Damage Temperature Insepction &

Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring
Using materials designed for low
temp.

Defects in weld. Controlling operating condition No particular

Equipment manufactured to ASME
(Temp & Press). inspection.
CS Sec VIII Div-1 prior to Dec 1987. Straight, Non-branching, Largely
High thickness.
Sudden rapid fracture. 1. Low toughness LAS devoid of any associated plastic
Low temp below Charpy Minimize press at ambient temp Periodic inspection at
Brittle Fracture 2. Flaw size, shape, Particularly Older deformation.
Steel cleanliness & Grain size. impact transition temp during shutdown & startup. high stress locations.
Section 4.2.7 stress concentration Steels Autorefrigeration events in light
(Ductile-to-Brittle transition
Page 4-27 Little or no evidence of ductility HCBN (methane, ethylene, Cleavage with limited intergranular
During shutdown & startup. temp) Inspection of
of plastic deformation. 3. High stress on flaws propylene, butane) processing units cracking & very little microvoid
PWHT. susceptible vessels for
400 SS (alkylation plant, olefin plant, polymer coelescence.
During hydrotest due to high stress & low pre-existing flaws.
plant).
toughness at testing temp. Warm pre-stress hydrotest
followed by low temp hydrotest.

Large grain size. Newer steels with low impurity

Deformation & aging at elements and sufficient Al (>0.015%
intermediate temp. Steels manufactured by Bessemer or Open Older vintage CS wt) to fully de-oxidise the steel.
Damage will not be identified until
1. Alloy composition hearth process contain more impurity. with large grain
Strain Aging fracture.
Increase in hardness. 2. Manufacturing process size (pre-1980's) Non-PWHT thick wall vessels with
Section 4.2.4 No inspection
Reduction in toughness & ductility. Cold worked materials that are not stress susceptible materials. Steels manufactured by Basic
Page 4-14 Brittle cracks revealed through
relieved. oxygen furnace process & fully
Metallography.
Damage will not be identified until C-0.5Mo LAS killed with Al.
fracture. Welding in the viscinity of cracks & notches
in susceptible materials. PWHT.

Loss in strength, creep
resistance & ductility.
Random Graphitization - Loss in
strength. No loss in creep
Graphitization
resistance.
Section 4.2.1
Page 4-3
Concentrated Graphitization -
Loss in creep rupture strength,
loss in load bearing capability &
increase in potential for brittle
fracture.
Change in microstructure after long
term operation in temp range.
Graphitization is the
1.
decomposition of Carbide phases
2.
into Graphite Nodules at elevated
3.
temp.
4.
Random Graphitization - graphite
nodules are distributed randomly.
Concentrated Graphitization -
chain or local planes of graphite
nodules.
Weld HAZ graphization is found in narrow Not apparent.
band corresponding to low temp edge of HAZ. In
multipass weld butt joint, HAZ overlap each Observed only by metallographic
other, covering the entire cross section. exams. Metallography of full
Graphite nodules form at low temp edge of HAZ, thickness samples.
Chemistry
resulting in a band of weak graphite across the Advanced stages related to loss in
High stress
section. CS Hot wall piping & equipment in creep strength shows micrifissuring /
High temp
800 - 1100. FCC microvoid formation, surface / LAS containing Cr (above 0.7%). Field replica
Time of exposure.
Non-weld graphitization is occurs locally C-0.5Mo LAS Catalytic reforming Coker subsurface cracking or creep metallography is
along planes of localized yielding. Also occurs in deformation that is difficult to detect. inadequate because
chain like manner in regions of plastic damage may occur
deformation due to cold working or bending. midwall.
Because of its appearance, Weld HAZ
Bainitic grades are less susceptible than coarse graphization is called "Eyebrow
pearlite grades. graphitization".

Loss in strength, creep Change in microstructure after long

Normalized steels are more susceptible 850 - 1400.
resistance. term operation in temp range.
than annealed steels.
CS Difficult to prevent. Metallography of full
Severe at 1300.
Spheroidization Increase in ductility. CS - agglomeration of unstable 1. Chemistry Not apparent. thickness samples.
Fine grain steels are more susceptible than Hot wall piping & equipment in
(Softening) carbides from normal plate like 2. High stress C-0.5Mo LAS Minimize long time exposure.
coarse grain steels. Grahitization FCC
Section 4.2.2 Reduction in hardness. form to a spheroidal form. 3. High temp Observed only by metallographic
predominates below Catalytic reforming Coker
Page 4-7 4. Time of exposure exams. Annealed steels, coarse grained steels, Field replica
Al killed steels are more susceptible than Si 1025.
Spheroidization & Graphitization LAS - transformation of carbides from LAS Si kille steels are more resistant. metallography.
killed steels. Spheroidization occurs
occur at overlapping temp small, finely dispersed form to large
above 1025.
ranges. agglomerated form.

Microstructure & Heat treatment (Fine

Rotary equipment shafts.
grain materials are better). Fatigue cracks are Surface
initiated, Brittle, Transgranular & Proper design (Minimize stress
1. Geometry Small bore piping (SBP).
Design of component (notches, stress Non-branching. concentration).
2. High stress level
raisers).
Mechanical Sudden, unexpected failure. 3. No. of cycles High pressure drop control valves &
Propagation of multiple parallel Avoid sharp corners, edges.
Fatigue Cyclical stresses for an extended 4. Material properties steam reducing stations.
CS, LAS & Titanium exhibit stress All materials cracks. PT, MT, SWUT.
Section 4.2.16 Surface initiated cracks at period. (Stregth, Hardness,
endurance limit below which fatigue crack Remove grind marks, burrs.
Page 4-74 notches or stress raisers. Microstructure) Pressure swing absorber. in H2
not occurs, regardless of No. of cycles. Mechanical fatigue cracks are
purification unit.
Clamshell type Finger print having Use low stress stamps & marking
Cycling equipment like Coke drums.
concentric rings or waves called tools.
Quench nozzle connections in water
300 SS, 400 SS, Al do not exhibit "Beach marks".
washing system.
endurance limit.

Socket weld & SBP near pump & Visual inspection for
compressor that are not gusseted vibration, pipe
High likelihood of cracking when input load is / supported. Proper design, use of supports, movement, water
Vibration Induced A form of mechanical fatigue. 1. Amplitude
Dynamic loading due to vibration synchronous with natural frequency of the vibraton dampeners. hammer.
Fatigue 2. Frequency of vibartion Crack initiate at stress raisers &
or water hammer or unstable fluid component. All materials High pressure control valves & steam
Section 4.2.17 Crack initiate at stress raisers & 3. Fatigue resistance of notches.
flow. reducing stations. Check for audible
Page 4-81 notches. the material
Lack of or excess support or stiffening. Material upgrade is not a solution. sounds of vibration
Heat exchanger tubes susceptible to from control valves and
vortex shedding. pipe fittings.
 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring
Corrosion accelerate cracking rate by
thinning.
A form of fatigue cracking.
1. Material Rotating equipment (crack initiate Proper design to reduce stress
Corrosion Fatigue Corrosion promotes failure at lower stress
Combined effect of cyclic loading & 2. Corrosive environment from pitting in shaft) concentration.
Section 4.5.2 Crack initiate at stress & lower number of cycles than pure All materials "Rabbit ear" appearance. UT, MT.
corrosion 3. Cyclic stersses De-aerator
Page 4-193 concentration such as surface mechanical fatigue.
4. Stress raisers Cycling boilers Proper operation.
pits.
No fatigue limit load (contrary to
mechanical fatigue).

Coke drum shell.

