.25 Ω
3. R a = R p.u. × Z b = 0.05 × 12.5 = 0.625 Ω
4. Z s = Ra × jX s = 0.625 + j16.25 = 16.26 87.8° Ω
Z s = Z p.u. × Z b = (0.05 + j1.3) p.u. × 12.5
= 16.26 87.8° Ω
5. P = S × R p.u. = 50 MVA × 0.05
= 2.5 MW
To sum up, always use phase quantities for ohmic values and line quantities for voltage values while dealing with three-
phase circuits.
In Example 47.5, the following points are worth noting:
1. The given resistance as a p.u. quantity of 0.05p.u. implies that the full-load total copper losses of the alternator are
5 per cent of the total alternator rating of 50 MVA.
2. The per-unit synchronous impedance is approximately 1.3p.u. The reciprocal of Zsp.u is sometimes called the short-
circuit ratio. It is defined as the ratio of the field current for rated open-circuit armature voltage at rated frequency
to the field current for rated armature current on sustained symmetrical short circuit at rated frequency. This ratio is,
usually, below unity. Consequently, the reciprocal of Zsp.u. = (0.05 + j1.3)p.u. is the short-circuit ratio, which in example
of 37.5 is 1/1.3 = 0.769. This ratio implies that to produce a short-circuit rated current at a low lagging power factor,
more field current is required than to produce an open-circuit rated voltage.
In large synchronous dynamos, the ratio of reactance to resistance is fairly high. Consequently, the synchronous
reactance may be considered the same as the synchronous impedance. In such cases, reciprocal of the synchronous
impedance is used as the short-circuit ratio.
3. The base current is found from the ratio Sb/Vb, total kVA divided by the line voltage. The factor of 3 is not used for
reasons described earlier.
47.5 PER-UNIT SYSTEM-TRANSFORMER CALCULATIONS

The p.u. system is especially useful in making transformer calculations for both regulation and efficiency for the following
reasons:
1. The p.u. values of Z1eq p.u. and Z2eq p.u. are the same. No transformation ratios are required when working with p.u. values.
2. Similarly R1eq p.u. is equal to R2eq p.u. and X1eq p.u. is equal to X2eq p.u.. This simplifies calculations considerably.
3. The applied short-circuit test voltage may be considered as either I2b Ze2 or I1b Ze1 without the need for voltage
transformation conversion.
4. Basically, all that is required to compute voltage regulation is the (polar) value of Zeq p.u..
5. In the same way, the following factors are required to calculate the efficiency at any load factor (LF):
i. Power factor of the load (usually given).
ii. Req p.u. (see 2 above).
iii. PCL p.u., the p.u. transformer core loss.
6. At rated load, the following simple equalities are unity:
i. I1p.u. = I2per = 1 (unity).
ii. V2 p.u. = 1 (unity).
iii. S1p.u. = S2p.u. = 1 (unity).
47.5.1 Per-unit Magnitudes of a Transformer Defined

Base voltages–Primary rated voltage=V1b
Secondary rated voltage=V2b
Base volt-amperes–primary rated volt-amperes=Sb=VAb
Primary rated volt-amperes=Secondary rated volt-amperes (47.6)
Base currents–Primary rated current=I1b=Sb/V1b
Base impedance–Secondary rated current=I2b=Sb/V2b (47.7)
V
Transformation ratio k (by convention)–Primary base impedance Z1b= 1b
I 1b
V2b
Transformation ratio k (by conversion)–Secondary base impedance Z2b=
I 2b
1/2
V1b I 2b N1  Z1b 
Per-unit Transformer Impedances– k = = = (47.8)
V2b I1b N 2  Z 2b 
At rated load, the base impedances are:
V1b
Z1b = = k 2 Z 2b (47.9)
I1b
The equivalent impedance reflected to the primary is equivalent to
Z1eq = k 2 Z 2eq (47.10)
The p.u. equivalent primary impedance may be defined as:
Z1eq Z1e2 Z 2eq I 2b Z 2eq I1b Z1eq
Z1eq p.u. = = 2 = = = = Z eq p.u. (47.11)
Z1b k Z2 b Z 2b V2b V1b
Note:
1. Zeq p.u. is a complex quantity having both magnitude and angular direction.
2. The p.u. values of Z1eq p.u. and Z2eq p.u. are the same. No transformation ratio is required when working with p.u. values.
3. The applied short circuit test voltage is I2b Z2eq or I1b Z1 eq.
4. High-voltage transformers usually exhibit higher values of Zeq p.u. as a higher voltage drop is required to produce short-
circuit current.
Example 47.6
The per cent resistance and per cent reactance of a 75 kVA, 2400-240V, 60 HZ transformer are 0.90 and 1.30, respectively.
Determine the (1) percent impedance, (2) rated high-side current, (3) equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance
referred to the high side (HS), and (4) high side fault current if an accidental short circuit of 0.016 Ω (resistive) occurs at
the secondary when 2300 V is impressed across the primary.
Solution:
1. Z = (R ) 2 + (X ) 2 = (0.90) 2 + (1.30) 2
= 1.58%
75000
2. I HS = = 31.25 A
2401
I HS R eqHS
3. R p.u.. =
VHS
Per-unit System 889
31.25R eqHS
0.009 =
2400
R eqHS = 0.691 Ω
I HS X eq HS
X p .u . =
VHS
31.25 X eqHS
0.013 =
2400
X eqHS = 0.998 Ω
4. Equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 47.1.
Figure 47.1 Equivalent Circuit (For Example 47.6)
Z in = Z eqHS + k 2 Z short
2400
k = = 10
240
Zin = ZeqHs + k2ZShort k = Z in = 0.691 + j 0.998 + 102 (0.016) = 2.499 23.54° Ω
VHS 2300 0°
I HS = = = 920 − 23.54° A
Z HS 2.499 23.54°
Note:
1. Information regarding the impedance of transformer windings is generally available from the manufacturer or from
the transformer nameplate as per-unit (p.u.) impedance or per cent impedance.
2. Vrated and Irated are also called base voltage and base current, respectively.
3. Per-unit impedance of a transformer is often expressed in terms of base impedance obtained from the transformer rating.
V
Z base = rated
I rated
4. Irated, Vrated, Req, Xeq and Zeq must be all high-side values or all low-side values.
5. This is a huge advantage when making calculations involving systems that have more than one transformer, each at a
different voltage level.
47.5.2 Per-unit Transformer Copper Losses and Per-unit Equivalent Resistance

The per-unit transformer copper losses may be obtained in several ways:
2
1   r1 
PCu = I12 r1 + I 22 r2 =  2  × r1 + I 22 r2 = I 22  4 + r2  = I 22 R 2eq (at any load ) (47.12)
 k k 
See Figure 47.2  
2
 r  I 2  I 
k
1
 k
( )
PCu = I 22  2 + r 2  = 22 = r1 + k 2 r2 =  2  R1eq = I 22 R 2eq
 k 
(47.13)
where, r1 and r2 are the internal ohmic resistance of the transformer primary and secondary, respectively.
Figure 47.2 Complete Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
I 22 R 2eq I12 R 1eq

PCu p. u . = =
(at any load ) (47.14)
Sb Sb
But at rated load I 2 = I 2b and therefore t he rated per unit copper loss is
I 22b R2eq I 2b I 22b R2eq R2eq
(rated) PCu p.u. = = R 2eq = = = R2eq p.u. (47.15)
Sb V2b I 2b V2b Z 2b
Using reflected impedances from secondary to primary yields
k 2 R2eq R 1eq
(rated) PCu p.u. = 2 = = R 1eq p. u. (47.16)
k Z 2b Z1b
As the copper losses at rated load are the same when expressed in p.u. units
P
(rated) =PCu p.u. R=
1eq p.u. R 2eq p.u. = sc (47.17)
Sb
47.5.3 Per-unit Equivalent Leakage Reactance and Transformer Core Losses

All ohmic values (resistance, reactance and impedance) are divided by the base impedance or
X1eq k 2 X 2eq X 2eq I 2b X 2eq
X eq p.u. = = = = = Z 2eq p.u. − R 2eq p.u. (47.18)
Z1b k2 Z 2b Z 2b V2b
In small transformers, it is necessary to specify both Xeq p.u. and Req p.u. but in large transformers, the ratio of reactance to
resistance is so large that the resistance may be considered to be negligible and Xeq p.u. Zeq p.u..
Let PCL = Physt + Peddy, as there is little need to separate the iron losses in a transformer. At rated voltage and frequency,
these losses are constant and independent of load, so we may write forth— for the core loss.
V2 (47.19)
PCL = 1
RCL
where RCL is the core loss resistance
Note:
1. Typical values for Req p.u. are approximately 0.01 or less. For the average transformer, the actual copper loss (in Watts)
is approximately 0.01Sb or 1 per cent of the total rated output.
2. The primary and secondary values of Req p.u. are the same.
3. Typical values of PCL p.u. are approximately 0.01, while values of RCL p.u. are approximately 100. The core loss PCL, is
found directly from the open circuit test watt meter readings of the transformer.
47.5.4 Per-unit Transformer Currents

The no-load transformer current I0 consists of two components: (1) a core loss current ICL, in phase with the applied voltage
V1 and (2) a magnetizing current Im, which lags V1 by 90°. For a fairly large transformer, we may write the core loss
component as follows:
ICL = 0.01Ib or ICL p.u. = 0.01
(47.20)
and Im = j0.05Ib or Im p.u. = j0.05
Per-unit System 891
for the magnetizing component of the current.

Expressing the no-load current in p.u. units, we may write the following:
I0 p.u. = ICL p.u. + jIm p.u. ≈ 0.01 + j0.05 ≈ 0.051 (47.21)
The primary rated and secondary rated currents are:
At rated load, I0 ≈ I0p.u . × I1b ≈ 0.51 × I1b
(47.22)
From these we may conclude that I1p.u. and I2p.u. at rated load are unity.
47.5.5 Per-unit Voltage Regulation

From the equivalent circuit of a tightly-coupled iron core transformer, Figure 47.3, we may write the following relation
V1
using KVL, = V2 + I2Z2eq
k
and dividing both sides by V2b to obtain p.u. values:
V1 V I 2 Z 2eq
= 2 + (47.23)
kV2b V2b V2b
But as kV2b=V1b and also V2b=I2bZ2b, then
Figure 47.3 Equivalent Circuit of a Tightly-coupled Iron-core Transformer at Unity Power

Factor
by direct substitution we get the following

V1 V I 2 Z 2eq
= 2 +
V1b V2b I 2b Z2b
which yields the per-unit relation
V1p.u. = V2p.u. + ( I 2p.u. ) ( Z 2p.u. B ) (47.24)
The relation of Eq. 47.24 holds for the voltage relations of any iron-core transformer at any load. But as voltage regulation
is defined at rated load, at any power factor, we may note for this specific case in terms of absolute values:
V2 = V2b and V2p.u. = 1
I 2 = I 2b and I 2p.u. = 1
Substituting these equalities for the rated load conditions into Eq. 47.24 yields the following p.u. relation:
V1p.u. = 1 0 ° + (1 ±θ )(Z eqp.u. B) (47.25)
where, +θ is a leading power factor angle produced by rated load,

−θ is a lagging power factor angle and Zeq p.u B is found from short-circuit test data.
Once V1p.u. is evaluated, its magnitude as an absolute quantity yields the voltage regulation (VR) as a decimal quantity
when substituted in the following equation:
VR = V1p.u. − 1 (47.26)
The voltage regulation of a transformer (operating at rated voltage and rated current) may also be determined from the
power factor of the load and the known per-unit values of transformer reactance and resistance without having to calculate
load currents and voltage drops. Referring to Figure 47.4 (a), we obtain the following:
ELS = I LS R eqLS + I LS j X eq LS + VLS , (47.27)
where, VLS=output voltage, breaker closed

E’LS=output voltage, breaker open
The component phasers in Eq. (47.27) are shown on the phasor diagram in Figure 47.4 (b) for a lagging power factor
load, with the current phasor drawn as the reference phaser at 0°. The diagram is not drawn to scale.
Figure 47.4 (a) Equivalent Circuit (b) Phaser Diagram, Lagging Power-factor Load
(c) Phaser Diagram Leading Power-factor Load
The magnitude of the no-load low-voltage side is obtained by resolving VLS into vertical and horizontal components and by
applying the Pythagorus theorem. Referring to Figure 47.4 (b), we obtain the following:
Per-unit System 893
ELS = (I LS Req LS + VLS cos) 2 + (I LS X eq LS + VLS sinθ ) 2 (47.28)
Enl − Vrated
Now Reg = (47.29)
Vrated
where, Enl = voltmeter reading at the output terminals, when no load is connected to the transformer.
Vrated = Voltmeter reading at the output terminals when the transformer is supplying rated apparent power.
Note:
1. The no-load and full-load voltages of Eq. 47.29 must be all high-side values or all low-side values.
2. The voltage regulation will be the same, however, irrespective of whether all high-side values or all low-side values
are used.
Substituting Eq. 47.28 into Eq. 47.29 and simplifying the equation, we obtain:
(I LS Req LS + VL cosθ ) 2 + (I L X eq LS + VL sinθ ) 2 − VLS
reg p.u. = (47.30)
VLS
Dividing numerator and denominator by VLS, we get:
2 2
 I LS Req LS   I LS X eq LS 
reg p.u. =  + cos θ  +  + sin θ  − 1 (47.31)
 VLS   VLS 
Zp.u.=(I rated Zeq)/V rated,
Rp.u.= (I rated Req)/V rated (47.32)
Xp.u.= (I rated Xeq)/V rated,
Zp.u.= per-unit impedance,
Rp.u.= per-unit resistance,
Xp.u.= per-unit reactance.
Substituting appropriate equations from equation set (47.31) unit into Eq. 47.31, we get:
reg p.u . = (R p.u. + cos θ ) 2 + (X p.u. + sin θ ) 2 − 1 (47.33)
Note:
1. Angle θ, as shown in Figure 47.4, is called the power-factor angle.
2. It is positive for lagging power-factor loads.
θ = cos–1Fp
3. It is negative for leading power-factor loads.
θ = −cos–1Fp
Example 47.7
A single-phase distribution transformer, rated at 50 kVA 7200-600 V2, is supplying rated kVA at 600 V and 0.75 PF
lagging. The per cent resistance and per cent reactance are 1.3 and 3.8, respectively.
Determine the (1) transformer regulation, (2) secondary voltage when the load is disconnected and (3) input voltage that
must be supplied to the primary to obtain rated secondary voltage when carrying a rated load at 0.75 PF lagging.
Solution:
1. θ = cos−1 0.750 = 41.41°, sin 41.41 = 0.661.
reg p.u. = ( Rp.u. + cos θ ) 2 + ( X p.u. + sin θ ) 2 − 1
= (0.0130 + 0.750) 2 −1 (0.038−1 0.661) 2 −1

= 1.035−1 = 0.035 or 3.5%
Vnl − Vrated
2. reg p.u. =
Vrated
Vnl − 600
0.035 = ; Vnl = 621 V
600
3. The voltage ratio obtained from the voltage ratings on the transformer nameplate are approximately equal to the turns
ratio of the transformer shown in Figure 47.4 (a), which is expressed mathematically as follows:.
′
EHS 7200
=
′
ELS 600
(47.34)
7200
EHS = ELS ×
600
Referring to Figure 47.4 (a) with no load connected to the secondary load breaker (load open), I.L.=0. Thus, there are no
voltage drops in the secondary circuit, and
′ = Vnl = 621 V
ELS
Substituting into Eq. 47.34, we get:
′ 7200
EHS 7200
⇒ EHS
′ = 621 × = 7452.5 V
′ 600
ELS 600
Example 47.8
Assume the transformer in Example 47.7 is operating at rated kVA and 600 V, but the PF of the load is 0.75 leading.
Determine the (1) transformer regulation, (2) secondary voltage when the transformer is disconnected, (3) input voltage
that must be supplied to the primary to obtain rated secondary voltage when carrying a rated load at 0.75 PF leading.
Solution:
1. θ = − cos−1 0.750 = − 41.41°; sin (− 41.41°) = − 0.661
reg p.u. = ( R p.u. + cos θ ) 2 + ( X p.u. + sin θ ) 2 − 1
= (0.0130 + 0.750) 2 + (0.038 − 0.661) 2 − 1

reg p.u. = 0.9853 − 1 = − 0.0147 or − 1.5%
Vnl − Vrated V − 600
2. reg p.u. = ; −0.0147 = nl
Vrated 600
Vnl = 591.2 V
7200
3.
’
EHS = 591.2 × = 7094 V
600
Note:
1. For lagging power factor loads the transformer regulation is positive.
2. This is also true for unity power-factor loads.
3. For loads that have sufficient leading power factors, the voltage regulation will be negative.
Voltage regulation at other than rated load: For transformers operating at other than rated load, Eq. 47.33 must be suit-
ably modified to reflect the actual per-unit load to the secondary. Making the following modification:
reg p.u. = ( S p.u. × R p.u. + cos θ ) 2 + (S p.u. × X p.u. + sin θ ) 2 − 1

(47.35)
I S
I p.u. = = S p.u. =
I rated S rated
where, Sp.u. = per-unit apparent power of load (PU),

S = apparent power of load (VD),
Srated = rated apparent power of transformer (VA),
Ip.u. = per-unit load current (PU),
I = load current (A),
Irated = rated current of secondary (A).
Example 47.9
A 25 kVA, 7620-480 V distribution transformer is supplying a 10 kVA load at 0.65 power-factor lagging. The per cent
IR drop and the per cent IX drop are 1.2 and 1.4, respectively. Determine the transformer regulation for the specific load.
Per-unit System 895
Solution:
S 10
S p.u. = = = 0.04; 0 = cos −1 0.65 = 49.49°; sin 49.49° = 0.76
S rated 25
reg p.u. = (0.04 × 0.012 + 0.65) 2 + (0.04 × 0.014 + 0.76) 2 − 1

= 0.73 or 73.8%
47.5.6 Per-unit Transformer Efficiency

Unlike voltage regulation, which is computed (usually) at rated load, transformer efficiency is calculated from no load to
beyond rated load. At any load, efficiency η may be found from the following:
P Po Po p.u.
η = out = (47.36)
Pin Po + PCL + PCu Po p. u. + PCL p. u. + Pcu p.u.
where, Pop.u. , is defined as Po/Sb.
PCLp.u. is PCL/Sb (from open-circuit test).
PCu p.u. is PCu/Sb (at rated load PCu p.u = Req p.u. from short-circuit test. But since the load factor (LF) is defined as the ratio S/Sb
than transformer efficiency at any load and any power factor (PF) is
(L.F.) (P.F.)
(47.37)
(LF )(PF ) + PCL p.u. + (LF ) 2 (R eq p.u. )
47.5.7 Maximum Transformer Efficiency

As with any machine, maximum efficiency occurs where the fixed losses, PCL p.u., equal the variable losses, (LF) 2 Req p.u.; for
a transformer. Stated as equality, the maximum efficiency condition is
(LF) Req p.u. = PCL p.u. (47.38)
Then the load factor at which maximum efficiency occurs is as follows:
S PCL p.u.
LF = = (47.39)
Sb Req p.u.
47.5.8 Changing Per-unit Base Quantity from One System to Another

When several items of equipment (motors, lines, transformers and alternators) are used in a common system, an arbitrary
choice of volt-ampere base must be made so that the same base is used throughout the entire system. As each item of equipment
has its own base values (Vb1, Ib1, Sb1, Zb1, etc.) it becomes necessary to convert these to some selected (common) base for all
system equipment. The subscript 1 designates the original base and the subscript 2 designates the new base arbitrarily selected
in all equations that follow:
Changing the base voltage from base 1 to base 2: Per-unit voltages only
V 
Vb 2p.u. = Vb1p.u.  b1  (47.40)
 Vb 2 
Changing the base current from base 1 to base 2 p.u. currents only
 V   VA 
I b 2 p.u. = I b1 p.u.  b 2   b1  (47.41)
 Vb 1   VAb 2 
Changing the ohmic values from base 1 to base 2: Per-unit resistance, reactance and impedance in per-unit values only
2
 V   VA 
Z b 2 p.u. = Z b1 p.u.  b1   b 2  (47.42)
 Vb 2   VAb1 
Changing the power values from base 1 to base 2: active, quadrature and apparent power in per-unit values only
 VA 
Pb 2 p.u. = Pb1 p.u.  b1  (47.43)
 VAb 2 
Example 47.10
Given the line diagram shown in Figure 47.5: Calculate the (1) resistance of the load RL; (2) base impedance of the load
ZbL; (3) Per-unit load impedance ZLp.u.; (4) per-unit impedance of the transformer T2, Z2 p.u.; (5) per-unit impedance of the
transformer T1, Z1p.u.; (6) draw the equivalent line circuit diagram; (7) base current in load IbL; (8) per-unit load current
IL p.u.; (9) per-unit voltage across load in complex form VRp.u.; (10) per-unit voltage of the source in complex form Vsp.u.;
(11) actual voltage across source, in volts; (12) per-unit voltage at point x in the second transmission loop (or level) and
(13) voltage at point, in volts.
Figure 47.5 Line Diagram for Simple Transmission System .
Solution:
PL 14400
1. RL = = = 1Ω
V2 (120) 2
2.
Vb23 (120)2
Z bL = = = 1Ω
Sb3 14.4 kVA
RL 1Ω
3. Z1 p.u. = = = (1 + j 0) p.u.
Z bL 1 Ω
Z 2 p.u. = j 0.25 p.u.
4.
Z1p.u. = j 0.2 p.u.
5.
6. See Figure 47.6
Figure 47.6 Equivalent Line Circuit Reactance Diagram

(for Example 47.10)
Sb3 14400 VA
7. I bL = = = 120 A (resistive)
Vb3 120 V
Ib 120 A
8. I L p.u. = = = (1 + j0) p.u.
I bL 120 A
9. VR p.u. = I L p.u. Z L p.u. = (1 + j 0) (1 + j 0) = (1+ j 0) p.u.
10. VS p.u. = I S p.u. Z t p.u. = (1 + j 0) [ (1 + j 0) + j 0.2 + j 0.25 ]

= (1 + j 0)(1 + j 0.45) = 1 + j 0.45 = 1.096 24.23° p.u.
11. VS = VS p.u..Vb1 = (1.096 24.23°)(120 V) = 131 .6 24.23° p.u.
Per-unit System 897
12. Vx p.u = I x p.u. Z x p.u. = (1 + j 0) (1 + j 0 + j 0.25) = (1+ j 0.25) p.u.
13. Vx = Vx p.u. Vb 2 = (1 + j 0.25)(600 V) = 600+j 150 = 618/14° V
Note:
1. The equivalent line reactance diagram a series circuit, with all impedances expressed in p.u., is a necessary step in the
solution of electric power systems.
2. In solving the equivalent line reactance diagram, conventional series parallel circuit rules may be used.
3. The transmission line is assumed to be relatively short and its line reactance is assumed to be zero.
4. By reducing the transmission line to a simple series circuit, the current in the load becomes the same as the current
drawn from the source. This simplifies calculations.
Example 47.11
Given the line diagram of a transmission system with a long transmission line shown in Figure 47.7, calculate the (1) per-
unit impedance of transformer T1, (2) per-unit impedance of transformer T2. (3) per-unit impedance of the transmission line
whose reactance is j200 Ω. (4) per-unit voltage across load, VLp.u., (5) draw the equivalent line circuit reactance diagram,
(6) base current in load IbL, (7) per-unit load current in complex from ILp.u., (8) per-unit source voltage VSp.u. and (9) actual
value of source voltage, in volts.
Figure 47.7 Line Diagram for Simple Transmission System with a

Long Transmission Line (for Example 47.11)
Solution:
2 2
V  S   11 kV   100 kVA 
1. ZT 1 = Z1p.u. =  1   2  = j 0.1  = j 0.2 p.u.
 Vb1  S1   11 kV   50 kVA 
2 2
V  S   11 kV   100 kVA 
2. ZT 1 = Z 2p.u. =  1   2  = j 0.1  = j 0.2 p.u.
 Vb3   S1   11 kV   50 kVA 
Vb2 (55 kVA) 2

3. Z b (line) = = = 30250 Ω
Sb 100 kVA
Z (line ) j 200 Ω
4. Z b (line)p.u. = = = j 0.0066 p.u.
Z b (line ) 30250 Ω
VL 10 kV
VL p.u = = = 0.909 + j 0 p.u. (resistive)
VLb 3 11 kV
5. See Figure 47.8
Sb 100 kVA
6. I bL = = = 9.909 A
Vb 3 11 kVA
Figure 47.8 Equivalent Line Circuit Reactance Diagram (for Example 47.11)
PL 50 kW
7. IL = = = 5.6818 Α
VL Cos θ L 11 kw × 0.8
IL 5.6818 ∆
I L p.u. = = = 0.625 p.u. at 0.8 PF lagging
I bL 9 . 090 ∆
I L p.u. = 0.625 (0.8 − j 0.6) = (0.5 − j 0.375) p.u.
8. VS p.u . = V(Series )p.u . + VL p.u. = (0.5 − j 0.375)( j 0.2 + j 0.006 6 + j 0.2) + (0.909 + j 0)
= (0.1525 + j 0.2033) + (0.909 + j 0)=1.0616 + j 0.2033 = 1.08110.84°p..u.

9. VS = VS p.u. + Vb1 = (1.08110.84° p.u. (11 kV)
= 11.9 10.84° kV
Note:
1. As no base voltage is given for the source, the individual per-unit impedances are referred to their own specific voltage
levels.
2. As the source kVA is given, it serves as the base kVA for the entire system.
3. The base impedance for the line is found using its own voltage level and the source kVA.
4. Similarly, the base current (Ib3) for the load loop is found using its own voltage level and the source kVA.
5. The load current IL p.u. (a complex quantity) is the series current for the extra equivalent line reactance diagram.
6. It is usually customary to set the source p.u. reactance at 1 p.u.
This assumes that the source output impedance and its base impedance are the same.
Example 47.12
Given the line diagram of a transmission system shown in Figure 47.9, Calculate the (1) p.u. impedance of T1,Z1p.u.; (2) p.u.
impedance of T2,Z2p.u, (3) base voltage of the long transmission line between T1 and T2,VB(line); (4) per-unit impedance of the
transmission line, Z(line) p.u.; (5) per-unit impedance of the motor load M1; (6) per-unit impedance of the motor load M2; (7)
per-unit impedance of the motor load M3; (8) draw the single-line reactance diagram for the entire transmission system.
Solution:
Figure 47.9 Line Diagram of Transmission System (for Example 47.12)

Per-unit System 899
2 2
 MVA 2   V2   80   30 
1. Z1p.u. = Z p.u.1  = j 0.1 = j 0.0703 p.u.
 
 MVA1   V1   100   32 
2
 80 MVA   30 kV
2. Z 2 p.u. = j 0.15   = j 0.1055 p.u.
100 MVA  32 kV
2
V   32 kV 
3. Vb (line ) = Vb  2 = 100 kV  = 106.6 kV
V1  30 kV 
 MVAb  80 MVA
4. Z (line ) p.u. = Z (line )  = j 60 = j0.4224 p.u.
 Vb 2  (106.6 kV) 2
2
 80 MVA   28 kVA 
5. Z M1 p.u. = j 0.15    = j0.4594 p.u.
 20 MVA  32 kVA 
2
6.  80   28 
Z M 2 p.u. = j 0.25    = j 0.4375 p.u.
 35   32 
2
7.  80   28 
Z M 3 p.u. = j 0.2    = j 0.49 p.u.
 25   32 
8. See Figure 47.10
Figure 47.10 Equivalent Line Circuit Reactance Diagram (for Example 47.12)
Note:
1. The given p.u. impedances of the motors and the transformers, respectively, have been referred to the base voltage and
the base MVA of the alternator.
2. The equivalent line reactance diagram (in its simplest form) is shown in Figure 47.10.
S UM M A RY
1. All p.u. fractions are unitless, as they are always ratios 6. The p.u. system is especially useful in making trans-
of the same units. former calculations of both regulation and efficiency.
2. P.u. values are usually fractions that are less than unity, I rated Z eq I rated Req I rated Z eq
but they may exceed unity. = 7. Z p.u. = ; R p.u. ; X p.u. =
Vrated Vrated Vrated
3. The p.u. value of any quantity (A) may be defined as:
Vrated V 2 rated
Ap.u. = actual value of the quantity A (in any unit)/base 8.=Z base = ;
value selected for the same quantity (in the same I rated Srated
unit). Z eq Req X eq
4. It is customary to always append the letter p.u. to the = 9. Z p.u. =
Z base
; R p.u.
Z base
; X p.u. =
Z base
ratios to show that it represents a per-unit quantity.
5. A p.u. line voltage is the same as a p.u. phase voltage. 10. Z=p.u. R= p.u. j X p.u.
1. The p.u. systems are 6. The per unit impedance is
(a) Error free (a) Directly proportional to the base kVA
(b) Subject to less errors (b) Inversely proportional to the base kVA
(c) Subject to more errors (c) Directly proportional to the square of the base voltage
2. In p.u. systems (three phase) the use of (d) Inversely proportional to the square of the base voltage
(a) √3 is eliminated (b) √3 is not eliminated 7. A p.u. line voltage is
3. The p.u. fraction of any quantity A is (a) Similar to a p.u. phase voltage
(a) Actual value of A (in any unit) / base value selected for A (b) Different from a p.u. phase voltage
(in the same unit) 8. When working with p.u. values
(b) Base value selected for A (in any unit) / actual value of A (a) No transformation ratios are required
(in the same unit) (b) Transformation ratios are required
4. It is customary to always append the letter p.u. 9. Per unit impedance of a transformer must all be
(a) To the ratio p.u. (b) Not necessary (a) High-side values
5. It is common practice to use (b) Low-side values
(a) The base voltage Vb across the base impedance Zb (c) Any one can be from any side
(b) The base current Ib in the base impedance Zb
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (a) and (d) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a) or (b).
1. A single-phase, 5 kVA, 100 V alternator has a resis- stray power loss= 0.04 p.u., stray load loss, 0.01 p.u.
tance of 0.2 Ω and a synchronous reactance of j1.0 Ω, Calculate;
calculate: (a) Each of these losses in kW and the total loss
(a) Base voltage, base current and base kVA (b) Efficiency at rated load using these losses in kW
(b) Per-unit rated voltage, current and kVA (c) Rated load efficiency using values expressed in
(c) Base impedance by two methods p.u. units
(d) Per-unit impedance 3. A 25 kVA, 7620-480 V distribution transformer is
(e) Per-unit resistance and reactance supplying a 10 kVA load at 0.65 power factor lagging.
(f) Rated full-load copper losses of the alternator in Watts The percent IR drop and the percent IX drop are 1.2 and
1.4, respectively. Determine the transformer regulation
(g) Efficiency at unity PF rated load if the stray
for the specific load.
power losses are 0.0.5 p.u using two methods:
(1) in kVA units and (2) in p.u units. 4. A 150 kVA, 2300-240 V, 60 HZ transformer is operating
at a rated load and 90% power-factor lagging. The
2. A 30 kW compound generator has the following
resistance and reactance of the transformer, expressed
p.u. resistance values at full load for the following
in per-unit values, are 0.0127 and 0.0380, respectively.
losses, armature copper loss = 0.05 p.u., series field
Determine the inherent voltage regulation.
copper loss = 0.0p.u., series field copper loss = 0.05 p.u.,
ANSWERS (CQ)
1. (a) 100 V, 50 A, 5 kVA (b) all 1 p.u. (c) 2 Ω (d) 0.51 p.u. 2. (a) 2.5, 0.5, 0.25.2.0, 0.5, 5.75 kW (b) 89.69%
(e) 0.1 p.u. (f) 500 W (g) 86.96% 3. reg p.u. = 0.738 or 73.8% 4. 2.84 per cent.
Part C
ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENTS
Watt Meter
Measurements and Error
48
OBJECTIVES
The difference between analog and digital instruments

The need for measurements

Definitions of terms such as accuracy, precision,

sensitivity, resolution, etc.
 Factors affecting accuracy

The significance of noise and signal-to-noise ratio

The practical application of probes and their impor-

tance
The general form of a measurement system

Intelligent instrument and why is it called intelligent


Measurements and error
48.1 INTRODUCTION
Whether an equipment is to be designed, installed, put into operation, or repaired, for all these operations certain electrical
quantities need to be measured. Basic electrical quantities are voltage drop, electric current, and resistance. Separate meters
can be used for measuring these quantities, such as voltmeters for measuring voltage drop, ammeters for measuring current
and Ohm meters for measuring resistance (see Figure 48.1). This is quite inconvenient, impracticable and uneconomical.
Certain meters are designed to measure all of these quantities and are known as multimeters (Figure 48.2). Multimeters
can be either analog or digital.
Except electrostatic meters working on the principle of electrostatics, all meters measure the amount of current flowing
through them.
Measuring instruments are devices that enable one to examine physical events, which are not apparent to our senses.
They convert one kind of stimulus, to which we are normally insensitive, into another that we can detect with our eyes
or ears, e.g., a neon tester converts invisible current into light. A neon tester provides information on whether an electric
circuit is live, but it does no more than give us a visible signal (see Figure 48.3). It does not convert the signal into a nu-
merical value.
We are not in a position to answer the simplest technical question about anything without facts and figures. ‘When you
can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it, and without measure-
ment we cannot say what we are speaking about’, said Lord Kelvin.
Measurement generally involves using an instrument as a physical measure of determining a quantity or variable. The
instrument serves as an extension of human faculties and in many cases enables a person to determine the value of an
unknown quantity that our unaided human faculties cannot measure. An instrument then may be defined as a device for
determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
Measuring instruments measure the behaviour of free electrons. Their behaviour is determined by the nature of the
circuit or component part in which they are present; under normal conditions they act in a predictable way and under
Figure 48.1 Different Types of Meters Most Commonly Encountered (Panel Meters)
Figure 48.2 Multimeters can be either Analog (a) or Digital (b)
abnormal conditions they act differently in an unpredictable way. By suitable

measurements, we can find out exactly what is happening.
48.2 DEFINITIONS
Measurement work uses a number of terms, which are as follows.
Instrument: A device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity
or variable.
Accuracy: The closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
actual value of the variable being measured, a qualitative assessment of free-
dom from error.
Precision: A measure of the reproducibility of measurements, i.e., for a Figure 48.3 A Neon Tester Gives a
given fixed value of a variable, precision is a measure of the degree to which Simple Visible Signal
Measurements and Error 905
successive measurements differ from one another; the degree of agreement among repeated measurements of the same
object or event.
Sensitivity: The ratio of the output signal or response of the instrument to a change of input or measured variables; the
extent of a response to an input stimulus.
Resolution: The smallest change in a measured value to which the instrument will respond.
Error: Deviation from the true values of the measured variable, the difference between a measured value or condition,
and the true specified or theoretically correct value or condition.
48.3 ACCURACY TO MEASURE ELECTRON PERFORMANCE

