Unit 8

Cavitation
8.1 The Basics of Cavitation

A liquid such as water begins to vaporise when its pressure becomes equal to the saturation vapour pressure.
The vapour pressure of water is 101.325 kN/m2 (i.e. atmospheric pressure) at 100°C, the boiling point of
water or the temperature at which water evaporates to form steam. The ambient temperature of water around
the water is taken as 15oC and vapour pressure at this temperature is 1.704 kN/m2. If the pressure at any
point on the on the back of a propeller blade should equal the above value, it will cause flow breakdown
and the formation of cavities filled with air or water vapour. The formation of such low pressure vapour
filled cavities is called cavitation. Now these cavities or bubbles will be swept along the blade and as they
move towards the trailing edge they will come into regions of higher pressure and collapse. The collapse
of the bubbles generates very highly localized forces, sufficient to cause mechanical damage to the material
of the blade, or erosion.

8.1.1 Physics of cavitation. Cavitation is a general fluid mechanics phenomenon which can occur
whenever a liquid used in a machine inducing pressure and velocity fluctuations in the fluid (e.g. Pumps,
turbines, propellers, bearings, even the heart and knee joints). When cavitation occurs the liquid changes
its phase from liquid into vapour at certain flow region where local pressure is very low due to the high
local velocities (e.g. propeller tips).

There are two types of

vaporization:

(a) The first is the well-known

process of vaporization by
increasing temperature (boiling)

(b) Vaporization under nearly

constant temperature due to
reduced pressure (i.e. cold boiling)
as in the case of cavitation.

The cold boiling process and hence

cavitation depends on the purity of
water. If water contains a significant amount of dissolved air, then as the pressure decreases the air comes
out of the solution and forms cavities in which the pressure will be greater than the “vapour pressure”. This
effect applies also when there are no visible bubbles. Sub-microscopic gas bubbles can provide suitable
nuclei for cavitation purposes. Hence cavitation can either be “vaporous” or “gaseous” perhaps, a
combination of both. When cavities are formed in fluid, this violates the homogeneous character of the
liquid resulting in practical problems

8.1.2 Cavitation Inception The process of beginning of cavitation is called “Cavitation Inception”. Pure
water can withstand considerable low pressure (i.e. negative tension) without undergoing cavitation. A
necessary condition for the inception is the presence of weak spots in the water which break the bond
between the water molecules. These weak spots are generally tiny gas bubbles called “nuclei”. The presence
of nuclei in water depends on circumstances. In sea water there are nuclei of all sizes. For the cavitation
inception “the inception pressure” is assumed to be equal to the vapour pressure at the sea. However at
model scale, a lack of nuclei is common and “the inception pressure” will be lower than the vapour
pressure. This is a major cause of Scale Effects at model scale.

Consider a pressure at an arbitrary point “A” of a 2D profile section subjected to a uniform flow. To
understand the mechanism of cavitation, consider a blade section or hydrofoil set at a small angle of attack
in a two dimensional, steady, non-viscous flow, as shown in the Figure.

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On this diagram a horizontal line is drawn which represents the static pressure on the back of the blade.
For quantitative purposes, it is necessary to have some criterion which will indicate the conditions under
which a propeller is working as far as cavitation is concerned.

With reference to the above figure,

Bernoulli’s equation yields

1 1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑣
2 2

And the change in pressure is

1
𝑝 − 𝑝 = 𝜌(𝑣 − 𝑣 )
2

At some point S near the leading edge of

the section, the velocity V1 is zero. This
point S is called a stagnation point and
the pressure at S, called the stagnation
pressure, is 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑣 .

Dividing by the stagnation pressure 𝑞 =

𝜌𝑣 throughout Flow and Pressure around a Hydrofoil
𝑝 −𝑝 𝑣 −𝑣
=
𝑞 𝑣

Let the change in pressure from 𝑝 to 𝑝 be 𝛿𝑝. Then 𝛿𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝑝 .

Condition for Cavitation inception

By definition the condition for cavitation inception at A is 𝑃 = 𝑃 or

𝑃 + 𝛿𝑝 = 𝑃
or
𝛿𝑝 = −(𝑝 − 𝑝 )

Dividing through by the stagnation pressure 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑣 , cavitation will begin when

𝛿𝑝 𝑝 − 𝑝 𝑣
− = = −1
𝑞 𝜌𝑣 𝑣

The expression is called as the cavitation number σ

If the pressure 𝑝 is taken as the total static pressure (atmospheric plus hydrostatic pressure) at the point A
then the condition for cavitation to occur may be written as:

𝛿𝑝 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝
− =
𝑞 𝜌𝑣

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As the drop in pressure defines whether cavitaion inception will take place or not, the equation suggests
that larger the cavition number better it is as it will take a larger δp for cavitation to occur.

8.1.3 Effect of angle of attack on cavitation

Let us consider a 2D profile and investigate the pressure distribution around it depending upon the angle
of attack of the flow (α).

(a) Positive angle of attack (b) Negative angle of attack

As seen a positive angle of attack may cause when α<0 cavitation will likely occur at
cavitation at the back of the profile and the face of the profile rather than back

(c) Zero angle of attack, α ≅ 0

Results in cavitation zone behind the max thickness region of the profile at the back
(i.e. towards trailing edge).

8.1.4 Cavitation on a propeller blade

A propeller produces its thrust by creating a difference between the pressures acting on the face and the
back of the propeller blades, the pressure on the back of a blade section falling below the ambient pressure
and the pressure on the face rising above it, as shown in Figure below. If the pressure at any point on the
back of the blade falls to the vapour pressure, the water at that point begins to cavitate. In actual practice,
sea water contains minute solid particles in suspension and dissolved gases, and these impurities cause
cavitation to start at pressures somewhat higher than the vapour pressure as the solid particles act as nuclei
for the formation of cavities and the dissolved gases come out of solution before the water itself starts
vaporising. Thus, cavitation in sea water may start when the pressure reaches a value of 17 kN/m2 (absolute)
instead of the actual vapour pressure, which has a value of 1.704 kN/m2 at 15°C for fresh water, the value
for sea water being slightly lower.

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A propeller blade can be assumed to be made up from a number of 2D profiles investigated as it was seen
before. A lift force (L) on each profile is the integration of the pressure (δp) along each profile chord. Now
by looking at the pressure distribution (i.e. δp/q) curve of a profile we can say that there is no relation
between the lift (its integration along the blade radius and in the ship’s main axis is thrust) and the
occurrence of cavitation. What is important is the peak values of the negative pressure distribution. When
these peak values are greater than the cavitation number (σ) cavitation will occur. Now let us investigate
how changing angle of attack of a propeller blade (α) influences extend and position of cavitation.

As can be seen in the above figure, α can be increased by keeping VA constant and by increasing rate of
rotation (N). This rotational speed effect will result the following cavitation patterns.

Cavitation is a phenomenon associated with highly loaded propellers in which, beyond certain critical
revolutions, there is a progressive breakdown in the flow and a consequent loss of thrust. In its extreme
form, it may prevent the ship from reaching the desired speed. Before this stage is reached, however, it
manifests itself by noise, vibration and erosion of the propeller blades, struts, and rudders.

8.1.5 Cavitation Number Definition

As indicated in earlier, the cavitation number σ of a propeller is often defined by taking 𝑝 as the total static
pressure at the propeller axis and 𝑣 as the speed of advance VA.
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝
𝜎=
𝜌𝑉
Where, 𝑝 is the atmospheric pressure and ℎ the depth of immersion of the propeller axis.

Instead of the speed of advance, one may take, the propeller blade tip speed 𝜋𝑛𝐷 as 𝑣
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝
𝜎 =
𝜌(𝜋𝑛𝐷)
or even the resultant of the speed of advance and the tip speed
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝
𝜎 =
𝜌(𝑉 +(𝜋𝑛𝐷) )
The propeller blade section at 0.7R is often taken as representing the whole propeller, and the cavitation
number is then defined in terms of the pressure at the shaft axis and the relative velocity of the blade section
at 0.7R with respect to undisturbed water (induced velocities being neglected)
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝
𝜎. =
𝜌{𝑉 + (0.7𝜋𝑛𝐷) }
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On the other hand, it has been observed that in many propellers it is the blade section at 0.8R that is most
susceptible to cavitation, and since cavitation is most likely to occur when the blade section is at its
minimum depth of immersion, the cavitation number should be defined in terms of the pressure and relative
velocity in this condition:
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ − 0.8𝑅) − 𝑝
𝜎. =
𝜌{𝑉 + (0.8𝜋𝑛𝐷) }

With so many different definitions of the cavitation number of a propeller, it is essential to state clearly the
definition being used in a particular application. The widely different values obtained for the cavitation
numbers defined in different ways are shown by the following example.