Cracking occurs where relative
movement or differential
expansion is constrained,
Thermal Fatigue
particularly under repeated
Section 4.2.9
thermal cycling.
Page 4-39
Crack initiate at stress raisers &
notches.
1. Magnitude of temp
Cyclic stress caused by variation in
swing
temp.
2. Number of cycles
Stress risers.
Time to failure decreases with increasing
stress & increasing cycles.
Startup & shutdown increases
susceptibility.
Damage is promoted by rapid changes in
surface temp resulting in thermal gradient
through thickness or along the length of
component.
Steam actuated soot blowers (if
the first steam exiting the soot blower with Oxide.
nozzle contains condensate).
Temp swing of above
All materials Mix points of hot & cold streams
200.
(condensate comes in contact with
steam system in De-superheater &
H2 mix points in Hydroprocess units) Propagate transverse to the
Tubes in Superheater or reheater that
penetrate cooler waterwall tubes may
crack at header connection.
Proper operation to control rate of
heating & cooling during
Dagger shaped, Wide crack filled
shutdown & startup.
Proper design:
Single or Multiple.
minimize stress concentration,
VT, PT, MT
incorporate flexibility to accommodate
Usually follow the Toe of fillet weld.
differential expansion,
avoid rigid attachment in boilers,
provide drain line in soot blowers,
stress.
install liner or sleeve to prevent colder
liquid to contact hot wall

Cyclic Stresses.
High & non-uniform thermal FCC, Prevent interruptions in the flow of
1. Magnitude of temp
stresses over a short time when Coker, high temp lines.
differential SS has higher coefficient than CS, LAS, Ni Craze cracks.
Thermal Shock A form of thermal fatigue differential expansion or Catalytic reformer, Proper design to minimize restraint.
2. Coefficient of thermal alloys & are more likely to high stresses.
Section 4.2.13 cracking. contraction occurs. All materials Hydroprocessing unit. Install thermal sleeves to prevent PT, MT
expansion of material
Page 4-63 liquid impingement.
High temp due to fire. Highly localized and difficult to locate.
Usually occurs when cold liquid Materials that lost ductility, such as Review hot/cold injection points for
contacts warm metal surface. CrMo equipment. thermal shock.
Thermal gradients in thk sections.
All Boiler & Fired heater tubes.
Minimize localized temperature
Short Term Permanent deformation at excursions & hot spots.
Crude, Vacuum, Coker, Heavy oil
Overheating - relatively low stress level. 1. Temperature Ruptures look like open "Fishmouth" Visual.
Local overheating above design Time to failure will deccrease if internal hydro processing units - furnaces
Stress Rupture 2. Time All materials failure & thinning at fracture
temp. pressure or load increases. with coking tendencies.
Section 4.2.10 Bulging & eventually failure by 3. Stress surface. Proper burner management. IR monitoring.
Page 4-46 stress rupture.
FCC, Sulphur units - refractory
Proper maintenance og refractory.
damaged equipment.

In boilers, there is heat flow balance

between combustion side (tube outer
side) and water side (tube inner side).
Flow of heat energy through tube wall
Steam Blanketing
results in formation of discrete steam
(Departure from
bubbles on inner surface of water side.
Nucleate boiling) Short term high temp rupture.
The moving fluid sweeps away the
Section 4.2.11
bubbles. When heat flow balance is
Page 4-51
disturbed, bubbles join together &
form steam blanket & causes short
term overheating & results in tube
failure within few minutes.
Flame impingement from misdirected or
damaged burners provide heat flux greater than Sulfur plants,
Proper Burner
the tube can accommodate. Hydrogen reformers, Proper Burner management &
management &
FCC units - boilers, waste heat maintenance.
1. Heat flux maintenance.
Restrictions in fluid flow can lead to steam CS exchanger. Open busrt with fracture edge drawn
2. Fuid flow
blanketing. LAS to a near "Knife-edge". Proper BFW treatment.
Superheaters & reheaters during
Inspection of tubes for
Failure occurs as a result of Hoop stress in the shutdown & startup when condensate Inspection of tubes for bulging.
bulging.
tube from internal steam pressure at high clocks steam flow.
temp.

Low creep ductility occurs at lower temp in Combination of UT, RT,

creep range or low stresses in upper temp Mimimize metal temp. EC,
creep range. dimensional
Furnace tubes, supports, hangers, Low creep ductility is not apparent.
Avoid stress concentrators. measurements,
internals, hot wall reactors.
Creep damage and creep cracking occurs Thresold temp: replication.
Creep damage starts with creep
above thresold temps. All materials Alloys with improved creep resistance.
1. Material property Catalytic reformer - reactors, furnace voids at grain boundaries at initial
Creep & Stress Slow & continuous deformation CS - 700 Focus on weld of
(High strength, Coarse tubes. stage. Fissures & cracks occur at
Rupture At high temp under load below Increase of temp of 25 or increase of 15% LAS - 800 Low Creep CrMo alloy pressure
grain) H2 reforming unit- furnace tubes. later stage.
Section 4.2.8 Time dependant deformation of yield stress. stress can reduce remaining life to half or 12Cr - 900 Ductility: Higher PWHT of 1¼Cr-0.5Mo. vessels operating in
2. High load or stress FCC - main fractionator, regenerator
Page 4-32 stressed components. more. 304 SS - 950 1Cr-0.5Mo 1¼Cr- creep range.
3. High temp internals. At temp above thresold limits,
Other 300 SS - 1000 0.5Mo Minimize hot spots & localized
deformation (like bulging) occurs.
Cracking occurs where high temp and Alloy 800 - 1050 overheating. Fired heater tubes - VT
DMW (due to differential thermal Deformation eventually lead to
stress concentrations occur together. for bulging, blistering,
expansion stresses). rupture.
Minimize process side fouling, fire side sagging. Dimensional
Creep cracks, once initiated, can progress deposits / scaling. measurement
rapidly. for diametric growth.
 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring
50Cr-50Ni alloy like Alloy 667.

Fired heaters, Gas turbines using

At high temp, contaminants in fuel Unburned coal particles add Carbon to fly ash Blending or changing fuels.
Melting point of liquid fuels with contaminants. Hard, glassy, tenacious scale.
Fuel Ash melts & deposits on metal 1. Concentration of molten deposits and produce reducing environment on
species (slag) in Water
Corrosion surfaces as molten salts (slag). salt forming contaminants tube surface where corrosion occurs & Proper burner management.
wall corrosion: 700 Heater tube hangers, supports. When scales are removed, steel
(Molten Salt Severe metal loss of 100 to 1000 These molten salts dissolve the (Vanadium, Sodium, S, Carburization of tube surfaceoccurs, especially
All materials surface has "Alligator-hide" VT
Corrosion) mpy associated with slagging. surface oxide and enhance Potassium, ) in fuel on 300 SS. Firing with low O2 or by injecting
Oil ash: 1000 appearance as shallow grooves
Section 4.4.6 transport of O2 to the surface to 2. High metal temp additives into fuel to increase melting
Heater tubes are not affected penetrated steel in a Cross-hatched
Page 4-175 re-form iron oxide and thus 3. Alloy composition. Corrosion rate under reducing conditions is 2 to point of slags & reduce tendency of
Coal ash: 1030 - 1130 because their skin temp are cooler pattern.
corroding the metal. 5 times faster than in oxidising conditions. metal deposits to stick to metal
than melting point of slags.
surface.

Reducing operation temp.

Loss in toughness in Ferrite
phase alloys.
885
Dramatic upward shift in Ductile-to-
Embrittlement
Brittle transition temp.
Section 4.2.5
Page 4-16
Embrittled equipment may be
susceptible to cracking during
shutdown & startup when metal
temp is below 200.
1. Alloy composition
(Low Cr Content).
Metallurgical change due to
2. Increased amount of
exposure to temp range.
ferrite phase
3. High operating temp
Damage is cumulative. 600 - 1000.
Fractionator trays & internals in
885 embrittlement can be reversed (de- Rapid at 885. FCC, Crude, Coker & Vacuum Low ferrite or non-ferrite alloys. Bend test, Impact test
400 SS
embrittled) by heat treatment at 1100 units. of samples removed
followed by rapid cooling. But it is not Occurs over a long time Not apparent. from service.
Duplex SS like Alloy
practical for many equipments. If de- above or below 885. Failure occurs when welding or Avoid exposing susceptible material to
2203, 2304, 2507.
embrittled component is exposed to same straightening Vacuum tower trays embrittling temp range. Increase in hardness.
service condition, it will re-embrittle faster Occurs over a thousand of of 409 SS & 410 SS.
than it did initially. hours below 600.