All test equipment must use a portion of the electrons’ energy in the circuit. If this is abundant, a substantial sample
can be taken with negligible effect. But when the energy is small, as is usually the case, only a small sample can
be taken without disturbing the operation of the circuit, thus
obtaining a false reading. This is called loading the circuit. As
an example, in Figure 48.4, a voltmeter with a d.c. resistance of
10 kΩ is used to measure the voltage across 10 kΩ load. Before
connecting the voltmeter, the voltage between A and B was 40
V (4 mA×10 kΩ). However, after the voltmeter is connected,
the resistance between A and B will be only 5 kΩ. This allows
the current in the circuit to increase to 5 mA, resulting in the
potential drop between A and B changing to 25 V (5 mA×5 kΩ), Figure 48.4 Loading Effect of a Meter
which is a serious error. Measurement
Obviously, we should have used a meter with less loading ef-
fect. A meter with a d.c. resistance of 10 MΩ would cause negligible circuit disturbance and give an accurate measure-
ment, because it would change the potential drop between A and B by only 0.04 V. In a circuit where electron flow is
small, a more sensitive instrument should be used; the choice of test instrument has a lot to do with the accuracy of the
measurement.
Friction in the movement of a meter may cause the pointer to stop at a different place on the dial, although measur-
ing the same quantity each time. This is an example of random error. It is not only limited to sticky meters but occurs
to some extent in all the test equipment. As precision of measurement means repeatability of readings, we can only
obtain by reducing random error as much as possible.
Imbalance in the meter movement might result in a constant offset of all readings, so that they will have precision (re-
peatability), but not accuracy. This kind of inaccuracy is called systematic error. Careful design and calibration are required
to narrow the gap between measured values and true values caused by random and systematic errors.
But even when all errors have been reduced to a minimum, there will still remain some differences between real and indi-
cated values. This, difference is expressed as a percentage. For example, a meter may be said to have an accuracy of ±2 per
cent of full scale. This means that its readings will always be within 2 per cent of the maximum value that can be indicated
on the scale. If the full-scale value is 100 V, then no reading anywhere on the scale will vary more than 2 V from the true
value. All instruments have some errors usually expressed as a percentage.
48.4 FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY

Most test instruments can operate well outside the range of temperature people work in, but under normal conditions,
they will be used at about +20 °C (68 °F). However, laboratory test equipment, especially calibration standards,
require an environment more closely controlled because even very small temperature variations affect the accuracy of
measurements. It is not advisable to operate any test equipment at higher than normal temperature.
For general use, a relative humidity not in excess of 90 or 95 per cent is satisfactory. Above this level, serious leak-
age would occur because of excessive dampness. Laboratory equipment has to be operated within narrower limits.
Barometric pressure is seldom a problem at the ground level, but may become so at higher altitude. Most test equip-
ment would operate satisfactorily up to about 4500 m (15000 feet).
Test equipment should be able to withstand normal handling and transportation, but should not be subject to rough
treatment.
Adaptive shielding and grounding should be provided for all test equipment. Generally, the cabinet or dust cover
of an instrument is metal; it satisfactorily excludes any unwanted interference. However, this is true only if it is well
grounded. The third pin of the power plug gives an electrical ground, necessary for safety reasons, but this is by no
means perfect as there are often considerable lengths of conduit and wire between the wall and the real ground. On
account of the presence of resistance along this path, especially in a dry climate, considerable unwanted voltage can
be present on the chassis or case.
A real ground should be a copper rod or tube driven deeply into moist earth, or an equivalent, connected with
thick copper cable by the shortest possible route to the chassis or cabinet. Domestic water pipes usually work well
enough if the run of the pipe is not too long, but in a factory they often run for long distance and offer considerable
resistance.
Much of the pickup will be in the form of hum, which is a low audio frequency having the same frequency as
that of the power line or a harmonic thereof, introduced into the signal paths by induction, leakage or insufficient
filtering.
Any electrical disturbance that causes undesirable responses in electronic equipment is called interference. This
could be undesired signals, stray currents from electrical apparatus or other causes such as static from atmospheric
disturbances.
A special case is noise, which is unwanted energy, usually of random character, present in any transmission chan-
nel or device, and due to any cause. It may be due to the electrons themselves in the circuit under test or connected to
them as the movement of each electron is a tiny current that may be amplified enormously in a power amplifier; the
accumulation of millions of electron movements creates noise.
The unwanted interference competes with the wanted signal. The smaller the signal, the greater the problem, as in
this case, the signal will be drowned in noise. The ratio of the magnitude of the signal to that of the noise is the signal
to noise ratio. This can be improved in many cases by a combi-
nation of interference reduction and avoidance of unnecessary
signal attenuation.
Loss of signal strength can be caused by impedance mis-
matches. This occurs when the output impedance of the cir-
cuit under test is not the same as that of the connecting cable
impedance or the input impedance of the test instrument. An
impedance mismatch may also introduce distortion and phase
shift. Of course, this does not apply to d.c. connections and
is much worse at higher frequencies than at lower ones. Dis-
similar impedances should be connected by using a matching
pad (see Figure 48.5).
A probe can avoid loading, and mismatches. Probes frequently
attenuate the signal by fixed amounts, such as ×10 or ×100,
which means that the signal is decreased by these factors. Such
reductions are necessary with signal voltages higher than what Figure 48.5 Matching Pads
the test equipment can withstand and also to increase the input
impedance of some instruments and to prevent loading. Many probes also contain adjustments where they can be matched
exactly to the instruments with which they are used. Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) probes are illustrated in Figure 48.6.
48.5 MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

In general, measurement systems can be considered to have three basic constituent elements.
1. The sensing element, frequently called the transducer, is the element that produces a signal that is related to the quan-
tity being measured. Such elements gather information about the thing being measured and change it into some form,
which enables the rest of the measurement system to give a value to it.
2. The signal converter takes the signal from the sensing element and converts it into a condition suitable for the dis-
play part of a measurement system or for use in a control system. The signal converter can be composed of three
subelements: a signal conditioner that converts the signal from the sensing element into a physical form suitable for
the display, a signal processor that improves the quality of the signal, e.g., amplifies it, and a signal transmitter to
convey the signal some distance to the display.
3. The display element works when the output from the measuring system is displayed, the display element takes the
information from the signal converter and presents it in a form that enables and allows it to recognize it, e.g., a pointer
moving across a scale.
The general form of a measurement system is thus a transducer connected to a signal converter, which in turn is
connected to a display element. It can be represented by a block diagram of the form as shown in Figure 48.7.
Figure 48.6 Probes (a) 10:1 Divide Probe (b) Equivalent Circuit of Probe Connected to
Oscilloscope (c) Modified Probe Circuit with Trimmer Capacitor at the Scope End
Figure 48.7 The General Form of a Measurement Systems

48.5.1 System Transfer Function

For steady-state conditions, the transfer function of a system is the ratio output θο to input θi.
θ
Transfer function G= o (48.1)
θi
A measurement system, however, can be made up of a transducer, signal conditioner and display as shown in Figure 48.8.
Each of these elements has its own transfer function. Thus, for the transducer, transfer function G1 with an input of θi, and
an output to the signal conditioner of θ is
θ1
G1 = (48.2)
θi
Figure 48.8 Transfer Functions for a Measurement System
The signal conditioner transfer functions G2 has an input of θ1 and output of θ2 Thus
θ
G2 = 2
θi (48.3)
The display transfer function G3 has an input of θ2 and an output of θo
θo
G3 = (48.4)
θ2
.
The transfer functions of the measurement system can be written as follows:
θo θ θ θ
= = 1 × 2 × o = (48.5)
θi θi θ i θ
The transfer function of the system is equal to the transfer function of the transducer multiplied by the transfer function
of the signal conditioner multiplied by the transfer function of the display. If the system contained more elements, then
provided the output signal from one element is the sole input to the next, the transfer function of the system is the product
of the transfer function of each of its elements.
48.5.2 Intelligent Instruments

The term intelligent when applied to measurement systems means that a microprocessor or a computer is included in the
system. With a dumb instrument, the system only gives the measure of a quantity, and an observer has to process and
interpret the displayed data. With an intelligent instrument, the measurement is made, further processing occurs and the
data is interpreted. Intelligent instruments can make decisions based on measurements made earlier, carry out calculations
on data, manipulate information and initiate action based on the results obtained.
48.6 CALIBRATION
Calibration is the process of putting marks on a display or checking a measuring system against a standard when the
transducer is in a defined environment.
The basic standards from which all others derive are the primary standards. These are defined by international agree-
ment and are maintained by national establishments. There are seven such primary standards (mass, length, time, current,
temperature, luminous intensity and mole.). There are two supplementary standards (phase angle and solid angle). Primary
standards are used to define national standards, not only in the primary quantities but also other quantities that can be derived
from them. These national standards are, in turn, used to define reference standards, which can be used by national bodies
for the calibration of standards, which are held in calibration centres. These centres then use their standards to carry out
calibration in the industry. In a company, such calibration standards might be used to check the calibration of instrumenta-
tion in day-to-day use.
Table 48.1 lists some currently used quantities and their relationship with the primary standards.
Table 48.1 Derived Units
Quantity Unit Name Unit in Terms

of Primary Units
Acceleration Meter per second squared ms−2
Angular acceleration Radian per second squared rads−2
Angular velocity Radian per second rads−1
Area Square meter m2
Capacitance Farad s4A2kg−1m−2
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg m3
Electric charge Coulomb As
Electric field strength Volt per meter mkgA −1 s−3
Electric potential Volt m2kgs−3A−1
Energy Joule m2kgs−2
Force Newton mkgs−2
Frequency Hertz s−1
Inductance Henry m kgs−2A−2
2
Magnetic field strength Ampere per meter Am−1

Magnetic flux Weber m 2kgA−1 s−2
Magnetic flux density Tesla kgA−1s−2
Power Watt m2kgs−3
Pressure Pascal kgm−1 s−2
Resistance Ohm m2kgA−2s−3
Specific heat capacity Joule per kilogram Kelvin m2K−1s−2
Speed Meter per second ms−1
Thermal conductivity Watt per meter Kelvin mkg K−1 s−3
Volume Cubic meter m3
S UM M A RY
1. Except electrostatic meters, working on the principle of 9. The circuit conditions should not change by the intro-
electrostatics, all meters measure the amount of current duction of instrument into the circuit, an effect known
flowing through them. as loading.
2. Measuring instruments are devices that enable one to ex- 10. Precision can only be maintained by reducing random
amine physical events that are not apparent to our senses. errors as much as possible.
3. Measuring instruments serve as an extension of human 11. Probes can avoid loading and impedance mismatches.
faculties. 12. A measurement system can be considered to have three
4. Measuring instruments measure the behaviour of free basic constituent elements, a transducer, a signal con-
electrons. vertor, and a display.
5. Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument 13. The transfer function of a system is the product of the
reading approaches the actual value of the variable transfer functions of its elements.
being measured. 14. With an intelligent system, the measurement is made,
6. Precision is a measure of the reproductivity of mea- then further processing occurs and the data is interpreted.
surements. 15. Calibration standards are used for calibration of instru-
7. Resolution is the smallest change in a measured value ments in day-to-day use.
to which the instrument will respond.
8. Error is the difference between a measured value or con-
dition and the theoretically correct value or condition.
1. Which instruments have uniform scales? 3. The link between the electrical phenomenon and the
a) Moving coil b) Moving iron mechanical responses is the
c) Hot wire d) Electrostatic a) Deflecting torque b) Meter movement
e) Thermocouple c) Restoring torque d) Damping torque
2. Which instruments give the magnitude of the quantity
to be measured directly?
a) Absolute b) Secondary
c) Indicating d) Recording
e) Integrating
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b).
1. What is the need for measuring instruments? (c) Sensitivity
2. Explain the significance of the following terms: (d) Resolution
(a) Accuracy 3. Draw the block diagram of a measurement system and
(b) Precision explain each block.
Meter Movement 49
OBJECTIVES
Movement frame Band
In this chapter you will learn about: Pointer Top bridge
anchor
 The different types of torques in metre movements Insulation Tension
 The associated scales in metre movements spring
 Moving-coil and moving-iron instruments Tension
spring
 The merits and demerits of the above instruments
Taut–band
 Polarized moving-iron instruments suspension
 The construction and operation of dynamometer- Taut–band Armature coil wire
type instruments suspension Solder
Band Poise weights terminal
 Different types of induction-type instruments anchor
 The details of construction and operation of hot-wire Taut-band suspension meter movement
instruments
 The operating principles of thermocouple
 Utility of thermocouples as measuring instruments
 Galvanometers and their use as multi-type instruments
 Optical system associated with galvanometers
 The principle of electrostatic voltmeters
 The properties of electrostatic voltmeters
49.1 INTRODUCTION
Metres with moving pointers are called analog metres. They measure quantities by moving through an infinite number of
points on a scale. The major part of any analog multimeter is the basic metre movement. metre movements utilize the interac-
tion of two magnetic fields. During the metre movement, at least one of the fields is created by a current passing through a coil.
All basic metre movements have a full-scale current rating. This is the coil current required to cause the metre to
deflect in full scale (full-scale deflection current). metre movement with full-scale deflection currents as low as 5 µΑ are
commonly available. Another important rating of a metre movement is its internal resistance. Basic metre movements
have appreciable resistance because of the small-diameter wire used in the moving coil. In general, the lower the full-
scale current rating is, the higher the internal resistance will be. A typical 1-µA metre has less than 100 Ω of internal
resistance. A typical 50-µΑ metre has more than 900 Ω of internal resistance. As a metre movement has both a current and
a resistance rating, it must also have a voltage rating. Usually, the manufacturer specifies only two of these three ratings.
However, the third rating can easily be determined by using Ohm’s law. The voltage across the metre movement must be
equal to the product of the full-scale deflection current and its internal resistance.
49.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Most electrical measuring instruments depend on the magnetic effect of current for their operation, although the heating
effect is of common application and particularly useful in a.c. instruments at high frequencies. Electrochemical instruments
have little practical application. An important class of voltmeter, which consumes no power, is one that depends on the
force between two conductors carrying a static electric charge.
Apart from the electrostatic voltmeter, most electrical mea-
suring instruments are in effect current measuring devices, that
is, the force responsible for their deflection depends on the
magnitude of the current they carry through their scales, which
may be calibrated in terms of pd, or resistance or of power.
The reading of most electrical instruments depends on observ-
ing the exact position attained by an indicating pointer against a
calibrated scale; this scale may be considerably extended when a
reflected beam of light is used as the pointer. An important class of
precision instrument however, of which the Wheatstone bridge is a
classic example, depends upon a non-deflectional or null method.
In a measuring instrument, the deflecting torque (Figure 49.1) pro-
duced by the current being measured is opposed by a control-
ling torque, which tends to maintain the pointer opposite the zero
mark on the scale. The scale reading indicated by the pointer is
the current value for which the two torques are equal and oppo-
site. A suitable restoring torque may be provided preferably by
the energy or a coiled spring or sometimes by gravity.
Figure 49.1 Deflection Torque Uniform Radial If readings are to be taken quickly, some form of damping
Magnetic Field: θ Upsets the is essential to overcome the tendency of the system to oscillate
Proportional Relation Td=Kθ about the point where the torques are balanced; such damping is
conveniently afforded by facilitating the production of eddy cur-
rents or by using pnoumatri methods if the presence of a magnetic field for the purpose is undesirable. Electromagnetic
damping and mechanical damping are shown in Figure [49.2 (a), (b) and (c)].
Damping magnet
(a)
Air chamber
(b) (c)
Figure 49.2 Damping (a) Electromagnetic (Eddy Current) (b) Mechanical (Air Friction)
(c) Mechanical (Fluid Friction)
Meter Movement 913
To attain and maintain the greatest accuracy, a maximum torque should be produced by the moving system and its mass,
however, should be kept at a minimum to reduce pivot friction: a high torque/mass ratio is a good criterion of design.
Accurate balance of the movement is of primary importance practically in portable instruments, which are used in the
horizontal and vertical positions indiscriminately. Rigidity and robustness are also important features.
External means are usually provided for the mechanical adjustments of the moving system so that the pointer can be
reset exactly to zero, if necessary. Measuring instruments should be treated with utmost care at all times to maintain the
accuracy of the delicate moving system and to retain the essential stability of the magnetic properties.
An exception to most current-measuring instruments is that the moving-coil class will operate with either direct
or alternating currents. If the deflecting torque is proportional to the first power of the current (Toc ± 1), the direction of
deflection will obviously depend on the current direction; the position of such an instrument will tend to follow the rever-
sals of alternating currents. Such instruments naturally have a linear scale, which is evenly divided throughout its ranges
(see Figure 49.3).
Linear scale
Figure 49.3 Derivation of a Linear Scale
Most instruments have a deflection that is proportional to the square of the current [Toc (±I)2 = +I2]. Since the deflection is
always positive, instruments that read alternating currents have a square law scale whose divisions tend to become crowded
at the lower ends. However, by controlled distortions of the magnetic fields or other such factors, the scale on these instru-
ments can be made approximately linear. The square law scale is illustrated in Figure 49.4.
Square law scale
Figure 49.4 Derivation of a Square Law Scale

A linear scale is most easily read by average observers on account of its greater everyday familiarity. Moving-coil instru-
ments and watt meters follow this law: y = x, whose graph is plotted for comparison in Figure 49.3.
A square law graph, y = x2, is plotted in Figure 49.4 to show the derived scale. This is the law fundamentally followed
by most instruments. Means may be adopted to open out their scales. Apart from the crowding at the lower values, some
difficulty arises in interpolating intermediate unmarked values with any degree of accuracy.
Another scale sometimes used is the logarithmic scale, y = log x, plotted in Figure 49.5 to show its derivation. It is less
easy to read than a linear scale. It is found in some Ohm meters and the decibel meter and it uses the slide rule scale. The
scale in Figure 49.6 depicts an Ohm meter.
Logarithmic scale
G
LO
Figure 49.5 Derivation of Logarithmic Scale

Ohms
Volts
Ohms
Figure 49.6 Derivation of Ohm Meter Scale
Instruments available for a measurement are further classified according to whether they are suitable for (1) power sup-
ply frequencies (16–100 Hz), (2) audio frequencies (100–10,000 Hz), or (3) radio frequencies (10 kHz and onwards). The
effects of self-inductance and self-capacitance tend to impair accuracy at the upper frequencies.
According to particular requirements, various grades of accuracy apply to measuring instruments. These grades may
be classed as (1) standard, (2) substandard, (3) first grade, (4) second grade, and (5) commercial low grade. There is an
advantage in using higher grade instruments than necessitated by the requirements of the results.
In practice, all commercial instruments have their scales calibrated from a substandard instrument, which is periodically
checked against an approved standard.
The design of an instrument should be such that it consumes a minimum of power from the circuit for its operation.
Service metres are frequently arranged to be switched in and out of the circuits requiring measurement; hence, it is
important that the circuit constants are not disturbed by the introduction of the metre.
Meter Movement 915
49.3 METRES
The more common electric metres may be roughly divided into the following classes:
1. According to the function performed as
i. Ammeters
ii. Voltmeters
iii. Ohm meters
iv. Watt meters
2. According to the circuit in which they are used as
i. Direct current
ii. Alternating current
3. According to the principle of operation as
i. Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
ii. Dynamo metre
iii. Magnetic vane
iv. Induction.
The essential parts of these instruments generally include
1. Means for providing a deflection torque (obtained by the interaction of magnetic fields);
2. A spring or other means to provide a counter torque; and
3. A pointer to indicate the resultant position of the moving element of the metre.
49.4 MOVING-COIL INSTRUMENTS

This instrument, which is essentially for d.c. use, may be designed as an amperemeter (ammeter) or as a voltmeter. It is a
fairly robust instrument; for general work, it cannot be surpassed for accuracy and reliability.
Its operation depends on the force acting on a conductor when it carries a current and is placed in a magnetic field. The
assembly of its essential components is illustrated in Figures 49.7 and 49.8.
A permanent magnet NS, suitably shaped to give a compact instrument, provides a powerful magnetic field between
the pole pieces, PP, shaped to produce a cylindrical air gap. A high-grade permanent magnet is used that has previously
been aged to preclude risk of subsequent variation in flux density. A soft iron cylindrical core C is screned into the
base of the instrument concentrically with the pole faces. This core serves to concentrate the magnetic field within the
Permanent magnet
Upper bearing
Control spring
Pointer Core
Coil
Pole piece
Figure 49.7 Principal Parts of a Permanent Magnet, Moving-Coil Meter Movement

(a) (b)
Figure 49.8 (a) A Typical Moving-Coil Assembly (b) Three Balance Weights are Used to
Statically Balance the Unit
narrow gap and ensures that this field is everywhere radial and uniform within the gap. In this way, the conductor mov-
ing in a (restricted) circular path will always cut a uniform field at right angles producing a maximum torque, which will
be constant for any position of the conductor. The conductor of copper wire is wound into the coil upon a rectangular
frame, F, of aluminium, set normally at the angle illustrated see Figure [49.8 (a) and (b)]. The movement is restricted to
the use of the uniform portion of the field. The air gap is made as small as possible to limit the reluctance of the magnetic
field. The coil frame is pivoted in jewelled bearings and controlled by spiral phosphor bronze control springs (CS) fitted
at the front and back. These springs provide the restoring torque and also serve to make electrical connection with the
moving coil. To minimize the effect of temperature changes, these springs are arranged to work in opposition to one
another. In the zero position, the springs are in equilibrium and as the pointer is deflected, the spring is either wound or
unwound. The moving system carries a light pointer, which travels across the calibrated scale, the extremities of travel
being limited by two stops. A small weight is fitted to counter the effect of the pointer and to preserve the balance of
the moving system. The pointer is set to zero by turning an external screw, which controls the fixed point of one of the
restoring springs.
The current to be measured (I amperes) sets up a force (F Newton) on each conductor of the coil such that F = BIl
Newton, where B is the flux density (Wb/m2) and l is the length of a conductor. If the coil has N turns (=2N conductors) of
radius r m, the deflecting torque would be as follows:
T = Fr oc 2B1lNr (49.1)
the product 2rl is the area Am2 of the coil, so that in general
T oc BINA N – m (49.2)
Turns may be varied so that a full-scale deflection is reached with as little as 0.1 mA with a commercial instrument and with
a fraction of a microampere in a suspension-type laboratory instrument. In the absence of restoring springs, the coil would
set itself at right angles to the magnetic field with any value of current sufficient to overcome the inertia of the moving
system. When the coil is deflected through an angle θ°, if T Nm is the torque required to twist the restoring springs through
1º, the total restoring torque is T θ. The pointer comes to rest at the position where the deflecting and restoring torques are
balanced, i.e. when
T θ = BINA (49.3)
The inertia of the system tends to cause the moving pointer to overshoot and, on account of the restoring torque, to oscillate
about the correct reading. The eddy currents induced in the aluminium frame set up an opposing force, tending to resist all
movement. This damping renders the instrument ‘dead beat’ and enables readings to be taken without delay.
When enclosed in an iron case or when suitably screened, the moving-coil instrument is unaffected by stray magnetic fields.
In the expression T oc BINA, the factors BN and A are constant for any given instrument and the deflection is directly
proportional to the current I. The scale is accordingly linear. The terminals of a moving-coil instrument are clearly marked
+ and –, and care must be taken to connect the metre in the circuit correctly. If an alternating current is applied to such an
instrument, its pointer tends to follow each half-cycle; however, on account of the inertia of the moving system, a slight
vibration occurs about the zero point, and that too only at low frequencies.
Meter Movement 917
With the addition of a metal rectifier, the moving-coil instrument is used to measure alternating currents or voltages. It
may be used for the same purpose in association with a thermocouple.
The moving-coil instrument is adopted by a suitable resistance value to serve either as a voltmeter or as an ammeter. In
a common form of high-grade instrument, a full-scale deflection is produced by a current of 10 mA. Provided this current
in the moving coil is not exceeded, the metre may be shunted and used to measure higher currents, or fitted with a series
resistance to measure high voltages.
The moving coil is made of copper, which has a temperature coefficient of resistance of about 0.4 percent per degree
centigrade. If the instrument is unshunted, an increase in resistance consequent upon temperature rise is accompanied by
an increased p.d. and there is no error in current indication. If a shunt having a negligible temperature coefficient is used,
the combination will be correct at only one temperature. This source of error is avoided by joining a ‘swamping’ resistance
of Eureka or constant an in series with the copper winding, so that the resistance of the copper is one quarter of the whole.
In this way, a possible error of about 0.4 per cent per degree centigrade can be reduced to less than 0.1 per cent per degree
centigrade, as the springs and magnet both weaken slightly with increase in temperature. In a voltmeter, the series resistance
is itself α swamp and the temperature error is quite negligible.
Note: Another important type of metre movement is the taut band movement. This movement is similar to the conventional
D Arsonval type, but it does not employ the bearings, spiral hair springs, or jewels. The suspension band, which supports
the pointer, is α short thin strip of alloy (platinum, iridium) tightly suspended between the coiled spring terminals. The
coiled-spring terminals absorb physical shock and vibration; thus the movement is quite rugged. The taut band movement
has an even more important feature. As the jewel and bearing construction is replaced by a band that twists in accordance
with the amount of current through it, friction is practically eliminated. Taut band movements of very high sensitivity
and reasonable cost are now widely used. Metres employing taut band suspension movements and having sensitivities of
100,000 Ohms per volt, 200,000 Ohms per volt, and up to 1–2 mega Ohms per volt are currently available.
Example 49.1
The sensitivity of a moving-coil metre movement is 1000 Ω/V. What is the value of full-scale deflection current?
Solution:
Full-scale deflection current = 1/sensitivity.
1 1
= = A
1000 Ω/V 1000
= 1 mA
49.5 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Yet another classification of measuring instruments is absolute instruments and secondary instruments. Absolute instru-
ments provide the quantity to be measured in terms of the instrument constant and its deflection. For example, a tangent
galvanometer gives the value of the current to be measured in terms of the tangent of the angle of deflection produced, the
horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field, the radius, and the number of turns of the wire used. Such instruments
are used in laboratories and in similar institutions as standardizing instruments.
Secondary instruments provide the magnitude of the electrical quantity to be measured directly and are required to be
calibrated by comparison with either an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument that has already been cali-
brated. These instruments are widely used in practice.
49.5.1 Types of Secondary Instruments

Secondary instruments can be further subdivided into three groups as (1) indicating instruments, (2) recording instruments,
and (3) integrating instruments.
1. Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate the magnitude of the electrical quantity being measured at
the time when it is being measured. The indications are given by a pointer moving over a graduated dial. Ordinary
ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters, frequency meters, power factor metres, etc. fall into this class.
2. Recording instruments: These instruments keep a continuous record of variations of the magnitude of the electrical
quantity to be observed over a definite period of time. In such instruments, the moving system carries an inked
pen, which touches lightly a sheet of paper wrapped over a drum moving with a uniform slow motion in a
direction perpendicular to that of the deflection of the pointer. Thus, a curve is traced, which shows the variations
in the magnitude of the electrical quantity under observation over a definite period of time. Such instruments
are generally used in power houses where the current, voltage, power, etc. are to be maintained within certain
specified limits.
3. Integrating instruments: These instruments measure the total amount of either the quantity of electricity (ampere
hours) or electrical energy supplied over a period of time. The summation given by such an instrument is the
product of time and the electrical quantity under measurement. Ampere-hour metres and energy metres fall into this
class.
49.6 GRAVITY CONTROL

Temperature coefficient of the stiffness in a spring results in a temperature coefficient which is an indication of the instru-
ment, and inelastic yield in the spring results in displacement in the zero position of the moving system. It is advantageous
to substitute gravity control (Figure 49.9) for spring control in electrical measuring instruments. Gravity control is free
from the effects mentioned above.
In gravity-controlled instruments, a small weight is attached to the moving system in such a way that it produces
a controlling torque when the moving system is in a deflected position. The controlling torque can be varied quite
easily by adjusting the position of the controlling weight upon the arm. The usual arrangement is illustrated in
Figure 49.9.
Figure 49.9 Gravity Control
In the undeflected (zero) position of the pointer, the control weight is vertical. When the pointer is deflected, the
control weight will be in a direction shown along the dotted line in Figure 49.9. In the deflected position, the control-
ling torque will be Wl sin θ, where W is the control weight, l the distance from the axis of rotation, and θ the deflection
or Tc α sin θ. If Td oc I, then at the final deflected position
Td = Tc or
I α sin θ or I = k sin θ and θ = sin-1(1/k) (49.4)
Hence, in gravity-controlled instruments, the scales are not uniform but are crowded in the beginning. This, of course, is
a disadvantage when the pointer lies in the lower scale values where it will not be possible to read the instrument scale
accurately on account of it being cramped.
Gravity-controlled instruments must be used in a vertical position to operate the control. Gravity control is cheap, unaf-
fected by changes in temperature, and is free from fatigue or deterioration with time, but it gives a cramped scale and the
instrument has to be kept in a vertical position.
Meter Movement 919
Such instruments usually have a bubble level mounted to indicate the reference plane in which they have been cali-
brated. By returning the instrument to the reference plan the control forces resulting from any residual unbalance in the
system act in precisely the same way that they did at the time of calibration.
Example 49.2
If the deflection torque of an instrument is directly proportional to the current to be measured and the maximum current
produces a deflection of 90o, compare the deflection in the spring-controlled instrument with a similar instrument having
gravity control for a current equal to half the maximum value.
Solution:
Deflecting torque = Td α I
In a spring-controlled instrument,
θ2 I
θα I or = 2 → since Tcα θ
θ1 I1
Deflection for a current equal to half the maximum value will be
θ1 I 2 1
θ2 = = 90o × = 45o
I1 2
In a gravity-controlled instrument,
sin θ 2 I
Since, Tc α sin θ, sin θ α I or = 2 .
sin θ1 I1
Deflection for current equal to half the maximum value will be
 I sin θ1  1  1
θ 2 = sin −1  2  = sin −1  sin 90o  = sin −1  
 I1  2  2
= 3 0o
49.7 MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENTS

There are two distinct types of moving-iron instruments. They differ according to whether deflection is produced by
attraction or repulsion (see Figure 49.10). The former makes use of the attraction of iron in the electromagnetic field of a
current-carrying solenoid. The latter depends on the mutual repulsion of two similarly magnetized pieces of iron within an
energized solenoid, one being fixed and the other movable.
In each type, the iron forms but a small part of the magnetic circuit. Consequently, the air path reluctance is high with
the result that power consumption is high, and the instrument, unless well screened, is susceptible to the influence of stray
magnetic fields.
49.7.1 Attraction Type

The principle of the attraction type is illustrated in Figure 49.11(a). A light soft iron vane, V, is pivoted eccentrically
close to one face of a solenoid, CC. The vane carries a light pointer capable of moving over a calibrated scale. When
a current flows in the solenoid, the vane becomes magnetized by induction; consequently, it is attracted towards the
centre of the solenoid. The opposing torque is provided by a spiral spring, CS. A small air piston, A, is carried upon the
moving system, which is capable of moving against an air cushion within a curved cylinder; this provides the damp-
ing device. Alternatively, damping may be provided by eddy currents induced in a conducting disc, which is fixed to
the same spindle as the magnet vane, and on deflection, rotates between the poles of permanent magnets as shown in
Figure 49.11(b).
The magnetizing force of the solenoid is proportional approximately to the current, and so is the pole strength induced
in the vane. The deflecting force, which is proportional to the product of the magnetic intensities of the solenoid and vane,
becomes proportional to the square of the current. The metre scale is fundamentally a square law one, but by suitably shap-
ing the vane, the scale may be made to approach a linear law.
Scale
Scale
Pointer Pointer
Control spring
Coil
Pivot
Control spring
Fixed
vane
Moving vane
Iron vane
(a) (b)
Figure 49.10 Types of Moving-Iron Instruments (a) Attraction (b) Repulsion
Pivot Conducting vane
Pointer
Note:
The movement of the
vane produces Eddy
currents opposing
the motion
Permanent magnet
(a) (b)
Figure 49.11 (a) Principle of Moving Iron (b) A Magnetic (Eddy Current) Damping Mechanism
Sometimes called a moving-iron-vane instrument, it is often used for ammeters and voltmeters. This instrument depends
for its operation on the reactions resulting from the current in one or more fixed coils acting on one or more pieces of soft
iron or magnetically similar material in the moving system as illustrated and elaborated in Figure 49.11.
Note: If two similar and adjacent iron bars are similarly magnetized, a repelling force is developed between them,
which tends to move them apart. In the moving-iron instrument, this principle is used by having one bar fixed in
Meter Movement 921
space and by pivoting the second so that it will tend to rotate when the magnetizing current flows. A spring attached
to the moving vane opposes the motion of the vane and permits the scale to be calibrated in terms of current flow-
ing. When current flows through the solenoid, the plunger is drawn into the coil and a measurable deflection of the
instrument pointer is obtained (see Figure 49.12).However, because of high power consumption, sensitivity to zero
shifts, scale difficulties, etc., this type of movement is presently used only in less-expensive instruments.
To a.c. or d.c.
N N S S
S N
S N
To a.c. or d.c. To a.c.