8.2 Types of Propeller Cavitation

Cavitation may be categorised

as follows:

(a) Region of Occurrence:

Cavitation in a propeller may
be classified according to the
region on the propeller where it
occurs, viz. tip cavitation, root
cavitation, boss or hub
cavitation, leading edge
cavitation, trailing edge
cavitation, face cavitation and
back cavitation. Cavitation at a
particular location of the
propeller indicates a region of
low pressures and high
velocities. It is often possible to
reduce or eliminate such local
cavitation by making suitable changes in the propeller geometry, e.g. reducing the pitch and increasing the
blade width locally.

(b) Nature of Cavities: Cavitation may also be classified according to the nature of the cavities or their
appearance: sheet cavitation, spot cavitation, streak cavitation, cloud cavitation, bubble cavitation and
vortex cavitation.

8.4.1 Sheet Cavitation. Sheet cavitation occurs when the pressure distribution has a strong adverse
pressure gradient and the flow separates from the blade surface. In sheet cavitation, the cavity is in the form
of a thin sheet covering a large part of the propeller blade surface. Sheet cavitation usually begins at the
leading edge of a propeller blade when blade sections work at large angles of attack causing a sharp
negative pressure peak to occur close to the leading edge. If the angle of attack is positive sheet cavitation
occurs on the back of the blade, whereas if the angle of attack has a large negative value sheet cavitation
occurs on the propeller blade face. Sheet cavity is generally stable although there are cases where instability
may occur.

8.4.2 Spot cavitation occurs at isolated spots on an uneven blade surface where rough spots cause localised
pressure drops. A large number of cavitation spots close together may result in a cavity in the form of a
streak.

8.4.3 Cloud cavitation usually occurs at the end of a sheet cavity when it disintegrates to form a large
number of very small cavities having the appearance of a cloud.
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8.4.4 Bubble Cavitation. Bubble cavitation is primarily affected by the
pressure distribution which causes high suction pressure in the mid- chord
region of the blade section. Thus the combination of camber line and section
thickness plays an important role on the susceptibility of a propeller towards
bubble cavitation. When the blade sections are relatively thick and operate at a
small angle of attack the bubble cavitation occur. For example near the root of
controllable pitch propeller where the chord length is restricted and strength
requires thick blade sections. Bubble Cavitation

In bubble cavitation, spherical cavities are formed at points where the local pressure approaches the vapour
pressure. Bubble cavitation occurs in propellers which have aerofoil sections not specially designed for a
uniform pressure distribution over the back. Bubbles are formed just upstream of the position of maximum
thickness where the pressure falls close to the vapour pressure, grow larger as they, move downstream.
After they reach the point where the pressure rises above the vapour pressure, the vapour condenses and
the bubbles collapse, often suddenly and with tremendous force in a process called implosion (the opposite
of explosion). Bubble cavities collapse very violently so that this cavitation is noisy, erosive and bad. The
repeated collapse of these bubble cavities on the propeller blade surface causes rapid erosion of the blade
eventually causing it to break. Cavitation erosion due to bubble cavitation is a serious problem in heavily
loaded propellers.

(e) Vortex Cavitation. A propeller blade producing

thrust sheds vortices from its trailing edge, these
vortices being particularly strong at the tip and the
root. The pressure at the core of a vortex is lower than
that in the outer layers, and if the pressure at the
vortex core falls to the vapour pressure vortex
cavitation results. Vortex cavitation occurs in the Unattached Attached
Vortex Cavitation
Spreading

vortices that are shed from the propeller blade tips and
roots. The strength of the vortex shed from the blade tip increases downstream
as the induced velocities increase, and cavitation in the tip vortex begins some
distance downstream of the propeller. This type of cavitation is called
unattached tip vortex cavitation. An increase in the loading of the propeller
causes the vortex cavitation begin at the blade tip, resulting in attached tip
vortex cavitation. A further increase in propeller loading causes the cavity to
enlarge at the blade and spread progressively in the form of a sheet from the Hub Vortex Cavitation
tip to lower radii on the back of the blade. The hub vortex is formed by the
combustion of individual vortices shed from each blade root and although individually these vortices are
unlikely to cavitate, under the influence of a converging propeller cone the combination of the blade root
vortices has a high susceptibility to cavitate. When this occurs the resulting cavitation is normally very
stable appearing like a “rope” with strands corresponding to the number of blades of the propeller. This
type of cavitation may also harm the rudders
behind the propeller causing erosion on them.
It can be avoided using Propeller Boss Cap
Fins (PBCF) or other type vanes