Presence of embrittling impurity elements

like alloying elements Mn, Si, & tramp Materials containing less
Install blocks of
elements P, Tin, Antimony, Arsenic. embrittling impurity elements.
original heats of
Loss in toughness 1. Thermal history Avoid exposing susceptible material to
Hydroprocessing unit - reactors, alloy steel material
2. Alloy composition (Low Welds are more susceptible than base metal. 650 - 1070 . Primarily 2¼Cr-1Mo embrittling temp range.
exchangers, HP seperators inside the reactor
Temper Upward shift in Ductile-to-Brittle Cr content) (particularly Pressurizing sequence during startup
Metallurgical change due to long Not apparent. near inlet and outlet.
Embrittlement transition temp. 3. High metal temp Temper embrittlement can be reversed Rapid at 900. manufactured before & shutdown to avoid brittle failure.
term exposure to temp range. FCC, Periodically remove
Section 4.2.3 4. Exposure time. (de-embrittled) by heat treatment at 1150 1972) Limiting J* factor for base metal to
Catalytic reforming, Coker unit, Can be confirmed by impact test. the blocks and do
Page 4-10 Temper embrittled equipment may for 2 hrs per inch thickness, followed by Damage is severe after long 100 max & X factor for welds to 15
Visbreaking units - reactors & impact testing to
be susceptible to Brittle fracture rapid cooling. But it is not practical for term exposure at 850. 3Cr-1Mo (less extent) max.
exchangers. monitor ductile-
during start-up & shutdown. many equipments. If de-embrittled Limiting (P + Sn) to less than 0.01%.
brittle transition
component is exposed to same service Limiting Equivelent P content for base
temperature.
condition, it will re-embrittle faster than it metal & welds.
did initially.

High Cr content
(17% or more).
Resistant alloys.
High ferrite No. (10 to 40%).
SS cyclones, piping ductwork,
Avoid exposing susceptible material to
valves in high temp FCC
SS with sigma can withstand normal embrittling temp range.
1. Alloy composition Regenerative service.
Sigma Phase Loss of fracture toughness in SS. operating temp. But when cooling to temp Not apparent.
2. High temp Physical testing of
Embrittlement Formation of Sigma metallurgical below 500, it shows complete lack of Controlling ferrite in welds in the
3. Time of exposure 1000 - 1700 All SS 300 SS weld overlays & TTP welds samples removed
Section 4.2.6 Cracks, particularly at welds or phase due to high temp exposure. fracture toughness measured Can be confirmed by metallographic range of 5-9% for 347 SS & lesser
can be embrittled during PWHT of from service.
Page 4-19 in areas of high restraint. in Charpy impact test. exams & impact test. ferrite for 304 SS
underlying CrMo base metal.
Sigma forms rapidly in 300 SS. Limiting exposure time during PWHT
SS heater tubes.
of SS weld overlayed CrMo
300 SS can exhibit 10% to 15% sigma. components.

Sigma forms rapidly in welds than in base metal.

Nickel base filler material have
coefficient of therfmal expansion
closer to CS & LAS.
High stresses on weld when 300 SS filler Locate DMW in low temp region if
Above 510:
materials are used. 300 SS filler material is used. 100% PT after
DMW joints generate
Diffecernce in co-efficient of buttering
1. Filler material significant thermal
Dissimilar Metal Cracking in ferritic material of thermal expansion between DMW results in narrow region of high Ferritic Buttering ferritic side with SS or Ni 100% UT on buttered
2. Heating & cooling rate expansion / thermal
Welding (DMW) DMW ferritic & austenitic by 25-30%. hardness at toe of the weld near fusion line (CS or LAS) welded alloy & do PWHT prior to completing layer after PWHT.
3. High metal temp fatigue stresses. All dissimilar welds between ferritic
Cracking in ferritic side & susceptible to SSC & HSC. with DMW to minimize hardness & 100% RT.
4. Exposure time and austenitic materials.
Section 4.2.12 Cracks at Toe of weld in HAZ of Crack can result from creep Austenitic environmental cracking.
5. Poor weld geometry 800 - 950: Diffusion of
Page 4-54 ferritic material. damage, fatigue, SSC or hydrogen H2 environment can create H2 disbonding. (300 SS) RT, UT shear wave for
6. Thermal cycling carbon out of HAZ of
disbonding. On buttered joint, thk of weld metal DMW in fired heater
ferritic material and into
SS has higher coefficient of thermal expansion should be min 0.25" after machining tubes.
weld metal.
than CS, LAS, Ni alloys. bevel.
Install "Pup piece" that has
intermediate thermal expansion co-
efficient.
1. Material (composition &
impurity)
Reheat Cracking 2. Coarse grain size Often occurs in coarse (large) grain section HS LAS
(or) Surface breaking cracks with 3. Residual stresses from of weld HAZ. Minimize restraints in thick wall during
Stress Relief little or no evidence of fabrication (welding or cold LAS (particularly Cr- welding & PWHT.
Cracking deformation. working) Large grain size result in less ductile HAZ. Mo with Vanadium)
Stress relaxation during PWHT or Heavy wall vessels in areas of high Cracks are intergranular with little or
(or) 4. High thickness Above 750 Avoid notches & stress UT, MT, PT
in service at high temp. restraint like nozzle welds. no evidence of deformation.
Stress Relaxation Occurs most often in heavy wall 5. Notch& Stress Stress relief & heat treatment of 300 SS concentrators.
Cracking sections and high strength concentrators (done for increasing Cl SCC & PTA SCC 300 SS
Section 4.2.19 materials. 6. weld & base resistance) cause reheat cracking in Avoid PWHT for thick wall SS.
Page 4-87 metal strength thicker sections. Ni alloys
7. Welding & Heat treating
condition
 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring
Nitride layers are
Dull, dark gray apearance. magnetic. 300 SS
should be checked
Very high surface hardness Diffusion of N2 into surface 1. High temp
Rare to occur. for magnetism.
(400-500 BHN). exposed to high temp process 2. Time CS
Nitriding Begins - 600. N2 diffuses into surface & forms
stream containing high level of N2 3. Partial pressure of LAS
Section 4.4.7 Steam methane reformers, needle like particles of iron-nitrides Alloys with 30-80% Ni. VT for dull, dark gray
Loss of high temp creep resistance compounds like Ammonia, Nitrogen Nitrided layers are magnetic. 300 SS
Page 4-180 Severe - 900. Steam gas cracking, that can be confirmed by apearance.
strength, toughness, ductility, Cyanides particularly under 4. Alloy composition (Low 400 SS
Ammonia synthesis. metallography.
weldability, corrosion resistance. reducing conditions. Ni)
Hardness test.
Nitrided layer tend to crack & flake.
Metallography.

Monitor process
conditions for
establishing temp at
CS which oxidation
General thinning.
Oxidation Oxygen reacts with metals at high 1. High metal temp CS - above 1000. LAS occurs.
Increasing Cr level produce a more Fired heaters & Boilers whn metal
Section 4.4.1 General thinning. temp & converts metal to metal 2. Alloy composition 300 SS High Cr alloys
protective oxide scale. temp exceeds 1000. Outside surface covered with oxide
Page 4-153 oxide scale. (Low Cr content) 300 SS - above 1500. 400 SS Skin thermocuples & IR
scale.
Ni alloys survey can be used to
monitor temp.

UTG.

High gas phase carbon activity (HCBN, Coke, Hardness test.