N
S N
Figure 49.12 Working Principles of the Moving-Iron-Vane Instrument
49.7.2 Repulsion Type

In the repulsion type of instrument (Figure 49.13), two thick soft iron wires are placed
close together within an air-cored solenoid (CC), with their lengths parallel to the axis
of this coil. One iron wire (F) is fixed to the instrument case and the other (M) is piv-
oted and carries the pointer. When a current flows in the solenoid, the iron pieces are
magnetized similarly by induction and their mutual repulsion provides the deflecting
force. The controlling force is provided by the spiral spring, S. Damping is normally
by air piston (A). The pole strength of each iron is approximately proportional to the
current in the coil. As the force of repulsion is proportional to the product of these pole
strengths, the deflection is fundamentally dependent on the square of the current. The
flux density does not follow the current changes exactly over the working range. Also,
the induction and the repulsive force decrease as the distance between the fixed and
moving iron increases ( foc 1/d 2). This produces a slightly more uniform scale.
Some improvement in the form of scale is obtained by the use of specially
shaped pieces of iron instead of simple bars. The design of such an instrument is Figure 49.13 Principle of
shown in Figure 49.14(a), the moving and fixed iron pieces M and F being shown Moving-Iron Metre
in the plan in Figure 49.14(b), and in the developed form in Figure 49.14(c). The Repulsion Type
fixed iron covers a larger area than the moving iron and it is narrow shaped at one
end than at the other. When the solenoid is energized, the moving iron is repelled towards the narrow end of the fixed iron.
The controlling spring is shown at CS. B is an adjustable balance weight and Z is the zero adjustment lever. Damping is
affected by the air piston and chamber at A (Figure 49.13).
Moving-iron instruments may be designed either as voltmeters or as ammeters. They may be employed for measur-
ing either direct or alternating circuits as their deflection is independent of current direction. In the former case (d.c.), the
direction of current flow through the instrument is, of course, immaterial. When used for a.c., the instrumental measures
r.m.s. values.
Used as a voltmeter, as with the moving-coil instrument,
α swamping noninductive resistance of low temperature
coefficient is used in series with the solenoid to reduce
the temperature error. This instrument produces a further
gain as the inductance is also swamped, which reduces the
frequency error and the difference between d.c. and a.c.
readings. Shunts may be used to increase the instrument
range in both d.c. and a.c. instruments of this class.
The main advantages of the moving-iron instrument
are its relative simplicity, low cost of production, and its
robust character (as the coil is fixed, it can be readily
wound to suit its purpose). In contrast, the power con-
sumption of moving-iron instruments is somewhat high
and their accuracy does not equal that of the moving-
coil instrument. Moving-iron instruments are subject to
slight error if used in the vicinity of stray magnetic fields.
They are also liable to hysteresis errors a given current
value giving a smaller reading when the current is ris-
Coilaxis ing than when it is falling; however, these disadvantages
are largely overcome by using nickel iron alloys of low
hysteresis.
The inductance of moving-iron instruments is relatively
high and they are not independent of frequency on account
of their hysteresis and eddy current effects. They are also
affected by changes in coil resistance with variations in
temperature. Hence, as an a.c. instrument, the moving-iron
metre is the most suitable for power supply frequencies of
approximately sine-waveform.
Movement
The moving-iron instrument operation well or d.c. on

a.c. and first-grade accuracy is possible. On a.c. measure-
ments, the scale reads r.m.s. values, but errors may occur
(b) (c) with a waveform containing harmonics that reach satura-
tion in the permeability curve. Moving-iron instruments
Figure 49.14 Moving Iron Metre: Construction of
are suitable for reading up to a few kilovolts and down to
Repulsion Type
a few volts. As ammeters, the range is from a few mA up
to about 500A, above which current transformers can be used for a.c. readings. The d.c. ranges are rather narrower than
the a.c. ranges.
Note:
1. The instrument differs in construction principles from the previously described moving-iron-vane instrument in that
the magnetic vane embedded in the side of the coil has definite N and S poles at the points shown (Figure 49.15). The
moving vane will be magnetized by induction with the polarities as shown. Notice that the north pole of the moving
vane is closest to the North Pole on the piece of magnetic material embedded in the coil; the South Poles are also
similarly placed. Hence, the vane tends to move away or be repelled from the stationary magnetic pole.
2. If alternating current is applied to the instrument, the two vanes will simultaneously change polarities as the current
varies throughout the cycle; thus, the instrument also operates on alternating current. In fact, the instrument finds its
greatest application in a.c. measurements.
49.8 POLARIZED MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENT

A polarized type of moving-iron instrument is also used. The moving system is simply a soft iron armature carrying a
pointer; being polarized by a small permanent magnet, the instrument is essentially for d.c. use with a linear scale. A coil car-
rying the current to be measured is mounted near or around the armature but has its axis at right angles to that of the normal
position of the armature. When current flows, the coil produces a field at right angles to the permanent field; the resultant
field is distorted and the armature is deflected. No restoring spring is fitted as the armature is normally controlled by the
Meter Movement 923
permanent magnet field. Although such instruments do not have a high grade of accuracy, they are very cheap to produce.
Figure 49.16 shows a simple central zero pattern. NS is the permanent magnet, A the armature, and C is a two-turn coil,
which, in the metre illustrated, produces a magnetomotive force of ± 40 ampere turns.
Field winding
Poles due to current
in field winding
Pointer
Movable magnetic Control

vane attached to shaft spring
Field magnetic vane
Figure 49.15 Principle of a Simple Magnetic-vane Repulsion-type Figure 49.16 Polarized Moving-Iron
Metre Instrument
Example 49.3
The torque of an ammeter varies as the square of the current passed through it. If a current of 10A produces a deflection
of 90º, what deflection will be required for a current of 5A when the instrument is (1) spring controlled and (2) gravity
controlled.
Solution:
Deflection torque Td oc I2
1. In spring-controlled instruments, since-controlling torque Tc α θ and deflection
2
θ 2  I2 
θ α I2, = 
θ 1  I1 
2 2
I 
For a deflection of 5-A current, θ 2 = θ1 ×  2  or 90o ×   = 22.5o
5
I
 1  
10
2. In gravity-controlled instruments
Controlling torque Tc α sin θ, and sin θ α I2
2
sin θ 2  I 2  and for a deflection of 5-A current
= 
sin θ1  I1 
  I 2    5 2 
θ 2 = sin −1   2  sin θ1  = sin −1    × 1
  I1     10  
= sin −1 (0.25) = 145o
Example 49.4
The torque of an ammeter is directly proportional to the current flowing through it. If a current of 10A causes a deflection
of 60º, determine the value of current for a deflection of 40º when the instrument is (1) spring controlled and (2) gravity
controlled.
Solution:
I1 = 10 A, θ1 = 60º, θ2 = 40º
1. In a spring-controlled instrument
θ2 40o
I 2 = I1 × = 10 × o = 6.67 A
θ1 60
2. In a gravity-controlled instrument
sin θ 2 sin 40o
I 2 = I1 × = 10 × = 7.42 A
sin θ1 sin 60o
Example 49.5
A moving-coil millivoltmeter has a resistance of 200 Ω and the full-scale deflection is reached when a p.d. of 100 mV is
applied across its terminals. The moving coil has effective dimensions of 30 mm × 25 mm and is wound with 100 turns.
The flux density in the gap is 0.2 Wb/m2. Determine the control constant of the spring if the final deflection is 100º.
Solution:
100 mV
I FSD = = 0.5 mA
200 Ω
Deflecting torque Td = B I l.N = 0.2 × 0.5 × 10-3 × 30 × 10-3 × 25 × 10-3 × 100

= 75×10-3 N.m
Full-scale deflection torque, θFSD = 100º
Td 75 × 10−7
Control constant k = =
θ FSD 100k
−3
= 0.75 × 10 N.m/degree.
Example 49.6
The resistance of a moving-coil voltmeter is 12,000 Ω. The moving coil has 100 turns and is 4-cm long and 3-cm wide. The
flux density in the air gap is 6×10-2 Wb/m2. Find the deflection produced by 300 V, if the spring control gives a deflection
of one degree for a torque of 25×10-3 N.m.
Solution:
300 V
Current flowing through the coil = = 0.025 A
12000 Ω
Deflecting torque Td = NBI lr = 100 × 6 × 10−2 × 0.025 × 0.04 × 0.03

= 18 × 10−5 N.m
Controlling torque Tc = 25 × 10-3 θ N.m where θ is the deflection in degrees produced by 300 V.
For steady-state deflection, Tc = Td and
25 × 10−7 θ = 18 × 10−5
18 × 10−3
θ = = 72o
25 × 10−7
49.9 DYNAMOMETER-TYPE INSTRUMENTS

In general construction, this class of instrument is similar to the moving-coil metre but instead of a permanent magnet the
field is provided by an electromagnet. The characteristics of the dynamometer instrument depend on the excitation of the
electromagnet in addition to that of the moving coil. If a direct current of constant magnitude is applied to the field coils,
the instrument will have the same performance as in a moving-coil metre. In contrast, if the field coils and moving coil are
energised (either in series or in parallel) both from the same source, the deflecting torque depends on the product of the
currents in the moving coil and in the field coils. Accordingly, in this case, the instrument will have a square law scale and
being no longer polarized it will be equally suitable for a.c or d.c.
Meter Movement 925
If the permanent magnet is replaced with stationary coils arranged as shown in Figure 49.17 and the moving and sta-
tionary coils are connected in series, the moving coil will be deflected by an alternating current. This deflection is obtained
because, when the alternating current reverses, the current in the fixed and moving coils reverses at the same instant, result-
ing in a pulsating torque, which is always in the same direction. The amount of deflection depends directly on the amount
of alternating current flowing through the coil system.
Pointer
Armature winding
Upper control spring
Field winding
Field winding
Arrows denote
path of current
Lower spring
Figure 49.17 Arrangement of Coils in a Dynamometer-Type Metre
The principle of operation of this type of metre has resulted in the design of the modern dynamometer as shown in
Figure 49.18. Regardless of the degree of refinement used in the construction of this instrument, it takes a considerably
larger amount of current than the permanent magnet type employed in direct-current measurement. Here, the current being
measured must supply energy not only for the moving coil, but also for the field winding, which was supplied by the
magnet in the case of the permanent-magnet instrument.
Upper bearing
Pointer
Springs
Frame Moving coil
Coil clamp
Stationary coil Damping vane
Figure 49.18 Principal Parts of a Dynamometer Mechanism

Line The instrument may be designed as a voltmeter (Figure

49.19(a)) or as an ammeter (Figure 49.19(b)), and can
Pointer be used to measure either a.c or d.c supplies. The air
Shunt with large
voltage drop
gap field is parallel and not radial owing to the absence
Field coil of any iron core; hence, the torque decreases as the
deflection increases. This factor results in some open-
ing out of the scale. The restoring torque is usually
provided by a coiled spring. Damping is by an air
piston and cylinder owing to the undesirability of
Moving coil the presence of a permanent magnet for eddy current
damping.
There is no advantage in using this instrument for
Load d.c. voltage and current measurement, as its power
consumption is greater than that of the moving-coil
instrument in which most of the power is provided by
(a)
the permanent magnet. The main field of application
Line for the dynamometer instrument is as a Wattmeter. In
Potential this case, the moving coil is a pressure coil and it is
circuit Field coil connected across the supply leads. It carries a current
resistor to carry
line current
proportional to the applied p.d. The coil is wound upon
a non-magnetic frame and to prevent error due to tem-
perature changes, a noninductive winding of magnanin
is connected in series with the coil having a four times
greater resistance than the latter. Two field coils are
provided and connected in series. They are of heavy
gauge wire or strip to carry the load current or a part
of it.
An air core is normally employed throughout, but
Load
Armature coil takes
recent developments in low-hysteresis nickel-iron
current proportional alloys have made possible a ferromagnetic path and
to line voltage have brought about a reduction in power consumption.
(b)
A diagram showing the connections of the instrument as
Line a watt meter is given in Figure 49.19(c).
Without iron losses, the dynamometer measures true
Pointer power (V I cosφ watts); the scale is linear, the deflec-
Field coil tion being proportional to both V and I. This instrument
Resistor
is liable to be affected by stray magnetic fields, but
with an air core, it is practically independent of fre-
quency and waveform, errors and power losses due to
hysteresis and eddy currents are minimized by reduc-
ing all metal parts to a minimum and laminating where
Moving coil necessary.
Load
Note that moving coil 49.10 INDUCTION-TYPE
and field coil are connected
in series
INSTRUMENTS
(c)
These instruments can only be used on a.c. circuits.
Figure 49.19 Arrangement of a Dynamometer When Their main advantages are (1) a full-scale deflection
Used to Measure (a) Voltage (b) Current of about 300º can be achieved, giving a long and open
and (c) Power Consumption scale, (2) the effect of stray magnetic fields is small,
and (3) damping is easier and more effective.
These instruments depend for their action on the torque produced by the reaction between a flux, whose magnitude
depends on the values of the current and voltage to be measured, and eddy currents, which are induced in a metal disc or
drum by another flux, whose value again depends on the current or voltage to be measured.
Meter Movement 927
We know that (1) the magnitude of eddy current is proportional to that of the flux inducing it; (2) the torque at any
instant is proportional to the square of the current or voltage producing it; and (3) the mean torque is proportional to the
mean value of this current or voltage.
Consider a flux φ, producing a torque by the force it exerts on an eddy current I lagging this flux in phase by an
angle oc. Then
φ = φmax sin θ and I = I max sin (θ − α ) (49.5)
The instantaneous torque is proportional to the product of instantaneous current and instantaneous flux, and we have Tr α φ I
π
The mean torque is given by Tm α 1 φ Id θ .
π ∫4
π
1 φmax I max
=
π ∫ 2
2 sin θ sin(θ − α )dθ
0
π
I max φmax
= ∫ θ cos α − cos ( 2θ − α )  dθ
2π 0
π
I max φmax  sin (2θ − α ) 
=
2π θ cos α − 
 2 0
I max φmax I max φmax
= (π coss α ) = × (cos α )
2π 2 2
Therefore, Tm α I φ cos α (49.6)

where, φ and I are the r.m.s values of the current and flux., if α = 90º, Tm = 0.
Therefore, some means have to be provided for producing an eddy, which is either appreciably less than or greater than
90º out of phase with the flux. This is achieved by two general methods, leading to two general types of induction instruments:
the Ferraris type and the pole-shading type.
49.10.1 Ferraris-type Induction

Instruments
This method employs splitting of the winding of the
electromagnet in which the flux exists into two por-
tions, one that is highly inductive and the other that
is noninductive. This type of instrument works on the
same principle as the induction motor. A rotating field
is produced by two pairs of coils wound on a laminated
magnet system, as shown in Figure 49.20, wherein P is
the pointer, LM the laminated magnet core, and A the
aluminium drum. The two pairs of coils are supplied
from the same source, but the currents flowing through
them are about 90º out of phase. This phase shift is
obtained by connecting an inductor L in series with one
pair of coils and a high resistance R in series with the
other. The rotating field induces currents in an alumin-
ium drum, causing it to follow its rotation. However, if
the drum were free to the rotate, it would rotate at a speed
slightly less than that of the rotating field and in the same
direction as the latter. If a control spring prevents such
continuous rotation, the drum will rotate through some
angle less than 360º i.e., until the operating torque is
balanced by the controlling torque of the spring.
The drum and the moving system are carried by a Figure 49.20 Ferraris-type Instrument
spindle whose ends fit in jewelled cups or bearings. The drum has a cylindrical laminated iron core on the inside to
strengthen the magnetic field cutting the drum. The spindle also carries an aluminium damping disc, the edge of which
moves in the air gaps of the two permanent magnets.
49.10.2 Shaded-Pole Type

This type, as shown in Figure 49.21, splits the phase of the working flux by a copper band placed round a portion of the
poles of the electromagnet. A thin aluminium disc is mounted on pivots and jewel bearing springs are employed to provide
the controlling torque. Half of each of the pole faces is surrounded by a copper band to split the working flux. The copper
band acts as a single-turn short-circuited secondary winding.
Copper shading bands
Damping magnet
Exciting coil
Spindle Laminated
electro–magnet
Aluminium disc
(a)
90º φ1
φ1 I′2
β
90º
90º
I′1 φ
I2
φ′2 φ2
φ2
E2
I1
E1
(b) (c)
Figure 49.21 (a) Shaded-Pole Induction Type Instrument (b, c) Phasor Diagram
Let φ, be the flux of the unshaded portion of the pole. The flux φ1 will induce an e.m.f. E in the ring, as shown in Figure
49.21, which lags the flux φ1 by 90º. The induced EMF will cause a current, say I, to flow in the copper ring, which will
be lagging behind the flux φ1 by 90º. The current flowing in the copper ring will produce its own magnetic field, say φ2, in
phase with currents.
Let the fluxes φ1 and φ2 in unshaded and shaded portions of the pole, respectively, induce e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in the disc,
each of which is 90º in phase behind the flux inducing it. These induced e.m.f.s E1 and E2 will induce eddy currents (say
I1 and I2) in the disc lagging by a small angle (say α) behind its voltage due to the inductance of the path in the disc. The
phasor diagrams in Figure [49.21 (b) and (c)] show that each of the currents I1 and I2 has a component in phase with the
other flux, such as I ′1 and I ′2 . Hence, two torques acting on opposite directions are developed in the instrument. These
two torques result in an operating torque.
Deflecting torque T = K ( φ2 I ′1 − φ I 2′ ) where, K is α constant
{ } (
= K  φ 2 I1 cos 90o − ( β − α ) − φ 1 I 2 cos 90o + α + β  )
= K  φ2 I1 sin ( β − α ) + φ1 I 2 sin( β + α ) 
If φ1, φ2, I1, and I2 are all r.m.s values
Eddy e.m.f.s, E1 α f φ1 and E2 α f φ2
and eddy current, I1 = E1 α f φ 1 where Z is the impedance of the eddy current path
Z Z
E1 f φ2
and eddy current I 2 = α
Z Z
Meter Movement 929
Mean deflecting torque, T = Kf φ 1 φ2 [ sin ( β − α ) + sin ( β + α ) ] where, K is another constant

d
Z
K ′f φ1 φ2 K ′′I 2 f
= cos α sin β = cos α sin β since φα
Z Z
The above equation for mean deflecting torque shows the following:
1. The deflecting torque is directly proportional to cos α. Therefore, to obtain the largest possible deflecting torque, angle
α should be as close to zero as possible. For this, it is necessary that the path of the eddy currents should be highly
resistive.
2. The deflecting torque is directly proportional to sin β; therefore, to have α large deflecting torque, angle β should be
as close to 90º as possible.
3. Maximum torque will be developed when α = 0º and β = 90º, i.e. when the path of the eddy currents is purely resistive
and the two fluxes φ1 and φ2 are displaced by 90º.
49.10.3 Induction-type Watt Meters

Induction-type watt meters, the principle of which is the same as that of induction ammeters and voltmeters, are only used on
a.c. circuits: dynamometer watt meters can be used in either a.c. or d.c. circuits.
Induction instruments are useful only when the frequency and supply voltage are approximately constant.
The instrument has two laminated electromagnets, as can be seen in Figure 49.22, where one is excited by the load cur-
rent (or a definite fraction of it) and the other by a current proportional to the voltage of the circuit in which the power is to
be measured. A thin aluminium disc is mounted so that it is cut by the flux of both these magnets; the deflecting torque is
produced by the interactions between these fluxes and the eddy currents that may induce in the disc. One or more copper
rings are fitted on one core limb of the shunt magnet, i.e., the magnet excited by the voltage coil, and its current winding
to cause the resultant flux in the magnet to lag in phase by exactly 90º behind the applied voltage.
Figure 49.22 shows two common forms of magnets with their windings in the magnets being placed, in each case, one
above and one below the moving disc of the instrument. The positions and shapes of the magnets are such that the flux from
both the shunt and series magnets cuts the moving disc.
In the form of instrument as shown in Figure 49.22(a), the two voltage coils, connected in series, are wound so that they
both send flux through the centre limb. The series magnet in the instrument carries two small current coils in series; they
are wound so that they both magnetize the coil, upon which they are wound, in the same direction. The positions of the
copper shading bands can be adjusted to obtain the correct phase displacement between the shunt and series magnet fluxes.
In the instrument shown in Figure 49.22(b), there is only one voltage coil and one current coil. A copper shading band,
whose position is adjustable, surrounds the two projecting pole pieces of the shunt magnet.
Both types are spring controlled and have the advantage of a long and uniform scale (up to 300º).
Currents up to about 100 A can be managed directly in such instruments. For higher currents, a current transformer is
used in conjunction with the watt meter. Unlike the dynamometer wattmeter, the voltage-coil circuit of the induction instru-
ment is made as inductive as possible so that the flux of the shunt magnet may lag by nearly 90º behind the applied voltage.
Figure 49.23 gives a simplified vector diagram for the wattmeter. The flux φsh of the shunt magnet is assumed to lag
exactly 90º behind the applied voltage. This is actually brought about by adjusting the shading bands, as the angle of lag
would be somewhat less than 90º unless such bands were used.
Figure 49.23 Vector Diagram for

Figure 49.22 Induction Watt Meters Induction Watt Meter
It is also assumed that the flux φsc of the series magnet is proportional to and in phase with the line current, and that
hysteresis and saturation effects in the iron are negligible. Owing to the large air gap in the core, these assumptions are
justifiable.
49.11 HOT-WIRE INSTRUMENTS

Operation of the hot-wire instrument depends on the expansion of a wire when its temperature is increased by the passage
of the current being measured. The essential components of the system are shown in Figure 49.24. The hot wire A is made
of a material with a high melting point and high resistivity, which is usually platinum silver. It is held taut between the
terminals TT, one of them being adjustable to provide for zero correction. A second wire B made of phosphor bronze is
attached on one end to the hot wire near its centre and the other end to an insulating block. Both wires are maintained in
tension by means of a silk fibre F stretched between the phosphor-bronze and a flat steel spring S; this fibre passes around
a small pulley, which carries the pointer. When a current in the heater increases its temperature and causes it to expand, the
sag is taken up and magnified by the second wire and the fibre, the latter producing a rotation of the pulley and a deflection
of the pointer. Damping is normally provided by eddy currents induced in a small vane (K) fitted to the moving system to
rotate between the poles of a permanent magnet M (see Figure 49.25).
Pointer
Scale
Binding
post
Electric current
Normal condition
After Hot wire

heating
Tension wire
Pulley
Adjustment Binding
screw post
Tension spring
(a) (b)
Figure 49.24 Hot-Wire Ammeter (a) Contribution (b) Principle
To allow for variations of atmospheric temperature, the metre base upon which the heater wire is supported is usually made
of an alloy that has the same temperature coefficient as the heater wire. In some instruments, the centre point of the heater
wire is connected to one terminal of the instruments and current flows through the two halves of the heater wire in parallel.
The heat developed is proportional to I2Rt, i.e., to the square of the instantaneous current, and the hot wire metre has a
square law scale.
This metre may be used to measure either direct or alternating currents; in the latter case the pointer-reads r.m.s. values,
the scale being calibrated from a sub-standard metre. Owing to the time factor, hot-wire instruments tend to be sluggish
in action.
One advantage of this class of instruments is that it is free from the drawbacks of the magnetic instruments for a.c. It is
also relatively cheap to construct. In account of its low self-inductance and capacitance, which make it practically indepen-
dent of frequency and waveform, it can be used for work related to audio and radio frequencies. In contrast, its mechanism
is somewhat delicate and the instrument can stand very little current overload without damage. It has a fairly high power
consumption, and its zero tends to vary with changes in atmospheric temperature, necessitating frequent readjustment of the
zero point.
The metre may be shunted to read currents up to a few amperes, but owing to the variation of heater resistance with
temperature, it cannot be used with different values of shunt resistance. For high current measurements (a.c.), it is custom-
ary to utilize a current transformer rather than a shunt. As a voltmeter, its range may be extended using a series resistance
in the usual manner. Its main use is as an ammeter for audio and radio frequency currents, its range being roughly between
100 mA and 10 A.
Meter Movement 931
Figure 49.26 Constructional Details of the

Figure 49.25 Hot-Wire Metre Showing Damping Hot-Wire Metre
Example 49.7
How will you adopt a hot-wire ammeter, having a resistance of 0.1 Ω and giving a full-scale deflection with a current of 10
A, to measure a maximum current of 100 A?
Solution:
The p.d. across the 0.1 Ω metre to give a full-scale deflection, which is 10 A is (0.1 × 10) = 1V. To measure 100 A, the
metre should be shunted to direct 90 A, the p.d. across the shunt should be 1V, and the resistance should be 1/90 = 0.011 Ω.
49.12 THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS

The operation of this instrument (see Figure 49.27) depends on the e.m.f. generated at a bimetallic junction on increase
of its temperature. The thermocouple element comprises a heater wire of a high-resistance alloy, such as constantan were,
which carries the current being measured through the terminals HH. At the centre of this heater wire, the junction of an
iron eureka or a similar couple is welded. According to the heat developed by the current in the heater wire, an e.m.f. is
Iron
n
Iro
Steel Eureka
Hot
Co
Heater ppe
r
wire
Copper
(a) (b)
Figure 49.27 Principle of Thermocouple (a) Thermo Junction (b) Thermocouple
generated at the hot junction. The p.d. so produced at the cold terminals CC is applied to an ordinary moving-coil milli
voltmeter. The readings on the milli voltmeter are proportional to the square of the heater currents; however, if the thermo
couple is applied to a moving-coil instrument whose air gap is suitably modified to give an inverse square law scale,
it results in an almost linear scale.
A thermocouple element is illustrated in Figure 49.28. Alter-
native constructional forms of the thermocouple are (a) the heater
and the metallic strip are enclosed in exhausted glass envelopes
and (b) the elements are mounted in a standard four-pin base of
the electronic valve pattern. The vacuum type is sensitive due to
the absence of air cooling by convection.
The thermocouple is sensitive to very small currents; having
exceedingly low values of inductance and capacitance, it is inde-
pendent of frequency and waveform and is particularly suited
for measurements at radio frequencies. The instrument is also
Figure 49.28 Thermocouple Element suitable for measuring alternating currents at radio-frequencies,
and also direct currents. It is available as a voltmeter or as an
ammeter. A fairly wide range may be covered, up to several hundreds of volts and from a few milli amperes to several
hundreds of amperes.
Similar to hot-wire metres, thermocouple instruments are inclined to be sluggish in action and liable to be easily dam-
aged by overload currents.
An insulated type has one or more couples held close to, but not in contact with, the heater. Vitreous glass is used for
good heat conduction to assist in rapid response and good electrical insulation.
49.13 GALVANOMETERS
A galvanometer is an instrument that can indicate a small electric current. It is not usually scaled quantitatively. The pivot
galvanometer is essentially a moving-coil instrument with a very high degree of sensitivity, which can obtained by a reduc-
tion bearing friction consequent upon the use of a single pivot for the moving coil.
Galvanometers are usually used to determine a balance condition, by determining the absence of current flow between
parts of a circuit. As the moving-coil movement is a current-sensing device, producing a deflection depending on the
direction of the applied current and proportional to its magnitude, it is ideally suited for this purpose. Hence, a satisfac-
tory detector for use in d.c. bridge circuits can be devised by arranging for the zero current condition to occur when
the pointer is positioned at the centre of the scale and the pointer being free to move in a positive or negative direc-
tion depending on the direction of the current in the coil. The pointer versions have limited sensitivity (typically –50
to +50 µA). To measure very small currents, or for use as a sensitive null detector, galvanometers of high sensitivity (typi-
cally 430 mm/µA) are required, which means the coil should have a large number of turns (bounded together for maximum
strength and stability) and suspended by a high tensile alloy strip. This type of suspension strip, as shown in Figure 49.29,
provides the small control torque and also acts as connections to and from the coil. A small amount of fluid damping may
be included, but the major part of damping is electromagnetic. To obtain a large deflection for a small movement of the
coil, the reflection of a light spot is used by means of an optical system within the galvanometer, which results in a larger
magnification.
49.13.1 The Principle of Optical System

The principle of the optical system is shown in Figure 49.30. On account of the use of a reflected beam of light, the incident
and reflected rays making equal angle with the normal, the deflection shown by the light spot is twice as great as the deflec-
tion, which would be given by a pointer. Furthermore, the light beam acts as a point of indefinite length, and by increasing
the distance between the seat and the mirror, the sensitiveness of the system may be enhanced.
49.14 THE ELECTROSTATIC VOLTMETER

This instrument depends for its action on the force of attraction between two conductors carrying unlike charges, one con-
ductor being fixed and the other forming the moving system. The principle of construction is shown in Figure 49.31. The
instrument is essentially a variable capacitor.
An aluminium vane or set of vanes (M) is mounted on a spindle, which is fitted between jewelled pivots and carries a
light pointer. Each vane is capable of rotating between a pair of electrically connected fixed brass plates F. Except for a
Meter Movement 933
Tension spring
Mirror
Coil
Magnet
Suspension strip
(a)
Graduated scale
Mirror
Galvanometer
movement
Light
source
Hairline
(b)
Figure 49.29 Light Spot Moving-coil Galvanometer (a) Galvanometer Movement (b) Optical System
Scale
on
ecti
defl
ter
poin
al
rm ction
No r difle
Mirro
Lens
Mirror Lamp
Mirror
Figure 49.30 The Principle of Optical System

Moving vane Fixed wones
Figure 49.31 Principle of Electrostatic Voltmeter: Vane Arrangement
glass window, the instrument is totally enclosed within a metal case that acts as an electrostatic screen and is mounted on
an insulating base. To minimize errors from possible electrification of the glass, the glass may be coated with a transparent
conducting varnish, which is electrically connected to the case by a metal foil.
The moving vane is generally in electrical contact with the case, from which the fixed plates are insulated.
When a p.d. is established from the instrument terminals across the fixed and moving vanes, they carry equal and
opposite charges. The resulting force of attraction draws the moving vanes into the space between the fixed plates and
deflects the pointer. An opposing torque is provided by a spiral spring, whose normal position is the pointer on the
zero mark.
The deflecting force is proportional to the product of the charges on the fixed and moving vanes  F = Q1 Q 2 / 4 π ε0 εr r 2  .
For a constant capacitance, these charges are proportional to the p.d. (Q = CV) and the deflection is normally proportional
to the square of the applied p.d. There is some variation in capacitance as the overlapping area of the vanes changes with
deflection, and the scale is somewhat modified from the square law. The square law scale may be modified by shaping the
vanes so that the change in capacitance is not directly proportional to the change in angle. The electrostatic voltmeter is
calibrated against a substandard.
Since the electrostatic voltmeter has a deflection that is independent of the direction of the applied p.d., it can be used
for d.c. or a.c. (r.m.s) voltage measurements. It requires, a fairly high p.d. to produce deflection.
49.14.1 Properties of Electrostatic Voltmeter

1. It measures true r.m.s values because the deflecting torque is proportional to V2 and the core; therefore, it can be used
as a transfer instrument.
Meter Movement 935
2. It is used for d.c. and a.c., where it constitutes a capacitive load, thus limiting its general application to frequencies
below 100 Hz. However; it may be used in radiofrequencies, where it can be employed for aerial tuning, although its
use in applications other than measuring low frequency high voltages is comparatively rare.
3. It is a comparatively fragile and expensive instrument.
4. It is a high-input impedance instrument, for direct voltages its input resistance is that of the leakage path through the
insulation.
5. It has a nonlinear scale, approximately square law, but this may be modified by the shape of the vanes.
S UM M A RY
1. All basic metre movements have a full-scale current 11. The dynamometer-type instrument may be designed
rating and an internal resistance. as a voltmeter or as an ammeter and used to measure
2. Most electrical measuring instruments depend on the either a.c or d.c supplies.
magnetic effect of current for their operation. 12. Induction-type instruments are useful only when the fre-
3. Except for the electrostatic voltmeter, most electrical quency and supply voltage are approximately constant.
measuring instruments are in effect current-measuring 13. Hot-wire instruments have a square law scale.
devices. 14. Owing to the time factor, hot-wire instruments tend to
4. External means are usually provided for mechanical be sluggish in action.
adjustment of the moving system. 15. The hot-wire instrument has a fairly high power consump-
5. The essential parts of measuring instruments include tion and its zero tends to vary, necessitating frequent
the means to provide a deflecting torque, means readjustments.
to provide a controlling torque, and a pointer to 16. The thermocouple is sensitive to very small currents.
indicate the position of the moving element of the 17. The thermocouple is independent of frequency and
metre. waveform and particularly suited for measurements at
6. Moving-coil instruments are essentially meant for d.c. radio frequencies.
use. 18. A galvanometer is an instrument for indicating small
7. Moving-coil instruments can be designed as ammeters electric currents.
or as voltmeters. 19. The sensitivity of the galvanometer may be enhanced
8. Moving-coil instruments may be used to measure a.c. by the use of an optical system.
current or voltages in association with a metal rectifier. 20. The scale of an electrostatic voltmeter may be suitably
9. Moving-iron instruments are also known as moving- modified by shaping the vanes.
iron-vane instruments. 21. Electrostatic voltmeters are high-input impedance
10. Moving-iron instruments measure r.m.s values. instruments.
1. Which instruments need a pre-calibrated scale? 5. In zero position of the pointer, the control weight in
(a) Absolute (b) Secondary gravity-controlled instruments is
(c) Indicating (d) Recording (a) Horizontal (b) Inclined at an angle
(e) Integrating (c) Vertical
2. The deflecting torque is 6. Which instrument is used for measuring d.c. only
(a) > Controlling torque (a) Moving coil (b) Moving iron
(b) = Controlling torque (c) Hot wire (d) Thermocouple
(c) < Controlling torque (e) Electrostatic
3. The two control springs are 7. Friction is practically eliminated in
(a) Wound in opposite directions (a) Moving-coil instruments
(b) Wound in the same direction (b) Taut band suspension instruments
(c) Not wound (c) Moving-iron instruments
4. The control spring should have a 8. Eddy current damping cannot be employed in
(a) Large number of turns (a) Moving-coil instruments
(b) Small number of turns (b) Moving-iron instruments (c) Hot-wire instruments
9. No-return springs are used in 14. In a permanent moving-coil instrument, the deflecting
(a) Moving-coil instruments torque is proportional to
(b) Moving-iron instruments (a) I2 (b) 1/I
(c) Electrodynamometer instruments (c) I (d) 1/I2
10. A crossed-coil movement is used in 15. The resistance of a voltmeter compared with that of an
(a) Electrodynamometer instruments ammeter is
(b) Moving-coil instruments (a) Very low (b) Equal
(c) Moving-iron instruments (c) Very high (d) Equal to twice
11. Which instrument is slow to respond to changes? 16. Ammeters and voltmeters come under the category of
(a) Moving coil (b) Thermocouple (a) Indicating instruments
(c) Hot wire (d) Electrostatic (b) Recording instruments
12. Which instrument cannot be adapted to measure cur- (c) Integrating instruments
rent or resistance? (d) Standard instruments
(a) Moving coil 17. Dynamometer-type moving-coil instruments can be
(b) Electrostatic used to measure power in
(c) Moving iron (a) a.c circuits only (b) d.c circuits only
13. Damping used in moving-iron instruments is (c) Both a.c and d.c circuits (d) None of these
(a) Air friction (b) Eddy current 18. In instruments provided with spring control
(c) Fluid friction (d) Any one of these (a) Td α I (b) Tc α I (c) Tc α θ (d) Td α θ
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (b) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (c).
8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a)
1. What are the different torques in indicating instru- 8. How does a hot-wire instrument work? What are its
ments? How are they produced? limitations?
2. Derive an expression for the deflecting torque of a 9. How is a taut band suspension movement superior to a
moving-coil instrument. moving-coil movement?
3. What is the difference between an ammeter and a 10. Compare the merits and demerits of moving-iron in-
voltmeter? struments and dynamometer-type instruments. Which
4. Differentiate between moving-coil and moving-iron one is superior and why?
instruments. 11. A permanent magnet moving-coil instrument has a full-
5. With the help of a suitable sketch, explain in detail the scale deflection of 90º for a current of 2A. Find the cur-
working of a moving-iron repulsion type metre. rent required for a deflection of 30º if the instrument is
6. Explain why some instruments have uniform (linear) (1) spring controlled and (2) gravity controlled.
scales while others have cramped (nonlinear scales). 12. A weight of 5 g is used as the controlling weight in
7. Compare the moving-coil movement with the moving- a gravity-controlled instrument; find its distance from
iron movement. the spindle if the deflecting torque corresponding to a
deflection of 60º is 1.13×10-3 N.m.
ANSWERS (CQ)
11. (1) 1.18 A (2) 1.414 A 12. 26.6 mm
Ammeters, Voltmeters
and Ohmmeters 50
OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn about:  Multi-range voltmeters

 Calculation of the value of multipliers for different
 Difference between ammeters and voltmeters and how
ranges
to connect them
 Different methods of connecting multipliers in multi-
 Accuracy of meters in terms of full-scale deflection range voltmeters
 Requirement of a shunt to bypass excess current  Voltmeter loading and how to minimize its effect
 Multi-range ammeters  Voltmeter sensitivity in Ω/v
 Calculation of the value of shunt for different currents  Series-type and shunt-type ohmmeters for the
 Different methods of connecting shunts in multi-range measurement of resistance
ammeters  Basic requirements of ohmmeters
 Universal shunt and its significance  Multi-range ohmmeters
 Calculation of the value of universal shunt  Measurement of insulation resistance
 Ammeter loading and how to minimize its effect  Electric circuit and movement of the Megger
 Requirement of multiplier to drop excess voltage  Ohmmeter scales
Measuring electric parameters