8.5 Effects of Cavitation

8.5.1 Propeller Performance. Cavitation

affects the nature of the flow around a
propeller since the flow is no longer
homogeneous. The formation of cavities has
the effect of virtually altering the shape of the
propeller blade sections, and as a result the
thrust and, to a lesser extent, the torque of the Effect of cavitation on Propeller Performance
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propeller are reduced, and so also the propeller efficiency. The effect of cavitation on the open water
characteristics of a propeller is shown in the Figure. The result is that increased power is required to attain
a given speed, and in cases of severe cavitation the ship may not achieve the specified speed.

8.5.2 Erosion and damage. Cavitation can also cause serious damage to a propeller, and
sometimes, to a rudder placed in the propeller slipstream. As indicated earlier, the collapse of bubble
cavities results in very high impact pressures and the repeated collapse of such bubbles at a particular
location of the propeller blade can cause rapid erosion of the blade leading to its breaking off. If these
bubbles collapse near the blade tip or the trailing edge where the blade section is thin, the resulting impact
pressures may cause the blades to bend.
The bubbles in cloud cavitation may be carried to the rudder placed behind the propeller, and adversely
affect its performance due to the disruption of flow around it. If these bubbles collapse on the rudder, the
rudder surface may be damaged due to cavitation erosion. Corrosion and erosion tend to reinforce each
other since the roughened spots created by corrosion promote cavitation, and the pitting produced by
cavitation erosion provides a site for corrosion attack.

8.5.3 Vibration and noise. The propeller induces ship hull vibration through the pressure fluctuations it
produces when operating in a non-uniform wake. These pressure impulses are greatly magnified by the
occurrence of cavitation. In addition to this low frequency excitation, propeller cavitation also causes high
frequency vibration of the propeller blades and the surrounding structure.

8.6 Control of Cavitation Owing to the detrimental effects of cavitation, propellers are
normally designed so that they do not cavitate in their operating conditions, or at least so that cavitation is
restricted to a level at which its effects are negligible. In the case of small high speed craft, however, the
propeller operating conditions - very high speeds and powers, high rpm, restricted diameter are sometimes
such that avoiding cavitation is virtually impossible, and the propellers are then designed to operate in the
fully cavitating regime.

8.6.1 During Design Stage: Propeller cavitation can be reduced or eliminated basically by three methods:

(i) Increasing the cavitation number,

(ii) Decreasing the loading on the propeller,
(iii) Designing the propeller for uniform loading.

As may be observed from above figure a lower cavitation number is associated with increasing cavitation.
It follows, therefore, that a higher cavitation number will reduce cavitation. The cavitation number may be
increased by increasing the depth of immersion of the
propeller, and also by decreasing the relative velocities
of the propeller blade sections, i.e., decreasing the
speed of advance and rpm of the propeller. Generally,
however, these variables are determined by other
considerations, and increasing the cavitation number
to reduce cavitation is an option that is rarely available.

The loading on a propeller is usually taken to mean the

thrust per unit projected blade area, T/Ap. Therefore, if
it is anticipated that a propeller is likely to cavitate; a
possible solution to the problem is to increase the
blade area. The loading may, of course, also be
reduced by distributing the load among a larger
number of propellers. Decreasing the speed of the ship
and hence the thrust of the propeller would also reduce
cavitation, but this may not be an acceptable design
solution.