1. Exposure to carburizing CO, CO2, Methane, Ethane). CS
environment or LAS Alloys with strong surface oxide or Metallography.
Substantial increase in hardness Absorption of Carbon into a
carbonazeous material Low O2 potential. 300 SS sulfide film formers (Si, Al).
Carburization & loss in ductility. material at high temp when in
2. High temp 400 SS Fired heater tubes particularly Destructive sampling.
Section 4.4.3 contact with carbonazeous Above 1100.
3. Alloy composition (Low Significant carburization occurs during Ni alloys with during decoking cycles. Reduce carbon activity through low
Page 4-166 Increase in level of material or carburizing
Cr & Low Ni content) Decoking cycles where temp exceed significant iron temp & high O2 / Sulfur partial Carburized layers are
Ferromagnetism in some alloys. environment.
operating temp. content pressures. ferromagnetic. 300
(Alloy 600 & 800) SS should be checked
Sulfur inhibits Carburization. for magnetism.
Corrosion product is voluminous
carbon dust containing metal Sulfur forms protective sulfide layers
particles, Oxides & Carbides. and retsrds carbon transfer from
A form of carburization. Metal dusting mechanism: LAS Fired heater tubes, Thermowells,
atmosphere to metal.
1. Process stream 300 SS Furnace components.
Metal Dusting
Accelerated local pitting with composition 1. Saturation of metal matrix by carburization. Ni alloys
(Catastrophic Dust is swept away by process Sufficient H2S level in process Compression wave UT.
soot or graphite dust. Carburizing gas / process streams 2. High operating temp 2. Precipitation of metal carbides at surface. Catalytic reforming,
Carburization) 900 - 1500 stream, leaving thinned or pitted environment to form protective sulfide
containing Carbon & H2. 3. Alloy composition. 3. Deposition of graphite from atmosphete onto No known metal Coker,
Section 4.4.5 metal. layer. RT.
Preceeded by Carburization & metal carbides at surface. alloy is immune to Gas turbines,
Page 4-172
charecterized by rapid metal 4. Decomposition of metal carbide under metal dusting under Methanol reforming unit,
LAS - uniform & small pits. Sulfur is catalyst poison in some
wastage. graphite. all conditions. Thermal hydrodealkylation.
processes and hence introductin of
HAS & SS - local, deep round pits. H2S in process iis not practical always.

Softening, loss of tensile

strength & creep strength.
Decarburization Removal of Carbon & Carbides
Section 4.4.4 from CS & LAS leaving an iron
Page 4-169 matrix.
Decarburization is associated
with HTHA in H2 service.
Softness.
In gas phase operating conditions with low Alloy steels with Cr & Mo. Replication.
Exposure to high temp, during 1. Time
carbon activity, carbon from metal diffuse to the CS Fired heater tubes, Hot formed
heat treatment, from exposures to 2. High temp Decarbirized layer will be free of
metal surface and react with gas phase LAS pressure vessel parts. Selection of steels for high temp H2 Hardness test to
fire. 3. Low carbon activity. Carbide phase. CS will be pure Pig
constituents. environment as per API RP 941. confirm softness.
iron.

Selective corrosion mechanism.

Colour change or deep etched
1. Alloy composition
appearance. Add Tin to Cu alloys.
One or more elements of an 2. Exposure condition & UG CI piping exposed to soil.
Dealloying alloy is attacked leaving a low temp Zn removed from Brass. Cu alloys VT for colour change.
Dealloyed Brass is in reddish Add Phophorus, Antimony, Arsenic to
Section 4.3.11 density (dealloyed) often porous 3. Degree of aeration Iron removed for CI. Alloy 400 Brass & Al brass heat exchanger
copper colour instead of yellow Brass.
Page 4-143 structure. 4. pH Ni removed from CuNi & Monel. CI tubes & tubesheets in brackish & Metallography.
brass colour.
5. Exposure time sea water applications.
Heat treatment of Al Brass.
Sudden unexpected failure due to
Charcoal gray color in GI.
degraded mechanical properties.

1. Alloy composition
Dealloying of iron matrix from Gray 2. Exposure condition &
Graphitic White CI is not affected because there is no Primarily Gray CI BFW piping, pumps, valves. Charcoal gray color.
CI, leaving porous Graphite. Stagnant condition, contact with soil, temp
Corrosion free graphite.
contact with soft water, mine water, 3. Degree of aeration Below 200 Coating, Cement lining, CP. UT
Section 4.3.12 Also Nodular & UG CI piping particularly fire water Damaged area is soft and can be
Loss of strength, ductility & dilute acids. 4. Low pH
Page 4-147 Graphite is cathodic to iron matrix. Mallaeable CI piping. gouged with knife or hand tool.
strength. 5. Exposure time

Anchors must be compatible with

coefficient of thermal expansion of
base metal & resistant to VT during shutdown.
Galvanic attack of anchors. Insulating ceramic FCC - reactor, cyclones.
Refractory Mechanical damage (cracking, oxidation & condensing sulfurous
1. Refrractory selection fibres, Catalytic reforming reactor. Refractory showing excessive
Degradation spalling & erosion) & corrosion of Oxidation, Sulfidation & other high acids. IR survey for
2. Design Refractory lined equipment should be Castables, Sulfur plant - WHB & reactor. cracking, spalling or lift-off from
Section 4.2.18 both thermal insulating & temp mechanisms. monitoring hot spot
3. Installation. designed for erosion, thermal shock & Refratory bricks, substrate, softening.
Page 4-84 erosion resistant refractories. Proper selection, design & installation to identify
thermal expansion. Plastic refractories. Fired heaters, Bolilers.
of refractory & anchors. refractorty damage.

Proper curing of refractory.

 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring

1. High velocity Corrosion resistant alloys.

Accelerated mechanical removal Erosion: 2. Concentration of
Erosion (Abrasive of surface material. Relative movement between, or impacting medium Localized loss in thickness in the Change in shape, geometry. Visual.
Bend, Tee, Pump, Blower, Impeller,
Wear) & impact from solids, liquids, vapors 3. Size, shape, density & form of pits, grooves, gullies,
Two phase flow icreases corrosion. Turbine blade, Agitator, Exchanger
Erosion- Removal of protective films or or any combination. high hardness of waves, rounded holes & valleys. Increasing substrate hardness Corrosion coupon.
All materials tubes, Orifizes, Nozzles, Wear plates.
Corrosion scales & exposing metal surface impacting particles using harder alloys, hard facing or
Softer alloys such as Cu, Al easily worn out.
Section 4.2.14 for further corrosion. Erosion Corrosion; 4. Low hardness & The losses exhibit directional surface hardening treatments. IR scan for refractory
Piping at downstream of valves.
Page 4-65 Corrosion contribute to erosion by corrosion resistance of pattern. erosion.
Localized loss in thickness. removing protective layers. material Impingement plates & tube
5. Angle of impact ferrules in heat exchangers.

Copper
Pump casing, impeller, piping at d/s
1. Inadequate Net NPSH available is the diffecernce between Brass Sharp-edged pitting.
of control valve orifice.
Positive Suction Head actual presure or head of liquid & vapor CI
Cavitation Avoiding conditions that allow
Formation & instantaneous collapse (NPSH) pressure of liquid. CS Gouged appearance in rotary parts.
Section 4.2.15 A form of erosion. Restricted flow or areas where absolute pressure to fall below Visual
of innumerable tiny vapor bubbles. LAS
Page 4-70 turbulent flow is subjected to vapor pressure.
2. Temp approaching the NPSH required is the head required to prevent 300 SS Sound like pebbles are being
rapid pressure change within a
boiling point cavitation at given flow rate. 400 SS thrashed inside.
localized region.
Ni alloys
Due to surface films & or local
Corrosion at the junction of Proper design.
environment, same alloy can act as both
dissimilar metals joined
anode & cathode.
together in an electrolyte like Coating of more noble material.
Galvanic 1. Two different
moist or aqueous environment, General loss in thickness or crevice,
Corrosion materials in contact Corrosion rate in anode is more if there is
or soil containing moisture. All materials groove or pitting of more active If more active material is coated, VT, UT.
Section 4.3.1 2. Electrolyte small anode to cathode ratio.
material. breaking in coating will create a
Page 4-101 3. Electrical connection
General loss in thickness or crevice, large anode to cathode ratio &
In Galvanized steel, anode to cathode
groove or pitting of more active corrosion rate of active material
relationship reverses at water temp above
material. will be more.
150.
Liquid Metal 300 SS in contact with or
CS
Embrittlement previously rubbed with GI. MT - to detect cracks in
LAS
(LME) Specific combination of 300 SS should not be in contact ferritic steel
HS steels
or metals in contact with Mercury in crude oil embrittles with GI. PT - 300 SS & Ni alloys.
Contact of specific alloys with High tensile strength and tensile stress 300 SS Crack are intergranular, brittle & filled
Liquid Metal Sudden & brittle cracking. low melting poing metals Alloy 400, Ti, Al, Cu alloys. RT - to locate Mercury
some molten metals. promotes cracking. Ni alloys with low melting metal.
Cracking like Zn, Mercury (Hg), Grinding the affected cracked area (high RT density)
Cu alloys
(LMC) Cadmium, Lead, Cu, Tin. will not fix LME. deposits in exchanger
Al alloys
Section 4.5.5 Cadmium & Lead affects HS tubes.
Ti alloys
Page 4-210 steels.