50.1 INTRODUCTION
There is only one path for the flow of current in a series circuit. If this current is to be measured, the ammeter is required
to be connected in series with the circuit. Shunts of suitable ohmic resistance are connected across the ammeters to bypass
the current excess of the meter’s full-scale deflection (FSD) current and thus to enhance the ammeters’ current-measuring
capability. The ohmic value of the shunt is inversely related to the internal resistance of the ammeter.
Current measurements are made much less frequently than either voltage or resistance measurements. This is because
the circuit has to be physically interrupted to insert the meter. This is shown in Figure 50.1 and the meter can be connected
anywhere in the circuit, as shown in Figure 50.2.
(a) (b)
Figure 50.1 Current Being Measured (Current Must Flow Through Both the Meter and the Load) (a) Pictorial
Presentation (b) Schematic Diagram
Voltage measurements are the easiest and the most common electrical measurements. They are made with power connected
to the circuit. Figure 50.3 shows the circuit connections for measuring voltage. The switch is in the closed position. A load has
voltage across it only when the current is flowing through it.
When resistance is measured, the ohms-adjust control is rotated until the meter indicates zero on the ohms scale and the
test lead tips are touching each other. The ohms-adjust control must be adjusted for each range of the ohms function and
whenever the range is changed. The ohmmeter function uses a cell, battery or power supply inside the meter housing. It
has its own source of energy.
Therefore, any other energy source must be disconnected from any circuit in which the resistance is to be measured.
Never measure the resistance of a load when the power is connected to the circuit (see Figure 50.4) as this will damage
the ohmmeter.
50.2 SPECIAL FEATURES

The special features of meters measuring electrical quantities are: (a) Internal resistance, (b) sensitivity and (c) accuracy.
1. Internal resistance: The internal resistance of meters depends on the thickness of the wire and the number of turns
(length) of the wire. The thicker the wire the lesser the resistance and vice versa. The longer the wire or the more the
number of turns, the higher the resistance. Internal resistance of the moving-coil meters is far less than that of the
moving-iron meters.
2. Sensitivity: The maximum amount of current that a meter can safely withstand is called its FSD current. It can also
be defined as the amount of current required to move the pointer from the position of rest (zero) to the maximum
graduation mark (full scale) on the scale. Moving-coil meters are more sensitive than moving-iron meters.
3. Accuracy: Amount of current read by a meter and the actual current are two different quantities. If both the readings
are identical, the accuracy is 100%. Practically, some deviations from accuracy are bound to be there.
The basis for accuracy is FSD. As such, accuracy is always expressed in terms of FSD. Percentage error at FSD is minimum
and for current less than FSD it increases. Suppose the accuracy of a meter is ± 2 per cent of FSD, it will be ±4 per cent at half
FSD, ±8 per cent at one-fourth FSD and so on (see Figure 50.5).
Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeters 939
Figure 50.2 Ammeter Location: Location of the Ammeter with Respect to the Lamp or the
Switch Does Not Change the Amount of Current
(a) (b)
Figure 50.3 Lamp Voltage Being Measured: Switch Must be Closed (a) Pictorial
Presentation (b) Schematic Diagram
(a) (b)
Figure 50.4 Measuring Resistance: Power Source is Disconnected from the Load by the
Open Switch (a) Pictorial Presentation (b) Schematic Diagram
50.3 AMMETERS
An ammeter is inserted in series with the circuit under test so that the
current being measured passes through the instrument. The ammeter
resistance must be low compared with the circuit resistance so that
the current will not be appreciably reduced and the voltage drop and
power loss introduced by the insertion of the meter will not be excessive.
Care should be taken neither to overload the meter nor to exceed
the FSD.
A shunt, as shown in Figure 50.6, is a resistance of very low
value connected in parallel with the basic meter movement.
They are usually made from materials with very low temperature
coefficients. They are generally precision, low-tolerance (±2% or
less) resistors.
Figure 50.5 Accuracy of Meters
50.3.1 Ammeter Shunts

A shunt diverts most of the current around the meter movement.
For example, a 100 µA movement, as shown in Figure 50.6, is
converted to a 1 mA with a meter by shunting of 900 µA around the
movement. The 1 mA splits at the junction of the meter movement
and the shunt, 100 µA passes through the movement and causes
FSD of the pointer while the other 900 µA passes through the shunt.
Figure 50.6 Ammeter with Shunt: Shunts

Extend the Range of the Basic
Meter Movement
If an ammeter is required to read more than one range

of current, different shunts for each range will have to
be connected. These shunts can be connected across the
meter by using a switch or by using different marked
sockets for each range.
If a switch is to be used, one end of all the shunts is
strapped together and connected to one end of the meter
(see Figure 50.7). The other end of the meter is connected
to the pole of the switch. The number of ways of using the
Figure 50.7 Ammeter Shunts switch will depend on the number of ranges to be read by
the meter. Shunt resistors, for low ranges of current are connected inside the meter. For extremely higher ranges of currents,
shunts are required to be connected externally. Such a shunt resistor is shown in Figure 50.8. Connecting them externally
protects the meter from damage and also helps them to dissipate the heat in the atmosphere. In some meters a tapped resistor
is used as a shunt. For the lowest range of current, the whole of the tapped resistor is used as a shunt. For higher ranges of
current, part of the shunt resistor is not used, whereas the remaining part is effective in bypassing current in excess of its
full-scale deflection. For the highest range of current, tapping with the two lowest ohmic values is used as a shunt. Tapped
shunts are made of resistance wire with zero temperature coefficient of resistance. For extremely high ranges of current, shunt
resistors have almost negligible ohmic value. If a switch is used to connect them in circuit, the contact resistance of the switch
will be almost equal to the ohmic value of the shunt resistor. This will introduce errors in meter readings. The only practical
solution of the above problem is the use of a universal shunt. For different ranges of current, part of the universal shunt comes
in series with it and the remaining part is effective as a shunt for that particular range. This swamps the contact resistance of
the switch.
Figure 50.8 Tapped Shunt Resistor
Figure 50.9 Two Types of Shunts for Measurement of Very High Currents
50.3.2 Calculating the Value of Shunts

Referring to Figure 50.10, if the meter current is i amperes and the total current is I amperes, the balance of current (I − i)
MS
flows in the shunt. The joint resistance R Ω of the meter (MΩ) shunted by S Ω is R = . The p.d. across the meter
(M + S )
is ν = IR = iM, from which the current ratio is obtained.
Figure 50.10 Shunted Ammeter
I M M (M + S ) (M + S )
= = = =n (50.1)
i R MS S ,
where n is the multiplying power of the shunt, i, i.e, it is the number by which the current reading (i) on the meter is
multiplied to give the current value of the main circuit (I = ni).
(M + S )
From the ratio =n,
S
M + S = nS and M = S(n−1)
M (50.2)
or S=
(n −1)
In other words, to reduce the meter current to 1/n of the main current, a shunt having a resistance equal to 1/(n−1) times
the meter resistance must be applied.
The addition of a shunt reduces the meterr circuit resistance from M to MS/(M+S). This reduction in circuit resistance
is equal to
MS M2 . (50.3)
M− =
(M + S ) (M + S )
A compensating resistance of this value must be added in series with the main circuit if it is undesirable to disturb the total
circuit resistance.
50.3.3 Universal Shunt

A universal shunt is used with highly sensitive galvanometers to prevent damage caused by the passage of heavy currents
through the movement. This shunt has a number of resistors of different values joined in series. Any resistance value can
be selected by a movable contact arm, thus making it possible to vary the multiplying power according to the requirements
(see Figure 50.11).
The arrangement of a universal shunt is shown in Figure 50.11, which also indicates the values of the various resistors
and the multiplying power at each adjustment. The shunt has three terminals. The galvanometer is joined across the
pairs (G1 G2) embracing the whole of the resistors, and the external circuit under test is connected between the common
terminal (G1 T1) and the movable contact switch (T2). With the switch in the infinity position so that no current flows in the
galvanometer.
Meter resistance + shunt resistance
The multiplying power n= (50.4).
shunt resistance
In the universal shunt, the sum (M + S) is constant and the multiplying power of the shunt is inversely proportional to
the resistance of the shunt.
Figure 50.11 Universal Shunt
50.3.4 Calculating the Value of Universal Shunts

Let us suppose that currents I1, I2 and I3 are to be measured. When the switch is in position 1, the current flowing through
the meter will be Im. This corresponds to the FSD current of the meter. The remaining current (I1 − Im) will flow through
RS1. If the internal resistance of the meter is Rm, then
I1
I2
I3
Figure 50.12 Universal Shunt Calculating Procedure at Position 1 of the Switch
I1
I m Rm = (I1 − I m ) Rs1 , let = n1 then
Im
I m Rm = I1 Rs1 − I m Rs1
I m Rm + I m Rs1 = I1 Rs1
I1 R +R R
= n1 = m s1 = 1+ m (50.5)
Im Rs1 Rs1
n1 Rs1 = Rs1 +Rm ; n1 Rs1 − Rs1 = Rm ; Rs1 (n1 − 1) = Rm
Rm
Rs1 =
n1 − 1
n1 times the FSD current can be read by the meter in position 1 of the switch.
When the switch is in position 2, Rs1−Rs2 will come in series with the meter, whereas Rs2 will operate as the shunt for this
range. The remaining part of I2, i.e. (I2 − Im), will flow through the meter.
Rs1 I m (Rs1 − Rs 2 + Rm ) = (I 2 − I m )Rs 2

I m Rs1 − I m Rs 2 + I m Rm = I 2 Rs 2 − I m Rs 2
I m (Rs1 + Rm ) = I 2 Rs2
I 2 Rs1 + Rm I
= , let 2 = n2
Im Rs2 Im
Rs1 + Rm R + Rm
n2 = ; Rs 2 = s1
Rs 2 n1
Figure 50.13 Calculating Procedure at Position 2 of the Switch
When the switch is in position 3, Rs1−Rs3 will come in series with the meter, whereas Rs3 will work as the shunt. The
remaining I3–Im current will flow through the shunt.
I m (Rs1 − Rs 3 + Rm ) = (I 3 − I m )Rs 3
I m Rs1 − I m Rs 3 +I m Rm =I 3 Rs 3 − I m Rs 3
I m Rs1 + I m Rm = I 3 Rs 3
I3
I m (Rs1 + Rm ) = I 3 Rs 3 let = n3
Im
Rs1 + Rm R + Rm
n3 = ; Rs 3 = s1
Rs 3 n3
Figure 50.14 Calculating Procedure at Position 3 of the Switch
Example 50.1
An ammeter has an FSD of 1mA and an internal resistance of 27 Ω. Find
the value of shunt resistance required for measuring 10 mA with this meter.
Solution: The range of the ammeter has to be multiplied ten times in it, from
1 mA to 10 mA. If 10 mA of current is divided into ten equal parts, only one
part is required for FSD as shown in Figure 50.15, while the remaining nine
parts have to be shunted.
As resistance is inversely proportional to the amount of current, the ohmic
value of this shunt will be one-ninth the meterr resistance so that it can divert
nine times the FSD current.
27
Rs = = 3Ω
Figure 50.15 For Example 50.5 10 − 1
Example 50.2
The FSD current of an ammeter is 50 µA and the meter resistance is 100 Ω. Find the value of shunt resistance required to
adopt this meter for measuring 100 mA.
Solution:
−3
100 × 10 100000
Multiplying factor = −6
= = 2000
50 × 10 50
Out of these 2000 parts, only one part (FSD current) will flow through the
meter, whereas the remaining 1999 parts have to be shunted as shown in
Figure 50.16.
100
Rs = = 0.05 Ω approximately.
1999
Example 50.3
The FSD current of an ammeter is 1 mA and its internal resistance is 30 Ω. This meter has to be adapted to measure 5 mA, 50 mA
and 100 mA. Find the values of the shunts required and in how many ways can these shunt resistors be connected?
Solution:
1. If 5 mA is divided into five equal parts, each of 1 mA, one part will flow through the meter and the remaining four parts
have to be by passed through the shunt. The ohmic value of this shunt will obviously be one-fourth that of the meter
resistance.
30
Rs1 = = 7.5 Ω
5 −1
2. Reasoning on the same grounds
30
Rs2 = = 0.612 Ω
50 − 1
3. By the same logic
30
Rs3 = = 0.303 Ω
(100 − 1)
Instead of three discrete shunts as shown in Figure 50.17(a), a single shunt with tappings as shown in Figure 50.17(b) can
also be used.
Rs1 + Rs 2 + Rs 3 = 7.5 Ω
Rs1 + Rs 2 = 0.612 Ω.
Rs 3 = ( 7.5 − 0.612) Ω = 6.888 Ω.
Rs1 + Rs 2 = 0.612 Ω.
Rs 2 = ( 0.612 − 0.303) Ω = 0.309 Ω.
Figure 50.17(b)
Figure 50.17 Different Ways of Connecting Shunts (For Example 50.3)

Example 50.4
Compute the values of the shunt resistor for the different ranges
in a multi-range ammeter shown in Figure 50.18.
Solution:
Consider the input current applied to the tap point ‘a’ of
Figure 50.18. In this position, the FSD of the movement should
correspond to an applied current of 300 µA that should pass
through the meter movement and 200 µA that should pass
through the shunt resistor. Thus, to provide this current division
R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 = 0.5 R m = 1000 Ω.
Considering now the input tapping point ‘b’ for which FSD of
the meter movement should correspond to an input of 1 mA
Figure 50.18 Universal Current Shunt to Obtain
Direct Current Ranges in a Multi- 900 (R2+ R3+ R4 ) =100 (R1 + Rm),
meter (for Example 50.4) where, R1 = 700 Ω.
And by similar calculation
R2 = 200 Ω; R3 = 70 Ω; R4 = 30 Ω.
In a practical multi-meter, as many as seven or eight direct ranges are provided by this technique.
Example 50.5
A multimeter with a resistance of 10 Ω is connected with a shunt of 0.01 Ω. What will be the current passing through the
instrument if it is connected to a circuit in which a current of 1 A is flowing?
Solution:
R I=1A Rm =10 Ω
Rsh = m
n −1
10
0.01 = ; n =1001
n −1
I I 1
n = ; Im = = Rex = 0.01 Ω
Im n 1001
I m = 0.000999 Α Figure 50.19 For Example 50.5
Example 50.6
A moving-coil milliammeter has a resistance of 5 Ω and an FSD of 15 mA. Determine the value of shunt resistance to be
used so that the instrument could measure current up to 600 mA at 20 °C. What is the percentage error in the instrument
while operating at 40 °C, given that the temperature coefficient of copper is 0.004 per °C at 20 °C.
Solution:
Rm= 5 Ω; Im=15 mA.
The voltage across the instrument is 5 × 15 × 10−3 = 75 mV.
Total current is 600 mA. Current passing through the shunt is (600 – 15) mA = 585 mA.
75 mV
Rsh = = 128.205 mΩ
585 mA
R m 40 = [1+0.004(40 − 20) ] = 5.4 Ω
R sh 40 = 0.128205 [1 + 0.004(40 − 20) ] = 0.1384614 Ω
5.4 × 0.1384614
Total resistance = = 0.135 Ω → Rm || Rsh.
5.4 + 0.1384614
Voltage (V) = 600×10−3×0.135 = 0.081 V.
0.081
Im
= = 0.015 A = 15 mA
5.4
15 − 15
Percentage error = × 100 = 0
15
Example 50.7
A moving-coil instrument gives a reading of 25 mA when the potential difference across its terminals is 75 mV. Calculate
the shunt resistance for FSD corresponding to 50 A.
Solution:
75 mV
Meter resistance Rm = = 3Ω
25 mV
Main current is I = 50 A.
FSD current is 25 mA = 0.025 A.
50
n= = 2000
0.025
Rm 3 3
Shunt resistance (Rsh) is = = Ω
n − 1 2000 − 1 1999
Example 50.8
A moving-coil instrument has a resistance of 2 Ω and it reads up to 250 V when a resistance of 5000 Ω is connected in
series with it. Find the current range of the instrument when it is used as an ammeter with the coil connected across a shunt
resistance of 2 mΩ.
Solution:
250
Rm= 2 Ω: Im for FSD is = 0.04998 A = 49.98 mA
2 + 5000
Im Rm 49.98 × 10−3 × 2
Rsh= 2×10−3Ω, Ish = = = 49.98 mA
R sh 2 × 10−3
Current range of instrument is Im+ Ish = 0.04998 + 49.98 = 50 A.
50.3.4 Ammeter Loading

Ammeters are connected in series and have some inherent internal resistance. Their insertion or removal should not alter
the working of the circuit. With reference to Figure 50.20, the current flowing in the circuit before connecting it is 10 A,
whereas the current is reduced to 5 A after the ammeter is connected in the circuit. This is an example of extreme loading.
There is nothing wrong with the meter but it has not been used properly.
If an ammeter of 1 Ω internal resistance is inserted in the previous circuit, current will be reduced to 9.1 A. Now the
loading effect has been considerably reduced even though it is still there.
Current difference with and without ammeter
Per cent Loading = ×100
Current without ammeter
Figure 50.20 Ammeter Loading

If an ammeter with an internal resistance of, say 10 Ω, is to be used, it should be used in a circuit with an ohmic resistance
extremely higher than 10 Ω. Suppose this meter is to be used in a circuit having 10 kΩ resistance,
100
Current before ammeter is inserted = = 0.01 A.
10000
100
=
Current after ammeter is inserted = 0.0099 A
10010
0.01 − 0.0099
Per cent Loading= × 100 = 1 per cent.
0.01
We conclude that
1. Insertion of an ammeter in a circuit alters the circuit conditions to some extent.
2. Ammeter with low internal resistance introduces minimum loading.
3. Ammeter with high internal resistance introduces considerable loading.
50.4 VOLTMETERS
The terminals of a voltmeter are connected across
the points whose potential difference is to be
measured. To avoid drawing excessive current from
the supply terminals and lowering the potential
at the points to be measured, it is necessary for
a voltmeter to possess a high value of resistance
compared with that of the circuit being measured.
2
This will also ensure that the power (V /R) absorbed
by the meter is kept to a minimum.
While measuring the p.d. across a resistor X
Figure 50.21 Method of Connecting a Voltmeter to Load (Figure 50.21), the shunting effect of the voltmeter
Provided that the Meter Resistance is High reduces the resistance across the points A and B, the
Compared with that of the Load Resistance X; circuit current increases, the potential drop across
the Shunting effect and the Error will be Small R increases and the p.d. to be measured across
the points A and B falls due to the presence of the
voltmeter. The degree of inaccuracy of the measurements depends on the relationship between the voltmeter resistance and
the value of X.
Voltmeter resistances are expressed in ohms per volt for FSD. For example, a voltmeter whose terminals present a
resistance of 50,000 Ω and has FSD corresponding to a reading of 50 V shows a resistance of 10,000 Ω per V.
Most voltmeters show a deflection that is proportional to the current (or to the square of the current) flowing in the
moving system (the electrostatic type is an exception). If an FSD requires a current of I amperes, as the resistance R Ω of
the moving system is constant, it follows that a p.d. of V = IR across the moving system will always produce an FSD. If
the ratio of the p.d.-to-current remains constant, the deflection will be proportional to the p.d. (or to the square of the p.d.)
and the scale can be calibrated in volts.
50.4.1 Voltmeter Multipliers

The range of a voltmeter may be extended by connecting a fixed resistor in series with it. For example, if a voltmeter of
5000 Ω resistance is connected in series with a 5000 Ω resistor and the combination connected across a source of p.d, only
one-half of this p.d will appear across the meter terminals and the scale reading will require a multiplication by two to give
the correct value.
The problem of calculating the series resistance necessary to extend the range of a voltmeter may be regarded from the
viewpoint of dropping the excess volts across the series resistance, or alternatively, as a question of adding sufficient series
resistance to limit the FSD current to its correct value where
the increased p.d appears.
Referring to Figure 50.22, suppose that I amperes is the
current required to produce an FSD of V volts on a given
instrument and the resistance of the meter is R Ω and R = V/1.
Now suppose that it is desired to extend the voltmeters range
to read n volts (n > 1). To limit the p.d across the meter to V
volts, it is necessary to drop the excess voltage, n V − v = V
(n − 1) volts, across the resistor X Ω. At a current of I amperes
the value of the series resistance is given by
V ( n − 1)
X = Ω.
I
Alternatively, to maintain the current at I amperes when the

total p.d is n volts, the total resistance will need to be n V/s Ω. Figure 50.22 Extending the Range of a Voltmeter
nV V V ( n −1)
The voltmeter resistance is equal to V/I so that the value for the added resistance is = − = Ω.
I I I
Figure 50.23 The Voltmeter Multiplier Extends the Voltage Range of the Basic Meter Movements
Example 50.9
What value multiplier is needed to make an 5V voltmeter from a 1 mA, 100 Ω meter movement?
Solution:
I m = I m A1.Rm = 100 Ω.
Vm = 0.001 A × 100 Ω = 0.1 V.
Vmt = 5 V - 0.1 V = 4.9 V.
4.9 V
Rmt = = 4900 Ω.
0.001 A
Example 50.10
The FSD current of an ammeter is 10 mA and its internal resistance is 1000 Ω. Calculate the value of the multiplier required
for making this meter to measure 10 V.
Solution:
Total voltage to be measured is 10 V.
FSD current is 10 mA.
10
Total resistance is Rm (meter) + Rmt (multiplier) = = 1000 Ω .
10 × 10−3
Multiplier resistance = (1000 – 1000) = 0 Ω.
In this particular case, no multiplier resistance is required as the meter can directly read 10 V.
Example 50.11
The FSD current of an ammeter is 1 mA and its internal resistance is 1000 Ω. If it is to be used as a voltmeter for measuring
1 V, 10 V, 100 V and 1000 V, calculate the value of multiplier resistances.
Solution:
For 1 V,
1
Total resistance is = 1000 Ω.
1× 10−3
Rm1= (1000 − 1000) = 0 Ω.
No external resistance is required.
For 10 V,
10
Total resistance is = 10 kΩ.
1× 10−3
Rm2= (10 kΩ − 1 kΩ) = 9 kΩ.
For 100 V,
Total resistance is 100 kΩ
Rm3 = (100 kΩ − 1 kΩ) = 99 kΩ.
For 1000 V,
1000
Total resistance is = 1000 kΩ
1× 10−3
Rm4 = (1000 kΩ − 1 kΩ) = 999 kΩ.
Example 50.12
In how many different ways will you connect the multipliers
given in Example 50.11?
Solution:
Instead of connecting different multipliers for different ranges,
each one being a high ohms (high voltage) resistance, there
is yet another method of connecting them. In this method, as
shown in Figure 50.24, the multipliers for different ranges are
all connected in series.
Rm1 = 0 Ω, Rm2 = 9 kΩ, Rm3 = 99 kΩ − 9 kΩ = 90 kΩ and
Rm4 = 999 kΩ − (90 kΩ + 90 kΩ) = 900 kΩ. This is illustrated in
Figure 50.25.
Example 50.13 Figure 50.24 Ways of Connecting Multipliers

A moving-coil instrument gives an FSD of 10 mA when a
potential difference of 10 mV is applied across its terminals. How will you use the instrument to measure (1) currents up
to 100 A and (2) voltages up to 500 V?
Solution:
1. Let Rsh be the value of the shunt resistance required to extend the range of the meter to 100 A, as shown in Figure 50.25(a).
The current flowing through the shunt is 100−(10×10−3)A.
As the voltage across the instrument will be the voltage across the shunt, we have
10 × 10−3 0.01
Rsh = −3
= = 0.0001 Ω
100 − (10 × 10 ) 99.99
2. Total voltage across the circuit is 500 V, see Figure 50.25(b).
500
Total resistance of the circuit is = 50 kΩ
10 × 10−3
10 × 10−3
Resistance of the instrument (Rm) = = 1 Ω.
10 × 10−3
Value of the multiplier resistance is 50 kΩ − 1 Ω = 49,999 Ω.
Example 50.14
It is required to measure the voltage across a 100 Ω resistor in the circuit as shown in Figure 50.26. Two voltmeters are available
for measurement. Voltmeter A has a sensitivity of 90 Ω/V and voltmeter B has a sensitivity of 900 Ω/V. Calculate (1) the reading
of each voltmeter and (2) the percentage error in each case.
Solution:
Refer to Figure 50.26.
150
1. Current in 100 Ω resistance is = 0.5 A.
100 + 200
Voltage drop across 100 Ω = 100 × 0.5 = 50 V.
Voltmeter A: Its resistance is 50 × 90 = 4500 Ω
4500 × 100
(Figure 50.27(a)). RT = 200 + = 297.826 Ω
4500 + 100
150
Current in the circuit = = 0.504 A
297.826
4500 × 100
Reading of voltmeter A is × 0.504 = 49.301 V.
4500 + 100
Voltmeter B: Its resistance is 50×900 = 45,000 Ω.
4500 × 100
(Figure 50.27(b)). RT= 200 + = 297.778 Ω
4500 + 100
150
Current in the circuit is = 0.5004 A
297.778
4500 × 100
Reading of voltmeter B is × 0.5004 = 49.926 V
4500 + 100
49.301 − 50
2. Percentage error in the first case is × 100 = 1.397 per cent.
50
49.926 − 50
Percentage error in the second case is × 100 = −0.148 per cent.
50
Figure 50.27 Solution for Example 50.14
50.4.2 Voltmeter Loading

A voltmeter should have an infinite resistance so that its insertion or removal from the circuit does not alter circuit
conditions. In Figure 50.28(a), before connecting the voltmeter the voltage drop across each resistance is 50 V, i.e., half of
the total voltage. If a voltmeter of 100 kΩ is connected across one of these resistors, the circuit conditions are no longer
the same.
150 kW
Now the total resistance becomes 150 kΩ. The voltmeter will now read ×100 = 33.3 V. There is nothing wrong
150 kW
with the voltmeter but it has not been used in the right place.
Instead of a 100 kΩ resistance voltmeter, if a 2 MΩ resistance voltmeter is used as shown in Figure 50.28(b), the change in
voltage with the insertion of the voltmeter will be almost negligible. The voltmeter will now read
95.23 kW
× 100 = 48.8 V see Figure 50.29(b).
195.23 kW
Figure 50.28 Voltmeter Loading Because the Total Resistance in the Circuit has Changed. This is Further
Elaborated in Figure 50.29
The change in voltage brought about by the insertion of the voltmeter is called voltmeter loading, because it is basically
due to the voltmeter. To conclude
1. A change in voltage should not occur by insertion of a voltmeter into the circuit.
2. Voltmeter with a higher Ω/V rating introduces less loading of the circuit.
3. Voltmeter with a low Ω/V rating introduces more loading of the circuit.
Voltmeter loading is much more common than ammeter loading. It can occur in series and series-parallel circuits. It does
not occur in parallel circuits because the voltmeter is connected across the power source, ie, it is in parallel with all other
parts of the circuit. In general, voltmeter loading occurs in high-resistance circuits such as those found in many electronic
devices.
Manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment often specify the voltages at various points in their circuits. Usually
they specify either the sensitivity or the input resistance of the meter used for measuring these voltages. When using a meter
different from the one specified, one must be aware of the possible meter loading. The voltmeter’s input resistance should
be 20 times greater than the resistance across which the voltage is to be measured. Under these conditions, the loading will
change the resistance of the circuit by less than 5 per cent.
Figure 50.29 Figure 50.29 Further Elaborated
Example 50.15
Assume the voltage across R2 in Figure 50.30 was measured with a 2000 Ω/V meter on the 5 V range. How much voltage
would the meter indicate?
Solution:
Input resistance = sensitivity × range
= ( 2000 × 5) = 10 kΩ.
5k × 10k
R2 = = 3.33 kΩ.
5k + 10k
6 V × 3.33 kΩ
VR 2 = = 2.4 V
5 kΩ + 3.33 kΩ
The measured voltage is 2.4 V.
50.5 OHMMETERS
To utilize the moving-coil movement for the measurement of resistance
requires the provision of a source. In most multi-meters (multirange,
multifunction instruments) this takes the form of one or more cells depending
on the magnitude of resistances that can be measured and the number of
ranges provided.
Two methods are provided for making this type of measurements. In the
series arrangement, as shown in Figure 50.31, the unknown resistance is
connected in series with the meter movement. FSD current corresponds to
the unknown resistance of 0 Ω and it is on the right-hand side of the scale. Figure 50.30 For Example 50.15
Figure 50.31 Series Type Ohmmeter Circuit R1 is Adjusted to Provide FSD when the Terminals are Shorted
Together. In the Shunt Arrangement Shown in Figure 50.33, the Unknown Resistance is
Connected in Parallel with the Meter Movement. Short Circuiting the Meter Terminals Gives
0 Ω on the Left-Hand Side of the Scale and an Open Circuit or Infinite Resistance Gives FSD
Figure 50.32 Shunt-Type Ohmmeter Circuit
Example 50.16
Discuss the adoption of a 100 µA, 2000 Ω meter movement for measurement of resistances assuming the source to be a
1.5 V cell.
Solution:
For the series-type arrangement, the adjustment resistor that must be connected in series, as shown in Figure 50.33,
should have a value such that when the meter terminals are short-circuited, the current through the meter will be
100 µA.
1.5
Ra + Rm = = 15, 000 Ω
100 × 10−6

Note:
1. In practice Ra must be adjustable to allow for the changes in the terminal voltage of the battery voltage as it ages.
2. The adjustment resistor could comprise a fixed 10 kΩ resistor and a variable 5 kΩ resistor in series.
3. For both the series and shunt arrangements, the adjustment resistor has the same value for a given meter movement
sensitivity and source voltage.
50.6 MEASUREMENT OF INSULATION

RESISTANCE
In the type of instrument employed for measuring
insulation resistance, as shown in Figure 50.34, the moving
system comprising both a pressure coil and a current
coil is deflected under the action of mutually opposing
electromagnetic forces. The force acting upon the pressure
coil depends on the current in that coil, which is practically
proportional to the p.d. applied to the instrument terminals.
The force acting upon the current coil is proportional to
the current that flows in it. This is also the current in the
external circuit. These two forces urge the moving system
in opposite directions and the position taken by the pointer Figure 50.34 ‘MEG’ Insulation Testers (Ohmmeter)
depends on the ratio p.d./current in the resistance of the
external circuit.
The ohmmeter consists of two parts, the indicating system and a small hand-driven permanent magnet-type d.c.
generator. The same permanent magnet system is utilized both for the moving system of the meter and for the generator
field. The general principle of the meter is illustrated in Figure 50.35.
Figure 50.35 Principle of the Ohmmeter
P is the pressure coil and A is the current coil. The generator maintains a constant p.d. across the pressure coil and

also across the unknown resistance X connected to the ohmmeter terminals L and E. The same current flows through A
and X.
The magnetic and electric circuits of the ohmmeter are shown in Figure 50.36. Two powerful bar magnets fitted with
pole pieces provide the field for the generator at one end and for the moving system at the other. An e.m.f. is generated in
the armature when it is rotated from the external handle through the intermediary of a suitable gearing and a clutch. This
clutch, of centrifugal type, is designed to slip at a critical speed of rotation—about 100 r.p.m.—in order that the armature
speed and e.m.f. of the generator remain constant. The generator e.m.f. is 500 V in most instruments of this type. The
generator commutator consists of four rings, each of two segments with each segment connected to the armature. Four pairs
of carbon brushes insulated from one another are used. Constancy of terminal voltage is not in itself essential because the
ratio VI is being measured. It is however particularly important when testing circuits containing inductance or capacitance
(underground lines, for example) a variable voltage would produce surge currents and produce unsteady readings.
Figure 50.36 Ohm Meter—Magnetic and Electrical Circuits
The moving system illustrated in Figure 50.37 comprises three
coils moving about a fixed cylindrical core that is split along its
length. The whole system carrying the pointer is supported on
jewelled bearings. There is no mechanical controlling torque.
Connections to the coils are made by fine phosphor–bronze strip.
The current coil A carries the current that flows in the external
circuit connected to the meter terminals. Its function is in every
way similar to that of the moving coil of a milliammeter. Its
current and torques are inversely proportional to the resistance
under test. A protective resistor R2 is inserted in series to limit the
maximum current value.
The pressure coil P with the compensating coil C is arranged
approximately at right angles to the current coil. Connected in
series, they are energized directly from the generator and provide
the controlling torque. A limiting resistor R1 is connected in series
with these coils. The compensating coil is fixed to the outer edge of
the pressure coils. It is wound in opposite to the pressure coil, the
two coils together forming an astatic pair. The combination is largely
independent of stray magnetic fields from sources external to the
instrument. A specially shaped S pole piece allows the compensating
coil to move over it and so to oppose the force on the pressure coil.
The two external terminals are marked line (L) and earth
(E). A third terminal, the guard terminal or guardning (G),
is provided to present a passage through the circuit coil of
leakage currents flowing over the surface of the instrument
Figure 50.37 Movement of Bridge Megger between terminals L and E. The guard terminal is connected
to the negative terminal of the generator. While measuring the
insulation resistance of a table, this guard terminal is connected to the insulating material, between conductors and
sheath of the cable, to nullify the effect of any leakage current that passes over the open end of the cable.
When the instrument is idle, there is no current and no controlling torque on the moving system. The pointer is entirely
free and will remain at any position on the scale. With the generator operating, if no connection is made between terminals
L and E, i.e., if the external resistance is infinitely high, no current will flow in the current coil. The pressure coil is
polarized by current from the generator and will set itself in the position shown in Figure 50.36, i.e., at right angles to the
air-gap flux. In this position, the pointer is opposite to the infinity mark on the scale.
When a resistance is applied across L and E terminals, a current (inversely proportional to the sum of the external and
internal resistances) will flow in the current coil. This coil will tend to set itself at right angles to the flux lines but it is,
however, subjected to the opposing torque of the pressure coil. The current coil deflects the static system into a gradually
increasing magnetic field and the moving system is held in equilibrium due to the balanced torques. The corresponding
resistance value is indicated directly by the pointer against the scale.
ms ms
goh goh
Me Me
Megohms
ms
Thousand oh
Me Tho
goh usa
ms nd
ohm
s
Figure 50.38 Ohmmeter Scales
S UM M A RY
1. A mmeters have a very low resistance and are connect- 5. I n a multi-range ammeter, the number of shunts de-
ed in series. pends on the number of ranges.
2. Voltmeters have an extremely high resistance and are 6. Shunts in multi-range ammeters can be inserted into
connected in parallel. the circuit by different methods.
3. The circuit has to be physically broken for insertion of 7. A universal shunt is used with highly sensitive galva-
the ammeter. nometers.
4. Shunts enhance the current-measuring capacity of am- 8. Multipliers enhance the voltage-measuring capacity of
meter by bypassing the excess current around the meter voltmeters by dropping excess voltage.
movement.
9. I n a multi-range voltmeter, the number of multipliers 1 4. There are two types of ohmmeters—series and shunt—
depends on the number of ranges. depending on whether the resistance to be measured is
10. Multipliers in multi-range voltmeters can be introduced connected in series with or across the meter movement.
into the circuit by different methods. 15. Ohmmeters comprise an adjustable resistance to com-
11. Ammeters with high internal resistance introduce con- pensate for the ageing of the source of power or of
siderable loading. components.
12. Voltmeters with a high Ω/V introduce the least loading. 16 The insulation tester consists of two parts: the indicat-
13. Ohmmeters use one or more cells as a source of energy, ing system and a small hand-driven permanent magnet
depending on the magnitude of resistances to be mea- d.c. generator.
sured and the number of ranges provided.
1. The internal resistance of the voltmeter is 6. The value of shunt for higher ranges of current is
(a) Zero (b) Very small (a) Extremely high
(c) High (d) Extremely high (b) Extremely low
2. The shunt used in the milliammeter 7. How many coils are required in the megger
(a) Will extend the range and increase the meter resistance (a) One (b) Two
(b) Will extend the range and decrease the meter resistance (c) Three (d) Four
(c) Will decrease the range and meter resistance 8. I n a multi-range voltmeter, the ohmic value of the mul-
(d) Will decrease the range and increase the meter resistance tiplier
3. T
he range of an ammeter can be extended by using (a) Increases with range
suitable (b) Decreases with range
(a) Shunts (c) Is not affected by range
(b) Multipliers 9. In a multi-range ammeter, the ohmic value of the shunt
(c) Both (a) and (b) (a) Increases with range
4. Measurement of resistance requires a suitable (b) Decreases with range
(a) Shunt (c) Remains the same
(b) Source 10. T
he magnitude of the strength of the source in an ohm-
(c) Multiplier meter
5. M
easurement of alternating current/voltage requires a (a) Depends on the magnitude of the unknown resistance
suitable (b) Depends on the magnitude of the unknown resistance and
(a) Shunt range provided
(b) Rectifier (c) Depends on the ranges provided
(c) Multiplier
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (b)
1. H ow will you convert a single-range ammeter into a 5. D iscuss the limitations of switching arrangement in
multi-range ammeter? multi-range multi-function measuring instruments?
2. How will you convert a single-range voltmeter into a 6. Explain briefly the following:
multi-range voltmeter? (a) Shunt, (b) Tapped shunt, (c) Multipliers, (d) Tapped
3. What are the factors that decide the ohmic values of multiplier, (e) Universal shunt
shunts and multipliers? 7. Explain the difference between a series-type ohmmeter
4. What are the different methods of connecting shunts and a shunt-type ohmmeter?
and multipliers in a multi-range instrument.Explain 8. How is the accuracy of the following specified?
with the help of suitable illustrations? (a) Ammeter, (b) Voltmeter, (c) Ohmmeters
9. W hat are the advantages and drawbacks of shunt and 1 5. A moving-coil ammeter has a resistance of 5 Ω and
multipliers? FSD of 20 mA. Determine the resistance of the shunt
10. A moving-coil instrument gives FSD when its current required so that the instrument could measure currents
coil is connected across 50 µV supply. Calculate the up to 500 mA at 20 °C. What is the percentage error
current in the coil of instrument if its resistance is 5 Ω? with the instrument operating at a temperature of 40
11. Find out the value of the resistance of the shunt and °C? The temperature coefficient of copper is 0.0039
power dissipation to extend the range of 1 mA, 80 Ω per °C.
resistance meter to measure a 1 A current? 16. A moving-coil meter can read up to 1 mA and has a
12. What is the value of internal resistance of the meter coil resistance of 0.02 Ω. How could this instrument be
that is rated at 50 µA, 200 mV? adopted to read (i) voltage up to 300 V and (ii) current
up to 100 A?
13. Determine the value of the multiplier resistor to be
connected to make 10 V voltmeter with a coil of instru- 1
7. A moving-coil voltmeter reading up to 20 mV has a
ment that has 1 mA current passing through the coil and resistance of 2 Ω. How can this instrument be adopted
a resistance of 100 Ω. to read voltages up to 300 V?
14. A moving-coil instrument gives FSD when connected
across 50 mV supply. What modifications are required
to measure the following:
(1) 100 V potential (2) 10 A current.
ANSWERS (CQ)
10. 10 mA 14. Rm = 19.99 kΩ, Rsh = 0.005 Ω
11. 0.08 Ω, 0.07992 W 15. Error = 0.07
12. 4000 Ω 16. Rm = 299.98 Ω, Rsh = 0.000202 Ω
13. 9900 Ω 17. Rm = 29998 Ω (29. 998 kΩ)
Watt Meters and Energy Meters
51
OBJECTIVES