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Designing a propeller to have uniform loading requires that the propeller blade sections be so selected that
the pressure distribution on the back of a blade section is as constant as possible over the chord. It has been
observed that uniform suction (i.e. uniform negative pressure with respect to the ambient pressure) on a
propeller blade section is more likely to be achieved if the blade section has a "shock free entry", i.e., the
incident velocity is tangential to the camber centre line of the section or the angle of attack is zero, the
centre line has a uniform curvature, and the face and back of the section also have a uniform curvature.
Thus, segmental sections are less prone to cavitation than aerofoil sections

8.4.2 During operation: Several actions can be taken to reduce the likelihood of cavitation occurring:

Fouling: The propeller must be kept unfouled by marine organisms and free of nicks and scratches. Fouling
causes a reduction in propeller efficiency as well as the increased chance for cavitation. Even a small
scratch can cause significant spot cavitation and result in an increase in radiated noise as well as erosion of
the blades. Regular underwater inspections and cleaning of propellers should be carried out to prevent the
effects of fouling.

Speed: Every ship has a cavitation inception speed, a speed where tip cavitation begins to form. Unless
operationally necessary, ships should be operated at speeds below cavitation inception.

Thrust: For ships shaft speed and thrust must not be increased too quickly when accelerating the ship. An
analysis of the equation for the thrust coefficient (CT) reveals that high propeller thrust (T) and low speed
through the propeller (VA) increases the thrust loading coefficient which may result in cavitation.

Pitch: Operators of ships with controllable pitch propellers must take care that propeller pitch is increased
or decreased in a smooth manner. This is usually done as part of the ship’s propulsion control system.
Incorrect operation of the pitch control system may cause high thrust loading on the propeller blades and
increase the likelihood of cavitation.

Depth: Since cavitation is a function of hydrostatic pressure, increasing hydrostatic pressure (i.e. depth)
will reduce the likelihood of cavitation. Submarines are uniquely susceptible to depth effects and cavitation
as the depth of the submarine affects hydrostatic pressure at the propeller blades. When operating at shallow
depth, hydrostatic pressure is decreased and the propeller cavitates at lower shaft rpm and low thrust
loading. As a submarines depth increases, hydrostatic pressure increases and cavitation inception is
delayed. Therefore, a submarine can operate at higher speeds at deeper depths with little worry about
cavitation

8.5 Check for Cavitation at the time of Design

Control of cavitation has become an important requirement in the design of nearly all propellers, and it is
necessary to consider the problem of cavitation before going on to methods of propeller design and
selection.

Many propellers, especially during an initial design phase, are designed from charts derived from
methodical series tests, as presented in the next Unit. Even if they are designed by using analytical tools, it
is still necessary to begin with some chosen propeller diameter, also determined from a design chart. Some
general criterion is therefore needed for the choice of blade area to avoid cavitation.

8.5.1 Burrill Diagram

A diagram designed to provide such guidance in order to avoid excessive cavitation and erosion under
average service conditions at sea was given by Burrill and is presented in Figure below. The diagram gives
the limiting value of a thrust loading coefficient τc as a function of the cavitation number σ0.7R, for:
(i) Warship propellers with special sections,
(ii) Merchant ship propellers (aerofoil sections),
(iii) Tug and trawler propellers,
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In the diagram, the local cavitation number σ0.7R is calculated using the relative speed VR at 0.7R and the
pressure at the centreline of the propeller, i.e.,
𝑝 − 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝜎. =
𝜌{𝑉 + (0.7𝜋𝑛𝐷) }

An appropriate value for which is

188.2 + 19.62ℎ
𝜎 . =
𝑉 + 4.836𝑛 𝐷

Where, ℎ is the head of water at the propeller centre line (m), 𝐷 the propeller diameter (m), 𝑛 revolutions
per second, and VA the speed of advance (m/sec). On the vertical scale of the diagram, a coefficient 𝜏
expressing the mean thrust loading on the blades, is defined
𝑇⁄𝐴
𝜏 =
𝜌𝑉
Where T is the thrust in kN, AP the projected blade area in m2, and VR is given by 𝑉 = 𝑉 + (0.7𝜋𝑛𝐷)

A suggested limit on 𝑇⁄𝐴 can then be obtained in order to avoid serious back cavitation. The projected
blade area 𝐴 can be found from the more usual developed area 𝐴 by using Taylor’s approximate formula
𝐴 𝑃
= 1.067 − 0.229
𝐴 𝐷
We remind that the thrust can be calculated from the effective power PE or the delivered power PD from
the expressions
𝑃 𝑃 𝜂
𝑇= =
(1 − 𝑡)𝑉 (1 − 𝑡)𝑉
Keller Criterion