1. Physical location Marine or moist atmosphere. Corrosion rate:

Atmospheric
2. Moisture Chlorides, H2S, Fly ash & air borne CS Marine: 20 mpy
Corrosion
General or local corrosion. Moisture associated with atmospere. 3. High temp contaminants from cooling tower drift & Upto 250 LAS Poorly coated items. Industrial: 4-10 mpy Suface preparation & coatings. VT, UT.
Section 4.3.2
4. Presence of salts, S furnace stack. Cu alloyed Al Inland: 1-3 mpy
Page 4-105
compounds & dirt Bird turds accelerate corrosion. Rural: <1 mpy.

1. Operating temp
High dissolved salts.
2. High Moiture
Special backfill
3. High O2 availability
High acidity.
Soil Corrosion 4. Low soil resistivity CS Soil to air interface.
External thinning with local loss due External thinning with localized Proper coating Measuring structure
Section 4.3.9 Exposure to soil 5. Soil type & CI
to pitting. High temp. pitting. to soil potential.
Page 4-136 homogenity Ductile iron UG piping, Tank bottom.
CP to be performed & monitored
6. CP
Estimation of soil corrosion as per ASTM as per NACE RP 0169.
7. Stray current
STP741, API 580, API 581.
8. Coating type

Velocity should be high enough to

Low velocity below 3 fps result in fouling &
minimize fouling.
increased corrosion.
Scaling potential:
General corrosion, local pitting Velocity depends on
1. Fluid temp If cooling water is used in shell side rather
corrosion, MIC & Fouling. CS tube material & water quality.
2. Type of water (fresh or than the preferred tube side, corrosion can Fresh water -process
Cooling Water SS
salt) be accelerated due to dead spots & temp above 140. Cooling water
Corrosion Weld or HAZ corrosion in ERW Dissolved salts, gases, organic Cu Water cooled Exchanger & Grooving along weld fusion lines Design prcocess side inlet temp
3. Type of cooling system staagnant areas. monitoring, Flow
Section 4.3.4 CS. compounds or MIC Al Cooling tower at ERW weld areas. below 140.
(open or closed system) meters.
Page 4-117 Ti
4. High O2 content Increasing process side inlet temp or
SCC or Pitting or Crevice Ni alloys Cooling water should be used on
5. Low velocity cooling water outlet temp increases Brackish or salt water
corrosion in 300 SS. tube side to minimize stagnation.
corrosion. outlet temp above 115.
Proper design, operation & chemical
Salt or brackish water is highly corrosive.
treatment.

External treatment system,

1. Concentration of
Boiler Water deaerating equipment, feed water Laying down & continuously
dissolved gases (O2, CS WFMT during
Condensate Dissloved gases like O2 & CO2 lines, pumps, economizers O2 corrosion - pitting. maintaining protective layer of
General corrosion & Pitting in Boiler CO2) LAS shutdown.
Corrosion lead to O2 pitting corrosion & condensate return system. Fe3O4 (magnetite).
& Condensate return piping. 2. Low pH 300 SS
Section 4.3.5 Carbonic acid corrosion. CO2 corrosion - smooth grooving
3. High temp Cu alloys Water analysis.
Page 4-120 Steam generation O2 scavenging treatment.
4. Quality of feedwater
system on both water & fire sides.
 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring

Organisma grow under conditions like lack Treatment of water with biocides like
Monitoring
of O2, light or dark, high salinity, pH 0-12 Cl, Bromine, Ozone, UV light.
CS effectiveness of
& low temp.
Microbiologically 1. Acqueous LAS treatment by
Biocides control but not eliminate
Induced Corrosion environment 300 SS Exchanger, Tank bottom, Piping CS - Cup shaped pit. measuring biocide
Living organisms like bacteria, Organisms thrive on nutrients including Organisms survival & microbes. So contimued treatment
(MIC) Local pitting 2. Stagnant or low flow. 400 SS with stagnant or low flow, Piping residual,
algae, fungi. inorganic substances like Sulfur, H2S, growth: 0-235 is necessary.
Section 4.3.8 Al in contact with soil. SS - Subsurface cavities. microbe count &
Ammonia and organic substances like
Page 4-130 Cu visual appaearance.
HCBN, Organic acids. Minimize low flow or stagnation.
Ni alloys
Foul smell.
Organisms require C, N2, P for growth. Maintain coatings & CP.
 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring

Corrosion near damaged

Warm & Marine locations are more prone insulaton, vapor barrier,
than cooler, drier, mid-continent locations. weatherproofing or protrusions
through insulation or termination
Proper Coating & Painting.
Environments with airborne contaminants ponts at insulation like flanges.
Corrosion Under Pitting or local corrosion in CS & like Chlorides & SO2 CS, LAS: 10-350 Pitting or local corrosion in CS & VT by stripping the
1. Design & type of CS Proper maintenanace of insulation
Insulation LAS. Corrosion near insulation support LAS. insulation.
Water trapped under insulation or insulation. LAS / vapor barriers to prevent
(CUI) Contaminant in insulation like Chlorides may SS: 140-400 rings, ladder & platform clips,
fireproofing. 2. High temp. 300 SS moisture ingress.
Section 4.3.3 SCC in 300 SS if Chloride is leach out and aggravate corrosion. lifting lugs, nozzles, dead legs, SCC in 300 SS if Chloride is UT, Real time profile
3. Environment. Duplex SS
Page 4-108 present. Severe: 212-350 vents, drains, hangers & present. RT, IR.
Low Chloride vinsulation for 300
Equipments that operate below water dew point. supports.
SS.
Equipments in cyclic thermal operation or CUI occurs even on piping &
intermittent service. equipment with good insulation & no
visual sign of corrosion.

Desalting.

Caustic injection downstream of

Excessive corrosion in CS & LAS at pH All materials
1. High HCl Crude, desalter.
HCl Corrosion General or local corrosion. Dew point corrosion where vapors below 4.5.
concentration Vacuum,
Section 5.1.1.4 containing water & HCl2 condense Particularly UT, Profile RT.
2. High temp Hyroprocessing, Alloy 400 & Titanium.
Page 5-16 300 SS - pitting & Cl SCC. from overhead stream. Presence of oxidizing agents (O2, ferric & cupric 300 SS
3. Alloy composition. Catalytic reformer.
ions) 400 SS
Titanium performs wellin oxidising
conditions but corrode rapidly in
dry HCl service.

Maintain metallic surface temp at

back end of Boiler & fired heaters
S & Cl in fuels form SO2, SO3, HCl2 Economizer section and stack of fired at above H2SO4 dewpoint temp.
HCl dewpoint depends concentration of CS, LAS - General corrosion with
Flue Gas Dew CS, LAS - General corrosion with during combustion. At low 1. Concentration of HCl acid dewpoint - 130. heaters & boilers that burn fuels
HCl2. CS broad & shallow pits. UTG
Point Corrosion broad & shallow pits. operating temp, these gases & contaminants (S & Cl2) containing S. Sodium Carbonate shall be added
LAS
Section 4.3.7 water vapor in flue gas condense in fuel H2SO4 dewpoint - 280. to final rinse to neutralize asid
H2SO4 dewpoint depends on concentration 300 SS 300 SS -SCC with surface breaking & VT, PT.
Page 4-128 300 SS -Surface breaking SCC. to form Sulfurous acid, H2SO4, 2. Low operating temp SS Heat recovery steam generators constituents in oil fired boilers.
of SO3. craze appearance.
HCl. (HRSG) suffer CL SCC.
Avoid use of 300 SS in Cl
environment.