 The difference between ampere meters, watt
meters, ampere-hour meters and watt-hour
meters
 Electrodynamic (dynamometer) and induction-

type watt meters
The construction and principle of operation of

watt meters
Energy meters—both commutator type and

mercury type
 The essential parts of induction watt-hour meters

The significance of the different parts

Production of fluxes and driving torque

Reading watt-hour meter

Poly-phase induction watt-hour meters

Errors in energy meters


Different methods of measuring power in Watthour meter
three-phase circuits

Simple problems on the above
51.1 INTRODUCTION
The measurement of electricity distributed for commercial purposes is based on the following units: (1) Ampere (the unit
of current), (2) volt (the unit of e.m.f.), and (3) the watt (unit of electric power).
Ampere hour and watt hour are derived from (1) and (3) , which means, respectively, an ampere of current and a watt
of power each maintained for one hour. Since the latter units combine the elements of both rate and time, they are adapted
for the measurement of the supply of electricity, which is electrical work or energy. The watt hour is the more useful of the
two units because it is a direct measure of electrical work and its multiple, the kilowatt hour (1000 Watt hours) is the unit
generally employed for commercial purposes.
Ampere-hour meters and watt-hour meters derive their names from the units in which they register. An ampere-hour
meter integrates, or adds together, products of current and time without regard to the voltage at which current is supplied.
Consequently, an ampere-hour meter is useful only when it is desired to know merely the quantity of electricity, as in
storage battery charging or in electroplating. A watt-hour meter integrates, or adds together, units of electrical energy
(watts) with respect to time and since watt includes the resultant effect of both voltage and current, watt-hour meters are
used universally in the commercial measurement of electrical energy.
Electricity can be measured through the different effects it produces. The chemical effect, such as the decomposition
of an electrolyte, has been utilized in some ampere-hour meters; the magnetic effects are the basis of all the motor type of
meters now in general use, and the heating effects are the basis of hot-wire type of instruments and thermal demand meters.
51.2 WATT METERS

A watt meter is a combination of an ammeter and a voltmeter and therefore consists of two coils (Figure 51.1) known as
current coil and pressure coil. The operating torque is produced due to the interaction of fluxes because of current in the
Watt Meters and Energy Meters 961
current and pressure coils. The current coil is inserted in series with the line carrying the current to be measured and the
pressure coil, in series with a high non-inductive resistance R, is connected across the load or supply terminals.
(a)
(b)
Figure 51.1 (a) Watt Meter Connections: (b) For Clockwise Torque, the Instantaneous Currents with Current
Coils and with Voltage Coil Must be in the Same Direction
The watt meter gives a reading that is proportional to the current flowing Voltage coil
(1) through its current coil (2) p.d. across potential coil and (3) cosine of
the phase angle between voltage and current. The watt meter measures the
power lost in CC or PC in addition to load power. Normally, the power lost
in CC or PC is very small compared with that measured and therefore can
be neglected (Figure 51.2).
There are two methods of connecting watt meters in the circuit for
measurement of power, as shown in Figure 51.3. The circuit in Figure 51.3(a) Disc
is used for circuits carrying small currents, whereas the circuit shown in
Figure 51.3(b) is used for measurement of power in circuits carrying large
currents.
There are four types of watt meters namely: (1) Dynamometer-type Current coils
watt meters, (2) Induction-type watt meters, (3) Electrostatic-type watt
meters and (4) Thermal-type watt meters. Of these, the dynamometer and
induction type are the most commonly employed. Figure 51.2 Induction-type Watt Meter
51.3 DYNAMOMETER-TYPE WATT METER

When used as a watt meter, the fixed coil, which is divided into two equal portions to provide a uniform field, is used as
a current coil and the moving coil is used as a pressure coil, that is, the fixed coil carries the current flowing through the
circuit and the moving coil carries a current proportional to the voltage across the circuit. A high non-inductive resistance
is connected in series with the moving coil to limit the current in it. The magnetic fields of the fixed and moving coils react
with one another, causing the moving coil to turn about its axis (Figure 51.4). The movement is controlled by hair springs,
which also lead the current into and out of the moving element. Damping is provided by light aluminium vanes moving in
an air dash pot. Eddy current damping cannot be used, as the introduction of a permanent magnet required for damping will
Figure 51.3 Watt Meter Connections: (a) Circuit with Small Currents (b) Circuit with Large Currents
greatly distort the weak working magnetic field. The knife-edge pointer
is fixed to the moving coil spindle and moves over a suitably calibrated
mirror-type scale.
Let v be the supply voltage, i the load current and R the total resistance
of the moving coil circuit (Figure 51.5).
Figure 51.5 Connection Diagram of Watt Meter;

Measurement of Power in a.c. Circuits
Figure 51.4 The Dynamometer-type Current through the fixed coil is If = i

Watt Meter Current through the moving coil is Vm = u/R
iv
Deflecting torque, Td α I f Vm α
R
In a d.c. circuit, power is given by the product of voltage and current; hence, the deflecting torque is directly proportional
to power.
In an a.c. circuit, the instantaneous torque is proportional to instantaneous power.
instantaneous α ν = (51.1)
where, k is a constant.
2π
1
Tav α
2π ∫ Vmax sin θ × I max sin(θ − φ) d θ
0
taking ν = Vmax sin θ and i = I max sin (θ − φ)
V I V I
Tav α max max × 2 π cos φ α max ⋅ max cos φ α VI cos φ
4π 2 2
where, V and I are the r.m.s. values.
Thus, Td α V I cos θ α true power. (51.2)
Owing to the large time constant of the moving system it cannot follow the rapid variation of the torque having double
the frequency of the voltage and the instrument takes up a position at which the average deflecting torque is balanced by
the controlling torque.
Thus, an electrodynamic instrument, when connected as shown in Figure 51.6, indicates the average power irrespective
of the fact whether it is connected in an a.c. or d.c. circuit.
Fixed coil
Figure 51.6 An Electrodynamic Instrument Indicates the Average Power
The scale of the dynamometer-type watt meter is more or less uniform because its deflection is proportional to the
average power and for spring control torque it is proportional to the deflection.
Therefore, θ∝ power. (51.3)
The watt meter has four external terminals ±V and ± I. It is necessary to connect the ± I terminal and the ±V terminal to the
same wire of the incoming supply line. In this way, the fixed coils and the moving coil will be at about the same potential
because most of the voltage across the voltage branch is dropped by the high-value series resistor. An electric field would
arise between the potential and the current coils if they were at different potentials. The force of attraction due to the field
could slightly restrict the movement of the moving coil and give an erroneous reading.
The meter will always read upscale when the instrument is correctly connected in the circuit in which the power is to be
measured. If, for any reason, the meter reads backward, the current coil connections and not the potential coil connections
should be reversed.
The overall errors in commercially manufactured dynamometer instruments lie between ± 0.1 per cent and ± 0.5 per
cent when operated between their specified frequencies. These high-accuracy instruments are used as laboratory standards
of power.
The watt meter is rated in terms of its maximum current voltage and power. Each of these ratings must be observed to
prevent damage to the instrument. In low-power factor circuits, either of these limits could be exceeded.
Ranges: 1. Current 0.25–200 A without employing current transformers.
2. Potential 5 to 750 V without employing potential transformers.
51.4 COMPENSATING COIL

Suppose the watt meter W (Figure 51.7) is measuring the power in circuit AB. Then it is usual to connect the pressure
coil across AB. If i is instantaneous current in AB and is the instantaneous current in the pressure coil, then (i+i1) is the
instantaneous current in the current coil.
Therefore, torque at any instant, which is proportional to the product of the instantaneous currents in the pressure, and
current coils is proportional to i1(i+i1). Now, the current in the pressure coil is equal at any instant to e/R.
Instantaneous torque ∝ (ei/R + ei1/R) ∝ (ei + ei1)
∴ Reading, which ∝ average torque
∝ average of (ei) + average of (ei1)
∝ average power in AB + average power in pressure coil (51.4)
A correction for the power used in the pressure coil, therefore, has to be applied. In standard watt meters, this correction is
applied automatically by means of a compensating coil. This is a small coil placed with its axis along the axis of the current
coil and having the same number of turns as the current coil, but connected in series with the pressure coil. It is so arranged
that its ampere-turns neutralize the extra ampere-turns with the current coil due to the current i1.
When the current in the circuit AB is very small, the pressure coil of the watt meter is sometimes connected to points A
and C as shown in Figure 51.7(a). In this case, the watt meter reading-power in AB+ power in current coil.
Figure 51.7 (a) Watt Meter Connections (b) Connections of Compensating Coil
51.5 INDUCTION-TYPE WATT METERS

The operating principle of the instrument is discussed in detail in the section Watt Meters. These instruments can only be
used in a.c. systems, whereas dynamometer-type watt meters can be used on either a.c. or d.c. systems. Induction-type
instruments are useful only when the frequency and supply voltage are approximately constant.
Figure 51.8 shows the arrangement of the circuits in the Lipman type of induction watt meter, which has a low VA
consumption in its windings. The voltage winding VV is wound on the main magnet core, which also carries coils FF for
power factor compensation, the resistor R being adjustable for calibration purposes to bring the operating fluxes, Fp and
Fc, 90° out of phase with one another. Within the moving element, or rotor, D—an aluminium drum—is a fixed core, of
cruciform shape, completing the magnetic circuit.
Figure 51.8 Induction Watt Meter—Lipman Type

The current coil ML is wound on one limb of this cruciform core. The voltage coil flux passes horizontally through the
rotor, whereas the flux due to the current coils acts on the motor or in a vertical direction (Table 51.1).
51.5.1 Dynamometer-type, Watt Meter and Induction-type Watt Meter

a Comparison
Table 51.1 A Comparison of Dynamometer-type Watt Meters and Induction-type Watt Meters
Sl. Dynamometer-type Induction-type

No. Watt Meters Watt Meters
1 The instrument can be used on both d.c. and a.c. The instrument cannot be used on d.c. system
systems
2 The instrument can have a high degree of accuracy The instrument is less accurate. It is accurate only at
if carefully designed stated frequency and temperature
3 Power consumption is comparatively low Power consumption is comparatively high
4 Weight of moving system in comparatively low Weight of moving system is comparatively high
5 The instrument has uniform scale The instrument has uniform long scale
6 The instrument has comparatively weaker working The instrument has comparatively stronger working
torque torque
51.6 ENERGY METERS

The amount of electricity used by a consumer must be metered; thus, energy meters are perhaps one of the most familiar
electrical instruments. The development of methods of measuring electricity has been interesting. The first measurements
were made with meters that were nothing more than clocks measuring the time the load was applied. The first type was
started and stopped by the flow of direct current. Knowing the number of lamps, the current taken per lamp and the duration
of current flow, the ampere hours could be computed.
The first commercially successful ampere-hour meter was the Edison chemical meter developed between 1878 and
1881. This meter involved an electrotype cell containing a metallic salt and two zinc electrodes. Ampere hours were cal-
culated by weighing the plates at intervals.
The early 80s also brought about the development of the first commutation-type meters. These meters, similar to the
chemical meter, were ampere-hour meters, as were also the mercury-motor meters, developed in England in 1888 by
Hookhamand Ferranti. The well-known Thomson recording watt
meter was the first really successful watt meter. This meter that is of
the commutator type and the mercury motor watt-hour meter remain
in principle, though in an improved form, as a means of measuring
kilowatt hours on direct current circuits.
The Thomson meter also served as a means of measuring energy
on the early alternating current circuits; for this purpose, however, it
was superseded by the induction meter, developed between 1886 and
1890. The early induction meters were ampere-hour meters, followed
in 1886 by the watt-hour meter (Figure 51.9). Many improvements
were made in the commutator, mercury motor and induction type and
these types of meters with many refinements are the current accurate
meters in use.
Direct current distribution systems have been largely superseded by
alternating current networks. Hence, the use of direct current watt-hour
meter is now practically confined to special applications. Figure 51.9 Watt-hour Meter
51.7 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION

Watt-hour meters are divided broadly into direct and alternating current types. Those in present use are all of the motor type
and comprise three essential elements: a motor causing rotation; a means for providing the necessary load or drag; and a
registering mechanism that will integrate, or sum up, the instantaneous values of electrical energy.
Motor-type watt-hour meters may be classified according to the type of motor used, into the commutator type, the mer-
cury type and the induction type. The commutator and mercury types are used on direct currents and the induction type is
universally used in alternating current circuits.
51.8 DIRECT CURRENT TYPES

51.8.1 Commutator-type Meters
As shown in Figure 51.10, the commutator-type watt-hour meter usually has connected in the circuit to be measured two
open-wound field, or current coils b. Between them rotates an armature a, the windings of which are connected across the
circuit. In series with the armature is placed a high value resistance r, so that the current in the armature is very small. As
the armature revolves at a slow speed, practically no electromotive force is generated, and the current in the armature is
proportional to the potential of the circuit. Since, the armature circuit is permanently closed when the meter is in series, the
armature current flows continuously. The current in the field coils, however, depends on the use of energy in the circuit to
which the meter is connected. Current in the field coils causes a magnetic flux, and the reaction between this flux and that
of the current in the armature conductors causes the armature to rotate. The commutator c, against which bear the stationary
brushes e, connects the coils successively in circuit as they come into active positions, m, and ensures the proper direction
of current flow within their coils.
The torque exerted on the moving element of the watt-hour meter is proportional to the product of the values of currents
in its field coils and armature. The field coils carry the main current or a fixed part of it, and the current in the armature is
proportional to the voltage of the main current. Consequently, the torque of the watt-hour meter is proportional to the rate at
which energy is expended in the circuit.
Figure 51.10 Commutator Type Meter

To make the speed of the meter proportional to the torque, a load must be provided that will vary directly as the speed. This
is accomplished by introducing a generator consisting of a disc d (Figure 51.10) of copper or aluminium mounted on the axis
of armature and revolving between the jaws of the permanent magnet m. The disk forms a closed conductor of practically
constant resistance in which eddy currents are generated directly proportional to the number of magnetic lines of force cut
in a given time or to the speed of the meter.
The relative directions of eddy currents with respect to the poles of one of the permanent magnets are as indicated
in Figure 51.11, which shows a top view of the disc rotating counter clockwise between the pole pieces of the magnet
m (Figure 51.11(b)). The polarity of the magnet m is indicated by the letters N and S (Figure 51.11(c)). The eddy currents
produce a flux with polarity indicated by the letters N′ and S′ (Figure 51.11(b)). The pole N will repel N′ and attract S, and
similarly the pole S will repel S′ and attract N the poles shown below the disc. All these repulsions and attractions are in
opposition to the motion of the disc. As the opposing flux is proportional to the eddy currents, it is proportional also to the
speed of the disc; hence, the drag of the generator element of the meter on the motor element is directly proportional to
the speed.
Figure 51.11 The Drag on the Generator Element of the Meter on the Motor Element is Directly
Proportional to Speed
The revolutions of the moving element of the watt-hour meter are recorded by a suitable registering mechanism geared
to the shaft, part of which is represented, in Figure 51.10, by a gear wheel driven by a worm on the shaft of the moving
element of the meter.
Commutator-type meters on alternating current are not as accurate as the induction-type meter, which is also lower in
cost and maintenance. Therefore, in modern practice, commutator-type meters are confined to use on direct current circuits.
A form of the Thomson watt meter with its cover removed is shown in Figure 51.12.
51.8.2 Mercury-type Meters

For their operation, mercury motor meters depend on the principle that a metallic disc will rotate when current is passed
between its axis and periphery if the path of the current across the disc is through a magnetic field. The disc in these meters
is immersed in mercury, and the current is conducted to and away from it by the mercury. The flux acting on the disc may
be produced by a permanent magnet or by an electromagnet energized by a potential circuit. The retarding, or generator,
element is practically the same as that used in commutator-type meters; in some meters, the drag magnets act directly on
the disc constituting the motor element, and in others on a separate disc.
The high-load adjustment is usually obtained with a thermocouple compensating device consisting of two strips of dis-
similar metals joined together and surrounded by a heating coil or resistance wire in series with the potential magnet coils.
The purpose of the thermocouple is to pass a small low-potential current through the armature to give a slight torque neces-
sary to overcome bearing friction. To obtain proper compensating values, the current from the thermocouple is regulated
by means of a suitable variable resistance. Light-load compensation may also be obtained by passing some of the potential-
coil current through the armature disc, thus giving an initial or starting torque that may be regulated by an adjustable shunt
resistance in the potential coil circuit.
The construction of mercury-type watt-hour meters is ex-
emplified clearly by the Sangamo watt-hour meters, the gener-
al inside appearance of which is shown in Figure 51.13(a), the
case and the register being removed. The electrical circuits of
these meters are shown diagrammatically in Figure 51.13(b).
The lettering in Figure 51.13(a) corresponds to that in
Figure 51.13(b), as far as the parts referred to are visible in it.
The service binding posts are represented by a1 and a2 and the
binding posts for the load by b1 and b2. The copper disc c is immersed
in the mercury chamber d constituting the motor element, and the
contact ears, which conduct the current to and from the mercury,
are shown on each side of the mercury chamber at e. A laminated
shunt magnet f is energized by the potential coil g. The current
circuit is from the binding post a, through one of the compounding
turns around the magnet, the function of which is to build up the
speed of the disc on heavy loads; then to the left contact ear e and
by means of the mercury contact to the disc c. The current then
crosses the copper disc c, and as the resistance is much less than
that of the mercury, leaves by right hand contact ear e and passes
through another compounding turn around the potential magnet to
the terminal post b. The potential circuit of the meter is from post
a1 through thermocouple coil I and the shunt magnet winding g and
back to binding post a2 on the other side of the circuit.
Figure 51.12 A Typical Thomson Watthour Meter

with its Cover Removed
(a) (b)
Figure 51.13 (a) Sangamo Mercury-type Watt-hour Meter (b) The Electrical Circuits of the Meter Shown in
Figure 51.13(a)
The line current between i is subject to the influence of the flux through disc c between the poles of the electromagnet; an
iron plate is imbedded with insulation just above the disc so that the magnetic flux passes twice through the disc. There is, there-
fore, a magnetic flux proportional to the voltage acting on the current that passes through the disc, so that a continuous torque
is obtained, which is proportional to the power.
A hard wood float k attached to the armature is so proportioned as to give buoyancy or a slight lift to the entire moving system
when armature and float are immersed in the mercury. There is, therefore, no weight on the lower bearing but a slight upward thrust
on the upper one. The alignment of the moving system is maintained by two ring bearings, one each on either end of the shaft.
The heating coil i in the potential circuit surrounds two strips of dissimilar metal fastened together and the heating of
this junction causes a flow of current. The free ends are connected by a slotted terminal to the posts l1 and l2. Connecting the
ends in the same relative position to the terminals l2 and l3 will reverse the direction of the thermocouple current through the
armature circuit. Therefore, its direction can be adjusted to correspond to that of the main current in the armature irrespective
of how the meter is connected in the circuit. The current in the thermocouple circuit is adjusted by means of the clamp m
between the lower wire, which is of copper, and the upper wire, made of special resistance metal.
When the clamp m is set over the joint just to the right part of the conductor marked n, the compensation for light load
becomes zero as all the thermocouple current will flow directly through the clamp. When the clamp is at the position as
shown Figure 51.13, the current will flow from terminal l1 through the armature circuit back along the upper resistance
wire of the shunt through clamp m and the lower copper wire of the shunt to l2. As the adjustment clamp is moved to the
right, less resistance will be included in the thermocouple circuit and therefore more current will flow around the armature
circuit, giving increased torque. When the clamp is set to position n, a slight reversed current will be set up in the armature
circuit. Any tendency to creep because of the surrounding conditions can thereby be eliminated.
The full-load or main speed adjustment of the meter is made not by shifting the drag magnets with respect to the disc,
but by shunting more or less of the flux between the upper poles of the two drag magnets by means of a soft iron disc o
(Figure 51.13(a)). The iron disc is mounted on a vertical screen so that it can be easily raised or lowered. The lower the
position of the disc, the more the magnetic flux shunted across the two upper poles and the less will be the drag of the
magnets on the disc g, so that the faster will be the speed of the meter for a given driving torque.
Sangamo watt-hour meters for capacities exceeding 10 amperes direct current are used with current shunts and are
adjusted for use with the shunt by means of a low-resistance wire p (Figure 51.13(b)), connected through clamp q, in series
with the armature. By moving the clamp, the voltage drop through the armature circuit may be adjusted to the correct value
for the shunt. The resistance of the shunt is such that at full load a current of 10 amperes will pass through the meter. A
proper ratio is used in the recording train, corresponding to the ratio between the total current and that shunted through the
meter, so that the dials read correctly in kilowatt hours.
51.9 ALTERNATING CURRENT TYPES (INDUCTION WATT-HOUR METERS)

The induction watt-hour meter is surprisingly simple in its structural assembly. This type of meter is remarkably accurate
over a wide range of loads, power factors, voltages, frequencies and temperatures.
The induction watt-hour meter depends on the principles of induction for both the motivation and control of its moving
element. Accordingly, it can be used only on alternating current circuits. The action of the motor element of the induction
watt-hour meter is analogous to that of the poly-phase induction motor. The poly-phase induction motor is a transformer
with a secondary, which is capable of rotating with respect to the primary. Each phase winding of the primary is spaced
from every other phase winding, by the same number of electrical degrees as the corresponding voltages are displaced in
time phase, in the poly-phase supply system. The result is a primary field that rotates progressively around the rotor axis.
In sweeping through the conducting material of the rotor, the rotating primary field induces voltages that circulate currents
in the closed-circuit paths of the rotor. The reaction between these rotor currents and the primary fluxes creating them
produces the driving torque of the motor.
The essential parts of the induction watt-hour meter and its circuit’s connections are clearly shown in their relative posi-
tions in Figure 51.14.
1. A motor element to create driving torque, consisting of an electromagnet e, current coil c and potential coil p.
2. A generator element formed by permanent magnets f to create control of torque.
3. A moving element, disc d, rotating on shaft s, serving as a rotor to both motor and generator elements.
4. The register element r, with its register gear train g and dials h, which records rotations of the moving element in
energy turns.
5. The necessary bearings for the moving element and the base in which the assembled parts are mounted. The top bear-
ing and guide are indicated at b, a worm or pinion at u, the pivot and lower jewel bearing for the shaft s at l, and anti-
creep holes are shown at a.
A chart outlining briefly the effect produced by the different
induction watt-hour meter elements and their relation to each
other is shown in Figure 51.15.
The rotor is usually a thin aluminium disc mounted on a vertical
spindle and arranged to rotate through the air gaps of both the
composite electromagnet comprising the motor element and the
permanent magnets comprising the generator element. Revolutions
of the disc, over any period of time, are recorded by the positions
of the pointers, or hands that are moved over the register dial
through the aid of the gear train, which in turn is meshed with the
worm (or a pinion) on the upper end of the rotating disc shaft. As
shown in Figure 51.14, two bearings are required for the vertical
shaft on which the disc revolves: a top or guide bearing and a lower
or main bearing. The top bearing, whose main function is merely
to hold the moving element centred, consists of a stationary pivot
that projects downward into a hole in the top of the disc shaft. The
area of contact in the bearing is exceedingly small, but even with
the lightest of moving elements the unit pressure is enormous and
can be a source of friction in the meter.
The motor and generator actions take place in only the
relatively small sections of the disc in the immediate vicinity
Figure 51.14 Induction Watt-hour Meter of the respective air gaps. The permanent magnets provide the
damping or braking function in the generator element of the induction watt-hour meter, similar to that in the corresponding
element of the commutator-type watt-hour meter.
The composite electromagnet of the motor element is made up of two units: a potential (voltage) electromagnet and a
current electromagnet. These correspond in function to the primary windings of the induction motor. To minimize power
losses and resultant heating, potential electromagnet coil is wound with many turns of small wire; this winding offers a
relatively high impedance to current flow when line voltage is applied. To avoid an objectionable voltage drop as well as
the power losses and heating, the current electromagnet coil is constructed of relatively few turns of heavy wire. The coil
thus introduces negligible resistance to the flow of the load current through the line with which the coil is connected in
series. The cores of these units are made integral parts of a common magnetic frame, a typical form of which is illustrated
in Figure 51.16. The poles of the potential and current electromagnets are so located as to apply their magnetic fluxes to
the disc in a displaced space relationship, and the major portion of the potential flux is circulated locally, with only a small
leakage flux crossing the disc air gap from p to c, which is designated as the potential unit is indicated at a. Sometimes the
two coils on the legs of the current electromagnet core may have an unequal number of turns, as shown in Figure 51.16(b).
51.9.1 Production of Fluxes Driving Torques

Of the two electromagnets comprising the motor element of the induction watt-hour meter shown in Figure 51.14, the flux of
one must be proportional to line voltage and the flux of the other must be proportional to load current if the motor element is to
develop a rotating field whose strength is proportional to the load (volts x amperes) at unity power factor. Accordingly, the potential
electromagnet is connected across the line, which establishes a useful flux proportional to voltage, and the current electromagnet is
connected in series with the line so that the load current flowing through it establishes a flux proportional to current.
If the meter disc is to develop a speed that is strictly proportional to the watts load at any definite magnitude of line
voltages and load current, it must result from a meter torque that is also proportional to the power factor of the load.
Maximum net meter torque must be developed with the load at unity power factor and zero net meter torque must be
developed with the load at zero power factor. Furthermore, the induction watt-hour meter must be capable of operating
from a single-phase source, which in itself cannot produce a rotating electromagnetic field. The time-phase displacement
of fluxes necessary for the production of such a field must accordingly be obtained by artificial means.
The rotating field is produced artificially by making the potential unit of the composite electromagnet as purely inductive
as possible, and the current unit as purely non-inductive as possible. This construction secures almost a 90-degree quadrature
relationship of the total electromagnetic fluxes produced by the two units, and it is known as the split phase method of obtaining
the effects of two-phase currents from a single phase. The required 90-degree or quadrature relationship of potential and current
fluxes may be obtained exactly, however, by interposing an air gap in the magnetic structure of the potential unit as at “a” in
Figure 51.16(a), which results in leakage flux being shunted through the meter disc between p and c.
A lagging device, consisting of a closed-circuit loop or coil, sometimes called a shading coil, is placed on the potential
electromagnet pole tip in such a position that it embraces the leakage flux passing through the disc gap. This loop or coil
Figure 51.15 Chart Showing the Effect Produced and Their Relation to Each Other
may be in the form of either several turns of small wire, or a single turn or plate punched from a sheet of conducting
material. The wire coil is placed in a fixed position in the leakage 3 flux path and is closed through an adjustable resistance.
The relation of the meter potential coil and the lagging device is comparable with that of the primary and secondary windings,
respectively, of a transformer with large leakage reactance. The potential flux in the meter establishes a current in the closed-
circuit lagging device by simple transformer action. The flux set up by this small current, in turn, reacts with and causes the
already almost quadrature leakage flux, making it lag even further behind the applied voltage. The resistance of the lag coil may
accordingly be varied so as to produce the exact quadrature relationship between the voltage and current fluxes acting on the disc.
When the power factor of the load decreases, the lag of the load current behind the line voltage increases; at the
same time it approaches an in-phase relationship to the useful potential flux cutting the disc in the meter. This flux had
been brought into quadrature with the line voltage by the lagging device. If the line voltage and current are constant in
magnitude, the rotating field strength is proportional to the sine of the time-phase angle between the current and the lagged
potential flux. This is mathematically the same as the cosine of the angle between the load current and the line voltage.
Therefore, the torque decreases in step with a decreasing power factor.
(a) (b)
Figure 51.16 The Composite Electromagnet of the Motor Element (a) Potential Flux (b) Current Flux
The disc driving torque is produced by a combination of transformer action and motor action. The alternating fluxes from
both electromagnets sweep through the disc metal and induce small voltages in the disc near the pole tips. The disc metal
acts like the short-circuited secondary of a transformer and currents flow through the local sections of the disc in which the
electromagnetic fluxes are effective. Two sets of these currents are produced in the disc, with one set being caused by the
potential electromagnet and the other set by the current electromagnet. Because of the physical displacement of the poles of the
composite electromagnet, the currents thus generated in the disc by one electromagnet flow through part of the space occupied
also by the inducing from the other electromagnet. The conductor of the induced current, which in this case is the disc, tends to
move out of the field by simple motor action. The torque driving the disc is thus made of two similar components. One may be
accounted for by the motor action developed between the alternating flux from the electromagnet and the currents induced in
the disc, through transformer action by the alternating flux from the second electromagnet. The other component is conversely
produced. As the respective electromagnetic fluxes are proportional to the current producing them and since the current that
flows in the coil of the potential electromagnet varies as the applied voltage, the driving torque is proportional to both voltage
and current, and therefore to the watts at unity power factor.
51.9.2 Reading Watt-hour Meters

The motion of the rotating element of the watt-hour meter is transmitted through a system, or train of gears, to a series of
hands, or pointers, that revolve over dials. A series of dials is imprinted on a dial face, and the positions of the hands with
respect to the dials indicate the reading of the meter. The gears and dials are all part of the register.
To simplify, the gearing used is sometimes made of a register constant, the number by which the register reading must be
multiplied to determine the amount of electrical energy measured by the watt-hour meter. The register constants of meters
of recent types are 10 or 100, increasing with the capacity of the register to 100 or 100 times its maximum direct reading.
The registers of most of the meters have four dials and they record electrical energy in kilowatt hours, as shown in
Figures 51.17 to 51.21. The right-hand dial indicates units. The next tens, the next hundreds and the next thousands. For
this reason, the right hand dial is sometimes called the units dial, the next tens dials and so on. Each dial is divided into 10
divisions numbered from 1 to 0. A complete revolution of the units hand carries it over ten divisions and causes the hand
on the tens division to move one division. A complete revolution of the tens hand carries the hundred hand over one divi-
sion and so on. To distinguish the dials, some manufacturers mark them with 1 s, 10 s, 100 s (units, tens, hundreds) and so
on as shown in Figure 51.18.
In other makes of the instruments, as in Figure 51.17, the dials are not marked; the positions of the dials indicate the
value of their reading. In still others, as in Figure 51.21, the value of a complete revolution of the hand is marked above
the dial.
The highest amount that a direct-reading four-dial register can record is 9999, but register constants may be employed
to increase this amount. The register constant is always fixed by the manufacture and marked plainly on the dial face, the
usual method of use being simply to multiply by 10 or multiply by 100 as the case may be. This is shown in Figure 51.20.
Registers reading in watt hours usually have four dials (Figure 51.22), the lowest dial registering 1000 Watt hours
of one revolution for the hand or 100 Watt hours for each division of the dial, the number above or below a dial indicat-
ing the value of one revolution of the corresponding hand (note: motor meters can be used on both d.c. and a.c. circuits).
Figure 51.17 The Register by Taking into Account the Revolutions of the Moving Element
with Proper Gear Ratio Records the Energy in Kilowatt Hours that has Passed
Through the Meter
Figure 51.18 Dial Systems and Markings Figure 51.19 Dial Systems and Markings
Figure 51.20 Dial Systems and Markings Figure 51.21 Register Constant
Figure 51.22 Registers Reading in Watt Hours Usually have Four Dials
In principle, the motor meter is a small motor of the d.c. or a.c. type whose instantaneous speed of rotation is proportional
to the circuit current in case of an ampere-hour meter and to the power of the circuit in case of a watt-hour meter.
51.10 POLY-PHASE INDUCTION WATT-HOUR METERS

The most common type of poly-phase induction watt-hour meter consists of two or more single-phase meters combined
with the disc mounted on a common shaft and arranged to record on a single register. The performance of poly-phase meters
is comparable to that of single-phase meters. Owing to the fact that two or more elements comprising the poly-phase meter
are mechanically coupled by acting upon a common moving element, full-load adjustment for individual elements loses
its significance. The adjustments must include some additional features by which the torque of the individual element may
be brought to equality. This equalizing adjustment is called balancing, which is sometimes secured by changing the air gap
between voltage and current electromagnets of either element. Decreasing the air gap increases the torque contributed by
the element being adjusted. In other types of adjustments, balance is secured by moving an open loop of magnetic material
in or out of the potential electromagnet air gap; or by a tilting movement of both potential and current electromagnets to
alter their position relative to the discs (Figure 51.23).
(a) (b)
Figure 51.23 (a) A General Electric Company Type Two—Element Poly Phase Meter
(b) The Motive Elements of the Meters
51.11 ERRORS IN ENERGY METERS