Another criterion which may be used to determine the expanded blade area required to avoid cavitation is
given by Keller (1966)
𝐴 (1.3 + 0.3𝑍)𝑇
= +𝑘
𝐴 (𝑝 − 𝑝 )𝐷

Where T is the thrust, Z the number of propeller blades, 𝑝 − 𝑝 the pressure at the centreline of the
propeller, k is a constant varying from 0 (for transom stern naval vessels) to 0.20 (for high powered single
screw vessels), A0 is the propeller disk area 𝜋𝐷 ⁄4, and AE is the expanded blade area derived from the
expanded blade outline. The subject of cavitation criteria in propeller design can really only be dealt with
adequately by incorporating pressure distribution, angle of attack, and cavitation number information into
a detailed design process, for every radius. Criteria such as the Burrill chart and the Keller formula do not
reflect the influence of the wake or propeller blade geometry such as pitch, camber, and thickness
distribution. They should, therefore, be used with care for preliminary estimates only.

Burril Criterion

Experimental data subsequently published by Burrill and Emerson (1962) showed that the limiting line for
warship propellers lies close to a line representing 10 percent back cavitation, while the limiting line for
merchant ship propellers lies close to a line representing 5 percent back cavitation. The three lines in the
Burrill diagram can be represented quite accurately by the following equations:

(i) Warship propellers with, special sections:

𝜏 = 0.0130 + 0.5284 𝜎 . + 0.3285 𝜎 . − 1.0204 𝜎 . for (0.11 ≤ 𝜎 . ≤ 0.43)

(ii) Merchant ship propellers with aerofoil sections:

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𝜏 = 0.0321 + 0.3886 𝜎 . + 0.1984 𝜎 . − 0.0501 𝜎 . for (0.12 ≤ 𝜎 . ≤ 1.50)

(iii) Tug and trawler propellers:

𝜏 = 0.0416 + 0.2893 𝜎 . + 0.1756 𝜎 . − 0.0466 𝜎 . for (0.28 ≤ 𝜎 . ≤ 1.6)

These equations should not be used outside the ranges specified.

Simple cavitation diagram (Burrill, et al, 1943, 1962-63)

Example 18 A propeller blade section begins to cavitate when its relative velocity with respect to
undisturbed water is 32 m per sec and its depth below the surface of water is 4.0 m. Determine the velocity
of water with respect to the blade at the point where cavitation occurs, assuming that cavitation occurs
when the local pressure falls to the vapour pressure.

Ans. 𝑣 = 32 𝑚⁄𝑠 , ℎ = 4 𝑚, 𝑝 = 101.325 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚 , 𝑝 = 1.704 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚

𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 101.325 + 1.025 × 9.81 × 4 = 141.546 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
1 1
𝑞 = 𝜌𝑣 = × 1.025 × 32 = 524.8 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
2 2
𝛿𝑝 𝑝 − 𝑝 141.546 − 1.704 𝑣
− = = = −1
𝑞 𝑞 524.8 𝑣
𝑣 = √1.2665 × 𝑣 = 1.1254 × 32 = 36.012 𝑚/𝑠

Example 19 A propeller of 6.0 m diameter has a speed of advance of 8.0 m per sec and an rpm of 108,
its axis being 5.0 m below the surface of water. Calculate the different cavitation numbers.

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Ans. D=6.0 m, VA=8.0 m/s, n=108 rpm = 1.8 rps, h = 5.0 m

(a) Cavitation number based on pressure at the shaft axis and the speed of advance:

𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝 101.325 + 1.025 × 9.81 × 5.0 − 1.704

𝜎= = = 4.570
𝜌𝑉 × 1.025 × 8

(b) Cavitation number based on blade tip speed:

𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝 101.325 + 1.025 × 9.81 × 5.0 − 1.704

𝜎 = = = 0.2541
𝜌(𝜋𝑛𝐷) × 1.025 × (𝜋 × 1.8 × 6.0)

(c) Cavitation number based on the resultant velocity at blade tip:

𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝 101.325 + 1.025 × 9.81 × 5.0 − 1.704

𝜎 = = = 0.2407
𝜌(𝑉 +(𝜋𝑛𝐷) ) × 1.025 × (8 + 𝜋 × 1.8 × 6.0)

(d) Cavitation number based on the resultant velocity at 0.7R:

𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝑝 101.325 + 1.025 × 9.81 × 5.0 − 1.704