CS corrosion is severe if velocity exceeds 2

to 3 fps

1. Acid concentration CS corrosion is severe if acid concentration Waste water treatment plants.
Proper operation & velocity.
Sulfuric Acid 2. High temp below 65%.
Local corrosion. Local corrosion.
Corrosion 3. Alloy composition CS Sulfuric acid alkylation units - UT, RT, Corrosion
Alloy 20,
Section 5.1.1.11 4. High velocity Heat releases at mix points with water and 316L SS Reactor effluent line, reboilers, coupon.
Severe corrosion of CS HAZ. Severe corrosion of CS HAZ. Alloy 904L,
Page 5-41 5. Contaminants severe corrosion occurs when acid is deisobutanizer overhead system,
Alloy C-276.
6. Presence of Oxidizers. diluted. caustic treating section.

Presence of oxidizers increase coroosion

rate.
For 100%
Low velocity.
concentration,
Phosphoric Acid 1. Acid concentration CS
304L SS for upto 120 &
Corrosion General pitting corrosion or local 2. High temp Corrosion can penetrate 1/4 inch thick steel in 8 304L Phosphoric acid is used as
Presene of water in Phosphoric acid. 316L SS upto 225. UT, RT.
Section 5.1.1.9 corrosion. 3. Contaminants like hrs. 316L catalyst in Polymerization.
Page 5-37 Chlorides Alloy 20
Alloy 20 upto 85% concentration
Contaminants like Chlorides increase corrosion.
at boiling temp.
Higher Mo alloy (minimum of 2 to
1. High NA content (High
2.5 %) or 317L SS.
Naphthenic Acid High temp corrosion in Crude, Neutralization number or CS Crude & Vacuum units - tower
UT, RT.
Corrosion Vacuum & Downstream units. Total Acid Number) Corrosion is severe in two phase flow. Above 425. LAS internals, heater tubes & in hot
Reduce TAN.
(NAC) 2. High temp 300 SS HCBN streams downstream.
Monitor TAN & Sulfur
Section 5.1.1.7 Local corrosion, Pitting 3. Low Sulfur content NA remove protective iron sulfide scales. Severe above 750. 400 SS
Increase Sulfur content. content.
Page 5-31 corrosion. 4. High velocity Ni alloys Upstream of H2 mix points.
5. Alloy composition
Use inhibitors.
 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring
In CS, Residual element (RE) content (%C,
%Cu, %Ni, %Cr) has an effect on
corrosion.
For base metal, Upgrading CS ot Alloy 400 for
%C > 0.18 operating temp above 150
1. Low HF acid
%Cu + %Ni < 0.15 UT, RT.
High corrosion accompanied by concentration
For weld metal, CS
HSC or Blistering or HIC or (increasing water
%Cu + %Ni + %Cr < 0.15 LAS HF alkylation units - But Alloy 400 is susceptible to SCC Monitoring small
HF Acid Corrosion SOHIC. content above 3%)
High corrosion above in CS 300 SS flare piping & downstream units when in contact with moist HF bore piping, flange
Section 5.1.1.6 2. High temp
CS forms protective fluoride scale in dry above 150 400 SS exposed to acid carry over, dead legs, vapors in prtesence of Oxygen. face corrosion,
Page 5-23 General or local thinning in CS. 3. Alloy composition
concentrated acid. CuNi flange faces, heat exchanger tubes. blistering, HIC,
4. Presence of
Alloy 400 Upgrade to Alloy C276 if Alloy 400 SOHIC in HF units as
SCC in Alloy 400. contaminants like O2 & S.
Presence of water destabilize the cracks. per API RP 751.
protective fluoride scales into volumnous
non-protective scales. Minimize Water, Oxygen, Sulfur.

High velocity remove protective scale and

cause accelerateted corrosion.
300 SS is highly resistant. Other SS
are also resistant.
C02 Corrosion 1. Partial pressure of CO2 Increasing Cr content in steel offers no
CO2 dissolves in water to form
Section 4.3.6 Local or pitting corrosion 2. Low Ph major resistance until a minimum of 12% CS LAS Corrosion as high as 1000 mpy. Corrosion inhibitor. VT, UT, RT.
Carbonic acid.
Page 4-124 3. High temp. is reached.
Increasing pH above 6.

Parallel to weld in HAZ or

adjacent base metal within 2" of
1. Residual stress level weld.
Can occur at relatively low level of residual PWHT of 1200 - 1225 as per WRC
Carbonate SCC A form of Alkaline SCC. Combined action of tensile stress & 2. Water chemistry Monitoring pH,
stresses. 458 (Ref 8),
(Alkaline SCC) corrosion in systems containing (pH 8-10, CS Spider web of small crack. Carbonate level.
Section 5.1.2.5 Surface breaking cracks adjacent water phase with Carbonate & Carbonate, LAS
Usually occurs at welds or cold worked Barrier coating, Cladding, 300 SS or
Page 5-72 to non-PWHT welds. some amount of H2S. H2S, Mistaken for SOHIC or SSC, WFMT, ACFM.
areas that are not stress erlieved. Alloy 400, Inhibitor.
Cyanide, Ammonia). however CSCC is further from toe
of weld & have multiple parallel
cracks.

Caustic Corrosion Concentration of caustic or In CS, general corrosion CS

Caustic is added to process streams for Proper design.
Section 4.3.10 Local corrosion. alkaline salt under evaporative or Presence of NaOH, KOH. above 175 & very high LAS Boilers, steam generating equipment UT, RT.
neutralization. Water flooding.
Page 4-140 high heat transfer condition. corrosion above 200 300 SS

Equipment should be water

washed before steam out.
WFMT, EC, RT, ACFM.
Caustic SCC 1. High Caustic strength
A form of Alkaline SCC. Equipment handling caustic Parallel to weld in weldment or Avoid steam out in non-PWHT
(Caustic (50-100 ppm) CS PT cannot find tight
Steam out of non-PWHT caustic lines & including H2S & Mercaptan HAZ or adjacent base. caustic lines & equipments.
Embrittlement) Exposure to Caustic. 2. High temp LAS crack.
Surface initiated cracks adjacent equipments in caustic service. removal unit & H2SO4, HF
Section 4.5.3 3. Stress level 300 SS
to non-PWHT welds. alkylation units. Spider web of small cracks. PWHT at 1150.
Page 4-199 approaching yield RT cannot find fine
crack.
Ni alloys.

Lean amine is not corrosive because of low

conductivity, high ph & protective iron
sulfide film due to small amount of H2S.
But accumulation of HSAS above 2%
Amines unit for removal of H2S,
1. Operating practices significantly increases corrosion. Also
CO2, Mercaptan from process
Corrosion is not caused by Amine 2. Type of amine overstripped lean Amine is corrosive if
streams in Crude, Coker, FCC,
General or local corrosion in itself but results from dissolved 3. Amine concentration there is oinadequate H2S to maintain Severe local corrosion
Amine Corrosion Hydrogen reforming, Proper operation.
Amine treating process. acid gases (CO2, H2S), amine 4. Contaminants protective iron sulfide film. above 220 VT, UT, Corrosion
Section 5.1.1.1 CS Hydroprocess & Tail gas units.
degradation products, heat stable 5. High temp (because of acid gas coupon.
Page 5-3 300 SS
Primarily in CS. amine salts (HSAS) & other 6. High velocity (limited to Corrosion is high in rich Amine. flashing & two phase flow)
contaminants. 3-6 fps for rich amine &
Regenerator & Regenerator
20 fps for lean amine). Corrosion rate is most to least in following type
reboiler.
of Amines : MEA, DGA, DIPA, DEA, MDEA.

Severe localized corrosion in case of two

phase flow.

A form of Alkaline SCC.
Amine SCC
Surface breaking cracks at or
Section 5.1.2.2
adjacent to non-PWHT CS welds
Page 5-55
or highly cold worked parts in
lean amine service.
Cracking is more in MEA & DEA services but
1. High tensile stress also occurs in DIPA & MDEA. PWHT all CS welds as per API RP
Combined action of tensile stress & Alkanolamine systems are used to
2. High Amine CS Intergranular branching cracks filled 945.
corrosion in aqueous alkanolamine remove H2S or CO2 from HCBN WFMT, ACFM
concentration Cracking occurs often in lean amine LAS with oxide initiate on ID.
system. streams.
3. High temp. service. Pure alkanolamine does not cause Use clad SS or Alloy 400.
cracking.
 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring

Low chloride for hydrotest.