The various errors that may occur in energy meters are given in Table 51.2, along with the remedy for each.
Table 51.2 Errors in Energy Meters
Sl. Error Causes Effects Remedy

No.
Phase error, i.e., This is because of some Energy meter registers This error is elimi-
1 angle between V resistance of the coil energy even though the nated by adjusting
and Ip is not 90° and iron losses actual energy passing the position of the
through the meter is shading band pro-
zero. This is because vided on the central
torque is not zero at limb of the upper
zero power factor magnet
2 Speed error This is due to improper The disc moves either For eliminating the
position of the brake faster or slower faster error brake
magnet magnet is moved
towards the centre
of the disc and vice
versa for slower
error
3 Frictional error This error is due to fric- Energy meter registers
tion at bearing, etc. less energy consumed This error is elimi-
by the load nated by placing
two short-circuited
bands on the outer
limbs of the shunt
magnet
4 Creeping The slow but continu- Energy meter will
ous rotation of the disc, record even though no Two holes are
even though there is load is connected to it drilled in the disc,
no load, is termed as on the opposite sides
‘creeping’. This is due of the spindle at the
to (1) excessive friction same distance. This
compensation, causes distortion of
(2) excessive supply the field, thus pre-
voltage, venting the rotation
(3) Stray magnetic field of the disc under no
Using the instrument load condition
for other than the de-
signed frequency
5 Frequency error This error is intro- This changes the

duced due to change in impedance of the coil; Instrument should
resistance of the coil as thus, error is introduced be used only for the
temperature changes Energy meter registers designed frequency
slightly less energy This error is very
small; hence, no
means are provided
6 Temperature error for eliminating this
error
51.12 MEASUREMENT OF POWER IN THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

It is possible to measure the power in a circuit without a watt meter by using either three ammeters or three voltmeters in
conjunction with one inductive resistor. These methods are not, however, of much practical importance.
51.12.1 Three-voltmeter Method

The connections are as shown in Figure 51.24, in which V1, V2 and V3 are three voltmeters and R is a non-inductive resistor
connected in series with the load. From the vector diagram of Figure 51.24(b), we have
V 21 = V 22 + V 23 + 2 V2V3 cos φ (51.5)
Figure 51.24 Three-voltmeter Method of Measuring Single-phase Power
Now IV3 cos φ is the power in the load, so that

V 21 − V 22 − V 23
Power in load = I V3 cos φ = (51.6)
2R
The power factor is given by
V 21 − V 22 − V 23
cos φ = (51.7)
2 V2V3
The assumptions are made that the current in the resistor R is the same as the load current, and that this resistor is entirely
non-inductive.
51.12.2 Three-ammeter Method

This method is somewhat similar to the three-voltmeter method. The necessary connections are shown in Figure 51.25.
The current measured by ammeter A1 is the vector sum of the load current and that taken by the non-inductive R (this latter
being in phase with the voltage E). From the vector diagram,
I 21 = I 22 + I 23 + 2 I 2 I 3 cos φ (51.8)
E
But I 2 = E /R \ I 21 = I 22 + I 23 + 2 .I 2 cos φ
R
Figure 51.25 Three-ammeter Method of Measuring Single-phase Power

Hence, the power EI2 cos φ is given by
EI 2 cos φ =
( I 21 − I 22 − I 23 ) R (51.9)
2
and cos φ =
( I 21 − I 22 − I 23 ) (51.10)
2 I 2 I3
51.13 MEASUREMENT OF THREE-PHASE POWER

Three-phase power can be measured by (1) three-watt meter method, (2) two-watt meter method and (3) one-watt meter
method.
51.13.1 Three-watt Meter Method of Measuring Three-phase Power

The connection for this method is shown in Figure 51.26, in which the load is star-connected. W1, W2 and W3 are the
three watt meters, connected as shown. The arrows denote the direction of current and voltage, which are conventionally
considered positive. If the symbols representing currents and voltages denote instantaneous values, then
Instantaneous power in the load = e1i1 +e2i2+e3i3 (51.11)
Let v be the potential difference between the star point of the load and the star point O of the watt meter voltage coils. Then
we have
i1
φ e1
e1́
e2
connection
e3
e3́
i3 W3
e2́
i2 W2
Figure 51.26 Three-watt Meter Method of Measuring Three-phase Power
e′1 + v = e1
e′2 + v = e2
e′3 + v = e3
Therefore, total instantaneous power, by substitution is

( e′1 + v ) i1 + ( e′2 + v ) i2 + ( e′3 + v ) i3 = e′1i1 + e′2i2 + e′3i3 + v ( i1 + i2 + i3 ) (51.12)
= e′1 i1 + e′2 i2 + e′3 i3
(i1+i2+i3) = 0 in any three-phase, three-wire system, whether balanced or not. Now e′1v1 + e′2 v2 + e′3 v3 is the total
instantaneous power measured by the three watt meters, and thus the sum of the readings of the watt meters will give the
main value of the total power.
51.13.2 Two-watt Meter Method of

Measuring Three-phase Power
This is the most common method of measuring three-phase
power. It is particularly useful when the load is unbalanced. The
connections for the measurement of power in the case of star-
connected three-phase load are shown in Figure 51.27. The current
coils of the watt meters are connected in lines (1) and (3) and their
voltage coils between lines (1) and (2) and (3) and (2), respectively.
Figure 51.28 gives the vector diagram for the load circuit,
assuming a balanced load, that is, the load currents and power
factors are the same for all three phases. E10, E20 and E30 are the vec- Figure 51.27 Two-watt Meter Method of
tors representing the phase voltages, and are supposed to be equal, Measuring Three-phase Power
whereas I1, I2 and I3 are vectors representing the line currents.
The voltages applied to the voltage-coil circuits of the watt me-
ters are E12 and E32, which are the vector sums of the phase volt-
ages as shown.
Then, the instantaneous power in the load
= e1i1 + e2 i2 + e3i3 (51.13)
where, e1, e2 and e3 are the instantaneous phase voltages and i1, i2
and i3 are the instantaneous line currents.
Since, i1 + i2 + i3 = 0, i2 = −i1 − i3
Therefore, total instantaneous power
= e1 i1 + e2 ( − i1 − i3 ) + e3 i3
= i1 (e1 − e2 ) + i3 (e3 − e2 )
Figure 51.28 Vector Diagram—Two-watt Meter Now, i1 (e1–e2) is the instantaneous power deflecting watt meter
Method W1 and i3 (e3 – e2) is the instantaneous power deflecting watt
meter W2. These watt meters measure I1 E12 cos α and I3 E32 cos
β, respectively, where α and β are the phase angles between I1 and E12 and between I3 and E32. The sum of the watt meter
readings thus gives the mean value of the total power in the load.
Now α = 30º + ϕ and β = 30º – φ
Also E12 = E32 = √3E, where, E is the phase voltage.
Therefore, the sum of the watt meter readings is, W = ( )
3 IE cos 30o + φ + 3 IE cos 30o − φ ( )
If I1 = I 2 = I 3 = I
W = 3 IE cos  (30ο + φ ) + cos(30ο − φ )  = 3 IE (2 cos 30ο cos φ )
= 3 IE cos φ
which is, of course, the total power in the load.
Note:
1. If one of the voltages (such as E12) is more than 90º out of phase with the current associated with this voltage in the watt
meter, the voltage-coil connections must be reversed in order that the instrument may give a forward reading. Under
these circumstances, the watt meter reading must be reckoned as negative, and the algebraic sum of the readings of
the two instruments gives the mean value of the total power.
2. If the power factor of the load is 0.5—so that I1 lags 60º behind E10 (cos 60º being 0.5). Thus, the phase angle between
E12 and I1 is 90º and watt meter W1 should read zero.
Power factor = If W1 and W2 are the two watt meter readings, (W1 + W2) gives the total power
W1 − W2 = ( ) (
3 IE  cos 30o + φ − cos 30o − φ  )
= ( )
3 IE −2 sin 30o sin φ = − 3 IE si n φ
W1 − W2 − 3 IE sin φ − tan φ
= =
W1 + W2 3 IE cos φ 3
3 ( W2 − W1 )
or tan φ =
( W1 + W2 )
from which φ and power factor, cos φ, of the load may be found.
Example 51.1
A single-phase energy meter has a constant of 1500 rev/kWh. If 8 lamps of 100 W, 6 fans of 60 W and 2 heaters of 1000 W
operate for one hour, the disc makes 4500 revolutions. Find out whether the meter reads correctly. If not, find the percentage
error.
Solution:
Power supplied = (8 × 100) + (6 × 60) + (2 × 1000) = 3160 Watts = 3.16 kW
Energy supplied = 3.16 × 1 = 3.16 kWh
Number of revolutions to be made = 3.16 × 1500 = 4740
Actual revolutions made = 4500
Hence, the energy meter is slow and records less energy than consumed.
4500
Energy recorded = = 3 kWh
1500
3 − 3.16
Per cent errors = × 100 = −5.0663 per cent (records less).
3.16
Example 51.2
A single-phase energy meter has a constant speed of 1300 revolutions/kWh. The disc revolves at a rate of 4.2 revolutions/
minute when a load of 150W is connected to it. If the load is on for 11 hours, how many units are recorded as error? What
is the percentage error?
150
Actual energy consumed in 11 hours = × 11 = 1.65 kWh
1000
Revolutions made by the disc in 11 hours = 3.5 × 11 × 60 = 2310
2.310
Energ y consumption recorded by the meter = 1.777 kWh
1300
R ecording error = 1.777 − 1.63
= 0.127 kWh (excess)
1.777 − 1.65
Percentage error = × 100
1.65
= 7.69 per cent
51.13.3 One-watt Meter Method of Measuring Three-phase Power

This method can be used only when the load is balanced. The connections for a star-connected system are shown in Figure
51.29. The current coil of the watt meter is connected in one of the lines, and one end of the voltage coil is connected to
the same line, the other being connected alternately to the first one and then the other of the remaining two lines by means
of the switch S.
The vector diagram for this method measurement is given in Figure 51.30. E01, E02 and E03 represent the three phase
voltages and I1, I2 and I3 the three line currents. In a balanced system, these three voltages are each equal to E1 and the three
currents are each equal to I. The phase angles are also each equal to φ. The vector E12 is the vector difference between E01
and E02, and is the voltage applied to the voltage coil when the switch S is on ‘contact (a)’. Similarly, E13 is the vector dif-
ference between E01 and E03 and is applied to the watt meter voltage coil when the switch is on ‘contact (b)’.
Figure 51.29 One-watt Meter Method of Measuring Three-phase Power

Then, E12 = E13 = √3E
Watt meter reading when switch S is on ‘contact α’

= 3 EI cos (30o + φ )
The sum of these two readings is 3 EI cos φ, as shown in the analysis of two-watt
meter method, and this is the total power in the circuit.
In the same way, the angle φ is given by
3 ( W2 − W1 )
tan φ =
W1 + W2
and the power factor is cos φ or
Figure 51.30 Vector Diagram,
One Watt Meter  3 ( W2 − W1 ) 
cos  tan −1 
Method  W1 + W2 
 
S UM M A RY
1. Ampere hour is an ampere of current maintained for 16. Motor-type meters comprise three essential elements:
one hour. a motor to cause rotation, a means for providing the
2. Watt hour is a watt of power maintained for one necessary load or drag, and a registering mechanism.
hour. 17. To make the speed of the motor proportional to the
3. Ampere-hour meter integrates products of current and torque, a load that will vary directly as the speed must
time without considering voltage at which current is be provided.
supplied. 18. The light-load adjustment is usually obtained with a
4. Watt-hour meter integrates units of electrical energy thermocouple-compensating device.
with respect to time. 19. The motor and generator actions take place in the
5. Electricity can be measured through the effects it pro- relatively small sections of the disc in the immediate
duces. vicinity of their respective air gaps.
6. A watt meter is a combination of an ammeter and a 20. The rotating field is produced artificially by making the
voltmeter and therefore consists of a current coil and a potential unit of the composite electromagnet as purely
pressure coil. inductive as possible and the current unit as purely
non-inductive as possible.
7. There are four types of watt meters: dynamometer type,
21. The torque decreases in step with a decreasing power
induction type, electrostatic type, and thermal type.
factor.
8. When used as a watt meter (dynamometer type) the
22. The register, by taking into account the revolutions of the
fixed coil is employed as a current coil and the moving
moving element with proper gear ratio, records the en-
coil is used as a pressure coil.
ergy in kilowatt hours that has passed through the meter.
9. The magnetic fields of the fixed and moving coils react
23. Use is sometimes made of a register constant, the num-
with one another causing the moving coil to turn about
ber by which the register reading must be multiplied to
its axis.
measure the amount of energy measured by the watt-
10. Damping is provided by a light aluminium vane mov- hour meter.
ing in an air dash pot.
24. The registers of most of the motors have four dials and
11. The movement is controlled by hair springs. they record energy in kilo watthours.
12. The deflecting torque is directly proportional to 25. Power in single-phase circuits can be measured by
power. either the three-voltmeter method or the three-ammeter
13. An electrodynamic instrument indicates the average method.
power. 26. Power in three phase circuits can be measured by the
14. Induction-type instruments can only be used on a.c. three-watt meter method, the two-watt meter method
systems. or the one-watt meter method.
15. Energy meters are one of the most familiar electrical 27. The two-watt meter method is the most common meth-
instruments. od of measuring three-phase power.
1. The watt-hour meter can be classified as a 10. Dynamometer-type moving-coil instrument can be
(a) Deflecting instrument used to measure power in
(b) Digital instrument (a) a.c. circuits only
(c) Indicating instrument (b) d.c. circuits only
(d) Recording instrument (c) Both a.c. and d.c. circuits
2. The moving system of an indicating type of electrical (d) None of these
instrument is subjected to a 11. A single-phase domestic electric meter indicates
(a) Deflecting torque (b) Controlling torque (a) Energy in joules
(c) Damping torque (d) All of the above (b) Power in kilowatt
3. The damping force acts on the moving system of an (c) Energy in kilowatt hours
indicating instrument only when it is (d) Energy in watt hours
(a) Stationary (b) Moving 12. The instruments that indicate the magnitude of the electrical
(c) Just started to move quantity being measured instantaneously are called
4. The most efficient type of damping employed in elec- (a) Integrating instruments (b) Recording instruments
trical measuring instruments is (c) Indicating instruments (d) All of these
(a) Fluid friction (b) Air friction 13. Energy meter is
(c) Eddy current (a) An integrating instrument
5. Induction type instruments find extensive application (b) An indicating instrument
as (c) A recording instrument
(a) Ammeters (b) Watt-hour meters (d) An absolute instrument
(c) Voltmeters (d) Frequency meters 14. The Watt meter
6. Induction watt-hour meters are free from (a) Has three connections, two of which are used at a time
(a) Phase errors (b) Temperature errors (b) Can measure d.c. power but not 50Hz a.c. power
(c) Frequency errors (c) Has voltage and current coils to measure true power
7. Which of the following instruments can be used to (d) Only measures apparent power
measure only d.c.? 15. The steady speed of the disc in an energy meter is
(a) Moving-iron instruments achieved when
(b) Moving-coil instruments (a) Braking torque is zero
(c) Induction-type instruments (b) Braking torque is half of the operating torque
(d) None of these (c) Braking torque is more than operating torque
8. In a permanent magnet moving-coil instrument, the de- (d) Operating torque is equal to braking torque
flecting torque is proportional to 16. The induction type energy meter is
(a) I2 (b) 1/I (c) I (d) 1/I2 (a) An ampere-hour meter
9. In a moving-iron instrument the deflecting torque is (b) True watt-hour meter
proportional to (c) Watt meter
(a) I2 (b) 1/I (c) I (d) 1/I2 (d) Reactive volt-ampere meter
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (c)
15. (d) 16. (b).
1. Differentiate between recording and integrating types 3. Describe the construction and working principle of a
of instruments. Give two examples of each. shaded-pole-type induction instrument. How are errors
2. Describe the following in case of measuring instruments: due to change of frequency and temperature minimized
a) Deflecting torque in such an instrument?
b) Controlling torque 4. Explain the working principle of an induction-type
watt meter with the help of a diagram.
c) Damping torque
5. Describe the construction and working principle of an 14. The disc driving torque is produced by a combination
energy meter. of transformer action and motor action. Explain.
6. Explain the sources of error in a single-phase energy 15. Explain the significance of register constant.
meter. How are they eliminated? 16. State the working principle of a dynamometer-type
7. Write short notes on the following: watt meter and show its connections.
a) Watt meter b) Energy meter 17. Draw the sketch of a single-phase induction-type en-
8. Explain how the following adjustments are made in a ergy meter and name its parts.
single-phase induction type energy meter? 18. A single-phase energy meter has a constant of 1000
a) Adjustment for friction compensation rev/kWh. When a total load of 5 kW is used for 2 hours,
b) Overload the disc makes 12,000 revolutions. Find out whether
the meter is reading correctly. If not, find the percent-
9. Explain the difference between an ampere-hour meter
age error.
and a watt-hour meter.
19. A 40 amperes, 230 volts energy meter on full-load test
10. What are the essential requirements of a watt-hour
makes 60 revolutions in 46 seconds. If the normal disc
meter?
speed is 500 revolutions per kWh, find the percentage
11. Briefly explain the working of a commutator-type error with proper sign by assuming the load to be purely
meter. resistive.
12. With the help of a diagram explain the electrical circuit 20. In the two-watt meter method of power measurement
of a mercury-type meter. in three phases, the readings of the watt meter are 1000
13. What are the essential parts of an induction watt-hour W and 550 W. What is the power factor of the load?
meter?
ANSWERS (CQ)
18. 20per cent
19. +2.08per cent (fast)
20. 0.893 (lagging).
Multimeters – V.O.Ms.
52
OBJECTIVES

 Difference between analog and digital displays
 Deflecting torques, control torque and damping torque
 Direct current, voltage and resistance measurements
by analog techniques
 Current transformer, potential transformer and clamp
meter specifications and their significance
 Circuit details of Simpson Model 2.60 Multimeters
seven-segment displays: three-and-a-half digit and Multimeters analog and digital
eight-and-a-half digit readouts
 The principle of measurement of current, voltage and
resistance by digital techniques simple problems on
the above
52.1 INTRODUCTION
Analog measurements are those involved in continuously monitoring the magnitude of the signal or quantity to be
measured. The use of analog instrumentation is very extensive; although digital instruments are ever increasing in number,
versatility and applications, it is likely that analog devices will remain in use for many years and for some applications
it seems unlikely to be replaced by digital services. For example, it is possible for an operator to assimilate a far greater
amount of information from a multi-analog display than from a multi-digital display.
A large number of analog instruments are electro-mechanical in nature, making use of the fact that when an electric
current flows along a conductor, the conductor becomes surrounded by a magnetic field. This property is used in electrical
and mechanical instruments to obtain the deflection of a pointer (1) by the interaction of the magnetic field around a coil
with a permanent magnet, (2) between the ferromagnetic vanes in the coil’s magnetic field or (3) through the interaction of
the magnetic fields produced by a number of coils. This is illustrated in Figure 52.1.
Constraining these forces to form a turning movement produces a deflecting torque, which is a function of the current
in the instruments coil and the geometry and type of the coil system. To obtain a stable display, it is necessary to equalize
the deflecting torque with an opposing or control torque. The magnitude of this control torque must increase with the
angular deflection of the pointer and this is obtained by using spiral springs or a ribbon suspension so that the control
torque = Cθ Nm, where θ is the angular deflection in radians and C is the control constant in Newton meters per radian and
will depend on the material and geometry of the control device.
The moving parts of the instrument will have a moment of inertia and when a change in the magnitude of deflection
takes place, it will produce an acceleration torque. As the movable parts are attached to a control spring, they combine
to form a mass-spring system. To prevent excessive oscillations when the magnitude of the electrical input is changed, a
damping torque must be provided, which will only act when the movable parts are in motion.
Most digital instruments display the measurand in discrete numerals, thereby eliminating the parallax error and reducing
the human errors associated with analog pointer instruments. In general, digital instruments have superior accuracy to
analog pointer instruments, and many incorporate automatic polarity and range indication, which reduce operator training,
measurement error and possible instrument damage through overload. In addition to these features, many digital instruments
have an output facility enabling permanent records of measurements to be made automatically.
(a) (b)
Figure 52.1 Electromechanical Instruments (a) d’ Arsonval Movement Principle and

(b) Iron-vane Meter Movement
Digital instruments are, however, usually more expensive than analog instruments. They are also sampling devices, that
is the displayed quantity is a discrete measurement made, either at one instant in time or over an interval of time by using
digital electronic techniques. Analog and digital displays are illustrated in Figure 52.2.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 52.2 Displays: (a) Analog (b) Digital 35 Dots and (c) Digital 14 Bars
52.2 DIRECT CURRENT RANGES

(Analog) If the ammeter in to be used in multi-range instruments, different shunts (one for each range) will have to
be connected. These shunts can be connected across the meter by using a switching arrangement, or by using separate
sockets for each range, or by using a tapped resistor each tapping providing a range. All three arrangements are illustrated
in Figure 52.3.
Multimeters— V.O.Ms. 985
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 52.3 Connecting Shunts in Multi-range Ammeters (a) by Using a Switch (b) by Providing Separate
External Sockets for the Different Ranges and (c) by Using a Tapped Resistor
52.3 DIRECT VOLTAGE RANGES

(Analog) Full-scale deflection current of an ammeter multiplied by its internal resistance is called its full-scale deflection
voltages (VFSD). It is the maximum voltage that can be safely applied directly across the meter movement.
VFSD = I FSD ´ R m (52.1)
If a voltage in excess of VFSD is to be measured, the excess voltage has to be dropped across a series resistance, of appropriate
Ohmic value and wattage, and connected in series with the meter movement. This resistance is called the multiplier resistance
for that range. For more than one range, more than one multipliers and provision for their insertion into the measuring system
have to be provided. Similar to the case of multi-range ammeters, multipliers can also be introduced into the circuit as
illustrated in Figure 52.4.
Rn
Re
100 V
Rd
30 V
Rc
10 V
3V Rb Movement
Ra Swamp resistor
1V
(a)
Rn Rn Rn Rn Rn Rn
100 V 30 V 10 V 3V 1V
Movement
Swamp resistor
(b)
Figure 52.4 Multi-range Voltmeters. Switching to Large Multipliers Increases the Range
52.4 MULTI-RANGE OHMMETERS

A single Ohmmeter range is not practical when it is necessary to measure very
small or very large resistance values. Commercially available Ohmmeters are
designed to provide multiple Ohmmeter ranges as well as compensation for a
change in the battery voltage.
Commercial multi-meters provide for resistance measurement from
less than 1 Ω up to many megohm’s in several ranges. The range switch in
Figure 52.5 shows the multiplying factors for the Ohms scale.
A multiplying factor is given for each Ohms range as Ohmmeter ranges Range switch
always multiply the scale reading by ‘R × factor’. On voltage ranges, you may
have to multiply or divide the scale reading to match the full-scale voltage with
the value on the range switch. R × 10
In the specification relating to resistance range of a multi-meter, the R × 100
accuracy of the resistance measurement is normally noted as a percentage of the R × 1000
mid-scale value of the resistance range and not the full-scale value as is
Figure 52.5 A Multiple-Range
common in other ranges, as shown in Figure 52.5.
Ohmmeter
Figure 52.6 Shunt Arrangement for Multi-range Ohmmeters
Note: When the zero Ohm adjustment cannot deflect the pointer all the way to zero at the right edge, it usually is an
indication that the battery voltage is too low and must be replaced.
52.5 ALTERNATING CURRENT RANGES

The deflection of the moving coil meter depends on the instantaneous value of the applied current, and if the frequency of the
applied signal is greater than a value determined by the mechanical properties of the movement, it will remain stationary. Thus,
to facilitate the measurement of alternating quantities it is necessary to convert them to a direct current so that the signal applied
to the meter movement is unidirectional.
A copper oxide or silicon rectifier bridge circuit (Figure 52.7) is commonly used to give full-wave rectification of
the applied waveform. However, the resulting instrument is an average or mean sensing device, and that the scale will
almost always be calibrated in r.m.s values on the assumption that the measurand is a single frequency sine wave, ie,
Vr.m.s.= 1.11 V mean. Hence, readings made of signals with distorted waveforms will be subject to considerable error.
The characteristics of the rectifier used for this conversion are important because the resistance of the rectifier changes
with the current passing through it (Figure 52.8). Therefore, a multi-range ammeter cannot be produced using shunts if
the same linear scale is to be used for both a.c. and d.c. ranges. To overcome the problem, an arrangement based on the
circuit in Figure 52.9 is used where the current transformer enables the various current ranges to be scaled to an appropriate
magnitude for the rectifier characteristic.
During these half-cycles During these half-cycles current flows

current flows through through circuit in this direction
circuit in this direction
No nt
cu rre
rre cu
nt No
No
cu nt
rre rre
nt cu
No
Note that instrument current

is always in the same direction
Figure 52.7 Working Principle of a Rectifier-type Meter
Figure 52.8 Working Principle of a Rectifier-type Meter: Rectifier Resistance Characteristic

52.6 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE RANGES

While providing alternating voltage ranges the nonlinearity of the rectifier characteristic again creates a certain amount of
difficulty. This may be overcome by resorting to the use of an instrument transformer. In this a step-up voltage transformer
must be used if ranges that have a full-scale value of less than 10 V or so are required; the resulting arrangement is as shown
in Figure 52.9.
Another type of instrument that is frequently used in conjunction with a rectifier is the clamp ammeter. It, however, is
not a precision instrument but is used for rough approximation of current in conductors and in motor or transformer leads.
Principally, the instrument consists of a current transformer of the inserted-primary type, and a rectifier connected to a
permanent magnet, a moving-coil type instrument. In Figure 52.9(d) the conductor forms the transformer primary winding,
which induces a current in the transformer secondary.
(a) (b)
(c)
Conductor whose Measuring
current it is desired instrument
to measure
Transformer
secondary
winding
Rectifier
10 25 50 100 250 500
Shunt taps
(d)
Figure 52.9 (a) Current Transformer Principle. The Conductor in which the Current is Being Measured Becomes
a Single-Turn Primary, (b) The Use of a Current Transformer to Obtain Alternating Current Ranges,
(c) Clamp Type Meter and (d) A Clamp Type Meter Circuit Used with a Rectifier-type Meter
Note: The use of instrument transformer enhances the voltage and current-measuring capabilities of measuring instruments.
These transformers are not so costly, and are used as attachments for measuring instruments. These transformers can also
be in-built. Basically, instrument transformers reduce voltage and current required to be measured to the level that can
be safely handled by the meter movement. Meter movement, in both the cases, is connected across the secondary of
the transformers. Potential transformers (PT) are voltage step-down transformers whereas current transformers (CT) are
current step-down transformers.
Figure 52.10 Multi-meter Circuit for a Low-voltage Range
In some multi-meters the current and voltage transformers are combined into a single unit and operated with a resistor
network to provide all the scaling for the alternating voltage ranges. This is shown in Figure 52.11.
Clamp-type meters, as shown in Figure 52.9(d), can also be used for measuring voltage. Two connections coming out of
clamp-type meters are marked probes. Multiplier resistors are connected internally for measuring different voltage ranges.
A switch provided in these meters has two positions: I for measuring current and V for measuring voltage.
52.7 V.O.M. SPECIFICATIONS

Multi-range, multi-function meters are called multi-meters. They are also known as V.O.Ms (Volt-Ohm-Milli ammeters). The
properties of the moving coil movement, in particular its linear scale and good sensitivity (torque-to-weight ratio), have resulted
in its uses in the display of multi-range instruments designed either for a single function or for multi-function applications.
One of the most difficult things to understand about V.O.Ms. is what is meant by the various manufacturer’s speci-
fications. There is a wide variety of V.O.Ms. being marketed commercially (AVO METER, AVOMINOR TRI PLETT,
PHILIPS, SIMPSON, SANWA, BPL, etc—to name just a few). Each one of them is priced according to the measurement
facilities provided by the manufacturer and the accuracy and ease of handling of the instrument.
Figure 52.11 A Circuit Arrangement that Uses a Combined Current and Voltage Transformer
All measure voltage (both d.c. and a.c.) and current (both d.c. and a.c.) and resistance. The question that confronts the
technician is which meter to choose for a specific application. The answer to this question lies in proper interpretation of
the specifications. These are discussed as follows:
1. Accuracy: Probably the most straightforward specification is the V.O.M’s. accuracy.
Accuracy is conventionally expressed in terms of error. The accuracy of a V.O.M. on its voltage and current scales is given
as a percentage of the full-scale value of the range in use. If a meter with a
rated accuracy of ± 3 per cent is being used on its 10 V range, the deviation
error is ± 3 per cent of 10 V or ± 0.3 V. Thus, if the meter indication was 4 V,
the true value of the voltage being measured could be any value between
3.7 V and 4.3 V. Although the 0.3 V error is 3 per cent of the full-scale value
of 10 V, it is a much larger percentage of the measured voltage of 4 V. In
30
this case, the error is a percentage of indication ( ×100=7.5 per cent) and
4
not 3 per cent. Figure 52.12 shows the error as a percentage of indication
Figure 52.12 Error as a Percentage at various points on the scale of a meter that has a specified accuracy of
of Indication 3 per cent of its full-scale range. The error as a percentage of indication
becomes greater at the lower end of the scale. For this reason, measurements
should be made on a range that will allow the indication to fall in the upper part of the scale.
Manufacturers specify the accuracy of voltmeters and milliammeters as a percentage of full-scale because this allows
the accuracy to be expressed as a single figure. This error is not a constant percentage of the actual indication. V.O.Ms. are
available with accuracies of 2–4 per cent. Usually the accuracy on a.c. ranges is less than that on d.c. ranges because of the
extra components needed for a.c. measurements. For example, a V.O.M. with a rated accuracy of 2 per cent on d.c. scales
might be rated 3 per cent for a.c. measurements.
Figure 52.13 illustrates the same voltage scale but with an Ohmmeter scale added. In general, the error amounts to a constant
number of degrees of pointer deflection, as with the voltmeter, but the
Ohmmeter scale is highly nonlinear, that is, the numbers are spread apart
at low-resistance values and are crowded together at high-resistance
values. Thus, although the error in a voltmeter amounts to a constant
number of volts, the error in an Ohmmeter does not amount to a constant
number of Ohms.
The number of Ohms is least at the low-resistance end of the scale,
simply because the scale tends to spread out there. The number of Ohms
tends to be greatest at the high-resistance end of the scale simply because
the numbers are crowded there. The error of an Ohmmeter as a percentage
of the indication is smallest at the mid scale point and becomes greater Figure 52.13 Voltage Scales in Figure
at each end of the scale. This is shown in Figure 52.13, which gives error 52.11 with an Ohmmeter
in percentage at various points on the scale that has an error of 3 per Scale Added and Error as a
cent at its midscale indications. It can be seen that as far as accuracy is Percentage of Indication
concerned, the Ohmmeter is simply not of the same class as voltmeters
or ammeters. Even in the highest priced V.O.Ms., the Ohmmeter accuracy over most of the scale is nowhere near as good as
that of the voltage and current scales. This is not a serious problem because in most circuits resistance values are not very
critical. Many resistors have tolerances as high as ± 20% of their rated value. However, it is worth learning the limitations of
the instrument so that it is not misled by its indications.
2. Voltmeter sensitivity: The name sensitivity is misleading because what it really specifies is the influence that the
meter will have on the voltage being measured. As there is no source of power in a voltmeter, the current required to
deflect the pointer must come from the circuit being tested. The amount of voltage in the circuit that will change as
a result of this power borrowing depends on both resistance values in the circuit and the sensitivity of the voltmeter.
Voltmeter sensitivity is usually specified in terms of Ω/V, which is the resistance of the meter on its various ranges. For
example, a voltmeter with a sensitivity of 20,000 Ω/V will have a 20 kΩ resistance on its IV range, 200 kΩ on its 10 V
range and 20 MΩ on its 100 V range.
The way in which a low-sensitivity meter will change the voltage in the circuit being tested is illustrated with the
help of Figure 52.14. With the circuit open, as shown in Figure 52.14(a), the voltage across the arrows would be 150 V.
When the circuit is closed and the voltmeter connected, as shown in Figure 52.14(b), the circuit is actually equivalent
to that of Figure 52.14(c), where 100 kΩ is the total resistance of the meter. Now there will be a voltage drop across the
50 kΩ resistance. The amount of current and voltage will depend on the resistance of the meter, which in this example is
1000 Ω/V or 100 kΩ in total; for the 100 V range. Now there are, in effect, two 50 kΩ resistors in series across the 150 V
source. The voltage will then drop evenly across, that is, 75 V across the top resistor and 75 V across the meter. In this case,
we have a loading error of 25 per cent as a result of connecting the meter.
Now let us consider how the circuit of Figure 52.14 will be influenced by a meter having a sensitivity of 50 kΩ/V. This
value is typical of some of the better V.O.Ms. available today. The situation is shown in Figure 52.15(a). It can be seen that
the voltage between the points to be monitored was 100 V before connecting the meter. As the meter has a sensitivity of
50 kΩ/volt and is set to 100 V range, it will have a resistance of 5 MΩ. Connecting a 5 MΩ resistor across a 100 kΩ
resistor, will have a negligible effect on the total circuit voltage.
Figure 52.14 Power Borrowing Depends on Both Resistance Value in the Circuit and the
Sensitivity of the Voltmeter
Figure 52.15 Reducing Loading Effect by Using an Enhanced Sensitivity V.O.M.