𝜎 . = = = 0.4657
𝜌{𝑉 + (0.7𝜋𝑛𝐷 ) } × 1.025 × (8 + 𝜋 × 0.7 × 1.8 × 6.0)

(e) Cavitation number based on the pressure and relative velocity at 0.8R:

𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ − 0.8𝑅) − 𝑝 101.325 + 1.025 × 9.81 × (5.0 − 0.8 × 3.0) − 1.704

𝜎 . = = = 0.3065
𝜌{𝑉 + (0.8𝜋𝑛𝐷 ) } × 1.025 × (8 + 𝜋 × 0.7 × 1.8 × 6.0)

Example 20 A propeller of diameter 5.5 m and pitch ratio 1.0 has its axis 4.0 m below the waterline. The
propeller has a speed of advance of 7.0 m per sec when running at 120 rpm and produces a thrust of 520
kN. Determine the expanded blade area ratio of the propeller using the Burrill criterion for merchant ship
propellers.

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Example 21 A twin screw high speed ship with a transom stern has three-bladed propellers of 3.0 m
diameter, the propeller axis being 3.5 m below the water surface. The ship has a speed of 30 knots at which
its effective power is 10000 kW and the thrust deduction fraction is 0.06. Determine the expanded blade
area ratio using the Keller criterion.

Practice Exercise

1. A twin screw high speed ship with a transom stern has three-bladed propellers of 3.0m diameter, the propeller
axis being 3.5 m below the water surface. The ship has a speed of 30 knots at which its effective power is 10000 kW
and the thrust deduction fraction is 0.06. Determine the expanded blade area ratio using the Keller criterion.
(0.6250)

2. A four bladed propeller of 5.0m diameter and 0.55 expanded blade area ratio in a single screw ship is
required to produce a thrust of 500 kN. Determine the minimum depth of immersion of the shaft axis if the propeller
is not to cavitate. Use the Keller criterion. (Minimum depth 4.3 m)

3. A propeller of diameter 4.0 m, pitch ratio 0.8 and blade area ratio 0.50 has its axis 3.0 m below the surface
of water. The operating conditions of the propeller correspond to J =0.500, KT = 0.140. The propeller cavitates when
its rpm exceeds 150. Calculate the limiting value of thrust per unit projected blade area and the corresponding
cavitation number based on the speed of advance. (41.346 kN/m2)

4. A single screw ship has a five-bladed propeller of 6.0 m diameter and 0.75 expanded blade area ratio with
the propeller axis 5.0 ill below the waterline. The effective power of the ship can be approximated by PE = 0.463
VK3.5 with PE in kW and the ship speed VK in knots. The thrust deduction fraction is 0.260. Estimate the ship speed
at which the propeller will begin to cavitate. Use the Keller criterion. (15 Knots)

5. A propeller of 6.0 m diameter has an rpm of 150, its axis being 4.5 m below the surface of water. What is
the maximum speed of advance that the propeller can have before the blade sections at 0.8R begin to cavitate, given
that the maximum relative velocity of water at a point on the section is 7.5 percent greater than the velocity of that
point with respect to undisturbed water? Assume that the propeller operates in a uniform wake and that cavitation
occurs at the vapour pressure. (9.621 m/s)

6. A ship has a resistance of 677 kN at its design speed of 15 knots. The wake fraction is 0.250 and the thrust
deduction fraction 0.200. The propeller of diameter 5.0m and pitch ratio 0.8 has its axis 6.5m below the load water
line and has a design rpm of 150. Determine its expanded blade area ratio based on the Burrill criterion for merchant
ship propellers. (0.7489)

7. A propeller of diameter 4.0 m and pitch ratio 0.9 has an expanded blade area ratio of 0.500. The propeller
axis is 2.5 m below the surface of water. As the propeller rpm is changed, the speed of the ship changes in such a
way that the advance coefficient remains constant: J = 0.500, KT = 0.150, 10KQ = 0.170. The wake fraction based on
thrust identity is 0.250, the thrust deduction 0.200 and the relative rotative efficiency 1.050. Find the speed at which
the propeller will begin to cavitate, and the corresponding effective power and delivered power. Use the Burrill
criterion for merchant ships. (13.176 knots, PE =1378.8 kW, PD =1753.2 kW)
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