Presence of dissloved O2 increases
cracking tendency. CS, LAS, 400 SS are not
1. High Chloride level
susceptible.
2. pH
There is no particular safe limit for Multiple branched, Transgranular.
Chloride SCC Combined action of tensile stress, 3. High temp 300 SS in chloride environment.
Chloride. Alloy with Ni above 45% is
Section 4.5.1 Surface breaking cracks. temp & acqueous Chloride 4. High tensile stress Above 140 300 SS PT, EC.
immune.
Page 4-184 environment. 5. Presence of O2. CUI.
Lower pH - general corrosion. Craze-crack apparearance.
6. Alloy composition (Ni
Above Ph 2 - SCC Alloy with Ni above 35%
8-10 %)
Alkaline pH region - SCC tendency is highly resistant.
decreases.
Duplex SS are highly resistant.

Flushing the equipment with

Metals form sulfide scales when alkaline or caustic soda to
exposed to Sulfur atmosphere. neutralize sulfur acids.
PT
Sulfide scales react with Oxygen &
Cracking during shutdown, FCC,
Polythionic Acid moisture in air & forms Sulfur 1. Environment (high sulfur Regular grades & H grades of 300 SS are 300 SS Keep firebox above dewpoint.
startup or low temp operation in Crude, Since cracks are
(Sulfur acid) SCC acids (Polythionic Acid) which level) susceptible to Sensitization. Alloy 600
Sensitized 300 SS. Sensitization occurs at Coker, filled with tight
(PASCC) causes SCC in sensitized 300 SS 2. Material (must be L grades are less susceptible. Alloy 600H Intergranular. Use L grades for 300 SS.
750 to 1500 Hydroprocessing units - Fired deposits, flapper disc
Section 5.1.2.1 sensitized) L grades sensitize if exposed to several Alloy 800
Cracking adjacent to weld or heaters burning fuels containing sanding is required
Page 5-49 Sensitization refers to formation 3. High stress. hours above 1000 or long term above 750. Alloy 800H Use alloys containing small amount of
high stress areas. Sulfur. to improve PT
of chromium carbide in grain Ti & Nb like SS 321, SS 347.
sensitivity.
boundaries of metal depending on
composition, time & temp. Thermal stabilization heat treatment
at 1650 (very difficult to apply).

PWHT.

Cu alloys - Alloy Weld hardness should not exceed

composition (High Zn 225 BHN.
Cu alloys - Cracks with bluish Monitoring pH.
Cu alloys: Surface breaking cracks content above 15%), Cu alloys in aqeous
corrosion products. Transgranular or
Ammonia SCC in aqeous ammonia. residual stress, pH above ammonia. Cu alloys - Zn content below 15%.
Intergranular depending upon EC of heat exchanger
Section 4.5.4 8.5, O2. Cu-Zn alloy heat exchanger tubes.
environment & stresss. tubes.
Page 4-206 CS: Cracks at non-PWHT welds in CS in anhydrous CS - addition of water >0.2% to
anhydrous ammonia. CS - low water <0.2% in ammonia. ammonia,
CS - Intergranular. WFMT.
ammonia, residual stress,
Non-PWHT, O2. Use of LS steel <70 KSI.
90-10CuNi, 70-30CuNi, 300 SS, Ni
alloys are immune.

Corrosion under Ammonium

Chloride or Amine salt deposits in
absence of free water phase.
Ammonium chloride salts are hygroscopic Crude tower overhead,
Ammonium 1. Concentration (NH3, HCl,
& readily absorb water. Hydroprocessing reactor effluent
Chloride Corrosion General or local corrosion or When high temp streams amine salt) Salts have whitish, greenish or Wash water to flush salt deposits.
All materials system, RT, UT.
Section 5.1.1.3 pitting. containing NH3 & HCl get cooled, 2. Temp brownish appearance.
Small amount of water can lead to severe Catalytic reformer reactor,
Page 5-13 Ammonium Chloride salt are 3. Water availability Limit chlorides in process.
corrosion of >100mpy FCCU & Coker fractionator overheads.
formed which corrodes equipment
at temp above water dewpoint
(>300).
NH4HS concentration:
1. High NH4HS below 2% - not corrosive, Design proper velocity for NH4HS
Ammonium
concentration above 2% - corrosive concentration above 2%.
Bisulfide (NH4HS) N2 in process is converted into
General or local corrosion in 2. H2S partial pressure above 8% - highy corrosive
Corrosion Ammonia & reacts with H2S to CS Hydroprocessing reactor,
Hydroprocessing reactor 3. High velocity or NH4HS precipitaes below Maintain velocity 10-20.
(Alkaline Sour form NH4HS. Below 150, NH4HS Brass FCC reactor, UT, Profile RT.
effluent system & units handling turbulence O2 & Iron in wash water lead to high 150
Water) precipitaes out of gas phase & Cu alloys Coker furnace.
alkaline sour water. 4. pH corrosion.
Section 5.1.1.2 cause fouling & plugging.
5. High temp 300 SS, Duplex SS, Al alloys, Ni
Page 5-9
6. Alloy composition Presence of Cyanides destroy protective alloys.
sulfide film.

The pH below 4.5 indicate strong acid &

General thinning. 1. High H2S content corrosion rate increases.
Sour Water Acidic sour water containing H2S & 2. Low pH (below 4.5 to Cu & Ni alloys.
Overhead system of FCC & Coker gas
Corrosion (Acidic) Local corrosion if O2 is prsent. pH between 4.5 & 7. 7.0) Decreasing the temp increasses H2S
CS fractionation plants with high H2S UT, Profile RT.
Section 5.1.1.10 3. Low temp concentration. 300 SS can be used for temp
levels & low NH3 levels.
Page 5-39 CO2 environment leads to CO2 may also be present. 4. High velocity below 140.
Carbonate SCC. 5. High O2 concentration. Increasing the H2S concentration
decreases pH.
 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring

pH - H2 permeation is minimal at pH 7 &

During sulfide corrosion on metallic
surface, H2 atom forms and diffuses
Wet H2S Damage Blisters in surface (ID or OD) or
into the steel & collect at a
(Blistering) within thickness.
discontinuity in steel such as inclusion
Section 5.1.2.3
or lamination. H2 atoms combine to
Page 5-60
form large H2 molecules whose
pressure build up & forms blister.
1. Environment (pH, H2S
level, contaminants)
2. Material properties
(hardness, microstructure,
strength)
3. High tensile stress level
increases at both high & low pH.
H2S level - increasing H2S partial pressure
Process monitoring.
increases H2 permeation, Effective barriers on surface.
Cyanides - increase severity of Blistering, HIC,
Focus on weld seams
SOHIC. Between ambient & 300 Throughout the refinery wherever
CS LAS Blistering & nozzles for wet
Inclusions - Blistering & HIC are affected by or higher. there is wet H2S environment. Wash water injection that affect Ph,
H2S damage.
presence of inclusions & laminations. ammonia, cyanide concentration,
corrosion inhibitor.
WFMT, EC, RT, ACFM.
Blister results from H2 generated by
corrosion & not from H2 gas from process
stream.

pH - H2 permeation is minimal at pH 7 &

Process monitoring.
increases at both high & low pH.
1. Environment (pH, H2S Effective barriers on surface.
H2S level - increasing H2S partial pressure
Wet H2S Damage level, contaminants) Focus on weld seams
HIC - Stepwise cracking increases H2 permeation, Blistering, HIC , SOHIC Stepwise cracking stairstep
(HIC) 2. Material properties Throughout the refinery wherever & nozzles for
interconnecting between the Cyanides - increase severity of Blistering, HIC, between ambient & 300 CS LAS appearance).
Section 5.1.2.3 (hardness, microstructure, there is wet H2S environment. Wash water injection that affect Ph, wet H2S damage.
blisters. SOHIC. or higher.
Page 5-60 strength) ammonia, cyanide concentration,
Inclusions - Blistering & HIC are affected by
3. High tensile stress level corrosion inhibitor.
presence of inclusions & laminations.
WFMT, EC, RT, ACFM.