The Ohmic values of multiplier resistors for different voltage ranges can be calculated from the sensitivity of the voltmeter
as follows:
Sensitivity=1/IFSD Ω/V (52.2)
If the meter is set to a voltage range of say 100 V, for example, the total resistance on 100 V range is 100×Sensitivity.
Denoting meter resistance by Rm and that of the multipliers for 100 V range by RM (100), we get
RM(100)=(100×Sensitivity)–Rm (52.3)
Sensitivity in terms of Ohms/volt applies mainly to indicating instruments that do not include tubes and transistors. For
instruments that contain electronic circuits, the sensitivity ratings are simply given in Ohms. For example, 11 MΩ is a typical
sensitivity rating for a VTVM. Sometimes, however, the 11 MΩ rating is referred to as input resistance or input impedance
of the VTVM.
Meter movements that are designed to give full-scale deflection at low currents are more sensitive, more
expensive and easily damaged than those that deflect full scale with higher current values. This higher cost of the
meter movement is the main reason for the higher cost of a high-sensitivity meter. Another reason for the higher
cost is the fact that in a sensitive meter, movement must be well
protected from excessive current, physical shock, or vibration.
3. Ranges: In most practical instruments used for testing and
troubleshooting, convenience and speed in the ability to change
the range and function for the instrument is important. Instrument
designers provide easy methods for changing the range and
function.
As the indication of a voltmeter is the most accurate on the upper
two-thirds of the scale, it is important that the V.O.M. has enough
voltage ranges to make such indications possible. In contrast, there
should not be too many scales such that it becomes difficult to read
any one of them. The same scale can be used for different ranges, Figure 52.16 Basic Scales of a Typical
but the scale markings must be multiplied by a suitable factor at V.O.M.
different positions of the range switch; common voltage scales for
V.O.Ms. are 1, 2.5, 5 and 10 V maximum. Ranges are ×1 ×10, × 100 and sometimes ×1000, of these basic scales as shown
in Figure 52.16.
4. Frequency response: Although practically all V.O.Ms. have a.c. voltage ranges, the frequency range over which
they will accurately indicate voltages is definitely limited. Older V.O.Ms. were not often accurate much above the
power line frequency of 50 Hz. This is not a limitation when 50-Hz voltages are the only a.c. voltages that will be
measured. In most of the measurements, it is very useful to be able to measure audio frequency signals. Most modern
V.O.Ms. will measure voltages through the audio range of about 50 Hz to 15 kHz. Such instruments are valuable in
signal tracing, in audio circuits, and in measuring frequency response of audio amplifiers.
5. Overload protection: The moving coil of a meter mechanism is wound with very fine wire and it can easily be
burned out if too much current is passed through it. For this reason, many V.O.Ms. are equipped with some
sort of protection circuit. Normally, any one or more of the following safety devices are incorporated in these
meters:
i. Mechanical protection (used in Avo Meter Model 8X)
ii. Fuse (used in the majority of low-priced V.O.Ms.)
iii. Protection diodes across the meter movement (used in Simpson Multi-meter Model 260)
iv. Transistorized voltage-sensitive circuit (used in some Philips Multi-meter Models)
The most common meter protection circuits consist simply of two
diodes connected back-to-back across the meter mechanism as shown Voltmeter
in Figure 52.17. The diodes do not allow current to flow through them
in the forward direction until the voltage across them exceeds some
fraction of a volt. This voltage is greater than the voltage across the
meter mechanism when the full-scale current is flowing. So normally
no current flows through either diode. When the meter is overloaded,
the voltage across tends to become greater than the breakdown voltage
of the diodes. Thus, one or the other diode will start to conduct,
depending on the polarity of the voltage applied to the meter. This
action limits the current through the meter to a safe value. Figure 52.17 Protection Diodes
Although this arrangement protects the meter from damage, it provides no protection for the shunt and multiplier
resistors. If a meter having this type of protection is subject to a severe overload, the mechanism will be protected, but one
of the shunt or multiplier resistors may be destroyed. The meter will not operate on at least one of its ranges; but it will be
much less expensive to repair them if the mechanism were not protected.
Some complex protection circuits protect not only the meter mechanism but also other components of the circuit. The
heart of such an arrangement is a transistorized voltage that will trip on either positive or negative voltages. This circuit is
connected across the terminals of the meter mechanism. When the voltage drop across the mechanism is three or four times
the normal fall-scale voltage, the sensing circuit will be activated. This circuit may drive a relay that will open the circuit
from the common lead of the V.O.M. The relay will latch and keep the circuit open until it is reset by pressing a button.
As the relay contacts are in series with all of the V.O.M. circuits, regardless of what range is in use, it protects all of the
components of the V.O.M. The transistorized circuit draws a nominal current.
52.8 THE SIMPSON MODEL 260 MULTI-METER

A representative example of a commercial multi-meter is the Simpson Model 260. The circuit diagram of the meter is given
in Figure 52.18. The basic movement of the meter has a full-scale current of 50 µA and an internal resistance of 2000 Ω. The
meter is a combination of a d.c. milliammeter, a d.c. voltmeter, an a.c. voltmeter, a multi-range Ohmmeter and an output meter.
a.c.
Figure 52.18 The Simpson Model 260 Multi-meter
52.8.1 D.C. Current

The following ranges of d.c. current are available (see Figure 52.19):
(1) 10 mA, (2) 100 mA, (3) 500 mA and (4) 5 A.
The equivalent circuit for measurement of 10 mA d.c. current is shown in Figure 52.20(a). A resistance of 3000 Ω is
connected with the meter movement and the whole of the combination is shunted by a 25 Ω universal shunt.
The equivalent circuit for measurement of 100 mA d.c. current is illustrated in Figure 52.20(b). The resistance in series with
the meter is now increased to 3022.5 Ω and the whole of the combination is shunted by a 2.5 Ω tapping on the universal shunt.
For measurement of a d.c. currents up to 500 mA, the resistance in series with the meter is increased to 3024.5 Ω and the
whole of combination is shunted by a 0.5 Ω tapping on the universal shunt. The equivalent circuit is illustrated in Figure
52.20(c).
For measurement of d.c. currents up to 10 A, the resistance in series with the meter movement is further increased to
3,024978 Ω and the whole of the combination is shunted by a 0.025 Ω tapping on the universal shunt. The equivalent
circuit is illustrated in Figure 52.20(d). The value of the shunt required for the measurement of d.c. current to up to 10 A is
extremely low (0.025 Ω). That is why the range selector switch excludes the 10 A d.c. range and a separate socket marked
+10 A is brought out. The contact resistance of the switch, if used, would pose problems and introduce considerable errors.
Figure 52.19 Jacks and Switch Position for Direct Current
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 52.20 Equivalent Circuit for Measurement of (a)10 mA d.c. Current (b) 100 mA d.c. Current
(c) 500 mA d.c. Current and (d) d.c. Current up to 10 A
The complete circuit for d.c. current measurement is shown in Figure 52.21. A 100 µA d.c. current range is also provided
for measurement of base current of transistors. In this range, equal amounts of current flow through the meter movement
and shunt because resistance in both branches is equal.
52.8.2 D.C. Voltage

The following d.c. voltage ranges are available (see Figure 52.22):
(1) 2.5 V, (2) 10 V, (3) 50 V, (4) 250 V, (5) 1000 V and (6) 5000 V.
Figure 52.22 Jacks and Switch Positions

Figure 52.21 D.c. Current Measuring Section for Direct Voltage
The full-scale deflection current of the meter is 50 mA. The internal resistance of the meter is 2000 Ω. This corresponds
to a full-scale deflection voltage of 100 µV. This is the maximum voltage that can be directly applied across the meter.
The equivalent circuit for the measurement of 2.5 V d.c. is given in Figure 52.23(a). A multiplier resistance of 48 kΩ is
connected in series with the meter movement to drop the excess voltage.
The equivalent circuit for the measurement of 10 V d.c. is given in Figure 52.23(b). Yet another multiplier resistance of
150 kΩ is connected in series with the multiplier resistance for the 2.5 V d.c. range (48 kΩ).
The equivalent circuit for the measurement of 50 V d.c. is given in Figure 52.23(c). Another multiplier resistance of
800 kΩ is connected in series with it.
M
M
Figure 52.23 Equivalent Circuit for the Measurement of (a) 2.5 V d.c., (b) 10 V d.c., (c) 50 V d.c., (d) 250 V d.c.,
(e) 1000 V d.c. and (f) 5000 V d.c.
The multipliers for 2.5 V d.c. and 10 V d.c. ranges are 48 kΩ+150 kΩ.
The equivalent circuit for the measurement of 250 V d.c. is given
in Figure 52.23(d). Another multiplier resistance of 4 MΩ is con-
nected in series with the multipliers for 2.5 V, 10 V and 50 V ranges
(48 kΩ + 150 kΩ + 800 kΩ).
The equivalent circuit for the measurement of 1000 V d.c. is given
in Figure 52.23(e). Another multiplier resistance of 15 MΩ is con-
nected in series with the multipliers for 2.5 V, 10 V and 250 V d.c.
ranges (48 kΩ + 150 kΩ + 800 kΩ + 4 MΩ).
The equivalent circuit for the measurement of 5000 V d.c. is
given in Figure 52.23(f). Yet another multiplier resistance of 80
Figure 52.24 D.c. Voltage Measurement
MΩ is connected in series with the multipliers for 2.5 V, 10 V, 50
Section
V and 1000 V d.c. ranges (48 kΩ + 150 kΩ + 800 kΩ + 4 MΩ +
15 MΩ).
The insulation resistance of the switch is far less than the combined
value of multipliers on the 5000 V range. That is why the switch is ex-
cluded for the measurement of d.c. voltages on the 5000 V range. A
separate socket marked 5000 V is brought out. The complete circuit for
the measurement of d.c. voltages is given in Figure 52.24.
52.8.3 A.C. Voltage

The following a.c. voltage ranges are available
(see Figure 52.25):
(1) 2.5 V, (2) 10 V, (3) 50 V, (4) 250 V and (5) 1000 V.
Suitable multiplier resistors are used for different ranges. The
complete circuit diagram for a.c. voltage measurement is given in
Figure 52.27. A half-wave rectifier is used in series with the meter
movement to measure a.c. voltage. Another diode is used to protect the
meter from voltages in the reverse direction.
A shunt is connected across the meter movement. Due to heavy
current flow through this combination, rectification takes place on
the linear portion of the diode voltage current characteristic ensuring
linearity of scales on a.c. voltage measurement. This is illustrated in
Figure 52.26. The complete a.c. voltage measurement section is shown Figure 52.25 Jacks and Switch Position
in Figure 52.27. for a.c. Volts
Figure 52.26 VI Characteristic of Figure 52.27 Complete a.c. Voltage Mea-

Rectifier Diode surement Section
52.8.4 Resistance
The following resistance measurement ranges are available (see Figure 52.28):
(1) R × 1, (2) R × 100 and (3) R × 10 k.
Figure 52.28 Jacks and Switch Positions for Resistance

Equivalent circuits for the different resistance measurements are given in Figure 52.29. A 1.5 V cell is used as the source
of power for R × 1 and R × 100 ranges of resistance measurement. A total of five 1.5 V cells are used as the source of power
for R × 10 k range of resistance measurement.
The current flowing through the meter movement decreases for increasing values of resistance to be measured. To force
a current equal to full-scale defection current, a higher source of power is required, in particular on the R × 10 k resistance
measurement range.
Figure 52.29 Equivalent Circuits for Different Resistance Measurement Ranges (a) R×10,
(b) R×100 and (c) R×10 k
52.9 DIGITAL MULTI-METERS

Digital instruments sample the measurand perform evaluation using digital electronics and normally display the measure
in discrete numerals. In general, contemporary instruments use either L.E.D or liquid crystal seven-segment displays as
shown in Figure 52.30. The major advantage of a digital display is that it eliminates parallax errors and reduces human
errors associated with interpreting the position of a pointer on an analog scale.
Most digital instruments display superior accuracy and input characteristics to analyze instruments. They may also
incorporate automatic polarity indication, range selection and provide a digitally coded output, properties that reduce
operator training, which is the possibility of instrument damage through overload, and improve measurement reliability.
(a)
E 1 E 1
10 G 10 G
D 2 D 2
9 F 9 F
Anodes 3 Cathodes 3
8 Anodes 8 Cathodes
C 4 C 4
7 A 7 A
Decimal 5 Decimal 5
6 B 6 B
(b) (c)
Figure 52.30 Seven-Segment Displays (a) LED Segment Arrangement and Typical Display
(b) Common Anode (c) Common Cathode
52.9.1 Digital Panel Meter

The digital panel meter shown in Figure 52.31 eliminates the need to decide
which mark is closest to the pointer. There is no guess work in trying to decide
if the meter reading is 1.999 or 1.998.
Digital meters are usually specified by the number of digits in their
readout. When the most significant (left-most) digit can only be a 0 or 1, it is
only counted as a half-digit. The 2-volt DPM as shown in Figure 52.31 is only
a three-and-a-half digit meter. Even though it is called a 2-voltmeter, it can
measure a maximum of 1.999 V.
Figure 52.31 Digital Panel Meter
52.9.2 Digital Voltmeters (Voltage D.C.)
The measuring circuits of a multi-function digital voltmeter
have a high input resistance and are connected to the output of
voltage-divider networks as shown in Figure 52.32. The input
resistance is thus approximately constant on the direct voltage
ranges. A common value being 10 MΩ, although an increasing
number of models have higher input resistance (100 MΩ and
even 1 GΩ), the upper limit of voltage is usually 1000 V and the
smallest measurable value (the resolution on the most sensitive
range) is 10 μV. However, developments are reducing this to
1 μV and even to 0.1 μV.
Digital voltmeters can be classified according to the form of
analog to digital converter (ADC) they use, the most common
being successive approximation, ramp, dual ramp and pulse
width. The successive approximation and ramp, form are the
examples of sampling meters in which they provide digital
values equivalent to the voltage at a particular time instant. The
dual ramp and pulse width form are examples of integrating
meters in which the average value of the voltage is given over
a fixed measurement time to carry out a measurement but have
better noise rejection.
Figure 52.32 Alternating Voltage Ranges in a With the successive approximation form, a sample of the
Mean Sensing Multi-meter input voltage is compared with a voltage that is increased in
increments until its total value equals the input voltage. Sampling times are typically of the order of 1000 times or more
per second.
The successive approximation form of digital voltmeter is one of the faster responding voltmeters. For very fast re-
sponse, instead of comparing the input voltage with steadily mounting voltage in circuits and building up to the required
voltage, the comparison can be made simultaneously with a large range of voltages, with each one being linked to a digital
code and the matching voltage found rapidly. Such a form of voltmeter is said to employ a flash converter and has conver-
sion times of the order of 10s.
The ramp form is the simplest and cheapest form of digital voltmeter, the input voltage being compared with steadily
increasing ramp voltage, where the time between the two voltages is equal and the end of the ramp voltage is a measure
of the input voltage. Owing to nonlinearities in the shape of the ramp waveform and its lack of noise rejection, accuracy is
limited to about ±0.05 per cent. Sample rates can be up to about 1000 times per second.
The dual ramp form involves a capacitor being charged during a time equal to 1 cycle of the line frequency. The result-
ing potential difference is then compared with a steadily increasing ramp voltage and the time taken for the two to become
equal is a measure of the input voltage. It has the advantage of noise and line frequency rejection, but since it integrates the
signal over 1 cycle of the main frequency, it has a conversion time of only the reciprocal of the main frequency. Accuracy
is about ±0.005 per cent.
Pulse width form produces pulses whose width, that is, duration, is proportional to the input voltage. The duration of the
pulse is then measured by a clock. By integrating over 1/50s rejection of the line frequency occurs and a high resolution
is possible.
Digital meters provide a numerical read-out that eliminates parallax as well as interpolation errors. The resolution of
such an instrument corresponds to the voltage that gives a change in the least significant bit of the meter display. Displays
are generally between three and a half and eight-and-a-half digits, the half being because the most significant bit can only
take the value of 0 or 1. A three-and-a-half digit display has a resolution of 1 in 2000 and a eight-and-a-half display has 1
in 2×108. Typically, such instruments have an input resistance of 10 MΩ or higher, capacitances of 40 pF and good stability.
Voltage ranges differ from 100 mV to about 1000 V, with the limit of resolution being about 1 μV.
52.9.3 Voltage A.C.

The methods used to convert a.c. to d.c. are similar to those used with permanent magnet moving coil instruments.
Rectification methods give average values and as instruments are generally scaled to read r.m.s. values the result needs
correction for non-sinusoidal waveforms. True r.m.s. readings can be obtained by using a thermocouple to monitor the
temperature of the resistor across which the input voltage is applied.
Typical accuracy varies from about ±1 per cent of the reading plus three digits with a three-and-a-half digit display to
±0.05 per cent of the reading plus 0.03 per cent of the full-scale reading for an eight-and-a-half digit display. The frequency
range varies from about 45 Hz to 10 kHz for a three-and-a-half digit display to 10 Hz to 100 kHz for a eight-and-a-half
digit display. The input impedance is about 10 MΩ with 100 PF. Voltage ranges vary from full-scale readings of about
100 mV to 1000 V r.m.s.
52.9.4 Current
Both d.c. and a.c. currents are determined by the digital voltmeter being used to measure the potential across a standard
resistor as shown in Figure 52.33. Typically, the accuracy is about ±0.2 per cent of the reading plus two digits for d.c. and
±1 per cent of the reading plus two digits for a.c.. For both d.c. and a.c. the ranges are from about 200 µA to 2 A and the
voltage drop less than 0.3 V. The frequency range is about 45 Hz to 1 kHz.
Figure 52.33 Current Functions of a Digital Multi-meter
52.9.5 Resistance
Resistance can be measured using a digital voltmeter by passing a known current through the resistance and determining
the resulting potential difference across it as shown in Figure 52.34.
Figure 52.34 Resistance Function of a Digital Multi-meter
Higher accuracy is, however, obtained by passing the same current through a standard resistor and the unknown resistor
and comparing the potential differences across the two. Accuracy varies from about ±0.1 per cent of the reading plus 1 digit
for three-and-a-half digit meter to ±0.0002 per cent of the reading to ±0.0004 per cent of the full-scale reading for an eight
and a half digit display. The resistance ranges are from 200 Ω to 1000 MΩ.
S UM M A RY
1. Analog measurements continuously monitor the mag- 17. Accuracy is conventionally expressed in terms of
nitude of a signal. error.
2. A large number of analog instruments are electrome- 18. A ccuracy of voltmeter and ammeter scales is given
chanical in nature. as a percentage of the full-scale value of the range
3. Deflecting torque is a function of the current within the in use.
instrument’s coil and its shape and geometry. 19. Because of the spread out of the Ohmmeter scale in
4. For a stable display, it is necessary to equate the the lower end and crowding at the upper end of the
deflecting torque with an opposing control torque. scale, the accuracy of Ohmmeter scales is expressed as
5. A damping torque must be provided, which will only a percentage of the middle-scale value.
act when the movable parts are in motion. 20. A clamp ammeter is not a precision instrument.
6. Digital instruments display the measure in discrete 21. The higher the Ω/V of a voltmeter, the lower the loading
numerals. it will introduce when inserted into a circuit.
7. Digital instruments incorporate automatic polarity and 22. Sensitivity in terms of Ω/V is for indicating
range indication. instruments.
8. Shunts enhance the current-measuring capacity of an 23. The sensitivity of instruments, which includes active
ammeter. devices, is expressed in Ohms.
9. Full-scale deflection voltage is the minimum voltage that 24. Instrument designers provide easy methods for
can be safely applied directly across the meter movement. changing range and function.
10. Shunts are connected across the meter movement to 25. The most common meter protection circuits consist of
bypass the excess current. two diodes connected back-to-back across the meter
11. Multipliers are connected in series with the meter movement.
movement to drop the excess voltage. 26. Contemporary digital instruments use either L.E.D or
12. Zero Ohms adjustment is provided in Ohmmeter to liquid crystal seven-segment displays.
compensate for the changes in battery voltage. 27. The ramp form is the simplest and one of the cheapest
13. The resistance of the rectifier changes with the current forms of digital voltmeters.
passing through it. 28. Digital meters provide a numerical readout that
14. The current transformer enables the various current eliminates parallax and interpolating errors.
ranges to be scaled to an appropriate magnitude for the 29. Both the a.c. and d.c. currents are determined by the
rectifier characteristic. digital voltmeter being used to measure the potential
15. In some instruments, the current and voltage across a standard resistor.
transformers are combined in a single unit. 30. Resistance can be measured by passing a known current
16. Commercial multi-meters are priced according through a resistor and by determining the resultant
to the measurement facilities provided by the potential difference across it.
manufacturer.
1. Measurement of resistance requires a suitable 11. V.O.Ms. are
(a) Shunt (b) Source (a) Single range multi-function instruments
(c) Multiplier (b) Multi-range multi-function instruments
2. T he zero of the Ohms scale on the right-hand side of (c) Multi-range single function instruments
the scales means 1 2. Accuracy of V.O.Ms. varies from
(a) Series arrangement (a) 1 to 2 per cent
(b) Shunt arrangement (b) 2 to 3 per cent
(c) Both a and b (c) 2 to 4 per cent
3. Measurement of alternating current/voltage requires a 13. The error as a percentage of indication becomes
suitable (a) Lower at the lower end of the scale
(a) Shunt (b) Rectifier (b) Greater at the lower end of the scale
(c) Multiplier
14. The accuracy on a.c. ranges is
4. Instrument transformers are (a) Lesser than that on d.c. ranges
(a) Used as attachments (b) In-built (b) Greater than that on d.c. ranges
(c) Both (a) and (b)
15. T
he error of an Ohmmeter as a percentage of indication
5. The value of the shunt for higher ranges of current is is smallest at the
(a) Extremely high (b) Extremely low (a) Mid-scale point
6. Shunts (b) Each end of scale
(a) Provide electrical isolation to the meter 16. Voltmeters with a higher sensitivity have
(b) Do not provide electrical isolation to the meter (a) Less loading effect
7. T he current flowing in the secondary of instrument (b) Higher loading effect
transformer is standardized as 17. Sensitivity in terms of Ω/V applies mainly to
(a) 5 A (b) 10 A (a) Indicating instruments
(c) 15 A (b) Instrument that contains electronic circuits
8. The voltage across the secondary of instrument trans- 18. S
ensitivity in case of instruments that contain electron-
formers is standardized at ic circuits is expressed in
(a) 50 to 100 V (a) Ohms (b) Ω/V
(b) 100 to 150 V 19. Most of the measuring instruments are
(c) 150 to 200 V (a) Provided with suitable protection
9. M
easuring instruments used with instrument trans- (b) Not provided with protection
formers are 20. The most common protection circuit is in the form of
(a) Not standardized (b) Standardized (a) Fuse (b) Mechanical
10. T
he current flowing in the secondary of instrument (c) Protection diode
transformers is independent of load conditions in the 21. Protection diodes provide protection to the
case of (a) Meter movement only
(a) Current transformers (b) Potential transformers (b) Meter movement and external components
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (c) 21. (a).
10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (a)
1. H ow will you convert a single-range ammeter into a 4. What are the different methods of connecting shunts
multi-range ammeter? and multipliers? Explain with the help of suitable
2. How will you convert a single-range voltmeter into a illustrations.
multi-range voltmeter? 5. Discuss the limitations of switching arrangements in
3. What are the factors that decide the Ohmic value of multifunction multi-range instruments.
shunts and multipliers? 6. Briefly explain: (a) Shunt (b) Tapped shunts (c) Uni-
veral shunt (d) Multiplier (e) Tapped multiplier
7. E xplain the difference between series-type Ohmmeter 15. H ow will you specify voltmeter sensitivity? Given
and shunt-type Ohmmeter. voltmeter sensitivity and meter resistance, calculate the
8. How will you measure alternating currents and voltages value of multipliers for different voltage ranges.
with the help of a moving coil movement? 16. Meter movement needs to be protected from overloads.
9. Discuss the influence of instrument rectifiers on the What are the different methods of providing protection
linearity of scales. to the meter movement and external components?
10. What are the drawbacks of shunts and multipliers? Which of these methods are commonly used?
11. Explain the difference between current transformers 17. What are the factors that you will consider while
and potential transformed. selecting a V.O.M.
12. Briefly explain the working of a clamp-type meter. 18. Assume the voltage across R2 in Figure 52.35 is
measured with a 2000 Ω/V voltmeter on the 5 V range.
13. What are the different V.O.M. specifications? Discuss
How much voltage will the meter indicate?
their importance.
14. How is the accuracy of the following specified?
(a) Ammeters, (b) Voltmeters, (c) Ohmmeters
Figure 52.35 For CQ18

The Oscilloscope
53
OBJECTIVES

 The various parts of a cathode ray tube (CRT) and their

significance
 The formation of the electron beam
Various controls associated with a CRT

Fluorescence and phosphorescence

The fermentative electron and its detection and

focusing
 Internal and external graticules
 The significance of graticule calibration
The block diagram of a CRT and the function of each

block
 Time base and its importance
General purpose oscilloscope

53.1 INTRODUCTION
If electronic instruments were chess pieces the oscilloscope would be the queen as it can duplicate all the measurements
of voltage: current, resistance, frequency, phase and so on, performed by other instruments; in addition, it allows one to
evaluate rapidly changing phenomena including those events that happen only once and last for a few nanoseconds.
The peculiar power of the oscilloscope lies in its ability to produce an electronic picture to show the variation of a
quantity with regard to another; these quantities are electrical signals as found in a circuit or obtained from a transducer.
The use of transducer makes it possible for the oscilloscope to measure the pulse rate, to analyze engine performance, or
to portray many other non-electrical quantities. However, oscilloscopes are mostly used to display variations in voltage
amplitude over a period of time.
In this respect, the oscilloscope performs a function similar
to that of a barograph or seismograph, in which a pen tracer adds
an ink line on a chart that moves forward at a steady rate in the
case of electrical signals; however, they mostly repeat the same
amplitude variation continuously at a final rate. For instance, a
train of pulses may have a repetition rate of 1 kHZ. The period
of time on the leading edge of one pulse to the same point on
the next pulse is therefore one millisecond. If we set our oscil-
loscope pen to travel across its chart in 1 ms, whereas at the
same time it rises and falls in accordance with the amplitude
variations of the pulse it will draw a picture of the pulse. This is
shown in Figures 53.1 and 53.2. Figure 53.1 Making Voltage Waveform Visible
As it lasts only for a 1000th of a second, we cannot see this
picture unless we freeze it, as in a photograph. However, if we make the pen repeat its sweep across the chart every mil-
lisecond, in synchronization with the pulse train, successive pulses will be superimposed continuously to form a visible
image. It will serve as if the signal is standing still on the screen (see Figure 53.3), as a spinning wheel seems stationary as
under a synchronous strobe light.
Figure 53.2 Oscilloscope Display of Square Wave Figure 53.3 Freezing the Display
Response of an Amplifier
A mechanical pen is limited by its mass to a minimum frequency response of around 150 Hz. But the electron-beam pen in
the oscilloscope CRT is practically weightless and is capable of responding to frequencies beyond a GHz.
53.2 CRT
A simple CRT is shown in Figure 53.4. It is the heart of the oscilloscope. It consists of the base neck (in which an electron
gun in enclosed), a bulb, and a faceplate (screen). The face, bulb and neck are made of glass, although in some CRTs the
bulb is metal. Usually, the base plugs into either a standard octal or twelve-pin socket from which connections to the circuit
that operates the tube are made.
Figure 53.4 Construction of a Conventional Cathode Ray Tube
The electron gun, as shown in Figure 53.5, consists of a cathode, which, when heated, emits electrons, a control grid,
a cylindrical anode, which, when a high positive voltage is applied, attracts the electrons in a stream through it, and two
sets of deflecting plates.
The set of deflection plates that moves the beam of electrons in a horizontal direction is called the horizontal deflection
plates. The other set, called the vertical deflection plates, moves the beam in a vertical direction as shown in Figure 53.6.
The beam starting from the cathode passes through the control grid and the anode between the two sets of deflection
plates and strikes the face of the CRT. The internal surface of the face is covered with a fluorescent material or phosphor,
Figure 53.5 The Electron Gun Figure 53.6 The Horizontal and Vertical
Deflection Plates
The Oscilloscope 1005
which illuminates at the spot at which the beam is directed. In modern CRTs (see Figure 53.7), the anode consists of two
anodes. The first anode is the focusing anode and is located closer to the cathode than to the second anode, which is called
the accelerating anode.
Figure 53.7 The Focusing and Accelerating Anodes
By proper adjustment of the voltage rates between the two anodes, the best focus (sharpest spot) is obtained. In a practi-
cal oscilloscope, the voltage on the control grid can be varied to change the brightness or intensity of the spot on the front
part of the CRT.
The internal surface of the bulb is coated with aquadag, a carbon-conductive coating. The aquadag is connected electri-
cally to the first or focusing anode. The purpose of the aquadag is to collect secondary electrons that are dislodged by the
electron beam from the florescent screen. It they are not collected, these secondary electrons would settle back in a random
distribution on the screen and produce light. This extra light will reduce the contrast and sharpness of the spot. A modern
CRT is illustrated in Figure 53.8.
Figure 53.8 Modern Cathode Ray Tube
53.3 INTENSITY
The intensity of the spot on the florescent screen will depend on the energy contained in the electron beam, that is on the
number and velocity of electrons bombarding the screen at any instant. To obtain a sufficiently powerful electron beam
an anode potential, of the order of 1000 V is required in the normal hot cathode or low-voltage tube. The potential of the
control grid will affect the electrons to a certain extent, as in the same way the grid potential affects the anode current in a
thermionic valve.
Figure 53.9 illustrates how the control grid potential affects the anode current. It can be seen that the more negative the
control grid becomes, the smaller the number of electrons drawn toward the anode, but due to the concentrating effect of
the control grid, the greater the percentage of these electrons arriving on the fluorescent screen.
Figure 53.9 Characteristics of a Cathode Ray Tube
These two factors have a conflicting effect on the number of electrons actually arriving at the screen and at some point, on
the curve, the screen will receive the maximum number of electrons and the light spot will have maximum brilliance. The
cathode with its small emitting surface is surrounded by the control grid, which is maintained at a negative potential with
respect to the cathode. This potential is adjusted by an intensity control, which varies the brightness of the pattern being
displayed. The greater the negative potential applied to the control grid, the greater the repelling effect on the electrons
leaving the control grid and hence the reduction in the brightness of the pattern.
53.4 FLUORESCENT SCREEN

Most substances are fluorescent, that is, they have the property that they emit light when subjected to electron bombardment.
This property is, however, possessed by different substances to different degrees; for instance, one substance may emit a
greater intensity of light than another for a given rate of bombardment. The frequency, that is the colour of light emitted,
varies from substance to substance. All fluorescent materials continue to emit light for some time even after the electron
bombardment has ceased. This is called afterglow and its duration varies with different substances from a few milli-
seconds to many seconds. In some applications, it is an advantage for a tube to have a long afterglow.
In general, fluorescent materials consist of a crystal metallic salt containing a minute trace of impurity.
This impurity, known as the activator, is essential, as the base substance in its pure state frequently has no fluorescent
properties. The short representation list of fluorescent materials used for the screen of the cathode ray tube is given in
Table 53.1.
Table 53.1 Fluorescent Screen Materials
Base Activation Colour of Trace

Zinc silicate Manganese Blue green
Zinc sulphide Manganese Orange
Zinc sulphide Silver Blue
Zinc sulphide Copper Green
Note: Zinc silicate occurs as willemite and is the material most commonly used for CRT screen.
A screen that emits a high intensity of light for a given rate of electron bombardment is desirable in practically all cases
as otherwise high anode voltage would be required to produce the required brilliance of the image. It is also essential that
the substance can be applied to the end of the tube in such a way that it produces a uniform screen.
If the tube is to be used for visual examination of waveforms, as is usually the case, the tracer must be of a colour that
produces minimum fatigue and eye strain whether viewed in daylight or artificial light. If the waveform under examination
is recurrent and the spot of light may be made to trace the same path again and again, an afterglow of 10–20 microseconds
will be sufficient with the natural persistence of vision to give an impression of a stationary trace at all but the lowest
frequencies. For visual examination of very low-frequency waveforms and in particular for transients, i.e. non-recurring
waveforms, a longer afterglow is desirable and it may be of the order of several seconds.
If the tube is intended only for photographic work, a blue trace is desirable; the blue light being more active than the
green, which has a greater effect on the light-sensitive material of the photographic film for a given exposure. In a general-
purpose tube intended for both visual and photographic examinations, a screen that gives a blue green trace is used.
The phosphor screen can be designed for fluorescence in a certain colour with a short medium or long persistence.
Table 53.2 gives details about the type of phosphor, its colour and persistence.
Table 53.2 Type of Phosphor, its Colour and Persistence
Persistence Medium Long Medium Long Short

Type P1 P2 P4 P7 P11
Flworescence Green Green White Blue Blue
Phosphorescence - - - yellow -
The P1 phosphor is used in the general-purpose oscilloscope. The P4 phosphor is used in television picture tubes. The P7
phosphor is a two-layered phosphor screen, one of short persistence (blue) and the other of long persistence (yellow). This
type of screen may be used with colour filters to provide a dual characteristic, which flashes blue and persists in yellow for
observation of slow process. The P11 phosphor is used for high-speed photography of transients.
Short-persistence screens fluoresce for 1/1000 s, medium persistence for 1–2 s, and long persistence for longer than 2 s.
53.5 FOCUSING
For oscillograph work, a very small sharply defined spot is required and although a certain amount of focusing can be
obtained by adjustment of the control grid potential, this in itself is not sufficient and it is necessary to adopt some additional
focusing device. There are two principal methods by which this may be achieved. The first method is electrostatic focusing
in which the electron beam is passed through an electrostatic field so shaped as to cause the electrons to converge on
the screen. This type of focusing has the advantage that it can be controlled easily. The second method, electromagnetic
focusing, is rarely used, except in tubes intended for television work.
The effect of the electrostatic field between the cathode and the control grid causes the beam to taper sharply and cross
over (see Figure 53.10). The beam is then accelerated towards the fluorescent screen by the high-anode potentials of the
Figure 53.10 An Elementary Electron Gun with Electric Field Focusing (a) Electron Gun (b) Electron Lens
anode system. However, after the fist crossover point, the beam is subjected to dispersion and if allowed to persist it would
produce a blurred luminous spot. Therefore, the beam must be focused to produce a second crossover point in the vicinity
of the screen.
To accomplish this, the beam is tapered and brought into sharp focus on the screen by adjusting the electrostatic field ex-
isting in the anode system. The accelerating anode is maintained at a constant positive potential of about 1,000 V, whereas
the positive potential of the focus anode is varied by means of a focus control.
The electric field set up by these potentials through which the beam must pass is the principle of electron optics, which is
closely analogous to optics concerning light rays. The direction of electric lines in the field is such that the cathode rays tend
to converge and run parallel to the central axis of the electron gun. However, the convergence is graded due to the accelerat-
ing speed of the electrons causing this second crossover point to occur at the fluorescent screen, thus resulting in a sharp and
well-focused luminous dot.
53.6 DEFLECTION
It is now necessary to investigate the means by which the electron beam may be moved across the screen under the
influence of externally applied waveforms. There are two methods known as electrostatic and electromagnetic deflection.
In the electrostatic deflection method, two plates are arranged one on each side of the beam as illustrated in Figure 53.11.
If a voltage is applied across the deflector plates, the beam will be attracted towards the positive plate and repelled from the
negative plate so that the spot of light changes its position.
Consider two parallel plates, P1 and P2, with a voltage Vd applied between them as illustrated in Figure 53.11.
Figure 53.11 Attraction Between Unlike Electric Charges and Repulsion Between
Like Electric Charges Form the Basis of Electrostatic Deflection
These plates produce a uniform electric field in the Y direction as a result of which electrons entering the field will
experience a force. Under the influence of this force, these electrons can be accelerated in the Y direction. As there is no
force acting on these electrons in any other direction (X or Z), these electrons will not experience acceleration in any other
direction.
The loss of potential energy PE = Ev, (53.1)
Where, e is the charge of the electron (coulomb) and Va is the anode potential (volts)
The gain in kinetic energy KE = ½ ne Ve
where, Ve is the velocity of electron (m/s) entering the field of the deflecting plate and the mass of electrons (kg).
The gain in kinetic energy is equal to the loss of potential energy.
1
eVa = mVe2 (53.2)
2
2eVa
Ve = (53.3)
m
The velocity in the X direction remains the same throughout the passage of electrons through the deflection plates as there
is no force acting in that direction.
The deflection corresponding to a particular value of voltage (or current) will be directly proportional to the strength of
the electrostatic field, to the length of the electron path lying in the field, and to the distance of the fluorescent screen from
the deflecting system. For high-deflection sensitivity, all of these constant factors are made as large as possible subject
to limitations of space. The deflection also depends on the anode
voltage to which it is inversely proportional, as a higher anode
voltage gives an increased velocity and hence a smaller deflection.
In Figure 53.12, the deflection plates are held very close to-
gether at the end nearer the cathode to give maximum sensitiv-
ity but diverge toward the fluorescent screen in order that a wider
deflection of the beam may be possible.
If the voltage across the deflector plates (or the current through
the deflecting coils) is alternating, the spot will follow the altera-
Figure 53.12 Electrostatic Deflection in
tions in voltage (or current) exactly and without appreciable time
a Cathode Ray Tube
lag. As the spot of light is moved back and forth under the influ-
ence of an alternating potential applied to the deflection plates, it
will trace out vertical (Figure 53.13) or horizontal (Figure 53.14) straight lines. This is due partly to the persistence of
vision and partly to the afterglow properties of the fluorescent material and will appear as a continuous line unless the
frequency is very low, in which case the actual motion of the spot may be followed by the eye.
Figure 53.13 Vertical Deflection Figure 53.14 Horizontal Deflection
In electromagnetic deflection (see Figure 53.15), a pair of

deflection coils is arranged around the neck of the tube to produce
a magnetic field at right angles to the electron beam. The direction
of deflection is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule, the electron
beam being subject to a deflecting force in just the same way as in
a current-carrying conductor. It is important that the magnetic field
produced by the coils be uniform and systematic.
The deflection is proportional to the magnetic field that is pro-
portional to the current passing through the deflection coil. Such a
coil has inductive impedance and may therefore disturb any circuit
under test.
53.7 TIME BASE Figure 53.15 Electromagnetic Deflection in a