pH - H2 permeation is minimal at pH 7 &

increases at both high & low pH.
SOHIC - Similar to HIC but more H2S level - increasing H2S partial pressure Process monitoring.
1. Environment (pH, H2S Throughout the refinery wherever Effective barriers on surface.
damaging. increases H2 permeation.
Wet H2S Damage level, contaminants) there is wet H2S environment.
Through thickness crack in base Presence of 1 wppm of H2S in water is Blistering, HIC , SOHIC Focus on weld seams
(SOHIC) 2. Material properties SOHIC - Arrays of cracks stacked
metal adjacent to weld HAZ Driven by high stress. sufficient for charging H2 into steel. between ambient & 300 CS LAS & nozzles for wet
Section 5.1.2.3 (hardness, microstructure, on top of each other. Wash water injection that affect Ph,
or higher. H2S damage.
Page 5-60 strength) SOHIC & SSC are often associated ammonia, cyanide concentration,
Initiate from HIC or SSC or Cyanides - increase severity of Blistering, HIC,
3. High tensile stress level with weldments. corrosion inhibitor.
other defects. SOHIC. WFMT, EC, RT, ACFM.
Stress level - High stress levels affect SOHIC &
SSC.

pH - H2 permeation is minimal at pH 7 &

increases at both high & low pH.
H2S level - increasing H2S partial pressure Throughout the refinery wherever
Effective barriers on surface.
increases H2 permeation. there is wet H2S environment.
Process monitoring.
1. Environment (pH, H2S Presence of 1 wppm of H2S in water is
Wet H2S Damage SSC - Surface initiated cracks in level, contaminants) sufficient for charging H2 into steel.
Under combined action of tensile Wash water injection that affect Ph, Focus on weld seams
(SSC) local zones of high hardness in 2. Material properties Hardness - Weld hardness above 200 BHN or SOHIC & SSC are often associated
stress & corrosion in presence of SSC below 180 CS LAS ammonia, cyanide concentration, & nozzles for wet
Section 5.1.2.3 weld & HAZ in high strength (hardness, microstructure, localized zones of hardness above 237 BHN with weldments.
water & H2S. corrosion inhibitor. H2S damage.
Page 5-60 components. strength) causes SSC.
3. High tensile stress level Stress level - High stress levels affect SOHIC & SSC is found in hard weld, HAZ &
PWHT to limit hadness of weld & HAZ WFMT, EC, RT, ACFM.
SSC. in high strength components like
to 200 BHN to prevent SSC.
Blister & SSC results from H2 generated by bolts, PSV springs, shaft, sleeve.
corrosion & not from H2 gas from process
stream.
Use CS with less CE (0.43).
Hydrogen Stress Aqueous HF acid environment. All piping & equipment in acqueous
1. High hardness above PWHT.
Cracking - HF Surface breaking cracking with HF acid service. Hardness testing.
237 BHN (RC 22) Cracking occurs more rapidly, within hours in HF CS
(HSC) local zones of hardness in weld Same mechanism like SSC in wet Intergranular cracks
2. High strength environment. HSLAS ASTM 193 B7M bolts are softer and
Section 5.1.2.4 & HAZ. H2S environment except that HF HSLAS like ASTM A193 B7 bolts & WFMT.
3. High stress can be used in place of B7 grades.
Page 5-70 acid is generting H2. compressor components.
(But B7M bolts are also cracked if
over torqued).
Susceptible if weld & HAZ hardness
exceeds 235 BHN. PWHT.
Hydrogen
CS
Embrittlement Subsurface initiated, surface
1. Presence of H2 High temp decreases damage. LAS Low strength material. Improve
(HE) breaking brittle cracks. Penetration of atomic H2 into
2. High strength Ambient to 300 400 SS H2S & HF units Intergranular cracks. ductility. PT, MT, WFMT, UT, RT.
Hydrogen flaking steels.
3. Stress above thresold PH SS Reduce residual stresses.
Section 4.5.6 Loss in ductility.
H2 comes from wet electrodes or wet H2S HS Ni alloys Reduce hardness.
Page 4-215
or HF, cleaning, pickling, high temp H2 gas Use low H2 electrode.
atmospheres.
 Damage Temperature Insepction &
Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation
Mechanism Deg F Monitoring
Susceptibility is determined by ability of
Reaction of Sulfur compounds with
alloy to form protective sulfide scales.
metals at high temp environment. 1. Alloy composition
(Low Cr content) CS
Sulfidation Sulfide scales. Monitor process
2. High temp LAS
(Sulfidic Damage of Ni alloys depend on Cr Content. Fired heaters & Boilers. conditions (S level &
Presence of H2 accelerates 3. Concentration of Iron based alloys - above 300 SS
Corrosion) Uniform thinning or local FCC, Crude, Coker, Vacuum, High Cr (7-9 %) alloys. temp).
corrosion. corrosive sulfur 500. 400 SS
Section 4.4.2 corrosion or high velocity erosion- Cu alloys form sulfide at lower temp than Visbreaker & Hydroprocessing units.
compounds. Ni alloys
Page 4-159 corrosion. CS. UTG & profile RT.
Primarily caused by H2S & other Cu alloys
reactive sulfur species.
Modified McConomy curves shows effect of temp
on steels for sulfidation.
Downstream of H2 injecton
High temp sulfidation corrosion rate in points.
presence of H2 is greater than that in
1. High temp
High temp Sulfidic corrosion in absence of H2. Hydroprocessing units like
High temp 2. Presence of H2
presence of H2 environment. Desulfurizers, Hydrotreaters High Cr (7-9 %) alloy.
H2/H2S Corrosion Presence of H2 in H2S containing 3. High concentration of CS LAS Iron sulfide scale is 5 times the
Corrosion increases with increase in temp Above 500 Hydrocracker units. VT, UT, RT.
Section 5.1.1.5 HCBN stream at high temp. H2S 400 SS volume of lost metal.
Uniform corrosion accompanied by and H2S content. 300 SS.
Page 5-19 4. Alloy composition
formation of iron sulfide scale. Corrosion rate is higher in gas oil
(Low Cr)
Susceptibility is determined by chemical desulfurizers & hydrocrackers
composition of alloy. than in naphtha desulfurizers by
a factor of 2.

Normal practice is to use temp

safety factor of 20 to 50 when
using API RP 941 curves. Damage is random &
difficult to monitor.
Loss in strength. H2 reacts with Carbides in steel to
0.5 Mo steels are not
form Methane. 1. High temp Hydroprocessing - hydrotreater, Decarburization, Blistering. Crack &
High Temperature recommended for new UT using
Damage occurs randomly in Loss of Carbide causes loss in 2. H2 partial pressure hydrocracker, Fissuring.
Hydrogen attack CS construction in hot H2 service and combination of
weld or HAZ or base metal. strength. 3. Time (exposure time Catalytic reformer,
Section 5.1.3.1 Low Cr LAS hence its curve is removed from velocity ratio &
Methane pressure builds up, is cumulative) H2 producing unit, Cracks are intergranular &
Page 5-83 Nelson set of curves. AUBT.
Decarburization, Blistering. Crack & forming bubbles, fissures that may 4. Stress H2 clean up unit. adjacent to Pearlite area in CS.
Fissuring. combine to form cracks.
High Cr alloy (above 5Cr). AET cannot detect
damage.

300 SS.

Specialized ET.
Occurs at:
pH below 3 A quick test by bend
pH above 8 Avoid Titanium in known test or crush test in a
Titanium neutral pH with H2S content. Occurs above 165 Sour water strippers & Amine Not apparent. hydriding services such as Amine vice.
1. High metal temp
Hydriding Loss of ductility with no sign of Diffusion of H2 into Titanium to units - or Sour water. Unaffected Ti crush
2. Solution chemistry (pH) Titanium alloys
Section 5.1.3.2 corrosion or no loss in tkickness. form embrittled hydride phase. Occurs in H2 atmosphere at temp >350, in Occurs in H2 atmosphere Overhead condensers, exchanger Only confirmed by Metallography or in
3. Alloy composition
Page 5-90 absence of moisture or O2. above 350. tubes, piping. mechanical testing. Limit solubility of H2 in pure Titanium ductile
to 50 - 300 ppm. fashion.
Occurs in cathodically protected equipment with Embrittled Ti crack or
protection potential <-0.9 v SCE. shatter with little or
no sign of ductility.