Cathode Ray Tube
If a second pair of deflection plates is so fitted as to produce an
independent deflection at right angles to the first then the spot of
light may be moved to any position on the screen instead of merely in a straight line. The plates that cause a horizontal
deflection are called the X plates and those causing vertical deflection are called the Y plates. If the voltage under examination
is applied across the Y plates and at the same time a voltage is applied to the X plates, which will cause the spot to travel at
a uniform rate across the screen (Figure 53.16(a)), then clearly the trace on the screen will be an accurate graph showing
the instantaneous voltage.
Figure 53.16 (a) Formation of an Oscilloscope Trace with a Linear Time Base (b) Controlling the Defecting
Voltage on the X Plates by Synchronizing the Time Base with the Voltage under Examination
53.7.1 Plotted Against Time

If the voltage applied to the Y plates is a transient, that is, it occurs once only, it may be impossible to examine the trace by
the eye and one must therefore photograph the trace as it is produced or use a fluorescent screen that will retain the trace
for a reasonable period after its formation.
If, however, the voltage under examination is recurrent, then voltage on the X plates may be controlled so that it moves
the spot uniformly across the screen from the left to right and having reached the limit of its sweep to the right returns the
spot very rapidly to the left, where it begins the sweep again. It can be arranged that the second and subsequent traces lie
exactly on top of the first, then the eye will obtain the impression of a stationary trace on the screen.
The means whereby the deflecting voltage on the X plates is controlled is called the time base and to ensure that a sta-
tionary trace appears on the screen, it is necessary to synchronize the time base with the voltage under examination, that is,
the time occupied by a whole number of cycles of the recurrent voltage on the Y plates.
53.8 GRATICULES
CRT screens have calibrated vertical and horizontal marks,
Figure 53.17, to facilitate the use of the oscilloscope; the
accuracy of these marks depends on how close the graticule
marks can be placed to the actual phosphor to eliminate
parallels. Early oscilloscope tubes used an external
graticule to provide the necessary marks, but the distance
between the marks on the graticule and the actual phosphor
coating could be nearly 1 cm, which causes measurement
errors if not used carefully.
In internal graticules, lines are etched on the surface of
the front glass of CRT; the distance separating the phos-
phor and the graticule is nearly zero and parallax errors are
nearly nonexistent. Internal graticules cause two problems.
First, as the graticule cannot be aligned once, the tube has
been assembled; any misalignment between the deflec-
tion plates and the internal graticule must be corrected
by electronic means. This is usually done by supplying a
magnetic field by wrapping the CRT with a wire carrying
current. The magnetic field rotates the electron beam and
Figure 53.17 Transparent Graph Screen or Graticule effectively rotates the CRT trace. Second, it is somewhat
(Internal) more difficult to illuminate the internal graticule lines for
photographic purposes and therefore some CRTs have special electrode guns that flood the entire phosphor screen to
enhance the internal graticule lines.
53.9 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is given in Figure 53.18. To enable the CRT to function modern oscilloscopes
use the circuits shown in block form.
Figure 53.18 Block Diagram of a Typical Oscilloscope
The direct application of the vertical or Y signal to the deflection plates would severely limit the versatility and sensitivity of
the oscilloscope. To overcome both of these difficulties a range of attenuator and amplifier arrangement is inserted between
the incoming signal and the deflector plates. The steps of sensitivity are usually given in V or V/div of deflection and
arranged in a 1-2-5 sequence. The range of sensitivities varies between oscilloscopes, but in a general-purpose instrument
it will probably be from 5 mV/div to 20 V/ div: a division is commonly 8 mm.
You feed the waveform you wish to observe to the vertical amplifier. This has sensitivity control (vertical attenuator
control). It reduces the amplitudes of the input signals so that after amplification, it has a size that will fit on the screen; the
dial of this control is marked in volts and millivolts per vertical scale division. This means that if you set it at volt per divi-
sion, for example, one volt input will cause the electron beam to be deflected one graticule division up or down, depending
on whether the voltage is positive or negative.
Most vertical amplifiers are differential amplifiers. These are used in test equipment because of their ability to reject
common mode signals. Identical signals will pass identical parts to cancel each other out. If they are not identical, the
difference will be amplified and appear at the output.
Vertical amplifiers may also be considered as d.c.-coupled video amplifiers because of their bandwidth. These
amplifiers use negative feedback to obtain a flat response over as wide a range as possible, with peaking coils to provide
high-frequency compensation. The gain of these amplifiers can be adjusted by vertical gain control.
The vertical amplifier has a push–pull output, so that one vertical deflection plate pulls, whereas the other pushes the
electron beam as it passes between them in the absence of an input signal. With the horizontal deflection plates discon-
nected the electron beam strikes the beam dead centre producing a stationary glowing spot. If a very low frequency signal
is now applied to the vertical amplifier input, the resultant alternating potentials on the deflection plates will cause the
spot to move up and down. At higher frequencies, the spot will move too fast for your eyes to follow so that it blurs into a
vertical straight line.
The vertical position control (not shown) allows you to move this up or down on the CRT screen by changing the bias
on the push–pull stage, thus forcing one plate to a higher potential than the other.
In practical oscilloscopes, the time base will be adjustable so that signals have a wide range of frequencies that can be
displayed on a convenient time scale. A typical range of horizontal deflection sweeps is from 25/cm to 200 ns/cm in 1, 2,
and 5 unit steps. To synchronize the time base and the Y deflecting signal, a triggering circuit is used. This is the circuit that
is sensitive to the level of voltage applied to it, so that when a predetermined level of voltage is reached a pulse is passed
from the trigger circuit to initiate one sweep of the time base. The trigger circuit of an oscilloscope is adjustable so that a
particular point on either the positive or the negative half-cycle may be selected and used to trigger the time base.
The horizontal amplifier converts the single-ended saw tooth output from the saw tooth (sweep) generator with a
push–pull signal suitable for the horizontal plates. In this, it is similar to many d.c.-coupled audio amplifiers except for
the addition of controls peculiar to oscilloscopes. The gain of the amplifier can be adjusted with the help of the horizontal
gain control.
The horizontal position control (not shown) is a potentiometer that changes the d.c. level of the amplifier so as to alter
the voltage balance at the output, thereby shifting the display horizontally.
S UM M A RY
1. The oscilloscope produces an electronic picture to show 12. The means by which the deflecting voltage on the X
the variation of one quantity with regard to another. plates is controlled is called the time base.
2. Electrical signals are mostly the same amplitude varia- 13. It is necessary to synchronize the time base with the
tions repeated continuously at a fixed rate. voltage under examination.
3. The electron beam pen in the oscilloscope CRT is prac- 14. CRT screens have calibrated vertical and horizontal
tically weightless and is capable of responding to fre- marks to facilitate the use of the oscilloscope.
quencies beyond a gigahertz. 15. Vertical amplifiers have a sensitivity control.
4. The CRT is the heart of the oscilloscope. 16. Vertical amplifiers have a push–pull output.
5. The beam from the cathode of the CRT strikes the in- 17. Most vertical amplifiers are differential amplifiers.
ner surface of the face covered with a phosphor, which 18. The vertical position control allows the CRT gun to
illuminates at the spot at which the beam is directed. move the display up or down on the CRT screen.
6. The intensity of the spot depends on the number and 19. Horizontal amplifiers have a horizontal gain control.
velocity of electrons bombarding the screen at any instant.
20. The horizontal position control shifts the display hori-
7. Fluorescent screen emits light when subjected to elec- zontally.
tron bombardment.
21. Most oscilloscopes have fairly high input impedance.
8. A screen that emits a high intensity of light for a given
22. An oscilloscope can measure not only the amplitude
rate of electron bombardment is desirable in practically
of a signal but also the frequency and phase while dis-
all cases.
playing the waveform.
9. The trace must be of a colour that produces minimum
23. Zinc silicate occurs as willemite and is the most com-
fatigue and eye strain whether viewed in daylight or
mon material used for CRT screen.
artificial light.
24. The phosphor screen can be designed for fluorescence
10. The beam must be focused to provide a second cross-
of a certain colour with a short, medium or long persis-
over point in the vicinity of the screen.
tence.
11. The principle of electron optics is closely analogous to
optics concerning light rays.
1. The oscillograph can display 5. Short persistence screen persists for about
(a) Electrical quantities (a) 2 seconds (b) 1–2 seconds
(b) Nonelectrical quantities (c) 1/1000 seconds
2. The use of transducers makes it possible for the oscil- 6. The method of focusing used in a CRT is
lograph to display (a) Electromagnetic (b) Electrostatic
(a) Electrical quantities 7 Deflection depends on the anode voltage to which it is
(b) Non-electrical quantities (a) Inversely proportional
3. The CRT has (b) Directly proportional
(a) One set of deflecting plates 8. Graticules can be
(b) Two sets of deflecting plates (a) Internal
4. The intensity of the spot on the fluorescent screen de- (b) External
pends on (c) a or b
(a) The number of electron 9. Parallax error is almost nonexistent in CRTs with
(b) The velocity of electron (a) Internal graticules
(c) Both a and b (b) External graticules
10. Vertical sensitivity controls 12. In practice the time base is
(a) Reduce the amplitude of the incoming signal (a) Adjustable
(b) Increase the amplitude of the incoming signal (b) Not adjustable
11. Direct application of the vertical signal to the deflec- 13. Most oscilloscopes have a
tion plates is (a) Low-input impedance
(a) Desirable (b) Not desirable (b) High-input impedance
ANSWERS (MCQ)
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b).
1. Explain the basic components comprising the gun in a 9. How is the electron beam focused to a fine spot on the
CRT. face of the CRT?
2. In which direction is the electron beam moved by (a) 10. How is the vertical axis of an oscilloscope deflected?
the horizontal deflection plates (b) the vertical deflec- How does it differ from the horizontal axis?
tion plates? 11. Why is an attenuator probe used?
3. Name the two anodes found in modern CRTs and de- 12. What are the advantages and disadvantages of oscil-
scribe their relative locations and their purpose. loscopes?
4. What is meant by retrace; illustrate and explain? 13. Write short notes on
5. What is the purpose of horizontal or sweep oscillator in (a) Afterglow (e) Synchronizing
an oscilloscope? (b) Fluorescent screen (f) Focusing
6. How does the adjustment of the brightness or intensity (c) Graticule (g) Deflection
control affect the display on the CRT?
(d) Time base (h) First and second
7. What are the major blocks of a CRO and what does crossovers
each do?
14. What are the factors that control the movement of a
8. What are the major components of a CRT? spot on CRT screen?
Oscilloscope Techniques
54
OBJECTIVES

Electron gun
 Preliminary checks on the oscil-
Screen
loscope Bulb
Screen patterns obtained with

deflection voltages Base
Lissajous figures in the range
 1 2 4 7
3 8
from 0o to 360o 5 6
Frequency ratios

 Voltage and current measurement
1. Base 4. Anodes 7. Inter plate shield
2. Stem 5. Focusing electrode 8. Glass-support bead
3. Heater-cathode 6. Deflection plates 9. Getter
Control-grid assembly
The cathode ray tube
54.1 INTRODUCTION
The most glamorous and important electrical/electronic test and measuring instrument is the cathode ray oscilloscope. The
scope is widely used for the visual observation of electrical work forces. In addition, the oscilloscope is finding diversified
applications in many nonelectronic industrial and scientific uses where physical effects and phenomena are converted into
electrical signals.
Oscilloscopes range from general purpose to elaborate special purpose types. A modern cathodes ray tube (CRT) is shown
in Figure 54.1. The measurement capabilities of the oscilloscope are limited only by the skill of the operator. The oscilloscope
must also be in good working condition. Otherwise, a defect in the electrical system may cause a misleading pattern. To avoid
this, periodic checks should be conducted on: intensity and focus, positioning, synchronizing, deflection, deflection polarity,
equalizing X and Y deflection, voltage calibration, and deflection sensitivity (see Figures 54.2 through 54.11).
Figure 54.1 Simplified Diagram of a Modern Cathode Ray Tube
54.2 PRELIMINARY CHECKS

The CRT beam should be controlled to produce a small luminous dot by adjusting simultaneously the intensity and focus
controls. A point (dot) is said to have position, but no magnitude (area). Therefore, the first thing in checking the operating
condition of an oscilloscope is to adjust the cathode ray beam for correct intensity and to focus it to produce a very fine
luminous spot (dot; see Figure 54.2). If this is not possible then trouble may exist in the electron gun or power supply.
Oscilloscope Techniques 1015
Anode Vertical-deflection
plates
Spot
Electron beam
Bulb
Control Screen
Base Cathode Horizontal-deflection
Neck grid
plates
Figure 54.2 Adjust the Cathode Ray Beam for Correct Intensity and Focus it to Produce a
Very Fine Luminous Spot
For adjusting the intensity and focus, power must be applied to the oscilloscope and the intensity and focus controls
must be turned fully clockwise. Both the horizontal and vertical gain controls must be turned fully counter-clockwise
(no deflection). The positioning controls must be adjusted so that the fluorescent dot is in the centre of the screen (See
Figure 54.3). The intensity and focus control must be adjusted simultaneously to obtain a very fine dot of light. It should be
possible to reduce the dot to a point still visible. This will allow one to check the intensity and focus controls individually.
The intensity control must be rotated through its entire range. When the controls are turned fully counter-clockwise the
beam should be cut off and when turned fully clockwise the spot will offer a very bright brilliance. The spot should be cut
off for one-third of the rotation of the control, after a fine dot of light should appear.
The focus control, as shown in Figure 54.4, causes the dot to increase in size when rotated on each side of its fine dot
position. About one-third of its rotation from the fully counter-clockwise position should produce the correct focus or the
smallest dot area. However, with the correct intensity and focus adjustment, there should be at least one-third in rotation
on the control in either direction. In different oscilloscopes, these fine dot control positions will vary but the adjustments
should come well within the range of intensity and focus controls.
Intensity Focus
a.c.
Off
Vert Horiz
position position
Fine Coarse
frequency frequency
Horiz
Deflection 100 Kc
Vert Horiz Horiz
gain Amp 10 Kc gain
10 1001Kc
Sync Sync
amplitude selector
Int
Vert Ext
line Horiz
Ext Test Intensity

GND sync signal mod GND
Figure 54.3 A Typical Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Figure 54.4 Beam Focus
When the spot is motionless, the screen is subjected to a concentrated electron beam bombardment, causing the
fluorescent material to become permanently desensitized in that area. In view of this, it is necessary to make a rapid
observation. In addition, high brightness patterns when stationary for long periods might burn themselves into the screen
materials; therefore, it is a good practice to reduce brightness (intensity) to a usable minimum level.
With the vertical and horizontal controls turned fully clockwise, the vertical positioning control must be rotated through
its entire range and the displacement of the spot on the Y axis observed. Erratic movement of the spot during this test
will indicate a defective control or component in the positioning circuit. The test should be repeated using the horizontal
positioning control and the displacement of the spot on the X axis noted (see Figure 54.5).
The oscilloscope must be switched on, the sync selector turned to the initial sync position and the sync amplitude
turned control fully counter-clockwise. The coarse frequency control is turned to a frequency range that includes 50 Hz.
A 50-Hz test signal is applied to the vertical input terminals and vertical gain control is turned up for normal viewing.
Fine frequency (vernier) control should be adjusted (see Figure 54.6) until one complete cycle appears and is almost
stationary. The sync amplitude control is turned slowly clockwise until the pattern becomes stationary. This adjustment
is important as too much sync voltage will distort the pattern. Fine frequency control is readjusted to obtain two
complete cycles; the adjustment is continued to obtain five cycles.
Figure 54.5 Vertical and Horizontal Positioning Figure 54.6 Sweep Frequencies
One cycle will appear on the screen if the sweep frequency is equal to the frequency of the test signal (50 Hz). The
horizontal time base excursions will then be 1/50th of a second.
To check the deflection linearity, a sine wave signal is applied to the vertical input and the time base is synchronized to
produce one cycle. Although the sine wave of the power frequency is fixed at 50 Hz, it provides a good standard signal as a
starter.
To check the horizontal linearity, the oscilloscope is switched on, the horizontal time base adjusted to produce one sine
wave, and the normal amount of sync is applied to lock in the pattern. Horizontal gain control is turned fully counter-
clockwise. Vertical gain control is adjusted to a produce an ~75-mm vertical line. The horizontal gain control is turned up
gradually and the horizontal expansion of the sine wave pattern is noted. There should be an even expansion of the sine
waveform on each side of the centre as shown in Figure 54.7(a).
To check the vertical linearity, the vertical gain control is turned fully counter clockwise. The horizontal gain control
is adjusted to produce an ~75-mm horizontal line. The vertical gain control is turned up gradually and the peak-to-peak
expansion of the sine wave pattern noted. There should be an even expansion of the sine wave on each side of the baseline
as shown in Figure 54.7(b).
(a) (b)
Figure 54.7 Horizontal and Vertical Linearity

Terms such as positive going and negative going must not be confused with positive or negative half sine waves. As
shown in Figure 54.8, sine wave contains both positive going and negative going cycles. A half cosine wave is either posi-
tive going or negative going depending on the direction of wave motion as shown in Figure 54.9.
(a) (b)
Figure 54.8 Positive and Negative Swings: (a) Positive and Negative Peaks of Sine Wave
(b) Positive and Negative Swings in a Half Sine Wave
(a) (b)
Figure 54.9 Positive and Negative Swings: (a) Positive and Negative Peaks of
Cosine Wave (b) Positive or Negative Peaks of a Cosine Wave
To check the deflection polarity, the oscilloscope is switched on and the necessary control is adjusted to produce an im-
age. Horizontal gain control is turned fully counter-clockwise and the vertical input attenuator, if used, is adjusted to X1.
This will provide maximum deflection sensitivity. A 0.25-µF capacitor is connected across the test leads or input binding
posts. This short circuits the random noise pulse and holds the spot steady. The vertical positioning control is adjusted until
the spots are set at the bottom of the screen.
The test leads are connected across a 1-V cell observing polarity, positive to vertical input lead and negative to ground
lead. On contact with the cell, the spot should be deflected
up and return. The spot movement is only momentary,
but sufficiently long enough to observe the direction.
The capacitor is discharged and the test is repeated. If the
oscilloscope is provided with a polarity reversal switch,
it should be in the normal position. Deflection polarity is
When measuring the phase shift or making other tests
requiring equal X and Y traces, it is necessary to equalize
both deflection traces. This is important as the vertical
deflection sensitivity is slightly greater than the horizontal
deflection sensitivity and X and Y amplifiers will show
unequal traces for equal gain of a standard input signal
connected to the X and Y amplifiers.
When the vertical and horizontal forces are equal, their
combined force is represented by a 45o diagonal trace
(see Figure 54.11). Figure 54.10 Deflection Polarity
A 50-Hz test signal is connected to both vertical and horizontal input terminals
and sweep control is switched to horizontal amplifier and oscilloscope turned on.
Vertical gain control is turned fully counter-clockwise and horizontal gain
control adjusted to provide a 75-mm trace. Horizontal input lead is removed and
Vertical deflection
n
vertical gain control is adjusted to provide a 75-mm trace. Horizontal gain control
io
ct
3" fle setting should not be disturbed. Now, the horizontal input lead is reconnected. A
de
diagonal trace should appear that is 45o off horizontal as shown in Figure 54.11.
nt
ta
ul
This indicates that the X and Y traces are equal and the resultant trace represents
es
R
the vector sum. If an elliptical pattern appears on the screen, 50-Hz phase shift
between the vertical and horizontal amplifiers should be corrected.
45º
3"
Horiz deflection 54.3 SCREEN PATTERN OBTAINED WITH DEFLECTION
VOLTAGES
Figure 54.11 Equal Vertical and
Horizontal Forces With no external voltage applied to either plate, the spot rests on the centre of
the screen (see Figure 54.12(a)). If we apply an a.c. voltage between the vertical
input to vertical and ground, a vertical line is displayed, as shown in Figure 54.12(b). If the signal voltage is applied to the
horizontal input terminal and earth, a horizontal line will be displayed on the screen (see Figure 54.12(c)).
Figure 54.12 Screen Patterns: (a) Spot at the Centre of the Screen (b) Vertical Line (c) Horizontal Line
A peak-to-peak voltage is equivalent to a d.c. voltage of the same value but a d.c. source does not provide the same
sustained up and down motion of the beam unless the d.c. voltage is switched on and off repeatedly. Response of the beam
to d.c. voltages is illustrated in Figure 54.13.
Figure 54.13 Response of CRT to d.c. Voltages: (a) Zero Voltage Applied (b) 15 V Positive (c) 15-V Negative
54.3.1 Lissajous Figures

A sine wave voltage is applied to both the plates of the CRT. A diagonal straight line is displayed on the screen
(Figure 54.14).
Note: The vertical and horizontal deflection voltages are equal in amplitude and pass through zero at the same instant that
are in phase. This is the requirement for displaying a straight set line at 45o angle. If the sine waves applied to the two sets
of deflection plates have the same amplitude and the same frequency but are 90o different in phase, a circular pattern is
displayed on the screen as illustrated in Figure 54.15.
Figure 54.14 In-phase Equal Amplitude Sine Figure 54.15 Development of a Circular
Waves Applied to Both Pairs of Pattern by Two Sine Waves with
Deflecting Plates, the Resulting the Same Frequency and Ampli-
o
Pattern is a Straight Line tude but 90 Different in Phase
Phase differences in the range from 0 to 90o produce elliptical Lissajous figures as exemplified in Figure 54.16. Any phase angle
can be measured as shown in Figure 54.17. The ellipse is carefully centred on the screen and the interval M and N are measured.
Then the phase angle between the vertical and horizontal voltages is M/N. Figure 54.18 shows the progress of patterns in this
situation for a range of 360o in 45o steps.
Figure 54.16 Elliptical Lissajous Figures Produced by Two Sine Waves with the Same
o o
Frequency and Amplitude, but with 30 and 60 Phase Differences
Figure 54.17 Phase Angle Difference of the Deflection Voltages is Equal to Arc Sin M/N
Figure 54.18 Lissajous Figures in the Range from 0 o to 360o
Figure 54.19 Ellipses Produced by Unequal Signal Voltages Having a Phase Difference of 90 :
o
(a) Horizontal Voltage>Vertical Voltage (b) Vertical Voltage>Horizontal Voltage
Note: The 45o ellipse leans to the right, whereas the 135o ellipse leans to the left.
The frequency ratio is given by the ratio of number of tangencies to vertical and horizontal boundaries of the pattern as
Figure 54.20 Lissajous Patterns Produced by Sine Wave Voltages that Have Equal Amplitudes,
but that Differ in Frequencies
54.4 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT MEASUREMENTS

The parameter of voltage that must easily be determined using an oscilloscope for a sine wave is the peak to peak value.
The magnitude is determined using the engraving on the graticule in conjunction with the calibrated ranges of the input
amplifier. For example, for the waveform in Figure 54.21, the amplifier sensitivity is set to 20 mV/dv. The peak-to-peak
amplitude is 20×6=120 mV. Should it be the RMS value of voltage that is required, then (assuming a distortion-less sine
wave) this peak-to-peak value must be divided by 2 2 that is
peak to peak deflection × amplifier sensitivity
Vrms = (54.1)
2 2
The oscilloscope is a high-input impedance instrument and therefore cannot be directly used for the measurement of
current. Current can, of course, be measured as voltage drops across resistors, but care must be taken in connecting the
oscilloscope leads to a resistor for this purpose, because unless a differential input amplifier is being used, one side of the
voltage dropping resistor will have to be at earth potential.
peak
to
peak
Figure 54.21 Measurement of Voltage from a CRO Display
S UM M A RY
1. The scope is widely used for the visual observation of 5. Too much sync voltage will distort the pattern.
electrical waveforms. 6. It is necessary to equalize both deflection traces.
2. The measurement capabilities of the oscilloscope are o
7. The 45 ellipse leans to the right, whereas the 135
o
limited only by the skill of the operator. ellipse leans to the left.
3. With the correct intensity and focus control adjustment, 8. Phase angle difference of the deflection voltages is arc
there should be at least one-third in rotation on the con- sin M/N.
trol in either direction. 9. The frequency ratio is given by the ratio of number of
4. When the spot is motionless, the screen is subjected to a tangencies to vertical and horizontal boundaries of the
concentrated electron beam bombardment. pattern.
Index
A construction, 609–610 E
a.c. servomotors, 842–843 e.m.f. equation, 618–619 efficiency formulas, 659–660
a.c. voltage, 996, 999 excitation of, 621 electrostatic voltmeter, 932–935
air gap power, 792–793 losses, 629 energy conversion devices, 589–590
ranges, 986–987 paralleling of, 630–631 energy meters, 965–966
alternating voltage ranges, 988–989 schematic diagram and equivalent errors in, 974–975
alternator windings, 735–737 circuit, 622–625
equivalent circuits, 753–754 types, 621–622 F
parallel operation, 754–757 voltage regulation and voltage
Faraday’s law, 590–591
requirements for parallelling control, 630
feedback control system, 854–857
synchronous, 757–759 d.c. machine
Fleming’s rule, 593
voltage regulation, 745–751 cooling methods for, 665
ammeters enclosures, 664–665 G
definition, 940 losses, 660–663
maintenance and accessibility, galvanometers, 932
loading, 947–948 generator, 593–594. see also d.c.
shunts, 940–944 665
physical construction of, 733–734 generator
automatic control systems, 849 conversion process in, 601–602
automatic frequency control, 861–862 ventilation for, 665
voltage generation formula, 744 e.m.f. between the brushes of
autotransformer, 713–714 multicoil armature, 595
d.c. motor, 592
back electromotive force in, energy balance, 604–605
B linear and rotary motion,
641–642
Biot-Savart relationship, 595–598 602–603, 606
characteristics of, 645–648
classification, 643–644 methods of analysis, 603–604
C motor action vs generator action,
construction of, 644–645
constant-speed compound generator, control devices, 667–671 599
860–861 dynamometer, 640–641 power flow diagrams, 599–600
control system, 847–848, 850 prony brake of, 639–640
complete, 882 H
relation between torque and speed
thyratron control, 877 of, 648 hysteresis motors, 824–826
thyristor, 877–881 retardation and stopping of,
universal motor control, 881–882 676–679 I
converter circuit, 865 reversing of, 655–656, 674–676 impedance, 787–788
converting machines, 864–865 starters, 671–674 as per unit quantity, 885
starting problems, 651–652 induction motors, three-phase,
D starting switch, 652 786–787
damping, 852–854 torque measurements, 638 losses and efficiency, 790–791
d.c. current, 993–995 d.c. servomotors, 840–842 instrument transformers, 716–717
d.c. generator d.c. voltage, 995–996 measurement of, 955–957
armature reaction, 617–618 digital multi-meters, 997–1000 integrator, 857–859
armature structure, 610 digital panel meter, 998 intelligent instruments, 908
armature windings, 612–616 direct voltage ranges, 985 inverters, 871–874
brush polarity, 629–630 display transfer function, 908
characteristics, 625–629 distribution factor, 741–743 L
commutation, 616–617 doubly excited system, 606 LIM, 830–832
commutators and brushes, 611 dynamometer, 640–641 locus of current phasor, 789
1024 Index
M oscilloscope power factor control, 767–768
maximum power transfer, 708–709 amount of focusing, 1007–1008 starting of, 766–767
measurements block diagram of, 1011–1012 synchronous capacitors, 771–772
accuracy, definition, 904 CRT, 1004–1005 V-curve, 768–769
analog, 983 deflection method, 1008–1009
calibration, 908–909 fluorescent screen, 1006–1007 T
electron performance, 905 function of, 1003 three-phase circuits and systems
error, definition, 905 graticules, 1010–1011 measurement of power in, 975–977
factors affecting accuracy, 905–906 intensity of the spot, 1005–1006 as per unit quantity, 886
instrument, definition, 904 preliminary checks, 1014–1018 three-phase induction motors
measurement systems, 906–908 screen pattern obtained with parameters, 798–802
precision, definition, 904–905 deflection voltages, 1018–1020 starting technique, 796–798
resolution, definition, 905 time base for plotting, 1009–1010 torque-speed characteristics,
sensitivity, definition, 905 voltage and current 795–796
measuring instruments measurements, 1020–1021 WRIM and SCIM, 796
classification of, 917–918 three-phase power, measurement of
digital instruments, 983–984 P one-watt meter method, 978–980
dynamometer instrument, power transformers, 715–716 three-watt meter method, 977
924–926 pulse transformers, 718–719 two-watt meter method, 977–978
electrostatic voltmeter, 932–935 transfer function, 850–851, 908
Ferraris-type induction R connections, 718–719
instruments, 927 rectifiers, 865–867 construction, 693–694
galvanometers, 932 three-phase full-wave, 869–870 efficiency, 712
gravity-controlled instruments, regulators, 851 equivalent circuits, 703–707
918–919 reluctance-start induction motor, general equation, 697–698
hot-wire instruments, 930 822–823 harmonic suppression in
induction-type instruments, resistance, 996–997, 999–1000 three-phase, 728–729
926–930 as per unit quantity, 885 ideal, 694–695
induction-type watt meters, rotating magnetic field, 777–783 losses in, 710–711
929–930 maximum power transfer,
moving-iron instruments, S 708–709
919–922 open circuit test of, 711–712
selsyns, 844–845
polarized moving-iron instrument, paralleling three-phase, 728
servomechanism, 851
922–923 as per unit quantity, 887–895
servomechanisms, 848–849
shaded-pole type, 928–929 practical, 699–701
shaded-pole motors, 818–820
thermocouple instruments, ratings, 701
multi-meter, 993
931–932 short circuit test of, 711
single-phase induction motors
metre movements three-phase, 727
capacitor-start split-phase motor,
design principles, 911–914 three-phase connections of
813–815
metres, 915 single-phase, 723–725
classes, 806–808
special features of, 938–940 transformation ratio, 696
construction, 808
moving-coil instruments, 915–917 voltage regulation, 708
dual-voltage operation, 815–816
mutual coupling, 687–688 voltage relations, 707–708
locked-rotor torque of, 809
dot convention, 690–691 transient periods, 852
phase splitting, 808–809
parallel connection for, 689
resistance-start split-phase motor,
series connection for, 688–689 U
811–813
mutual inductance, 687, 691–692 uninterruptible power supplies
reversing of, 815
slip, 783–785 (UPS), 870–871
O stator windings, 739–741 unit or identity matrix, 114
ohmmeters, 953–957 stepper motors, 826–830 universal motor, 832–833
multi-range, 986 synchronous alternator, 737–738 universal shunt, 942–944
open-loop system, 849 synchronous motors
operational amplifiers, 836–839 construction, 764 V
practical issues associated with, general, 763–764 voltmeter
840 operation of, 764–766 digital, 998–999
Index 1025
voltmeters W poly-phase induction, 974
definition, 948 Ward-Leonard system, 683 reading, 972–974
loading, 952–953 watt-hour meter, 965–966 watt meter, 960–961
multipliers, 948–949 commutator-type, 966–967 compensating coil, 963
V.O.Ms (volt-Ohm-milli ammeters), induction, 969–972 dynamometer-type, 961–963
989–993 mercury-type, 967–969 induction-type, 964–965

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ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

MACHINES AND MEASUREMENTS

And departing leave behind us

Preface v 32.13 Generator Losses 629

35.3 Pilot Control Devices 669 37.3 Three-phase Transformers 727

40.4 Direction of Rotation 783 43. Servos and Synchros 836

46.5 Universal Motor Control 881 Summary

Summary 53.9 Block Diagram 1011

Electromechanical Energy Conversion

In this chapter you will learn about:

31.2 ENERGY CONVERSION DEVICES

31.3 RELATED FUNDAMENTAL LAWS

φ Lines of magnetic Direction of 31.3.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction

Figure 31.2 Fleming’s Right-hand Rule

Figure 31.3 Magnetic Forces on a Conductor

31.4 D.C. MOTOR AND GENERATOR MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

Figure 31.4 Magnetic Structure (Motor or Generator)

31.5 ELEMENTARY GENERATOR

Flux Cut away

Figure 31.5 An Elementary Generator

31.6 AVERAGE E.M.F. GENERATED IN A QUARTER REVOLUTION

31.7 FUNDAMENTAL D.C. GENERATOR EQUATION FOR AVERAGE E.M.F.

31.8 BIOT-SAVART RELATIONSHIP

31.8.1 Motor Action

their generator action results in the conductors being

31.8.2 Elementary Two-Pole Motor

end of an arrow that represents the direction of current

31.8.3 Magnitude of the Mechanical Force

Figure 31.12(a) shows a rotor coil made up of a single loop

TD = 2Bleff ×Id Nm (31.5)

Fleming’s right-hand rule relates the direction of magnetic flux,

imposed voltage and its resulting conventional cur-

31.9 MOTOR ACTION VERSUS GENERATOR ACTION

Direction of applied Direction of induced

Direction of Retarding torque

31.10 POWER FLOW DIAGRAMS

31.10.1 Generator Power Flow

Electric output Mechanical Rotational losses

31.10.2 Motor Power Flow

Mechanical Electric Electric losses (31.9)

Field loss = Vf × If = 230 V' 1 A = 230 W

31.11 CONVERSION PROCESS IN A MACHINE

31.12 LINEAR AND ROTARY MOTION

31.13 METHODS OF ANALYSIS

31.14 ENERGY BALANCE

Figure 31.20 Attracted-armature Relay

∆WE Increasing ∆WM

Figure 31.22 Idealized Energy Balance Diagram

31.15 ROTARY MOTION

Note: M rather than T is used to symbolize the torque of a rotating machine.

31.16 DOUBLY EXCITED ROTATING MACHINES

1. Synchronous machines Stator flux — alternating current

In this chapter you will learn about:

(c) Interpole Compound

32.2 MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

32.3 ARMATURE STRUCTURE

32.4 COMMUTATOR AND BRUSHES

Figure 32.7 A Simple Commutator